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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 970133

Rotating Wheels - Their Impact on Wind Tunnel

Test Techniques and on Vehicle Drag Results

G. Wickern, K. Zwicker, and M. Pfadenhauer

Audi AG

Reprinted from: Topics in Vehicle Aerodynamics

(SP-1232)

International Congress & Exposition

Detroit, Michigan
February 24-27, 1997
400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A.Tel: (412)776-4841 Fax:(412)776-5760
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ISSN 01 48-71 91
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Rotating Wheels - Their Impact on Wind Tunnel
Test Techniques and on Vehicle Drag Results
Copyright 1997 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
ABSTRACT
The question of the proper simulation of wheel rotation
has not so far been a major concern. Within the scope of an
examination of the influence of wheels and tyres on aero-
dynamic drag it will be shown that their contribution to the
overall drag value - whether they are rotating or not - is of
about the same magnitude as the proportion of the rough
underbody. Therefore the question of the importance of the
simulation of wheel rotation is posed.
This paper discusses how a measurement wiih a better
simulation can look like and what the major changes in the
flow field are. In particular a new physical quantity, which
has to be determined, the so-called "fan moment" is intro-
duced. . The problems that arise in the determination of the
fan moment of the wheels and hence in the required iso-
lation of the rolling resistance, are described in detail. This
is done for a test set up with full width moving bell and
measurement via internal balance and sting support. An
alternative set up with separate wheel drives and external
balance is discussed briefly.
In a presentation of vehicle test results it is shown that
the simulation of wheel rotation has a significant effect on
the aerodynamic resistance. The dependence of the effect on
the wheel/ tyre configuration is demonstrated in several
examples. Finally, using the experimental results from a
special test rig with a single wheel, the manner in which the
tyre contact area and the yaw angle effects the forces at the
rotating wheel is shown.
INTRODUCTION
For a long time, the influence of wheels and tyres on
vehicle aerodynamics was an aspect of aerodynamic
1
970133
G. Wickern, K. Zwicker, and M. Pfadenhauer
Audi AG
development only in terms of tyre width and flush wheel
covers. The area of concentration was on optimization of the
basic vehicle body. Nevertheless, since a level has been
¡reached in the optimization of the visible outer shell that -
considering stylistic matters - is difficult to improve upon,
aerodynamic engineers have given their attention to ihe
underside of the vehicle to a greater degree. In the course of
exploiting the optimization potential of the underside of the
vehicle, Ihe conventional method of measuring aerodynamic
values - with a stationary vehicle located in a fixed position
in a wind tunnel - has been questioned. For a better simu-
lation of the actual conditions on the road, several different
groups have tried out the installation of a moving bell
underneath the vehicle, which modifies the underbody flow
lo correspond belter to the real situation. The first moving
belt measurements with a production car (see Mercker and
Knape [I]) showed that not just a stationary ground surface
but also stationary wheels result in inadequate simulation.
The simulation of rotating wheels, however, puts new
demands on wind-tunnel measurement technology, which
go well beyond difficulties in the simulation of the moving
floor as an influence on the boundary layer.
Here the question arises as to what degree it makes sense
to take these additional measures and to consider the per-
centage drag of the wheels and tyres as equivalent to the
percentages of the vehicle's shape and underbody. Further-
more, we should discuss what the fundamental options are
for determining this percentage, and what degree of
accuracy of simulation must be demanded, for example, how
important the simulation of the tyre contact area could be.
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THE PROPORTION OF THE WHEELS IN THE
OVERALL DRAG OF A PRODUCTION VEHICLE
The significance of the wheels' contribution can be:
demonstrated with the results of a few basic experiments
that were conducted by Audi on this issue. The results from
Mercker et al.[2] served as the starting point. They meas
ured a production vehicle without wheels and with covered
wheel wells and thus deduced the percentage of the wheels
and wheel wells on the aerodynamic drag. They determined
a percentage of approximately 33 % of the overall aero
dynamic drag for the vehicle, but in a configuration with a
smooth underbody. This experiment was repeated by Audi
with a production car with realistic underbody (Audi A3):
additionally investigations were made with different vari
ations to determine the influence of the front and rear
wheels and of the wheels and wheel arches, at least in terms
of order of magnitude.
Figure 1 shows the summary of the experimental results.
In a series of experiments, the vehicle was measured over a
moving belt in the following states while suspended from a
rear-located support:
initially with all four wheels in position (wheels
rotating)
once with only the rear wheels installed and the front
wheel arches blanked off
once with only the front wheels installed and the rear
wheel arches blanked off
finally with no wheels and all wheel arches blanked off.
As the results show, the wheels exert a considerable
influence on overall drag, with this being initially
distributed almost uniformly between the front and rear
wheels.
However, the proportion attributable to the wheels siili
contains an element due to the wheel arches, which il would
not be logical to allocate to the wheels themselves. In order
to determine this proportion the sheet metal covers placed
over the wheel arches in the first series of experiments were
cut away so that they could be installed with the wheels in
position, but would seal the gap between wheel and wheel
arch. In a second series of experiments (now in an con
ventional wind tunnel), the vehicle always stood on all four
of its wheels, but measurements were taken with the covers
installed over the wheel arches in a similar manner to the
first series of experiments. It was found that the proportion
accounted for by the open wheel arches is distinctly smaller
than the proportion from that part of the wheel which is not
covered by the body (this result was also obtained in similar
form by Mercker et al [ I]). If the effects at the front and rear
are compared, a common experience is con finned, namely
that sealing off the wheel arches at the front is much more
effective than at the rear. At this point it should be noted,
that the cD - values obtained in the second test series (with
3
fixed ground) to determine the influence of the wheel wells
were adjusted to the same level as the results of the first
series for configuration 1. This was done for ease of com
parison. Strictly spoken, only the ?cD of the second series
are valid, and they are exact only for the case with station
ary wheels.
A AcD of 0.08 or a 25 % of the total vehicle drag
remains for the protruding part of the wheel. This Acq of
0.08, interestingly enough, corresponds precisely to the
proportion which Hörner [3] established as long ago as 195 1
for vehicles from the nineteen-thirties. However, in those
days the complete vehicle's aerodynamic drag coefficient
was cD = 0.75. According to Mercker et al. [2], the Acq for
the wheels was also in this order of magnitude for a car with
Hush underbody.
It is also noticeable in these results that after sub
straction the wheel-arch proportion, the rear wheels exhibit
a higher level of drag. This may be due to the rear-end
outline of the vehicle investigated (squareback), and should
therefore not be regarded as generally valid without further
investigation.
The proportion of the vehicle's aerodynamic drag which
originates at the wheels is noi necessarily identical with the
aerodynamic force acting directly on the wheels. We assume
for the purpose of estimating an order of magnitude that the
interference drag (caused by the wheels at the body) is low.
Then if the wheels' proportional drag is related to the sum of
the wheels' frontal areas (only the area not covered up) a cD
value of approximately 1 is obtained. In other words, the
wheels' aerodynamic quality is about as unfavourable as a
vertical plate exposed to the airflow.
The results of the experiment shown in Fig. 1 can be
summed up as follows:
The proportion of the wheels in the total drag of a
production vehicle can easily amount to 25 %. The
cause of this high figure is the unfavourable shape of
the wheel when exposed to the airflow.
Furthermore the following additional conclusions can be
drawn:
Optimization of the wheels must be given the same
importance as improving the underbody of the vehicle,
since considerable potential is available here not only in
lerms of the absolute value for the proportional drag but
also the poor aerodynamic quality as a starting level.
Accordingly, simulating the rotation of the wheels must
be given the same priority as simulating the movement
of the ground surface beneath the vehicle.
However, the correct measurements with the wheels
rotating cause certain difficulties, which will be discussed in
the following sections.
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BASIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR WIND-TUNNEL

TESTS WITH ROTATING WHEELS

In order to measure a vehicle with rotating wheels

correctly in the wind tunnel, we must first analyse which
forces and moments act additionally on the vehicle in case
of rotating wheels in contrast to a conventional test set up.
Fig. 2 illustrates these forces.
Considering first a stationary wheel, the airflow forces
can be divided into an element acting on the body and one
acting on the wheel. The force acting on the wheel is
normally applied off-centre, below the axle in the case of a
wheel partly shielded by the wheel arch.
If the wheel is set in rotation by a suitable simulation
technique, the flow field around the wheel changes, first of
all because of the moving wheel surface (which creates
different boundary conditions for the boundary layer).
Secondly, in case that air is passing through the wheel this
air is given a rotation by the wheel spokes (acting similar to
the blades of a fan). As a result, the magnitude and point of
attack of the aerodynamic forces on the wheel change. The
change in airflow around the wheels, however, also gives
rise to an indirect effect on the body, that is to say the inter
ference drag. Conventional measuring techniques are unable
to separate these two partial forces, but if the wheels are
independently suspended this ought to be feasible.
A third value has to be taken into account in the case of
rotating wheels: the moment round the wheel axis. As has
already been shown on the stationary wheel, the airflow
force does not act at the: centre point of the axle. However,
this is the only point at which forces can be introduced to the fan-blade effect, which gives a rotational component
the vehicle's structure. If the force is displaced to the centre to the flow through the wheel
point of the wheel, an additional moment is caused: if the
the skin friction of the rotating wheel in relation to the
wheel is stationary, this acts in the direction of forward oncoming flow field.
travel. If, in other words, the wheel were to be attached to
the axle and supported on the ground without friction, the
wind load would start it rotating in the forward travel direc All three are related to the square of the speed: The
tion. This supporting effect of the airflow force is reversed, aerodynamic force rises with the square of the flow velocity
however, at full wheel speed on account of the fan-blade v(primarily pressure forces); the fan-blade effect causes a
effect of the wheels. The moment reverses its sign and Ihe moment rising with the square of angular velocity, i.e. speed
vehicle's engine has lo supply more power in order to main of the vehicle and at last, the skin friction is scaled with vn
lain wheel rotation at a constant speed. The necessary drive where n 77 2 (a detailed discussion of the skin friction term
moment for this is referred to below as the "fan moment". will be given later).
The resultant force on the wheel, in view of the sign change The wheel's fan moment can therefore be converted into
in the airflow -force moment when the wheel is rotating, is
displaced to an effective line above the axle (Fig. 2). (This a contribution to the aerodynamic drag coefficient (a Ac0).
change in the sign of the moment will normally occur in all Since Ihe contribution to the vehicle's driving resistance as a
cases which are of technical interest, though cases can result of the fan moment is caused by air friction, can only
certainly be envisaged in which it does not occur, possibly be determined in the wind tunnel and can only be optimised
because the fan-blade effect is small.) by aerodynamic measures, it would appear logical to add
this amount to the C1) value in practice. On the other hand
The fan moment car, be regarded as being a combination the Crj value is by definition a nondimensional force, and
of three elements: there might be applications where the pure force is of inter
the aerodynamic force on the wheel acting off-centre est only. Therefore a two term representation of these two
aerodynamic driving resistance portions seems to make

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sense. For a complete description of the driving resistance
as needed for example in performance calculations both
drag force and fan moment have to be taken into account.
Nevertheless, for ease of comparison with the amount of
total drag the share of wheel ventilation will be expressed in
terms of AcD (instead of a moment coefficient) in this paper.
However, the technical problems of determining the fan
moment are considerable. This is discussed below with
reference to measuring techniques already being stale of the
art.
MEASURING SET-UP WITH AN INTERNAL
BALANCE AND THE WHEELS DRIVEN BY A
MOVING BELT WHICH SIMULATES THE ROAD
SURFACE
As already mentioned in the introduction, the classic
procedure when simulating movement of the road surface
beneath the vehicle is to perform the measurements on a
moving belt. The vehicle is supported on a bar ("sting
support") from the rear or the top (see Fig. 3) and the forces
measured with an internal balance. The test set-up used in
this investigation has already been described in detail by
Mercker et al. [1, 2], so in here reference will only be made
to special features of measurement with rotating wheels. In
this test procedure the wheels are allowed to rest on the
moving belt with a low load ( < 50 N) and thus forced to
rotate. To minimise friction losses it is customary to remove
the drive shafts and the brake pads or linings, and to rework
the wheel bearings.
Although it is the belt which supplies the power needed
to overcome the fan moment, this force is evident again at
the internal balance on which the model and therefore the
5
wheel are supported. The balance therefore measures aero
dynamic drag as an integral value containing all the
elements discussed above. Unfortunately the measured
values also include the wheels' rolling resistance, which
must therefore be determined and subtracted. As a common
solution, a tare measurement ("zero measurement") with the
wheels rotating is suggested, but this gives rise to fresh
sources of error and will therefore be discussed in detail in a
separate section.
ELIMINATION OF ROLLING RESISTANCE BY
TARE MEASUREMENTS (INTERNAL BALANCE)
When measuring with rotating wheels, the problem
referred to here occurs when the question of correct tare
measurement arises. In order to examine this, we should
first recall the drag forces which occur when the actual
measurement on exposure to the airflow takes place (see
Fig. 4).
1 Possibly mass forces
2 Rolling resistance of the wheels, since these
are driven by the belt and therefore measured
by the balance as a reaction force. This con
sists of
- tyre rolling resistance
- wheel bearing friction
3 Aerodynamic force on the body
4 Aerodynamic force on the wheels
5 Force needed to overcome the fan moment of
the wheels when exposed to the airflow (also a
reaction force, as 2)
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vehicle's weight 1 and therefore also supplies an incorrect

value.
The magnitude of these errors was determined by the
following experiment, which also provides a means of
separating the fan moment and rolling resistance
components:
For the vehicle to be measured (Audi A3) a tare
measurement at Vb = 0 was carried out, so that any weight
related forces 1 were; eliminated. Next, the forces without
airflow were determined as a function of moving bell speed
from Vb = 0 to Vo (here 140 km/h), in other words a
variation of the tare method within the limits of the methods
described above. Accordingly, this measurement contains
only components from rolling resistance 2. zero ventilation
6 and moving belt boundary layer effect 7. Two cases were
investigated:
first a standard summer-tread production-car tyre on a
wheel with a series-production wheel cover (see Fig.
14.1 in the Annex)
second a tyre with no tread but otherwise with a similar
external shape (a "slick") and a smooth, full-diameter
wheel cover (see Fig. 14.2 in the Annex) to represent
the ideal situation in terms of zero ventilation).
Fig. 5 shows the measured drag force in both cases.
Below 10 km/h probably non-linear incipient rolling
processes occur (in the moving belt system, in the tyre and
bearings) which need not be examined here. Above this
speed the forces run in a very similar manner in the x
In addition to forces 3 and 4 the total aerodynamic force direction. Assuming that zero ventilation 6 changes with the
must also contain the component from fan moment 5 (see square of wheel speed and therefore with Vb2, and that the
section 2), so that the sum of 3, 4 and 5 must be separated force 7 generated by belt speed also changes with Vb2,
from 1 and 2. This is done in the conventional way with a component 6 + 7 can be separated off. This assumption is
tare measurement. By analogy to the measurement with correct within the observed levels of accuracy to the extent
stationary wheels, it can be performed without airflow and that zero ventilation is primarily made up of a friction
with the moving belt stationary (Vb = 0). It is common component at the surface of the wheel and tyre and a
practice, however, to eliminate rolling rsistance by through-flow component.
performing the tare measurement without airflow but with The moment as an integral wall shear stress value
the moving belt in operation (Vb = V0). increases with an exponent of 1.8 in the limiting case
The forces measured in each case here can also be seen represented by a rotating disc in still air (see Schlichting [7]
from Fig. 4. Although the tare measurement with moving and Annex), whereas the moment from the through-flow
belt in operation, as often used today, takes the rolling component rises according to the square of the peripheral
resistance correctly into account, additional terms arise speed, in a manner analogous to rotating fluid dynamic
which have nothing to do with determining the aerodynamic machines.
forces:
The remaining force after substraction of the quadratic
6 Zero ventilation (fan moment of the wheels part in both cases is the same in magnitude within the limits
without the airflow) of measurement accuracy, and remains more or less
7 Forces on the vehicle body caused by the constant when plotted against belt speed from Vb = 20 km/h
entrainment effect of the moving belt upwards (this limit undoubtedly depends on the vehicle
(boundary layer) being measured). As an initial approximation, this
A tare measurement with the belt stationary, however, proportion of the total value can be identified as the tyres'
merely takes into account the forces generated by the rolling resistance plus wheel-bearing losses, that is to say as
wheel rolling resistance 2.

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This means that the force in the x-direction is made up

approximately from squared and constant elements. This
can be shown by a formula such as an
with
approximation of the measured values, for example by help
of a least-square-of-error method; if applied to the two cases
under investigation, the following results are obtained:
The constant component is about the same in both
cases

app.Roll
=
FRoll
N
9 = app. 9 N
This element is not taken into consideration when
the tare measurement takes place with the belt
stationary, that is to say the measured aerodynamic
drag is too high by this amount, equivalent to ?cD =
0.005 at
The squared element (zero ventilation plus moving
belt) depends on the wheel/tyre combination and
must be determined afresh for each change of wheel.
For the cases investigated, two typical results for Vb
= 140 km/h are obtained:

When a tare measurement is carried out with the belt

moving, this is accordingly the amount by which the
aerodynamic drag will be too low; here it is
equivalent to Acp = 0.007 or 0.012.
The proportion caused by the moving belt's boundary
layer effect is, in our experience, relatively small
(app. 2 ... 3 N, measured with all four wheels lifted
off the belt).
The values stated above show that the forces which occur
cannot be neglected when undertaking aerodynamic drag
measurements. It is therefore desirable to examine the forces
relevant lo the lare measurement more closely. The
measurement of forces as a function of Vb, as described
here, is a practicable method of separating rolling resistance
from the fan-moment component.
The above reflections can be summarised as follows:

cD in the case of moving belt measurements with an

internal balance is quoted as larger than previously
by the amount represented by the zero ventilation and
the belt boundary layer effect, when the tare
measurement took place with Vb = V0 The
magnitude of this error is approx. ?cD = + 0.010
(here between 0.007 and 0.012)
If a different wheel/tyre is fitted, the change in zero
ventilation must be taken into account as appropriate,
since the wheels will otherwise be allocated a value

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in the calculation which is incorrect by this amount
(here ?cD = 0.005)
Tare measurement at low belt speed, which can be
carried out with the above procedure, is a simple and
practicable solution to the problems of improving
drag measurement as described here.
In order to check the magnitude of the zero ventilation,
measurements were conducted using a different measuring
technique and without the vehicle being present, on the tyre
test rig operated by the Continental Tyre company. The
above values for the two wheel combinations were
confirmed to a most satisfactory extent.
Zero ventilation is by definition the fan moment without
incoming airflow. As Fig. 4 shows, separating the fan
moment with airflow from the other aerodynamic forces is
not possible in a set-up as shown in Fig. 3, since here only
the integral value of the relevant forces can be determined.
For correct separation the force which the rotating wheel
exerts on the belt when exposed to the airflow would have to
be determined on its own. Therefore no data is available on
the amount of the fan moment with airflow for the
configuration investigated here. Moreover, to our knowledge
8
neither in the literature any data is available except for the
work of Deubert [8], who published results of Mercedes
Benz. In the reported case the fan moment was measured in
a conventional wind tunnel and the wheel was driven by an
external electrical motor via torque-measuring shaft. The
tyre dimension (195/65 R15) was exactly the same, whereas
the wheel designs and the vehicle (MB W 124) were of
course different. Nevertheless these results give us useful
hints. If we compare the results for the zero ventilation of
the treaded tyre with regular cover shown in Fig. 5 with the
summer tyres on steel wheels in the Mercedes-Benz results
in Fig. 7, we find quite similar ?cD -values. Thus the zero
ventilation value maybe is a workable approximation if an
initial estimate of the magnitude of the fan moment is
required. Another interesting result is, that for the steel
wheel with cover the fan moment for front and rear is nearly
identical. For the more open (light) alloy wheel the results
differ in a similar way as the results for the wheel arches
(blanked off or not). Due to suction peak on the outside of
the front wheels a larger effect is obtained there compared to
the rear wheels. Not surprising is that the winter tyre with a
more coarse tread has a larger fan moment than the summer
tyre.
The magnitude of the fan moment is of special interest
when comparing results of a test with full width moving belt
and internal balance with results from lest set-ups. where
the fan moment is not included in the measured drag force.
A such a set-up will be discussed in the next section.
MEASUREMENTS WITH AN EXTERNAL BALANCE
AND SPECIAL WHEEL DRIVE UNITS
In order to avoid the complexity of suspending the
vehicle from a support arm, an alternative method of
simulating rotating wheels was developed, with the wheel
drive elements forming part of the weighed system. The
forces can then be measured in the conventional manner,
using an external floor-mounted balance. To complete the
simulation, a moving belt can be installed between the
wheels. An example for this type of facility is the
Pininfarina wind tunnel, as described by Cogotti[4].
In the beginning of rhe development of this testing
method the vehicle was placed on additional supports
connected to the balance, and drove its own wheels by way
of its all-wheel drive system (see for example Wickern [5];
Mercker, Soja and Wiedemann [6]). The balance plates
were equipped with plain rollers or brush systems to prevent
air from flowing under the rotating wheels. As a refinement
the drive can be transferred to the balance plates, resulting
in the set-up shown in Fig. 7. The drive is no longer part of
the test vehicle, but is still within the weighed area of the
balance, so that no power bypass can falsify the
measurements. Compared with internal-balance measuring.
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value). In order to determine the fan moment, the wheel

drive force at the wheel contact points must also be
measured. Since the wheel drive units are installed on the
weighed section of the balance, the drive force must be
measured as an internal force in the balance structure by
means of separate sensors. There are various ways to
achieve this:

with an additional load cell to measure the force in the

this method has the fundamental advantage that rolling
resistance cannot influence the results, since the wheel drive
forces are absorbed internally by the balance frame. The
integral aerodynamic drag value does not include the
proportion for wheel fan moment, since this is also part of
the wheel drive forces. The wheel drive forces must
therefore be measured separately and then divided into a fan
element and a rolling resistance element in the same way as
for the moving belt measurement. This can be seen as a
drawback, since an additional measuring device is
necessary. On the other hand measurements with full wheel
load should be possible without loosing accuracy for the
aerodynamic forces (except for the fan moment).
x-direction on the balance plate (with low-friction
mounting) with wheel drive
the power needed to drive the wheel is determined
from the motor reaction torque, so that the force at the
wheel contact point can be calculated
by means of strain gauges mounted directly at the axles
of the wheel drive rollers, all forces at the wheel can be
determined (drive force plus supporting force ->
determination of wheel lift forces)
None of these three posibilities is available at present in
an existing facility. Therefore we can not give any
measured data for the vehicle under investigation here. In a
future wind tunnel with the wheel drive force determined in
the described way is once again the sum of the fan moment
and the rolling resistance, and must be divided up into these
two components by a suitable method, as in the case with
the internal balance.

TARE MEASUREMENTS WITH EXTERNAL

BALANCE

In the case of measurements with an external balance,

the problems of registering the fan moment are quite
different in nature, on account of the difference in the
testing set-up. The drag forces recorded during
measurement (see Fig. 8) are in this case
1 possible weight-related forces
3 aerodynamic force acting on the body
4 aerodynamic force acting on the wheels

Rolling resistance 2 does not cause any problems here,

since these are internal forces which are not measured. To
this extent the tare measurement is also unproblematical,
since it contains no foreign components.
However, once again fan moment 5 cannot be
determined, so that the integral value for the measured drag
is fundamentally falsified (too low by the fan moment

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The process of separating the rolling resistance In each case the tyres were of size 195/65 R15 on rims of
encounters technical measurement problems at the full size 6 J x 15. The wheels investigated are shown in Figs.
wheel load, which is desirable as a means of showing the 14.1 and 14.3 in the Annex.
correct patch. The question is to what extent simulation of
The results (see Fig. 9a) indicate first of all that wheel
the realistic wheel load is necessary for the measurement of rotation and the form of tare measurement affect the level of
the fan moment alone. If not, the fan moment could be
determined in a "second shot" without wheel load. the measured aerodynamic drag coefficient: the absolute
value cD is always larger in case of stationary wheels
compared to rotating wheels (it is the effect of the wheels
MEASUREMENTS ON DIFFERENT WHEEL/TYRE and not of the moving belt, since moving belts increase
COMBINATIONS ON THE VEHICLE drag). This effect has already been noted by various
observers (see [1], [2], [6]). When measuring with a tare
With the internal-balance experimental set-up already measurement at 20 km/h, however, the difference is
described, measurements were carried out on an Audi A3 distinctly smaller. Hence, with a tare measurement at 140
with different wheel/tyre combinations. Measurements were km/h, a considerably lower cD is stated.
taken both with rotating wheels and moving belt, and with
stationary wheels on fixed ground for purposes of
comparison. For the rotating-wheel measurements, two
different forms of tare measurement were compared. One
was the tare measurement at low belt speed as discussed
before, the other the frequently used form of tare
measurement with belt moving at Vb = V0 ( here 140
km/h). This supplies information on the influence of wheel
rotation and of the type of tare measurement used.
The following parameters were investigated:
- Wheel design
- Tyre tread
- Cooling air

The nature of the tare measurement also reveals a

significant difference in the ?cD of different wheel/tyre
combinations:

?cDrot(20)/rot(140) = between 0.007 and 0.012

This difference, according to what has already been
discussed, is quite exactly the off-set caused by the zero
ventilation value of the wheels plus the boundary-layer
effect of the moving belt. Accordingly, the difference is at
its lowest when the wheel exhibits low zero ventilation
("slick" plus smooth wheel cover), with the opposite

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applying when a treaded tyre and a light-alloy wheel are
used.
Broken down according to the stated experimental
parameters, the results are (see Fig 9c):
Wheel design: measurements with rotating wheels
illustrate the difference: between the individual wheels
more clearly than if the wheels are stationary. However,
the wheel cannot be assessed in isolation but only in
conjunction with the tyre:
Tyre tread: Measurements with rotating wheels yield
the surprising result that the treadless tyre on a wheel
with a smooth wheel cover performs worse than the
equivalent tyre with tread:
Cooling air: It had been found by Mercker et al.[1,6],
that cooling air is closely related to the aerodynamic
drag at the wheels. In our case (see Fig.9d) the cooling
air flow does not have any significant effect on the
assessment of the two wheel/tyre combinations:
Nor does this result if the tare measurement is varied.
This initially seems to contradict the measurements
obtained by Mercker et al. [1,6], but we should have in
mind that this result is certainly vehicle-specific and
secondly only one integral value for the drag change at
wheels and body was measured. Individual drag values
could certainly be subject to some kind of influence.
This problem is discussed in more detail by
Pfadenhauer [9].

This is not the case with the light alloy wheel:

Here too, therefore, the tyre cannot be assessed without

the wheel.

Taking these measurements as an example, we can see

Ihe extent to which the nature of the measurement
influences the assessment of various wheels. Measurement
with the wheels rotating represents none the less a definite
improvement in the simulation of road conditions. Willi a
change in tare measurement, a further correction of the
same magnitude is obtained.
Another, possibly important aspect is the occurrence of
defonnation corresponding to tyre load at the contact point
or "patch". When the transition from stationary to rotating
wheel takes place, the simulation worsens in this respect.
This will be examined in the following chapter.

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INFLUENCE OF THE TYRE CONTACT PATCH ON
DRAG VALUES (PRINCIPLE TEST ON A SINGLE
WHEEL)
The simulation of a realistic tyre contact patch in wind
tunnel tests with rotating wheels has been quite
unsatisfactory so far. To simulate it in conjunction with
rotating wheels caused problems of a technical nature. High
friction losses and the associated thermal loads reduced the
operating life of the moving belts when operating at full
wheel load to such an extent that in many cases an
inadequate simulation of the tyre contact patch was given
preference instead, in order to maintain the progress of the
test. In a fundamental test conducted in the FKFS wind
tunnel in Stuttgart, it proved possible to undertake single
wheel tests with the wheel rotating under full load. The
influence of the tyre contact patch on wheel drag was
examined in relation to the incoming airflow and to wheel
rotation.
To a better understanding of the flow conditions at the
front and rear wheels of a complete vehicle first the flow
field in a horizontal plane underneath the car is discussed
(see Fig. 10). This will help us to apply the result of a single
wheel test to the much more complicated situation at a real
car.
The situation at the front wheels is dominated by the
displacement flow from the nose of the vehicle and the
wheel, which causes the airflow to strike the front wheel at
an angle. The lower part is exposed freely to the flow
without interference with wakes of other parts upstream.
12
The local yaw angle was investigated on several vehicles,
and is always approx. 15 degrees. No significant influence
oft vehicle dimensions on the local yaw angle at the front
wheels was detected.
At the rear wheels the flow arrives at a smaller angle
than at the front. How losses from the front-wheel outflow
and losses at the underfloor of the vehicle distinctly reduce
the velocity at this point.
The complex flow patterns at the rear wheels seemed to
be less suitable for investigations into the basics of wheel
drag. However, giving priority to the front wheels should
not be taken as implying that the rear wheels make less of a
contribution to aerodynamic drag than the front wheels.
To drive the wheel, a miniature moving belt developed
by FKFS was used (see J. Potthoff, R.-G. Fiedler [10]). This
belt permits the simulation of wheel rotation at full wheel
load. It is possible in this case to investigate the effects of
tyre contact patch formation and the associated dynamic
deformation of the rotating tyre on wheel drag.
The experiments were made with a standard light-alloy
wheel with perforated wheel disc, size 6 J x 15, with a
195/65 R 15 tyre;. The cD values stated refer by way of an
example to a vehicle with 2.0 m2 frontal area.
The test setup for determining forces and moments
consists of a vertical post and a cantilever arm. Since post
and arm are part of the weighed system, the airflow forces
acting on the mounting were determined by calibration
measurement before the experiment was undertaken. For
this measurement the wheel, as an interference body, was
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decoupled from the weighed

section in force terms.
Interference of the rotating
wheel on the mounting was not
determined separately, so that
this force element is present in
the evaluations for the rotating
wheel.
A wheel well simulator was
developed to represent the flow
conditions in the wheel well. It
was a double-walled structure
with its inner contour modelled
on the wheel well of a standard
production vehicle. The outer
contour has me configuration of
a quarter-sphere segment, in
order to ensure almost constant
incoming flow conditions when
the inclined flow incidence angle
is varied, regardless of the outer
contour. The wheel well
simulator is decoupled from the
weighed section in terms of force
transmission,andacts
exclusively as an interference
body.
The wheel load applied to
create Xhe correct tyre contact
patch (preload and unspring
mass) was 2,620 N. When the
load is applied to the wheel, the
moving belt is lowered by a
certain amount between the two
reversing rollers (see Fig. 7).
The belt mainly yields only in
the zone represented by the tyre's
contact patch. However, with the
belt lowered between the rollers
and a load of this magnitude, the
contact patch simulation is
sufficient for an initial
estimation.
Variation of the yaw angle: is
achieved by rotating the
turntable carrying the complete
experimental set-up. A positive
flow incidence angle is one on to
the inside of the wheel and
describes the realistic flow
conditions for the car.
At this time it was not
has no influence of fan moment or on the interference effec
possible to assess fan moment by the setup used, so that the
values quoted for this test do not include the proportion of between wheel and body.
fan moment contributed by the moving belt . It is also In order to preseni the results correctly to derive th<
assumed that the exact form taken by the tyre contact patch influence of the tyre contact patch, it is first necessary to gc

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briefly into some detail regarding the pattern of drag at the

stationary and rotating wheel in relation to the yaw angle
(as presented in Fig 12).
Without yaw (ß=0°) the drag coefficient is reduced by
approx. 60 % when the wheel is rotated. As the yaw angle is
increased up to ß=25°, drag increases at both the stationary
and the rotating wheel. However, the increase is distinctly
steeper at the rotating wheel, so with the yaw angle
exceeding 10° the rotating wheel exhibits higher drag than
the stationary wheel. The cause of this increase in drag at
the rotating wheel is more intensive flow seperation at the
side of the tyre. These results are discussed in detail by M.
Pfadenhauer [9].
Since it has until now not been possible to show die tyre
contact patch adequately, assessment of wheel drag has
suffered from various uncertainties. Use of the miniature
moving belt, however, has permitted investigations widi
realistic tyre deformation (both contact-patch and dynamic
deformation) when the wheel is rotating.
At low yaw angles, the tyre contact patch results in an
increase in drag. If wheel rotation is simulated, this
influence is reduced by an almost constant offset of ?cD <
0.001. As the yaw angle increases, the tyre contact patch's
drag-increasing effect is lost. Neutral drag occurs,
depending on wheel rotation, at approx. 12 degrees
(rotating) or 15 degrees (stationary). At angles greater than In order to estimate the influence on the vehicle's drag
25 degrees, which however are not relevant to vehicles, the coefficient caused by the tyre contact patch, we need to
presence of the tyre contact patch always has the effect of know the flow angles at the front and rear wheels. From
causing a slight reduction in drag. Fig. 13 we can deduce the influence of one wheel on total
drag.
At the front wheels, with an yaw angle of 15 degrees, the
change in drag due to the contact patches of both front
wheels is ?cD < +0.001 stationary and ?cD = -0.001
rotating.
The tyre patches at the two rear wheels change the
vehicle's overall drag at an yaw angle of 3 degrees by ?cD =
+0.003 for stationary wheels and ?cD = +0.002 for rotating
wheels.

The influence of the tyre contact patch on the drag

coefficient of the complete vehicle can therefore be
estimated as
?cD = +0.003 for stationary wheels and
?cD = +0.001 for rotating wheels.
From these results we can conclude that realisation of
the tyre contact patch has only slight effects on the vehicle's
total drag coefficient, and that this influence is weakened
still further by the rotating wheels. In view of this,
simulation of the tyre contact patch, which involves
considerable technical effort with rotating wheels in
particular, can be: regarded of minor importance. Therefore
it can be neglected when determining a vehicle's
aerodynamic drag.

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SUMMARY BIBLIOGRAPHY:

An experiment devoted to establishing fundamental [1] E. Mercker, N. Breuer, H. Berneburg, HJ.

values was able to demonstrate that die wheels and tyres can Emmelmann: On the Aerodynamic Interference Due
account for 25 % of a vehicle's total aerodynamic drag, widi to the Rolling Wheels of Passenger Cars. SAE
die wheel wells causing much less than die wheels. If this Technical Paper 910311. 1991
proportion is to be correctly measured with die technical
facilities at our disposal, it is in our opinion necessary to [2] S.F. Hoemer: !Fluid-Dynamic Drag. 1. Aufl..
simulate rotation of the wheels. In principle, measurements Eigenverlag 1951
can be taken either with an internal balance and die wheels
driven by a moving belt, or with an external balance and [3] E. Mercker. H.W. Knape: Ground Simulation with
special wheel drive units. Moving Belt and Tangential Blowing for Full-Scale
In the first of diese arrangements, die force generated by Automotive Testeing in a Wind Tunnel. SAE
the wheels' fan moment is included in die total drag value. Technical Paper 890367, 1989
Since diis force is aerodynamic in character and also
increases approximately in accordance with the square of [4] A. Cogotti: Ground Effect Simulation for Full-Scale
the speed, we feel that it is correct in physical terms to Cars in the Pininfarina Wind Tunnel. SAE Technical
convert it into a AcD and add it to the vehicle's aerodynamic Paper 950996, 1995
driving resistance. If measurements are taken with an
external balance and rotating wheels, the aerodynamic drag [5] G. Wickern: The Effect of Moving Ground on the
value will accordingly be too small and will need to be Aerodynamic Drag of a Production Car. SATA
completed by the amount represented by the fan moment. Conference, South Bend. 1991
Until now, we have been unable to determine the fan
moment in isolation. However, it is suspected to exert an [6] E. Mercker, H. Soja. J. Wiedemann: Experimental
influence on the drag of the same magnitude as the zero Investigation on the Influence of Various Ground
venülation which we have measured. Simulation Techniques on a Passenger Car.
Depending on whether internal- or external -balance Conference on Vehicle Aerodynamics, Proceedings
measurement is undertaken., either the zero ventilation or Roy. Aer. Soc., Loughborough University of
the fan moment must be separated from the wheels' rolling Technology, 1994
drag. We have described a practical means of doing this
when measuring with an internal balance, with the rolling [6] H. Schlichting: Boundary Layer Theory, McGraw
resistance eliminated by means of a tare measurement at low Hill, 1979
belt speed. For the external-balance measuring method diis
method could also be applied as appropriate, but the [8] M. Deubert: Bestimmung des Luft- und
necessary technical facilities must first be made available. Lüfterwiderstandes sich drehender PKW-Räder als
With the aid of examples we were able to show that the Teil des Fahrwiderstandes. Diplomarbeit FH Köln,
measuring mediod has a decisive influence on die Fachbereich Fahrzeugtechnik, 1989
assessment of typical types of wheels. In addition, these
measurements confirmed the importance of recording the [9] M. Pfadenhauer: Konzepte zur Verringerung des
aerodynamic drag of the wheels and tyres correctly. Luftwiderstandsbeiwertes von Personenkraftwagen
A principle test with a single wheel on a moving belt unter Berücksichtigung der Wechselwirkungen
demonstrated that in the case of rotating-wheel zwischen Fahrzeug und Fahrbahn, sowie der
measurements die so far unavoidable simplificaüon by Raddrehung. Diplomarbeit. Bericht FLM 95/33.
reducing die wheel load has only a slight effect on the Lehrstuhl für Fluidmechanik, TU München
measured results. Accordingly, aerodynamic drag
measurement with rotating wheels under reduced load is a [10] J. Potthoff, R.-G. Fiedler: Simulation der Raddrehung
much better compromise than testing with stationary bei aerodynamicenUntersuchungenan
wheels. Kraftfahrzeugen im Windkanal. Tagung
Aerodynamik des Kraftfahrzeugs, Haus der Technik,
Essen, 1995

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NOMENCLATURE This can be reformulated nondimensional:

with a Reynoldsnumber based on disk dimensions.

Recast in terms of ?cD this gives for a single wheel:

Calculating the ?cD for four wheels for the case

investigated here yields to:
?cD = 0.002
Thus the the major part of the fan moment is not
produced by pure skin friction.

2. Additional figures

Indices

stat. measured with stationary wheels and

fixed ground
rot(20) measured with rotating wheels and
moving ground, tare measurement with
20 km/h

rot(l40) measured with rotating wheels and

moving ground, tare measurement with
140 km/h

ANNEX

I.Evaluation of drag moment of a rotating disk in still air

The proportion of the skin friction for a rotating wheel

in still air can be approximated by a fonnula given by
Schlichting [7] for rotating disks in turbulent flow (i.e. the
case of a turbulent boundary layer):

where M is the moment for one side of the disk, R is the

radius of the disk, ? the circular frequency and v
and p are
fluid properties.
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17