Geology

Rocks and
minerals
 Pictures of Igneous Rocks
Photos of Common Intrusive and Extrusive Igneous Rock Types

Andesite is a fine-grained, extrusive igneous rock composed mainly of plagioclase with other minerals such as hornblende,
pyroxene, and biotite. The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

What are Igneous Rocks?

Igneous rocks are formed from the solidification of molten rock material. There are two basic types.

Intrusive igneous rocks crystallize below Earth's surface, and the slow cooling (Refroidissement) that occurs
there allows (Qui se produit là permet) large crystals to form. Examples of intrusive igneous rocks
are diorite, gabbro, granite, pegmatite, and peridotite.

Extrusive igneous rocks erupt onto (sur) the surface, where they cool quickly (Où ils se refroidissent
rapidement) to form small crystals. Some cool so quickly that they form an amorphous glass. These rocks
include andesite, basalt, obsidian, pumice, rhyolite, scoria, and tuff.

Diorite is a coarse-grained, intrusive igneous rock that contains a mixture of feldspar, pyroxene, hornblende, and
sometimes quartz. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Basalt is a fine-grained, dark-colored extrusive igneous rock composed mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene. The specimen shown
is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Gabbro is a coarse-grained (grain grossier), dark-colored, intrusive igneous rock that contains feldspar, pyroxene, and
sometimes olivine. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across. (à peu près)
Obsidian is a dark-colored volcanic glass that forms from the very rapid cooling of molten rock material. It cools so rapidly that
crystals do not form. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Granite is a coarse-grained, light-colored, intrusive igneous rock that contains mainly quartz, feldspar, and mica minerals. The
specimen above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Peridotite is a coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock that is composed almost entirely of olivine. It may contain small amounts of
amphibole, feldspar, quartz, or pyroxene. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Pegmatite is a light-colored, extremely coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock. It forms near the margins of a magma chamber
during the final phases of magma chamber crystallization. It often contains rare minerals that are not found in other parts of the
magma chamber. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Rhyolite is a light-colored, fine-grained, extrusive igneous rock that typically contains quartz and feldspar minerals. The
specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Pumice is a light-colored vesicular igneous rock. It forms through very rapid solidification of a melt. The vesicular texture is a
result of gas trapped in the melt at the time of solidification. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters)
across.
Scoria is a dark-colored, vesicular, extrusive igneous rock. The vesicles are a result of trapped gas within the melt (dans la partie
fusionnée) at the time of solidification. It often forms as a frothy crust on the top of a lava flow or as material ejected from a
volcanic vent and solidifying while airborne. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Fire Opal is sometimes found filling cavities in rhyolite. Long after the rhyolite has cooled, silica-rich ground water moves
through the rock, sometimes depositing gems like opal, red beryl, topaz, jasper, or agate in the cavities of the rock. This is one
of many excellent geological photographs generously shared through a Creative Commons License by Didier Descouens.
Welded Tuff is a rock that is composed of materials that were ejected from a volcano, fell to Earth, and then lithified into a rock.
It is usually composed mainly of volcanic ash and sometimes contains larger size particles such as cinders. The specimen shown
above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
 Andesite

Andesite: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across and has a porphyritic texture.

Igneous rock composition chart: This chart shows that andesite is typically composed of plagioclase, amphiboles, and micas;
sometimes with minor amounts of pyroxenes, quartz, or orthoclase.

What is Andesite?
Andesite is the name used for a family of fine-grained, extrusive igneous rocks that are usually light to dark
gray in color. They often weather to various shades of brown, and these specimens must be broken for proper
examination. Andesite is rich in plagioclase feldspar minerals and may contain biotite, pyroxene,
or amphibole. Andesite usually does not contain quartz or olivine.

Andesite is typically found in lava flows produced by stratovolcanoes. Because these lavas cooled rapidly at
the surface, they are generally composed of small crystals. The mineral grains are usually so small that they
cannot be seen without the use of a magnifying device (Dispositif de grossissement). Some specimens that
cooled rapidly contain a significant amount of glass, while others that formed from gas-charged lavas have a
vesicular or amygdaloidal texture.
Stratovolcanoes: Pavlof Volcano (right) and Pavlof Sister Volcano (left) are a pair of symmetrical stratovolcanoes built of
andesite flows and tephra on the Alaska Peninsula. Pavlof Volcano is one of the most active volcanoes in Alaska. Photo by T.
Miller, United States Geological Survey.

Where Does Andesite Form?

Andesite and diorite are common rocks of the continental crust above subduction zones. They generally form
after an oceanic plate melts (plaque océanique fond) during its descent into the subduction zone to produce a
source of magma. Diorite is a coarse-grained igneous rock that forms when the magma did not erupt, but
instead slowly crystallized within Earth's crust (Mais lentement cristallisé dans la croute terrestre). Andesite
is a fine-grained rock that formed when the magma erupted onto (sur) the surface and crystallized quickly.

Andesite and diorite have a composition that is intermediate between basalt and granite. This is because their
parent magmas formed from the partial melting (fusion partielle) of a basaltic oceanic plate. This magma may
have received a granitic contribution by melting granitic rocks as it ascended or mixed with granitic magma.

Andesite derives its name from the Andes Mountains of South America. In the Andes it occurs (il arrive) as
lava flows interbedded with ash (cendre) and tuff deposits on the steep flanks (Flancs escarpés) of
stratovolcanoes. Andesite stratovolcanoes are found above subduction zones in Central America, Mexico,
Washington, Oregon, the Aleutian Arc, Japan, Indonesia, the Philippines, the Caribbean, and New Zealand,
among other locations.

Andesite can also form away from the subduction zone environment. For example, it can form at ocean ridges
(Crètes océaniques) and oceanic hot spots from partial melting of basaltic rocks. It can also form during
eruptions at continental plate interiors where deep-source magma melts continental crust or mixes with
continental magmas. There are many other environments where andesite might form.
Pavlof Volcano - plate tectonics: Simplified plate tectonics cross-section showing how Pavlof Volcano is located above a
subduction zone where basaltic crust of the Pacific Plate is being partially melted at depth. The ascending magma then passes
through continental crust, where it might mix with other magmas or be altered by melting rocks of different composition.

Andesite Porphyry
Occasionally, andesites contain large, visible grains of plagioclase, amphibole, or pyroxene. These large
crystals are known as "phenocrysts." They begin forming when a magma, which is cooling at depth,
approaches the crystallization temperature of some of its minerals. These high-crystallization-temperature
minerals begin forming below the surface and grow to visible sizes before the magma erupts.

When the magma erupts onto the Earth's surface, the rest of the melt crystallizes quickly. This produces a rock
with two different crystal sizes: large crystals that formed slowly at depth (known as "phenocrysts"), and small
crystals that formed quickly at the surface (known as "groundmass"). "Andesite porphyry" is the name used
for these rocks with two crystal sizes.

Andesite outcrop: Close view of an andesite lava flow at Brokeoff Volcano in California. Photo by the United States Geological
Survey.
Hornblende Andesite Porphyry: A specimen of andesite with large visible hornblende phenocrysts. This type of rock could be
called an "andesite porphyry" because of its texture. It could also be called a "hornblende andesite" because of its composition.
Photo by NASA.

Dissolved Gas and Explosive Eruptions

Some magmas that produce volcanic eruptions above (au-dessus) subduction zones contain enormous amounts
of dissolved gas. These magmas can contain several percent dissolved gas by weight. This gas can have several
origins, examples of which include the following:

 Water vapor produced when ocean-floor sediments on an oceanic plate are heated in a subduction zone.
 Water vapor produced when hydrous minerals dehydrate in the heat of a subduction zone.
 Carbon dioxide produced when rising magma encounters carbonate rocks, such as limestone, marble,
or dolomite.
 Water vapor produced when a rising magma chamber encounters groundwater.

At depth, these gases can be dissolved in the magma like carbon dioxide dissolved in a can of cold beer. If
that can of beer is shaken and suddenly depressurized by opening the can, the gas and the beer will erupt from
the opening. A volcano behaves in a similar manner. A rising magma chamber instantly depressurized by a
landslide, faulting, or other event can produce a similar but much larger explosive eruption.

Many volcanic plumes and ash eruptions occur when gas-charged andesitic magmas erupt. The gas pressure
that causes the eruption blows large amounts of tiny rock and magma particles into the atmosphere. These
particles can be blown high into the atmosphere and carried long distances by the wind. They often cause
problems for aircraft operating downwind from the volcano.

Catastrophic eruptions like Mount St. Helens, Pinatubo, Redoubt, and Novarupta were produced by andesitic
magmas with enormous amounts of dissolved gas under high pressure. It is difficult to imagine how a magma
can contain enough dissolved gas to produce one of these eruptions.
Andesite Flow: One of numerous massive andesite flows from the Zarembo Island area of southeastern Alaska. They are gray
pyroxene and feldspar porphyrys that weather to maroon or green. Photo by USGS.

The Elusive Definition of Andesite

The formal definition of andesite is problematic. Many authors have classified igneous rocks based upon their
chemical and mineralogical compositions. However, none of these classifications are in perfect agreement.

For a fine-grained rock like andesite, these classifications are impossible to use precisely when in the field or
the classroom. They require chemical or mineralogical analyses that are usually not available, affordable, or
practical.

If you examine a rock that appears to be andesite, but you are not confident that it meets the mineralogical or
chemical classification of andesite, you can properly call it an "andesitoid" rock. That means that while the
rock looks like andesite, a microscopic examination or chemical testing might prove you wrong!

Contributor: Hobart King

 Diorite

Diorite: This specimen clearly shows the familiar "salt and pepper" appearance of diorite, produced by white plagioclase
contrasting with black hornblende and biotite. This specimen is about two inches across.

What is Diorite?
Diorite is the name used for a group of coarse-grained igneous rocks with a composition between that
of graniteand basalt. It usually occurs as large intrusions, dikes, and sills within continental crust. These often
form above a convergent plate boundary where an oceanic plate subducts beneath a continental plate.

Partial melting of the oceanic plate produces a basaltic magma that rises and intrudes the granitic rock of the
continental plate. There, the basaltic magma mixes with granitic magmas or melts granitic rock as it ascends
through the continental plate. This produces a melt that is intermediate in composition between basalt and
granite. Diorite forms if this type of melt crystallizes below the surface.

Diorite is usually composed of sodium-rich plagioclasewith lesser amounts of hornblende and biotite. It
usually contains little if any quartz. This makes diorite a coarse-grained rock with a contrasting mix of black
and white mineral grains. Students often use this "salt and pepper" appearance as a clue to the identification
of diorite.
Igneous rock compositions: This chart illustrates the generalized mineral composition of igneous rocks. It shows that diorites and
andesites are composed mainly of plagioclase feldspar, amphiboles, and micas; sometimes with minor amounts of orthoclase,
quartz, or pyroxene.

Diorite and Andesite

Diorite and andesite are similar rocks. They have the same mineral composition and occur in the same
geographic areas. The differences are in their grain sizes and their rates of cooling. Diorite crystallized slowly
within the Earth. That slow cooling produced a coarse grain size. Andesite forms when a similar magma
crystallizes quickly at Earth's surface. That rapid cooling produces a rock with small crystals.

Polished diorite: This photo shows a sample of diorite as it might appear in a polished countertop, facing stone, or floor tile. It
would probably be marketed as "white granite" at a cabinet shop or building supply store. Photo © iStockphoto / jskiba.

Diorite Ax: Photographs of a Neolithic ax made of diorite that was found in the surroundings of Reims, France. It is in the Alexis
Damour Collection at the Museum of Toulouse. Creative Commons photographs by Didier Descouens.
Uses of Diorite
In areas where diorite occurs near the surface, it is sometimes mined for use as a crushed stone. It has a
durability that compares favorably to granite and trap rock. It is used as a base material in the construction
of roads, buildings, and parking areas. It is also used as a drainage stone and for erosion control.

In the dimension stone industry, diorite is often cut into facing stone, tile, ashlars, blocking, pavers, curbing,
and a variety of dimension stone products. These are used as construction stone, or polished and used as
architectural stone. Diorite was used as a structural stone by the Inca and Mayan civilizations of South America
and by many ancient civilizations in the Middle East.

In the dimension stone industry, diorite is sold as a "granite." The dimension stone industry uses the name
"granite" for any rock with visible, interlocking grains of feldspar. This simplifies discussions with customers
who do not know how to identify igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Diorite Sculptures: The sculpture on the left is a diorite statue of Gudea, a Mesopotamian ruler, made in about 2090 BC. It is
about 19 inches tall and is currently displayed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. A public domain image. The vase on the right
was made in ancient Egypt from diorite with spectacular feldspar phenocrysts. It is in the collection of the Field Museum. A GNU
Free Documentation image by Madman2001.

Diorite in Art
Diorite is difficult to sculpt because of its hardness, variable composition, and coarse grain size. For those
reasons, it is not a favored stone of sculptors, although it was popular among ancient sculptors of the Middle
East.

The most famous diorite sculpture is the Code of Hammurabi, a black diorite pillar about seven feet tall,
inscribed with Babylonian laws in about 1750 BC.

Diorite has the ability to accept a bright polish, and it has occasionally been cut into cabochons or used as
a gemstone. In Australia, a diorite with beautiful pink feldspar phenocrysts has been cut into cabochons and
called "pink marshmallow stone."
Diorite Cabochon: A diorite in Australia contains large, beautiful pink feldspar crystals. It is often cut into cabochons for use as a
novelty gem. It has been given the name "pink marshmallow stone."

Contributor: Hobart King

 Basalt
What Is Basalt, How Does It Form, and How Is It Used?

Basalt: A fine-grained igneous rock that is usually black in color. The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters)
across.

What is Basalt?
Basalt is a dark-colored, fine-grained, igneous rockcomposed mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene minerals.
It most commonly forms as an extrusive rock, such as a lava flow, but can also form in small intrusive bodies,
such as an igneous dike or a thin sill. It has a composition similar to gabbro. The difference between basalt
and gabbro is that basalt is a fine-grained rock while gabbro is a coarse-grained rock.

Olympus Mons Volcano: This shield volcano is composed of basalt and has enormous calderas at the summit. Olympus Mons is
the highest topographic feature on Mars and is the largest known volcano in our solar system. It is about 375 miles (600
kilometers) in diameter and 15 miles (25 kilometers) high. NASA Mars Orbiter Camera image.
Earth's Most Abundant Bedrock
Basalt underlies more of Earth's surface than any other rock type. Most areas within Earth's ocean basins are
underlain by basalt. Although basalt is much less common on continents, lava flows and flood basalts underlie
several percent of Earth's land surface. Basalt is a very important rock.

Basalt on Moon and Mars

Basalt is also an abundant rock on the Moon. Much of the Moon's surface is underlain by basaltic lava flows
and flood basalts. These areas of the Moon are known as "lunar maria." Large areas of the Moon have been
resurfaced by extensive basalt flows which may have been triggered by major impact events. The ages of lunar
maria can be estimated by observing the density of impact craters on their surface. Younger basalt flows will
have fewer craters.

Olympus Mons is a shield volcano on Mars. It, like most other volcanic features on Mars, was formed from
basaltic lava flows. It is the highest mountain on Mars and is the largest known volcano in our solar system.

Basalt-Forming Environments: This map shows the location of oceanic divergent boundaries and hotspots. These are locations
where large volumes of basalt have been formed. Map copyright by Geology.com and MapResources. Locations generalized after
United States Geological Survey, Geologic Investigations Map I-2800: This Dynamic Planet.

Igneous rock composition chart: This chart shows that basalt is typically composed of pyroxenes, plagioclase, micas, and
amphiboles.
Basalt-Forming Environments
Most of the basalt found on Earth was produced in just three rock-forming environments: 1) oceanic divergent
boundaries, 2) oceanic hotspots, and 3) mantle plumes and hotspots beneath continents. The images on
this page feature some of these basalt-forming environments.

Sea floor pillow basalts on the Juan de Fuca Ridge, a divergent plate boundary located about 150 miles (240 kilometers) west of
the Washington-Oregon coast. This lava flow, produced by a fissure eruption, was about five years old when the photograph was
taken. NOAA Ocean Explorer image.

Hawaii Basalt Flows: Lava flows dump into the Pacific Ocean on the coast of Hawaii. Multiple locations where hot lava streams
into the ocean can be seen in this image along with a red-hot lava flow traversing the lava field. This photo shows the enormous
extent of the flows. They extend from the shoreline up to the horizon. A volcanic plume from the Pu`u `O`o vent can be seen over
the horizon near the center of the image. The lava in these flows originated from the Pu`u `O`o vent. USGS image.

Basalts at Oceanic Divergent Boundaries

Most of Earth's basalt is produced at divergent plate boundaries on the mid-ocean ridge system (see map).
Here convection currents deliver hot rock from deep in the mantle. This hot rock melts as the divergent
boundary pulls apart, and the molten rock erupts onto the sea floor. These submarine fissure eruptions often
produce pillow basalts as shown in the image on this page.
The active mid-ocean ridges host repeated fissure eruptions. Most of this activity is unnoticed because these
boundaries are under great depths of water. At these deep locations, any steam, ash, or gas produced is
absorbed by the water column and does not reach the surface. Earthquake activity is the only signal to humans
that many of these deep ocean ridge eruptions provide. However, Iceland is a location where a mid-ocean
ridge has been lifted above sea level. There, people can directly observe this volcanic activity.

Thermal image of a hot basalt flow on the flank of Hawaii's Kilauea volcano. Hot lava at the front of the flow is revealed in
yellow, orange and red colors. The channel that it flowed through on the previous day appears as a purple and blue track. United
States Geological Survey image.

Oceanic Hotspots
Another location where significant amounts of basalt are produced is above oceanic hotspots. These are
locations (see map above) where a small plume of hot rock rises up through the mantle from a hotspot on
Earth's core. The Hawaiian Islands are an example of where basaltic volcanoes have been built above an
oceanic hotspot.

Basalt production at these locations begins with an eruption on the ocean floor. If the hotspot is sustained,
repeated eruptions can build the volcanic cone larger and larger until it becomes high enough to become an
island. All of the islands in the Hawaiian Island chain were built up from basalt eruptions on the sea floor.

The island that we know today as "Hawaii" is thought to be between 300,000 and 600,000 years old. It began
as an eruption on the floor of the Pacific Ocean. The volcanic cone grew as recurrent eruptions built up layer
after layer of basalt flows. About 100,000 years ago it is thought to have grown tall enough to emerge from
the ocean as an island.

Today it consists of five overlapping volcanoes. Kilauea is the most active of these volcanoes. It has been in
amost continuous eruption since January, 1983. Basalt flows from Kilauea have extruded over one cubic mile
of lava, which currently covers about 48 square miles of land. These flows have travelled over seven miles to
reach the ocean, covering highways, homes and entire subdivisions that were in their path.
Columbia River Flood Basalts: The Columbia River Flood Basalts are an extensive sequence of stacked lava flows that reach a
cumulative thickness of up to 6000 feet. The outcrops in the foreground and in the distance of this photo are all made up of
layered basalt flows. Although basalt is typically a dark black rock, it often weathers to a yellow-brown color similar to the rocks
shown here. Public domain image by Williamborg.

Columbia River Flood Basalts Map: A map of the area underlain by the Columbia River Flood Basalts in Washington, Oregon,
and Idaho. The area shown is what has not yet been eroded away - the original extent of these basalt flows was much greater. Over
300 individual flows have been identified, and several hundred meters of basalt underlies much of the area shown in the map
above. Map © by Geology.com and MapResources.com.

Plumes & Hotspots Below Continents

The third basalt-forming environment is a continental environment where a mantle plume or hotspot delivers
enormous amounts of basaltic lava through the continental crust and up to Earth's surface. These eruptions
can be from either vents or fissures. They have produced the largest basalt flows on the continents. The
eruptions can occur repeatedly over millions of years, producing layer after layer of basalt stacked in a vertical
sequence (see outcrop photo).

The Columbia River Flood Basalts in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho are an example of extensive flood
basalts on land (see map below). Other examples include the Emeishan Traps of China, the Deccan Traps of
India, the Keweenawan Lavas of the Lake Superior region, the Etendeka Basalts of Namibia, the Karroo
Basalts of South Africa, and the Siberian Traps of Russia. (The word "traps" is derived from the Swedish word
for "stairs," which describes the outcrop profile of these layered basalt deposits, as shown in the outcrop
photo.)

The Roman theatre: (left) in Bosra, Syria. The dark building stone is basalt. Image © iStockphoto / Steve Estvanik.
Basalt paving stones: (right) on a city street in Rome, Italy. Basalt pavers were often used in areas close to volcanoes. Image ©
iStockphoto / Giovanni Rinaldi.

Uses of Basalt
Basalt is used for a wide variety of purposes. It is most commonly crushed for use as an aggregate in
construction projects. Crushed basalt is used for road base, concrete aggregate, asphalt pavement aggregate,
railroad ballast, filter stone in drain fields, and may other purposes. Basalt is also cut into dimension stone.
Thin slabs of basalt are cut and sometimes polished for use as floor tiles, building veneer, monuments, and
other stone objects.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Gabbro
What Is Gabbro, What Minerals Are In Gabbro, and What Is It Used For?

Gabbro is a dark-colored coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five
centimeters) across.

What is Gabbro?
Gabbro is a coarse-grained, dark-colored, intrusive igneous rock. It is usually black or dark green in color
and composed mainly of the minerals plagioclase and augite. It is the most abundant rock in the deep oceanic
crust. Gabbro has a variety of uses in the construction industry. It is used for everything from crushed stone
base materials at construction sites to polished stone counter tops and floor tiles.

Igneous rock composition chart: A chart that illustrates the generalized mineral composition of igneous rocks. By studying this
chart, you can see that gabbros and basalts are composed mainly of plagioclase feldspar, micas, amphiboles, and olivine.

What Minerals are in Gabbro?

Gabbro is composed mainly of calcium-rich plagioclasefeldspar (usually labradorite or bytownite) and
clinopyroxene (augite). Minor amounts of olivine and orthopyroxene might also be present in the rock. (See
composition chart on this page.)

This mineral composition usually gives gabbro a black to very dark green color. A minor amount of light-
colored mineral grains may also be present. Unlike many other igneous rocks, gabbro usually contains very
little quartz. You can see a close-up view of gabbro toward the bottom of this page.

Gabbro and Basalt are Related

Gabbros are equivalent in composition to basalts. The difference between the two rock types is their grain
size. Basalts are extrusive igneous rocks that cool quickly and have fine-grained crystals. Gabbros are intrusive
igneous rocks that cool slowly and have coarse-grained crystals.

Divergent boundary: In the oceanic crust, basalt forms near the surface at a divergent boundary, but gabbro forms at depth from
slow crystallization. Learn about teaching plate tectonics.

Gabbro in Oceanic Crust

It is often stated that Earth's oceanic crust is made up of basalt. The word "basalt" is used because the rocks
of the oceanic crust have a "basaltic" composition. However, only a thin surface veneer of oceanic crust is
basalt. The deeper rocks of the oceanic crust are generally coarser-grained gabbro. Basalt occurs at the surface
of the crust because the rocks there have cooled quickly. At greater depth the cooling rate is slower, and large
crystals have time to develop. (See illustration.)
Black granite: A view of polished gabbro (labradorite). Polished gabbro is sold under the name "black granite" and is used for
cemetery markers, floor tile, kitchen counter tops, facing stone, and other dimension stone uses.

Gabbro in Continental Crust

On the continents, gabbro can be found within thick lava flows of basaltic composition, where slow cooling
allows large crystals to form. Gabbro will also be present in the deep plutons that form when magma chambers
that feed basaltic eruptions crystallize.

Large volumes of gabbro are present beneath extensive flood basalts such as the Columbia River flood basalts
of Washington and Oregon and the Deccan Traps of India.

Close-up view of gabbro: Magnified view of the gabbro shown in the photograph at the top of the page. The area shown in this
image is about 1/2 inch across.

Uses of Gabbro
Gabbro can be polished to a brilliant black luster. Brightly polished gabbro is used to make cemetery markers,
kitchen counter tops, floor tiles, facing stone, and other dimension stone products. It is a highly desirable rock
that stands up to weathering and wear.

In the dimension stone industry, gabbro is sold under the name "black granite." Gabbro is also used to make
a number of rough-cut products such as curbing, ashlars, paving stones, and other products.

The most common use of gabbro is as a crushed stone or aggregate. Crushed gabbro is used as a base material
in construction projects, as a crushed stone for road construction, as railroad ballast, and anywhere that a
durable crushed stone is needed as fill.

Gabbro as an Ore
Gabbro sometimes contains economic amounts of some relatively rare metals. Gabbros containing significant
amounts of the mineral ilmenite are mined for their titanium content. Other gabbros are mined to
yield nickel, chromium, or platinum.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Obsidian
What is Obsidian, How Does it Form, and What is it Used For?

Obsidian: The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across. The curved semi-concentric ridges are
breakage marks associated with obsidian's conchoidal fracture. The rock has very sharp edges.

What is Obsidian?
Obsidian is an igneous rock that forms when molten rock material cools so rapidly that atoms are unable to
arrange themselves into a crystalline structure. It is an amorphous material known as a "mineraloid." The
result is a volcanic glass with a smooth uniform texture that breaks with a conchoidal fracture (see photo).

Where Does Obsidian Form?

Obsidian is usually an extrusive rock - one that solidifies above Earth's surface. However, it can form in a
variety of cooling environments:

 along the edges of a lava flow (extrusive)

 along the edges of a volcanic dome (extrusive)
 around the edges of a sill or a dike (intrusive)
 where lava contacts water (extrusive)
 where lava cools while airborne (extrusive)
Types of Obsidian: The specimens shown above are from Glass Butte rockhounding site in central Oregon. It shows the diversity
of obsidian types that can be found in a small geographic area. Clockwise from upper left are: double flow obsidian, rainbow
obsidian, black obsidian, pumpkin obsidian, mahogany obsidian, gold sheen obsidian, and the piece in the center is gold sheen.
The nice photo above is from the Glass Butte Rockhounding Site page on the Deschutes National Forest website.

Mahogany obsidian: A tumble-polished specimen of "mahogany obsidian." Image © iStockphoto / Arpad Benedek.

What Color is Obsidian?

Rainbow Obsidian: A baroque

cabochon of iridescent "rainbow
obsidian."

Black is the most common color of obsidian. However, it can also be brown, tan, or green. Rarely, obsidian
can be blue, red, orange, or yellow. The colors are thought to be caused mainly by trace elements or inclusions.

Occasionally two colors of obsidian will be swirled together in a single specimen. The most common color
combination is black and brown obsidian swirled together - that's called "mahogany obsidian" (see photo).
As a "glass," obsidian is chemically unstable. With the passage of time, some obsidian begins to crystallize.
This process does not happen at a uniform rate throughout the rock. Instead it begins at various locations
within the rock. At these locations, the crystallization process forms radial clusters of white or gray cristobalite
crystals within the obsidian. When cut and polished, these specimens are referred to as "snowflake obsidian"
(see photos).

Rarely, obsidian has an iridescent or metallic "sheen" caused by light reflecting from minute inclusions of
mineral crystals, rock debris, or gas. These colored specimens are known as "rainbow obsidian," "golden
obsidian," or "silver obsidian," depending upon the color of the sheen or iridescence. These specimens are
very desirable for the manufacture of jewelry.

Snowflake obsidian: A tumble-polished specimen of "snowflake obsidian." Image © iStockphoto / Martin Novak.

What is the Composition of Obsidian?

Most obsidians have a composition similar to rhyolite and granite. Granites and rhyolites can form from the
same magma as obsidian and are often geographically associated with the obsidian.

Rarely, volcanic glasses are found with a composition similar to basalt and gabbro. These glassy rocks are
named "tachylyte."

Are There Other Glassy Igneous Rocks?

Pumice, scoria, and tachylyte are other volcanic glasses formed by rapid cooling. Pumice and scoria differ
from obsidian by having abundant vesicles - cavities in the rock produced when gas bubbles were trapped in
a solidifying melt. Tachylyte differs in composition - it has a composition similar to basalt and gabbro.

Obsidian outcrop: Obsidian along the edge of a lava flow in central Oregon. Image © iStockphoto / Phil Augustavo.
Obsidian knife blade: A knife blade manufactured from mahogany obsidian. The craftsman who made this blade had a very high
skill level and was able to produce a serrated edge. Image © iStockphoto / Al Braunworth.

Occurrence of Obsidian
Obsidian is found in many locations worldwide. It is confined to areas of geologically recent volcanic activity.
Obsidian older than a few million years is rare because the glassy rock is rapidly destroyed or altered by
weathering, heat, or other processes.

Significant deposits of obsidian are found in Argentina, Canada, Chile, Ecuador, Greece, Guatemala, Hungary,
Iceland, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Russia, United States, and many other
locations.

In the United States it is not found east of the Mississippi River, as there is no geologically recent volcanic
activity there. In the western US it is found at many locations in Arizona, California, Idaho, Nevada, New
Mexico, Oregon, Washington, and Wyoming. Most obsidian used in the jewelry trade is produced in the
United States.

Obsidian spear point: A spear point fashioned from opaque black obsidian. Image © iStockphoto / Charles Butzin.

Uses of Obsidian as a Cutting Tool

The conchoidal fracture of obsidian causes it to break into pieces with curved surfaces. This type of fracturing
can produce rock fragments with very sharp edges. These sharp fragments may have prompted the first use of
obsidian by people.

The first use of obsidian by people probably occurred when a sharp piece of obsidian was used as a cutting
tool. People then discovered how to skillfully break the obsidian to produce cutting tools in a variety of shapes.
Obsidian was used to make knives, arrowheads, spear points, scrapers, and many other weapons and tools.

Once these discoveries were made, obsidian quickly became the raw material of preference for producing
almost any sharp object. The easy-to-recognize rock became one of the first targets of organized "mining." It
is probably a safe bet that all natural obsidian outcrops that are known today were discovered and utilized by
ancient people.

Apache tears: "Apache Tears" is a name used for small obsidian nodules of about one inch or less that can be found in volcanic
areas of the southwestern United States. Their name comes from a Native American legend. During a battle between Apaches and
the U.S. Cavalry in 1870, the outnumbered Apaches, facing defeat, rode their horses over a cliff rather than allow themselves to be
killed by their enemy. Upon hearing the story of the battle, the tears of their family members turned to stone when they hit the
ground. Those stones are now found as the black obsidian nodules. People who do rock tumbling often polish Apache Tears. They
are difficult to polish because the obsidian chips and bruises easily. Success occurs when they are cushioned during the tumbling
with smaller pieces of rough or small ceramic media.

Stone Age Manufacturing and Trade

The manufacture of obsidian tools by humans dates back to the Stone Age. At some locations, tons of obsidian
flakes reveal the presence of ancient "factories." Some of these sites have enough waste debris to suggest that
many people labored there for decades producing a variety of obsidian objects. Making arrowheads, spear
points, knife blades, and scrapers from obsidian, chert, or flint might have been the world's first
"manufacturing industry."

Obsidian was so valued for these uses that ancient people mined, transported, and traded obsidian and obsidian
objects over distances of up to a thousand miles. Archaeologists have been able to document the geography
of this trade by matching the characteristics of obsidian in outcrops with the characteristics of obsidian in
cutting tools. A study done by the Idaho National Laboratory used composition studies by X-ray fluorescence
to identify the source outcrops of obsidian artifacts and map their use across the western United States.

Obsidian in Modern Surgery

Although using a rock as a cutting tool might sound like "stone age equipment," obsidian continues to play an
important role in modern surgery. Obsidian can be used to produce a cutting edge that is thinner and sharper
than the best surgical steel. Today, thin blades of obsidian are placed in surgical scalpels used for some of the
most precise surgery. In controlled studies, the performance of obsidian blades was equal to or superior to the
performance of surgical steel.
Obsidian jewelry: Mahogany obsidian and snowflake obsidian cabochons set in sterling silver pendants.

Obsidian for opal triplets: A thin piece of obsidian is often used as a "backing" material for opal doublets and triplets. The black
obsidian adds stability to the opal and provides a dark background color that contrasts with the opal's fire.

Uses of Obsidian in Jewelry

Obsidian is a popular gemstone. It is often cut into beads and cabochons or used to manufacture tumbled
stones. Obsidian is sometimes faceted and polished into highly reflective beads. Some transparent specimens
are faceted to produce interesting gems.

The use of obsidian in jewelry can be limited by its durability. It has a hardness of about 5.5 which makes it
easy to scratch. It also lacks toughness and is easily broken or chipped upon impact. These durability concerns
make obsidian an inappropriate stone for rings and bracelets. It is best suited for use in low-impact pieces such
as earrings, brooches, and pendants.

Obsidian is also used in making opal doublets and opal triplets. Thin slices or chips of opal are glued to a
thin slice of obsidian to make a composite stone. The black obsidian provides an inexpensive and color-
contrasting background that makes opal's colorful fire much more obvious. It also adds mass and stability to
the opal that facilitates cutting it into a gem.

Other Uses of Obsidian

Freshly broken pieces of obsidian have a very high luster. Ancient people noticed that they could see a
reflection in obsidian and used it as a mirror. Later, pieces of obsidian were ground flat and highly polished
to improve their reflective abilities.

Obsidian's hardness of 5.5 makes it relatively easy to carve. Artists have used obsidian to make masks, small
sculptures, and figurines for thousands of years.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Granite
What is Granite? What is Granite Used For?

Granite: The specimen above is a typical granite. It is about two inches across. The grain size is coarse enough to allow
recognition of the major minerals. The pink grains are orthoclase feldspar, and the clear to smoky grains are quartz or muscovite.
The black grains can be biotite or hornblende. Numerous other minerals can be present in granite.

What is Granite?
Granite is a light-colored igneous rock with grains large enough to be visible with the unaided eye. It forms
from the slow crystallization of magma below Earth's surface. Granite is composed mainly of quartz and
feldspar with minor amounts of mica, amphiboles, and other minerals. This mineral composition usually gives
granite a red, pink, gray, or white color with dark mineral grains visible throughout the rock.

Granite in Yosemite Valley: Photograph of Yosemite Valley, California, showing the steep granite cliffs that form the walls of
the valley. © iStockphoto / photo75.
The Best-Known Igneous Rock
Granite is the best-known igneous rock. Many people recognize granite because it is the most common igneous
rock found at Earth's surface and because granite is used to make many objects that we encounter in daily life.
These include counter tops, floor tiles, paving stone, curbing, stair treads, building veneer, and cemetery
monuments. Granite is used all around us - especially if you live in a city.

Granite is also well-known from its many world-famous natural exposures. These include: Stone Mountain,
Georgia; Yosemite Valley, California; Mount Rushmore, South Dakota; Pike's Peak, Colorado; and White
Mountains, New Hampshire.

Granite: Photograph of a white, fine-grained granite. This specimen is about two inches across.

Multiple Definitions of Granite

The word "granite" is used in a variety of ways by different people. A simple definition is used in introductory
courses; a more precise definition is used by petrologists (geologists who specialize in the study of rocks);
and, the definition of granite expands wildly when used by people who sell decorative stone such as
countertops, tile, and building veneer.

These multiple definitions of granite can lead to communication problems. However, if you know who is using
the word and who they are communicating with, you can interpret the word in its proper context. Three
common usages of the word "granite" are explained below.
Granite close up: Magnified view of the white, fine-grained granite from the photograph above. The area shown in this image is
about 1/4 inch across.

A) Introductory Course Definition

Granite is a coarse-grained, light-colored igneous rock composed mainly of feldspars and quartz with minor
amounts of mica and amphibole minerals. This simple definition enables students to easily identify the rock
based upon a visual inspection.

B) Petrologist's Definition

Granite is a plutonic rock in which quartz makes up between 10 and 50 percent of the felsic components and
alkali feldspar accounts for 65 to 90 percent of the total feldspar content. Applying this definition requires the
mineral identification and quantification abilities of a competent geologist.

Many rocks identified as "granite" using the introductory course definition will not be called "granite" by the
petrologist - they might instead be alkali granites, granodiorites, pegmatites, or aplites. A petrologist might
call these "granitoid rocks" rather than granites. There are other definitions of granite based upon mineral
composition.

The chart below illustrates the range of granite compositions. From the chart you can see that orthoclase
feldspar, quartz, plagioclase feldspar, micas, and amphiboles can each have a range of abundances.
Pegmatite: Photograph of a granite with very large crystals of orthoclase feldspar. Granites with such large crystals are known as
"pegmatites." This rock is about two inches across.

Granite composition chart: This chart illustrates the generalized mineral composition of igneous rocks. Granites and rhyolites
(compositionally equivalent to granite but of a fine grain size) are composed mainly of orthoclase feldspar, quartz, plagioclase
feldspar, mica, and amphibole.

"Granite": All of the rocks above would be called "granite" in the commercial stone industry. Clockwise from top left they
are: granite, gneiss, pegmatite, and labradorite. Click on any of their names above for an enlarged view. Each of the images
above represents a slab of polished rock about eight inches across.

C) Commercial Definition

The word "granite" is used by people who sell and purchase cut stone for structural and decorative use. These
"granites" are used to make countertops, floor tiles, curbing, building veneer, monuments, and many other
products.

In the commercial stone industry, a "granite" is a rock with visible grains that is harder than a marble. Under
this definition, gabbro, basalt, pegmatite, schist, gneiss, syenite, monzonite, anorthosite, granodiorite,
diabase, diorite, and many other rocks will be called "granite." The collection of images here illustrates the
range of rocks that might be called "granite."
Granite counter tops: Granite counter tops in a new kitchen. Image © iStockphoto / Bernardo Grijalva.

Mount Rushmore: Mount Rushmore in the Black Hills, South Dakota is a sculpture of United States presidents George
Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln sculpted from a granite outcrop. Image © iStockphoto
/ Jonathan Larsen.

Uses of Granite
Granite is the rock most often quarried as a "dimension stone" (a natural rock material that has been cut into
blocks or slabs of specific length, width, and thickness). Granite is hard enough to resist most abrasion, strong
enough to bear significant weight, inert enough to resist weathering, and it accepts a brilliant polish. These
characteristics make it a very desirable and useful dimension stone.

Most of the granite dimension stone produced in the United States comes from high-quality deposits in five
states: Massachusetts, Georgia, New Hampshire, South Dakota, and Idaho.

Granite has been used for thousands of years in both interior and exterior applications. Rough-cut and polished
granite is used in buildings, bridges, paving, monuments, and many other exterior projects. Indoors, polished
granite slabs and tiles are used in countertops, tile floors, stair treads, and many other practical and decorative
features.

Related: Azurite Granite? A Gemstone?

 "K2 Granite," also known as "K2 Jasper"
An azurite granite found at the base of K2, the world's second-highest mountain.

K2 granite: A piece of dry K2 Granite. A wet surface would increase the intensity of the blue azurite orbs. This piece is
approximately 10 centimeters across, and the largest azurite orbs are about 1 centimeter across.

What is K2 Granite?
"K2 Granite," also known as "K2 Jasper" and "raindrop azurite," is an extremely interesting rock and lapidary
material from the Skardu area of northern Pakistan. It is like an eye magnet for anyone who sees it for the first
time. It is a bright white granite that contains sharply contrasting orbs of bright blue azurite. The azurite orbs
range from a few millimeters up to about two centimeters in diameter. On a broken surface or on the surface
of a slab, the blue orbs look like drops of bright blue ink that splashed onto the rock. Upon closer examination,
however, you will see that they are actually spherical in shape.

Although K2 Jasper is the most commonly used name for marketing this material, it is definitely not jasper.
If you examine the rock with a magnifying glass, you will see cleavage faces of feldspar minerals and black
flakes of biotite.

The white granite is very fine-grained and composed of quartz, sodium plagioclase, muscovite, and biotite.
Some specimens show strong alignment of the biotite grains and could be called "granite gneiss."

Examination of the azurite spheres with a good hand lens or microscope reveals that the azurite is present
along mineral grain boundaries, within tiny fractures, and as a "dye" penetrating the feldspar grains. The
azurite is a secondary material that clearly formed after all of the other minerals in the granite had solidified
from the parent melt.
World's second-highest mountain: A view of K2, also known as Mount Godwin Austen, in the morning sun. With a summit
elevation of 8,611 meters, K2 is the second-highest mountain in the world after Mount Everest (8,848 meters), and ahead of
Kangchenjunga (8,586 meters). Image © iStockphoto and PatrickPoendl.

People Don't Believe It's Azurite

Many people see this material at mineral shows or lapidary shows and immediately think that the round blue
dots have been produced with a dye. When they ask about the identity of the blue material and learn that it is
"azurite," they usually have a hard time believing it because white granite and azurite rarely occur together.
For most people, this is the first time that they have seen the two materials in such close association.

Some specimens also have small areas that are stained green with malachite. In the close-up photo of K2
granite, you can see dozens of small green malachite stains.

If you still doubt the “azurite in granite” identification, you might enjoy visiting a forum at mindat.org. There
you will find experienced mineralogists, people from Pakistan who obtain K2 at its source, and lapidarists
who cut K2 cabochons, discussing the material and sharing observations, photomicrographs, chemical
analyses, and x-ray diffraction data.
Azurite granite with malachite: The photo above features a close-up of a piece of K2 Granite. Dozens of green malachite stains
can be seen in this specimen.

Where Is K2 Found?
K2 granite is named after a mountain in the Karakoram Range near the border between Pakistan and China.
K2, also known as "Mount Godwin Austen," is the second-highest mountain in the world. The azurite granite
is found in colluvium near the base of the mountain. It is in a very remote area visited by very few people.

K2 cabochon: An oval cabochon cut from K2 Granite with several bright blue azurite stains. Within each stain you can see the
texture of the granite and grains of black biotite. These indicate that the stain formed after the granite solidified from its parent
melt. This cabochon is about 20 x 30 millimeters in size.

Lapidary Properties
K2 granite cuts, tumbles, and polishes beautifully. Due to its high feldspar content, it can be easily cut with a
lapidary saw and shapes quickly on a diamond wheel. Although azurite has a Mohs hardness of 3.5 to 4, the
blue dots have the same cutting and polishing properties as the surrounding white granite. This is because the
azurite exists as a stain rather than as discrete mineral grains.
K2 shapes and polishes well in a rock tumbler to produce tumbled stones. It also cuts attractive spheres. Cut
beads are not seen in the marketplace. This is likely because if you cut ten pounds of K2 into 1-centimeter
beads, very few of them will display the blue azurite color.

K2 is relatively durable in jewelry. The feldspar minerals in K2 have a hardness of about 6 on the Mohs scale
and will be scratched or show signs of wear over time if subjected to abrasion or impact. K2 is therefore not
a good stone for mounting in a ring or bracelet.

K2 attracts a lot of attention at gem and mineral shows. The rare combination of azurite in granite starts a lot
of discussions, and even the occasional argument. Thus far, K2 is not extremely expensive. Great material can
be purchased for about $30 to $40 per pound. This price is similar to what is paid for nice specimens of many
popular agates and jaspers. The best material has numerous, randomly spaced azurite stains on a bright white
granite background.

Contributor: Hobart King

High price often reduces the popularity of a construction material, and granite often costs significantly more
than man-made materials in most projects. However, granite is frequently selected because it is a prestige
material, used in projects to produce impressions of elegance, durability, and lasting quality.

Granite is also used as a crushed stone or aggregate. In this form it is used as a base material at construction
sites, as an aggregate in road construction, railroad ballast, foundations, and anywhere that a crushed stone is
useful as fill.

Granitic rocks: This triangular diagram is a classification method for granitic rocks. It is based upon the relative abundance of
feldspars (K-Na-Ca) and quartz. Mafic elements are not considered. It is modified after a classification chart prepared by the
International Union of Geological Sciences. Image and modification by the United States Geological Survey.
Granite in the Continental Crust
Most introductory geology textbooks report that granite is the most abundant rock in the continental crust. At
the surface, granite is exposed in the cores of many mountain ranges within large areas known as "batholiths,"
and in the core areas of continents known as "shields."

The large mineral crystals in granite are evidence that it cooled slowly from molten rock material. That slow
cooling had to have occurred beneath Earth's surface and required a long period of time to occur. If they are
today exposed at the surface, the only way that could happen is if the granite rocks were uplifted and the
overlying sedimentary rockswere eroded.

In areas where Earth's surface is covered with sedimentary rocks, granites, metamorphosed granites, or closely
related rocks are usually present beneath the sedimentary cover. These deep granites are known as "basement
rocks."

Contributor: Hobart King

 Peridotite
A group of ultramafic rocks, including Kimberlite. They sometimes contain chromite or diamonds.

Kimberlite with diamond: Kimberlite, the rock that is found in many diamond pipes, is a variety of peridotite. The
specimen above is a piece of kimberlite with numerous visible grains of phlogopite and a six millimeter octahedral
diamond crystal of about 1.8 carats. This specimen is from the Finsch Diamond Mine in South Africa. Wikimedia photo
by StrangerThanKindness used here under a Creative Commons License.
Types of peridotite: Peridotite is a generic name for a number of different rock types. All of them are rich in olivine and mafic
minerals. They are usually green in color and have a high specific gravity for a nonmetallic material. Shown above are specimens
of lherzolite, harzburgite, dunite, and wehrlite. Image by USGS.

What is Peridotite?
Peridotite is a generic name used for coarse-grained, dark-colored, ultramafic igneous rocks. Peridotites
usually contain olivine as their primary mineral, frequently with other mafic minerals such as pyroxenes and
amphiboles. Their silica content is low compared to other igneous rocks, and they contain very
little quartz and feldspar.

Peridotites are economically important rocks because they often contain chromite - the only ore
of chromium; they can be source rocks for diamonds; and, they have the potential to be used as a material
for sequestering carbon dioxide. Much of Earth's mantle is believed to be composed of peridotite.
Peridotite: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Many Types of Peridotite

The peridotite “family” contains a number of different intrusive igneous rocks. These include lherzolite,
harzburgite, dunite, wehrlite, and kimberlite (see photos). Most of them have an obvious green color, attributed
to their olivine content.

 Lherzolite: a peridotite composed primarily of olivine with significant amounts of orthopyroxene

and clinopyroxene. Some researchers believe that much of Earth's mantle is composed of lherzolite.

 Harzburgite: a peridotite composed primarily of olivine and orthopyroxene with small amounts
of spinel and garnet.

 Dunite: a peridotite that is composed mainly of olivine and may contain significant amounts of
chromite, pyroxene, and spinel.

 Wehrlite: a peridotite that is composed mainly of orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene, with olivine
and hornblende.

 Kimberlite: a peridotite that is composed of at least 35% olivine with significant amounts of other
minerals that might include phlogopite, pyroxenes, carbonates, serpentine, diopside, monticellite,
and garnet. Kimberlite sometimes contains diamonds.

Alteration of Peridotite
Peridotite is a rock type that is more representative of Earth’s mantle than of the crust. The minerals that
compose it are generally high-temperature minerals that are unstable at Earth’s surface. They are quickly
altered by hydrothermal solutions and weathering. Those that contain magnesium-oxide-bearing minerals can
alter to form carbonates, such as magnesite or calcite, which are much more stable at Earth's surface.
Alteration of other peridotites forms serpentinite, chlorite, and talc.
Peridotite can sequester gaseous carbon dioxide into a geologically stable solid. This occurs when carbon
dioxide combines with magnesium-rich olivine to form magnesite. This reaction happens at a geologically
rapid rate. The magnesite is much more stable over time and serves as a carbon dioxide sink. Perhaps this
characteristic of peridotite can be used by humans to intentionally sequester carbon dioxide and contribute to
solving the climate change problem.

The Tablelands: One of the few extensive surface exposures of peridotite is an area known as "The Tablelands" in Gros Morne
National Park, Newfoundland. This area is the mantle portion of a large slab of oceanic lithosphere that was overthrust onto
continental lithosphere. These rocks from the mantle lack the nutrients required to support most types of plants, and the soils that
form from them are usually barren. The brownish color is from iron staining. Image © iStockphoto / Wildnerdpix.

Peridotite Xenolith: This photograph is of a volcanic bomb that contains a peridotite (dunite) xenolith composed almost entirely
of olivine. Photo by Woudloper, used here under a Creative Commons License.

Ophiolites, Pipes, Dikes and Sills

Earth's mantle is thought to be composed mainly of peridotite. Some of the occurrences of peridotite on Earth's
surface are thought to be rocks from the mantle that have been brought up from depth by deep-source magmas.
Ophiolites and pipes are two structures that have brought mantle peridotite to the surface. Peridotite is also
found in the igneous rocks of sills and dikes.

Ophiolites: An ophiolite is a large slab of oceanic crust, including part of the mantle, that has been overthrust
onto continental crust at a convergent plate boundary. These structures bring large masses of peridotite up to
Earth's surface and offer a rare opportunity to examine rocks from the mantle. Studies of ophiolites have
helped geologists better understand the mantle, the process of seafloor spreading, and the formation of oceanic
lithosphere.

Pipes: A pipe is a vertical intrusive structure that forms when a deep-source volcanic eruption brings magma
up from the mantle. The magma often breaks through the surface, producing an explosive eruption and a steep-
walled crater known as a maar.

These deep-source eruptions are the origin for most of the Earth's primary diamond deposits. The magma
that forms the pipe is thought to ascend rapidly from the mantle, tearing rocks free from the mantle and from
the walls of the pipe. These pieces of foreign rock are known as "xenoliths." The diamonds are found in the
xenoliths and in the residual material produced by their weathering. Xenoliths provide the only way that
diamonds can ascend from the mantle to the surface without being melted or corroded by the hot magma.

Dikes and Sills: Dikes and sills are intrusive igneous rock bodies. Some of them are composed of peridotite
that was sourced from deep within the Earth. When they are exposed by erosion, they provide another way
that peridotite from great depth can be observed at Earth's surface.

Garnet peridotite: A specimen of garnet peridotite from Alpe Arami, near Bellinzona, Switzerland. Certain types of garnet,
along with chromite and ilmenite, can be indicator minerals for diamond prospecting. Public domain image by Woudloper.

Diamonds and Peridotite

How do diamonds form? A

detailed article that explains the
four sources of diamonds found at
Earth's surface.

The formation of diamonds requires very high temperatures and pressures that only occur on Earth at depths
of 100 miles below the surface and at locations in the mantle where temperatures are at least 2000 degrees
Fahrenheit. The diamonds are delivered to the surface in pieces of rock, known as xenoliths, which are torn
from the mantle by deep-source volcanic eruptions. When the mantle material approaches the surface, an
explosive eruption occurs that forms a pipe-shaped structure that might be several hundred yards to over a
mile in diameter. These "pipes," the rocks that are blasted from them, and the sediments and soils produced
by their weathering are the source for most of Earth's natural diamonds.

Peridotite Information
[1] Mineral Carbonation Using Ultramafic Rocks, USGS Cooperative Research on CO2 Sequestration Using Ultramafic and Carbonate
Rocks, Crustal Geophysics and Geochemistry Science Center, United States Geological Survey, last accessed June 2016.

[2] Stratiform Chromite Deposit Model: Ruth F. Schulte, Ryan D. Taylor, Nadine M. Piatak, and Robert R. Seal II; Chapter E of Mineral
Deposit Models for Resource Assessment; Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5070–E; 131 pages; November 2012.

[3] Chromium: John F. Papp, United States Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2013.

[4] Chromium: John F. Papp, United States Geological Survey, 2011 Minerals Yearbook, April 2013.

Chromite in Peridotite
Some peridotites contain significant amounts of chromite. Some of these form when a subsurface magma
slowly crystallizes. During the early stages of crystallization, the highest-temperature minerals such as olivine,
orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, and chromite begin to crystallize from the melt. The crystals are heavier than
the melt and sink to the bottom of the melt. These high-temperature minerals can form layers of peridotite on
the bottom of the magma body. This can form a layered deposit where up to 50% of the rock can be chromite.
These are known as "stratiform deposits." Most of the world's chromite is contained in two stratiform deposits:
the Bushveld Complex in South Africa and the Great Dyke in Zimbabwe.

Another type of chromite deposit occurs where tectonic forces push large masses of oceanic lithosphere up
onto a continental plate in a structure that is known as an "ophiolite." These ophiolites contain significant
amounts of chromite and are called "podiform deposits."

Aeromagnetic prospecting: Finding small bodies of peridotite such as a kimberlite pipe can be very difficult because they are so
small. Aeromagnetic surveys are sometimes employed to find them. The geographic areas underlain by peridotite will often be a
magnetic anomaly in contrast to their surrounding rocks. Images by the United States Geological Survey.

Prospecting for Peridotite

Peridotite bodies exposed at Earth's surface are rapidly attacked by weathering. They can then be obscured by
soil, sediment, glacial till, and vegetation. Finding a peridotite body as small as a kimberlite pipe, which might
be only a few hundred yards across, can be very difficult. Because peridotite often has magnetic properties
that are distinctly different from the surrounding rocks, a magnetic survey can sometimes be used to locate
them. The survey can be conducted using an aircraft that slowly tows a magnetometer at low altitudes,
recording the magnetic intensity as it travels. The magnetic data can be plotted on a map, often revealing the
location of the pipe as an anomaly. (See map and photo.)

Peridotite bodies are also found by prospecting for some of the rare minerals that they contain. When a
peridotite weathers, the olivine breaks down, quickly leaving the more resistant minerals behind. Geologists
have located peridotite bodies by prospecting for chromite, garnet, and other resistant indicator minerals.
When scattered by the action of water, wind, or ice, they will be most highly concentrated near the pipe and
be diluted by local rock debris with distance. The grains of these minerals might also be more rounded with
distance of transport. This allows geologists to use the "trail-to-lode" prospecting method to find them.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Pegmatite
An extreme igneous rock with large crystals and rare minerals

Pegmatite: Pegmatite is an igneous rock composed almost entirely of crystals that are over one centimeter in diameter. The
specimen shown here is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Topaz on albite: A crystal of imperial topaz on an albite matrix from a pocket in the Katlang Pegmatite of Pakistan. Specimen is
about 4.5 x 3.5 x 3.5 centimeters. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.
What is Pegmatite?
Pegmatites are extreme igneous rocks that form during the final stage of a magma’s crystallization. They are
extreme because they contain exceptionally large crystals and they sometimes contain minerals that are rarely
found in other types of rocks.

To be called a “pegmatite,” a rock should be composed almost entirely of crystals that are at least one
centimeter in diameter. The name “pegmatite” has nothing to do with the mineral composition of the rock.

Most pegmatites have a composition that is similar to granite with abundant quartz, feldspar, and mica. These
are sometimes called “granite pegmatites” to indicate their mineralogical composition. However,
compositions such as “gabbro pegmatite,” “syenite pegmatite,” and any other plutonic rock name combined
with “pegmatite” are possible.

Pegmatites are sometimes sources of valuable minerals such as spodumene (an ore of lithium) and beryl (an
ore of beryllium) that are rarely found in economic amounts in other types of rocks. They also can be a source
of gemstones. Some of the world’s best tourmaline, aquamarine, and topaz deposits have been found in
pegmatites.

Giant spodumene crystals: Molds of giant spodumene crystals at the Etta Mines, Black Hills, Pennington County, South Dakota.
Note miner at right center for scale. USGS photo.
Himalaya pegmatite: A specimen of the Himalaya Pegmatite of San Diego County, California, that is famous for yielding gem-
and mineral-specimen-quality tourmaline and other fine crystals. This is a pocket piece with feldspar, smoky quartz,
cleavelandite, and a fantastic multicolor tourmaline crystal. Specimen is about 12.7 x 7.7 x 7.5 centimeters. Specimen and photo
by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

The Rock with Large Crystals

Large crystals in igneous rocks are usually attributed to a slow rate of crystallization. However, with
pegmatites, large crystals are attributed to low-viscosity fluids that allow ions to be very mobile.

During the early states of a magma’s crystallization, the melt usually contains a significant amount of
dissolved water and other volatiles such as chlorine, fluorine, and carbon dioxide. Water is not removed from
the melt during the early crystallization process, so its concentration in the melt grows as crystallization
progresses. Eventually there is an overabundance of water, and pockets of water separate from the melt.

These pockets of superheated water are extremely rich in dissolved ions. The ions in the water are much more
mobile than ions in the melt. This allows them to move about freely and form crystals rapidly. This is why
crystals of a pegmatite grow so large.

The extreme conditions of crystallization sometimes produce crystals that are several meters in length and
weigh over one ton. For example: a large crystal of spodumene at the Etta Mine in South Dakota was 42 feet
long, 5 feet in diameter and yielded 90 tons of spodumene!

Crabtree pegmatite: One of the most interesting pegmatites is the Crabtree Pegmatite of western North Carolina. It is a granitic
pegmatite that intrudes the boundary between two rock units in a dike that is up to two meters wide. It was mined for emeralds by
a series of owners, which included Tiffany and Company, between 1894 and the 1990s. Many fine clear emeralds were produced,
and much of the rock was sold as "emerald matrix" for slabbing and cabochon cutting. This specimen is about 7 x 7 x 7
centimeters in size and contains numerous small emerald crystals that are several millimeters in length.
Activity at the Margins of a Batholith
Pegmatites form from waters that separate from a magma in the late stages of crystallization; this activity often
occurs in small pockets along the margins of a batholith. Pegmatite can also form in fractures that develop on
the margins of the batholith. This is how “pegmatite dikes” are formed.

Because these dikes and pockets are small in size, the mining operations that exploit them are also small. The
mining of pegmatites might be done in an underground operation that follows a dike or exploits a small pocket.
It can also be done at an outcrop where the pegmatite is easily discovered by people. Pegmatites usually do
not support large mining operations that employ dozens of workers and have continuous activity of many
years.

Polished pegmatite countertop: A portion of a countertop made from polished pegmatite. Large crystals of feldspar, smoky
quartz, and hornblende are visible. The view seen here is about 12 inches across.

Rare Minerals in Large Crystals

In the early stages of crystallization, the ions that form high-temperature minerals are depleted from the melt.
Rare ions that do not participate in the crystallization of common rock-forming minerals become concentrated
in the melt and in the excluded water. These ions can form the rare minerals that are often found in pegmatites.
Examples are small ions such as lithium and beryllium that form spodumene and beryl; or large ions such as
tantalum and niobium that form minerals such as tantalite and niobite. Rare elements concentrated in large
crystals make pegmatite a potential source of valuable ore.
Polished pegmatite countertop: A portion of a countertop made from polished pegmatite. Large crystals of feldspar, quartz, and
hornblende are visible. The view seen here is about six inches across.

Uses of Pegmatite
Pegmatite rock has very few uses. However, pegmatite deposits often contain gemstones, industrial
minerals, and rare minerals.

ARCHITECTURAL STONE

Pegmatite rock has limited use as an architectural stone. Occasionally it is encountered in a dimension stone
quarry that produces granite for architectural use. If the pegmatite is sound and attractive, it might be cut into
slabs and polished for building facing, countertops, tile or other decorative stone products and sold
commercially as a “granite.”

GEMSTONE MINING

Some of the world’s best gemstone mines are in pegmatites. Gemstones found in pegmatite include:
amazonite, apatite, aquamarine, beryl, chrysoberyl, emerald, garnet, kunzite,
lepidolite, spodumene, topaz, tourmaline, zircon, and many others. Large crystals of excellent-quality
material are often found in pegmatite.

RARE MINERALS

Pegmatite is the host rock for many rare mineral deposits. These minerals can be commercial sources
of: beryllium, bismuth, boron, cesium, lithium, molybdenum, niobium, tantalum, tin, titanium, tungsten, and
many other elements. In most cases the mining operations are very small, employing less than a dozen people.
If the mine contains nice crystals, the minerals are often more valuable as mineral specimens and faceting
rough than being sold as an ore.

INDUSTRIAL MINERALS

Pegmatite is often mined for industrial minerals. Large sheets of mica are mined from pegmatite. These are
used to make components for electronic devices, retardation plates, circuit boards, optical filters, detector
windows, and many other products. Feldspar is another mineral frequently mined from pegmatite. It is used
as a primary ingredient for making glass and ceramics. It is also used as a filler in many products.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Rhyolite
An extrusive igneous rock with a very high silica content.

Rhyolite: A pink specimen of rhyolite with numerous very tiny vugs with some evidence of flow structures. The specimen shown
here is about two inches across.

Igneous rock composition chart: This chart shows that rhyolite is typically composed of orthoclase, quartz, plagioclase, micas,
and amphiboles.

What is Rhyolite?
Rhyolite is an extrusive igneous rock with a very high silica content. It is usually pink or gray in color with
grains so small that they are difficult to observe without a hand lens. Rhyolite is made up
of quartz, plagioclase, and sanidine, with minor amounts of hornblende and biotite. Trapped gases often
produce vugs in the rock. These often contain crystals, opal, or glassy material.

Many rhyolites form from granitic magma that has partially cooled in the subsurface. When these magmas
erupt, a rock with two grain sizes can form. The large crystals that formed beneath the surface are called
phenocrysts, and the small crystals formed at the surface are called groundmass.

Rhyolite usually forms in continental or continent-margin volcanic eruptions where granitic magma reaches
the surface. Rhyolite is rarely produced at oceanic eruptions.
Rhyolite Porphyry: Several specimens of rhyolite porphyry, each about three inches across. Click the image to enlarge.

Eruptions of Granitic Magma

Eruptions of granitic magma can produce rhyolite, pumice, obsidian, or tuff. These rocks have similar
compositions but different cooling conditions. Explosive eruptionsproduce tuff or pumice. Effusive eruptions
produce rhyolite or obsidian if the lava cools rapidly. These different rock types can all be found in the
products of a single eruption.

Eruptions of granitic magma are rare. Since 1900 only three are known to have occurred. These were at St.
Andrew Strait Volcano in Papua New Guinea, Novarupta Volcanoin Alaska, and Chaiten Volcano in Chile.

Granitic magmas are rich in silica and often contain up to several percent gas by weight. (Think about that -
several percent gas by weight is a LOT of gas!) As these magmas cool, the silica starts to connect into complex
molecules. This gives the magma a high viscosity and causes it to move very sluggishly.

The high gas content and high viscosity of these magmas are perfect for producing an explosive eruption. The
viscosity can be so high that the gas can only escape by blasting the magma from the vent.

Granitic magmas have produced some of the most explosive volcanic eruptions in Earth's history. Examples
include Yellowstone in Wyoming, Long Valley in California, and Valles in New Mexico. The sites of their
eruption are often marked by large calderas.
Lava Dome: Photo of a lava dome in the caldera of Mount St. Helens. Activity at St. Helens slowly extrudes thick lavas that
gradually build domes in the caldera. This dome is composed of dacite, a rock that is intermediate in composition between rhyolite
and andesite. Photo by the United States Geological Survey.

Lava Domes
Sluggish rhyolitic lava can slowly exude from a volcano and pile up around the vent. This can produce a
mound-shaped structure known as a "lava dome." Some lava domes have grown to a height of several hundred
meters.

Lava domes can be dangerous. As additional magma extrudes, the brittle dome can become highly fractured
and unstable. The ground can also change slope as the volcano inflates and contracts. This activity can trigger
a dome collapse. A dome collapse can lower the pressure on the extruding magma. This sudden lowering of
pressure can result in an explosion. It can also result in a debris avalanche of material falling from the tall
collapsing dome. Many pyroclastic flows and volcanic debris avalanches have been triggered by a lava dome
collapse.

Fire Opal is sometimes found filling cavities in rhyolite. This specimen of rhyolite has multiple vugs filled with gemmy
transparent orange fire opal. This material can be cut into beautiful cabochons and is sometimes faceted when it is transparent or
even translucent. Famous deposits of this type of fire-opal-in-rhyolite are found in Mexico. This photo is used here through a
Creative Commons license. It was produced by Didier Descouens.

Rhyolite and Gemstones

Many gem deposits are hosted in rhyolite. These occur for a logical reason. The thick granitic lava that forms
rhyolite often cools quickly while pockets of gas are still trapped inside of the lava. As the lava quickly cools,
the trapped gas is unable to escape and forms cavities known as "vugs." Later, when the lava flow has cooled
and hydrothermal gases or ground water move through, material can precipitate in the vugs. This is how some
of the world's best deposits of red beryl, topaz, agate, jasper, and opal are formed. Gem hunters have learned
this and are always on the lookout for vuggy rhyolite.
Rhyolite Arrowheads: Rhyolite was often used to make stone tools and weapons when more suitable materials were not
available. It has been fashioned into scrapers, hoes, axe heads, spear points, and arrowheads.

Uses of Rhyolite
Rhyolite is a rock that is rarely used in construction or manufacturing. It is often vuggy or highly fractured.
Its composition is variable. When better materials are not locally available, rhyolite is sometimes used to
produce crushed stone. People have also used rhyolite to manufacture stone tools, particularly scrapers,
blades, and projectile points. It was probably not their material of choice, but a material used out of necessity.
 Pumice

Pumice: This specimen shows the frothy vesicular texture of pumice. It has a specific gravity of less than one and will float on
water. It is about five centimeters (two inches) across.

Pumice at Mount St. Helens: A pyroclastic flow will sometimes contain large pieces of pumice. This photograph shows a USGS
scientist examining blocks of pumice at the toe of a pyroclastic flow at Mount St. Helens. Image by Terry Leighley, Sandia Labs.

What is Pumice?
Pumice is a light-colored, extremely porous igneous rockthat forms during explosive volcanic eruptions. It
is used as aggregate in lightweight concrete, as landscaping aggregate, and as an abrasive in a variety of
industrial and consumer products. Many specimens have a high enough porosity that they can float on water
until they slowly become waterlogged.
Pumice quarry: Photograph of stratified pumice deposit produced by pyroclastic flows at Mount St. Helens, Washington. USGS
image by L. Topinka.

How Does Pumice Form?

The pore spaces (known as vesicles) in pumice are a clue to how it forms. The vesicles are actually gas bubbles
that were trapped in the rock during the rapid cooling of a gas-rich frothy magma. The material cools so
quickly that atoms in the melt are not able to arrange themselves into a crystalline structure. Thus, pumice is
an amorphous volcanic glass known as a "mineraloid."

Some magmas contain several percent dissolved gas by weight while they are under pressure. Stop for a
moment and think about that. Gas weighs very little at Earth's surface, but these magmas under pressure can
contain several percent gas by weight held in solution.

This is similar to the large amount of dissolved carbon dioxide in a sealed bottle of carbonated beverage such
as beer or soda. If you shake the container, then immediately open the bottle, the sudden release of pressure
allows the gas to come out of solution, and the beverage erupts from the container in a frothy mess.

A rising body of magma, supercharged with dissolved gas under pressure, behaves in a similar way. As the
magma breaks through Earth's surface, the sudden pressure drop causes the gas to come out of solution. This
is what produces the enormous rush of high-pressure gas from the vent.

This rush of gas from the vent shreds the magma and blows it out as a molten froth. The froth rapidly solidifies
as it flies through the air and falls back to Earth as pieces of pumice. The largest volcanic eruptions can eject
many cubic kilometers of material. This material can range in size from tiny dust particles to large blocks of
pumice the size of a house.

Large eruptions can blanket the landscape around the volcano with over 100 meters of pumice and launch dust
and ash high into the atmosphere.

The sections below give quotations from United States Geological Survey reports describing the production
of pumice at two major eruptions.
Pinatubo eruption: The explosive eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines on June 12, 1991 ejected more than five cubic
kilometers of material and was rated as a VEI 5 eruption on the volcanic explosivity index. Much of that material was pumice
lapilli (see image below) that blanketed the landscape around the volcano. USGS image.

Pinatubo pumice: Dacitic pumice fragments erupted by Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, during an enormous eruption on 15 June
1991. Photo by W.E. Scott, USGS image.

Gas and Pumice at the Pinatubo Eruption

The second most powerful volcanic eruption of the 20th century was at Mount Pinatubo in 1991. The
description below explains how enormous volumes of dissolved gas powered the eruption and how a cubic
mile of ash and pumice lapilli was blasted from the volcano.

"From June 7 to 12, the first magma reached the surface of Mount Pinatubo. Because it had lost most of the
gas contained in it on the way to the surface, the magma oozed out to form a lava dome but did not cause an
explosive eruption. However, on June 12, millions of cubic yards of gas-charged magma reached the surface
and exploded in the reawakening volcano's first spectacular eruption.

When even more highly gas charged magma reached Pinatubo's surface on June 15, the volcano exploded in
a cataclysmic eruption that ejected more than 1 cubic mile of material. [...] A blanket of volcanic ash and
pumice lapilli blanketed the countryside.

Huge avalanches of searing hot ash, gas, and pumice roared down the flanks of Mount Pinatubo, filling once-
deep valleys with fresh volcanic deposits as much as 660 feet thick. The eruption removed so much magma
and rock from below the volcano that the summit collapsed to form a large volcanic depression 1.6 miles
across." [1]

Pumice raft: A "raft" of lightweight pumice floating on the surface of the South Pacific after an eruption in the Tonga Islands.
NASA image.

Mount Mazama Eruption (Crater Lake)

"The cataclysmic eruption of Mount Mazama 7,700 years ago started from a single vent on the northeast side
of the volcano as a towering column of pumice and ash that reached some 30 miles high. Winds carried the
ash across much of the Pacific Northwest and parts of southern Canada. So much magma erupted that the
volcano began to collapse in on itself. As the summit collapsed, circular cracks opened up around the peak.
More magma erupted through these cracks to race down the slopes as pyroclastic flows. Deposits from these
flows partially filled the valleys around Mount Mazama with up to 300 feet of pumice and ash. As more
magma was erupted, the collapse progressed until the dust settled to reveal a volcanic depression, called a
caldera, 5 miles in diameter and one mile deep." [2]

Pumice raft: View of a pumice raft from a boat. Waves can be seen moving under the pumice. The rafts can float for years until
all of the pumice becomes waterlogged and sinks or it is dissipated by waves and wind. USGS image.

Composition of Pumice
Most pumice erupts from magmas that are highly charged with gas and have a rhyolitic composition. Rarely,
pumice can erupt from gas-charged magmas of basaltic or andesitic composition.
Pantheon: Some of the concrete used to construct the Pantheon by the Romans in 126 AD was lightweight material made with
pumice aggregate. Photography by Roberta Dragan, used under a Creative Commons license.

Pumice Has a Very Low Specific Gravity

The abundant vesicles in pumice and the thin walls between them give the rock a very low specific gravity. It
typically has a specific gravity of less than one, giving the rock an ability to float on water.

Large amounts of pumice produced by some island and subsea eruptions will float on the surface and be
pushed about by the winds. The pumice can float for long periods of time - sometimes years - before it finally
becomes waterlogged and sinks. Large masses of floating pumice are known as "pumice rafts." They are large
enough to be tracked by satellites and are a hazard to ships that sail through them (see images). [3] [4]

Pumice products: A variety of health and beauty products that contain pumice. They include the famous "Lava Soap" that cleans
dirty hands with tiny pieces of pumice abrasive, a foot scrub cream that works as an exfoliant to smooth "sandal feet," two pumice
stones, and a sponge with embedded pumice abrasive.

Uses of Pumice
The largest use of pumice in the United States is the production of lightweight concrete blocks and other
lightweight concrete products. When this concrete is mixed, the vesicles remain partially filled with air. That
reduces the weight of the block. Lighter blocks can reduce the structural steel requirements of a building or
reduce the foundation requirements. The trapped air also gives the blocks a greater insulating value.
The second most common use of pumice is in landscaping and horticulture. The pumice is used as a decorative
ground cover in landscaping and planters. It is used as drainage rock and soil conditioner in plantings. Pumice
and scoria are also popular rocks for use as substrates in hydroponic gardening.

Pumice has many other uses. Together these account for less than a few percent of consumption in the United
States, but these are the products that most people think of when they hear the word "pumice."

Lots of people have found small pumice pebbles in the pockets of brand new "stone washed jeans," and almost
everyone has seen the famous "Lava Soap" that uses pumice as an abrasive. Below we list these and some of
the other minor uses of pumice (in no particular order). [5]

 an abrasive in conditioning "stone washed" denim

 an abrasive in bar and liquid soaps such as "Lava Soap"
 an abrasive in pencil erasers
 an abrasive in skin exfoliating products
 a fine abrasive used for polishing
 a traction material on snow-covered roads
 a traction enhancer in tire rubber
 an absorbent in cat litter
 a fine-grained filter media
 a lightweight filler for pottery clay

Pumice Information
[1] The Cataclysmic 1991 Eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines: Chris Newhall, James W. Hendley II, and Peter H. Stauffer; United
States Geological Survey Fact Sheet 113-97, published 1997.

[2] Mount Mazama and Crater Lake: Growth and Destruction of a Cascade Volcano: Ed Klimasauskas, Charles Bacon, and Jim
Alexander; United States Geological Survey Fact Sheet 092-02, published 2002.

[3] New Island and Pumice Raft in the Tongas: Earth Observatory image from NASA, November 16, 2006.

[4] Maritime Impacts of Volcanic Eruptions: A Guide for the Prudent Mariner, National Weather Service, Ocean Prediction Center, NOAA,
website last accessed June 2016.

[5] Pumice and Pumicite: Robert D. Crangle, Jr., 2011 Minerals Yearbook, United States Geological Survey, August 2012.

Pumice and Pumicite Production

Pumice is produced in two forms: rock pumice and pumicite. "Pumicite" is a name given to very fine-grained
pumice (less than 4 millimeters in diameter down to submillimeter sizes). The word can be used synonymously
with "volcanic ash." It is mined from volcanic ash deposits, or it can be produced by crushing rock pumice.

About 500,000 metric tons of pumice and pumicite were mined in the United States in 2011. The total value
of this pumice was about $11,200,000, or an average of about $23 per ton at the mine. The producing states
were, in order of decreasing production:

 Oregon
 Nevada
 Idaho
 Arizona
 California
 New Mexico
 Kansas
Pumice Reticulite: Reticulite is a basaltic pumice in which all of the bubbles have burst, leaving a honeycomb structure.
Photograph by J.D. Griggs, USGS image.

Imported Pumice and Substitutes

All of the pumice production in the United States occurs west of the Mississippi River. In 2011, most of the
pumice for consumption in the eastern United States was imported from Greece.

In the eastern United States, expanded aggregate, produced by heating specific types of shale under controlled
conditions, is used as a substitute for pumice in lightweight aggregate, horticultural, and landscaping
applications.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Scoria

Scoria: A piece of scoria about 4 inches (10 centimeters) in diameter. A specimen with a rounded shape like this was most likely
blown from a volcanic vent. This photograph was taken by Jonathan Zander and is used under a GNU Free Documentation
License.

What is Scoria?
Scoria is a dark-colored igneous rock with abundant round bubble-like cavities known as vesicles. It ranges
in color from black or dark gray to deep reddish brown. Scoria usually has a composition similar to basalt,
but it can also have a composition similar to andesite.

Many people believe that small pieces of scoria look like the ash produced in a coal furnace. That has resulted
in particles of scoria being called "cinders" and the small volcanoes that erupt scoria to be called "cinder
cones."

Scoria: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
How Does Scoria Form?
Scoria forms when magma containing abundant dissolved gas flows from a volcano or is blown out during an
eruption. As the molten rock emerges from the Earth, the pressure upon it is reduced and the dissolved gas
starts to escape in the form of bubbles. If the molten rock solidifies before the gas has escaped, the bubbles
become small rounded or elongated cavities in the rock. This dark-colored igneous rock with the trapped
bubbles is known as scoria.

When some volcanoes erupt, a rush of gas blows out of the vent. This gas was once dissolved in the magma
below. The gas often blows out small bodies of magma that solidify as they fly through the air. This action
can produce a ground cover of scoria all around the volcanic vent, with the heaviest deposits on the downwind
side.

Small particles of scoria that litter the landscape around the volcano are known as "lapilli" if they are between
2 millimeters and 64 millimeters in size. Larger particles are known as "blocks."

Scoria cinder cone: Artistic drawing illustrating the subsurface magma source and layer-by-layer build-up of scoria in a cinder
cone eruption. Image by USGS.

Mauna Kea cinder cone: A red cinder cone and a cinder-covered landscape at Mauna Kea, Hawaii. Photo by Scot Izuka, USGS.
Cinder Cones
Most of the scoria falls to the ground near the vent to build up a cone-shaped hill called a "cinder cone." Cinder
cones are generally small volcanoes produced by brief eruptions with a total vertical relief of less than a few
thousand feet. They are usually very steep because scoria has an angle of repose of 30 to 40 degrees. In some
parts of the world, cinder cones occur in clusters of a few to hundreds of individual cones. These areas are
called "volcano fields." (See the Google terrain image on this page for a view of the San Francisco Volcanic
Field in Arizona, where hundreds of cinder cones can be seen.)

Stromboli ejecta: Magma being blown from the vent at Stromboli Volcano. This type of eruption would produce the small scoria
cinders known as "lapilli." Photo by B. Chouet, USGS.

Lava Flows and Vesicular Basalts

Some newly erupted lava flows contain abundant dissolved gas. The gas bubbles in the flow move upwards
towards the surface in an attempt to escape while the lava is still molten. However, once the lava starts to
solidify, the bubbles are trapped in the rock. These trapped gas bubbles are known as vesicles. If the upper
portion of a lava flow contains a large concentration of vesicles, it is often called "scoria" or "vesicular basalt."
This material often has fewer vesicles and a higher specific gravity than the scoria of lapilli.

Scoria on Mars: This image shows a field on Mars that is strewn with pieces of scoria, erupted from a Martian volcano. The
piece of Martian scoria in the foreground is about 18 inches across and was found on the surface of Mars by the Spirit Rover.
NASA image.
The Beverage Bottle Analogy
Have you ever slowly opened a bottle that contains a carbonated beverage and watched the gas bubbles form
on the walls of the bottle? Then as the seal on the bottle is broken, the bubbles grow larger and a hiss of gas
escapes from the bottle, followed by a rush of foam. The depressurization and the escape of gas from a
beverage is the same process that occurs when magma is depressurized as it emerges from a volcanic vent.
The foam is equivalent to what will become scoria on solidification.

Sunset Crater cinder cone: Photograph of the Sunset Crater cinder cone that was formed by eruptions that occurred about 1000
years ago. It is located near Flagstaff, Arizona and is about 1000 feet tall. It is one of over 500 cinder cones in the San Francisco
Volcanic Field. Image by USGS. (The Google terrain map on this page allows you to view this volcano on a topographic map or a
satellite image.)

Not to be Confused with Pumice

A vesicular igneous rock that is very similar to scoria is pumice. There are a few differences that can be used
to distinguish them. First is their color. Scoria is almost always black or dark gray to reddish brown, while
pumice is almost always white to light gray to light tan. This color difference is a result of their composition.
Scoria forms from basaltic magmas, while pumice forms from rhyoliticmagmas - which usually contain more
gas.

Pumice has a much higher concentration of trapped bubbles - so many that the walls between them are very
thin. The vesicles in pumice contain enough air that the rock will float on water. The thick walls of scoria
make it heavy enough to sink.

Finally, when observed closely with a hand lens, you can often see tiny mineral crystals in scoria. However,
close observation of pumice reveals a "glassy" texture similar to obsidian. Pumice consists mainly of glass
materials rather than mineral crystals. A "glass" is a noncrystalline substance. In the case of pumice, it cooled
so quickly that the atoms were unable to arrange themselves into ordered crystal structures.

Google terrain image showing a small cluster of cinder cones in the San Francisco Peaks Volcanic Field near Flagstaff, Arizona.
The field contains over 500 cinder cones. View Larger Map
Expanded aggregate: Photograph of "light expanded clay aggregate," a scoria look-alike that is produced by heating certain
types of clay in a rotating kiln. Organic material and moisture in the clay produce gas that causes vesicles similar to those found in
scoria. Straight from the kiln, the material has a smooth exterior, but when broken the vesicular structure is exposed. Expanded
aggregate is used as landscape stone, lightweight concrete, lightweight fill, and as a substrate for hydroculture. Public domain
image by Leca67.

Uses of Scoria
One of the main uses of scoria is in the production of lightweight aggregate. The scoria is crushed to desired
sizes and sold for a variety of uses.

Concrete made with scoria typically weighs about 100 pounds per cubic foot. This is a weight savings
compared to concrete made with typical sand and gravel that weighs about 150 pounds per cubic foot. This
savings in weight allows buildings to be constructed with less structural steel. The air trapped in the scoria
makes the lightweight concrete a better insulator. Buildings constructed with this lightweight concrete can
have lower heating and cooling costs.

Crushed scoria is used as roofing granules, ground cover in landscape projects, and as a substrate in
hydroponic gardening. Many dealers offer customers the option of choosing between black, brown, or red
material. Scoria is also used as rip-rap, drainage stone, and low-quality road metal. Small amounts of scoria
are used as sauna rock and as a heat sink in barbecue grills.

Scoria Substitutes
Where scoria is not available, a lightweight aggregate can be produced by heating shale in a rotating kiln under
controlled conditions. With the proper type of shale, the material will have the properties, appearance, and
vesicles of scoria. It is sold under the name "expanded aggregate," "expanded clay," or "grow rocks" and used
for the same purposes as crushed scoria.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Fire Opal
A translucent to transparent opal with a wonderful fire-like background color of yellow, orange, or red.

Fire Opal: These three stones show the color range of "fire opal," a name given to specimens of translucent to transparent
common opal with a wonderful fiery background hue that is present throughout the stone. The orange and yellow stones have a
sleepy translucence, while the red stone is almost opaque.

What is Fire Opal?

"Fire Opal" is a term used for colorful, transparent to translucent opal with a background color that is a fire-
like hue of yellow to orange to red. It might or might not exhibit "play-of-color" (the typical flashes of spectral
colors that can be seen when a precious opal is turned under a source of light). Most fire opal does not have
play-of-color. The defining characteristic of fire opal is the fiery hue of yellow, orange or red that serves as a
uniform background color throughout the stone. These colors are thought to be caused by the presence of
small amounts of iron in the opal.

The value of a fire opal is based upon the desirability and uniformity of its color, with yellow being on the
low end of value and red being on the high end. Transparent stones are preferred over translucent stones. The
best fire opal typically sells for prices that are much lower than the best precious opal; however, fire opal
specimens with exceptional color will sell for higher prices than some specimens of precious opal with less
impressive play-of-color.
Oregon Fire Opal: The orange stone shown here is a faceted fire opal cut from material mined in Oregon. It is 9 x 7 millimeters
in size and weighs about 1.2 carats.

"The defining characteristic of fire opal is the fiery hue of yellow, orange, or red that serves as
a uniform background color throughout the stone."

How are Fire Opals Cut?

Fire opals are cut in a variety of ways. Some are cut as faceted stones, others are cut as cabochons. The cutter
decides how he/she thinks the stone will be most attractive. There is no rule for cutting fire opal.

Transparent fire opals are often faceted so that they can be illuminated by incident light. If they have a
spectacular play-of-color, they might be cut into a cabochon like most precious opal. If the play of color is
minor, it might be cut into a faceted stone with a little surprise of flash.

Translucent stones are often cut into cabochons, but it is not unusual to see a translucent to nearly opaque fire
opal with an attractive color cut into a pretty faceted stone. The three stones in the photo at the top are
wonderful examples of translucent stones that have been faceted.

Red fire opal: Red is the most desirable color of fire opal, with transparent specimens being more desirable than translucent. This
is an 8 x 10 millimeter oval cut from material mined in Mexico. It weighs about 1.95 carats. Many people call a red fire opal like
this one a "cherry opal" because of its color.

Durability of Fire Opal

Fire opal has a Mohs hardness of 5.5 to 6, which is soft enough that it can be scratched by many objects that
it might encounter if set into a ring without a setting especially designed to protect it. Fire opal also has a low
tenacity, which means that it can easily be chipped or broken. So, fire opal is best used in jewelry such as
earrings, pins, and pendants that usually are not subjected to rough wear.

Public Confusion with the Term "Fire Opal"

There is some public confusion with the material known as "fire opal" and the gemstone phenomena known
as "fire" and "play-of-color." What do the terms "fire" and "play-of-color" mean?
"Fire"

"Fire" is a name used for flashes of spectral colors that are produced by the dispersion of light into its
component colors as it passes through a transparent material. Most people are familiar with how a prism splits
white light into a spectrum of its component colors. That phenomenon is known as "dispersion." Diamonds
are famous for their colorful sparkle of light known as "fire" which is also caused by dispersion. Fire opal
does not exhibit dispersion, thus it does not have "fire" like a diamond.

Precious fire opal: This is a faceted transparent opal with a light orange body color and a display of greenish-purple play-of-
color. Because of its play-of-color and its orange body color, it could be called a "precious fire opal." It is a 12 x 8 millimeter oval
that weighs about 2.2 carats, cut from material mined in Ethiopia.

"Play-of-Color"

"Play-of-Color" is a name used for the flashes of spectral colors that are produced by "precious opal." Those
colors are produced when light is scattered by an array of microscopic silica spheres that are stacked to make
up the color-producing parts of a precious opal. The technical name of this light scattering is "diffraction."

This same type of color is produced when droplets of water in Earth's atmosphere interact with sunlight to
produce a rainbow. The rainbow colors of iris agate are also produced by diffraction.

Fire opal will occasionally exhibit "play-of-color." When it does, some people call it "precious fire opal." A
photo of "precious fire opal" can be seen on this page.
Nevada Fire Opal: The stone shown here is a faceted yellow fire opal cut from material mined in Nevada. It is a 9 millimeter
round that weighs about 1.7 carats.

What is "Fire Opal"?

Fire opal is the name used for a colorful material with a limited range of background colors. It is not a name
given because of a phenomenon. It is an opal with an attractive background color that ranges from yellow to
orange to red. The attractive background color is what defines the stone.

Fire Opal Localities

Mexico has been the world's primary source of fire opal for decades. The Mexican deposits produce significant
amounts of transparent to translucent, bright orange to orange-red material. Some of the transparent material
is faceted, mounted in commercial jewelry, and described as "tangerine opal" because of its color. Smaller
amounts of fire opal are produced in Australia, Brazil, Ethiopia, Honduras, Guatemala, Nevada, and Oregon.
 Tuff
An igneous rock that forms from the debris ejected by an explosive volcanic eruption.

Fish Canyon Tuff: Panoramic view of an outcrop of the Fish Canyon Tuff. The volcanic eruption(s) that produced this
tuff occurred about 28 million years ago at the La Garita Caldera in southwestern Colorado. The original estimated
volume of the Fish Canyon Tuff is about 1200 cubic miles (5000 cubic kilometers). It was one of the largest explosive
volcanic eruptions known to have occurred. Enlarge. Image by USGS. [1]

Tuff: An igneous rock that contains the debris from an explosive volcanic eruption. It often contains fragments of bedrock, tephra,
and volcanic ash. The specimen shown here is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Beryllium tuff: A specimen of beryllium tuff from the Spor Mountain area of Utah. It is a porous tuff with abundant fragments of
carbonate rock. Beryllium has been mined at Spor Mountain from stratified tuffs. Image by USGS. [3]

What is Tuff?
Tuff is an igneous rock that forms from the products of an explosive volcanic eruption. In these eruptions,
the volcano blasts rock, ash, magma and other materials from its vent. This ejecta travels through the air and
falls back to Earth in the area surrounding the volcano. If the ejected material is compacted and cemented into
a rock, that rock will be called "tuff."

Tuff is usually thickest near the volcanic vent and decreases in thickness with distance from the volcano.
Instead of being a "layer," a tuff is usually a "lens-shaped" deposit. Tuff can also be thickest on the downwind
side of the vent or on the side of the vent where the blast was directed.

Some tuff deposits are hundreds of meters thick and have a total eruptive volume of many cubic miles. That
enormous thickness can be from a single eruptive blast or, more commonly, from successive surges of a single
eruption - or eruptions that were separated by long periods of time.

Tuff ring: Drawing of a tuff ring surrounding a shallow, water-filled crater. The tuff ring is formed from materials that were
ejected by the volcanic blast and fell back to Earth in the area surrounding the crater. Tuff rings generally have a gentle slope of
between two and ten degrees.
Tuff Rings
A "tuff ring" is a small volcanic cone of low relief that surrounds a shallow crater. These craters, known
as maars, are formed by explosions caused by hot magma coming in contact with cold groundwater. The
explosion blasts fragments of bedrock, tephra, and ash from the crater. The tuff ring forms as these ejected
materials fall back to Earth. Tuff rings range in size from several hundred meters across to several thousand
meters. They are typically less than a few hundred meters in height and have a very gentle slope of less than
ten degrees.

Tuff: Close-up of a piece of tuff exposed at Hole-in-the-Wall, Mojave National Preserve, California. This specimen clearly
displays the diversity of materials that compose a tuff. Public domain image by Mark A. Wilson, Department of Geology, The
College of Wooster.

Welded Tuff
Sometimes the ejecta is hot enough when it lands that the particles are soft and sticky. These materials "weld"
together upon impact or upon compaction. The rock formed from this hot ejecta is known as a "welded tuff"
- because the ejected particles are welded together. Some deposits might contain welded tuff near the vent and
unwelded tuff at a distance where smaller, cooler particles fell to the ground.

Ettringer tuff: Close-up of a specimen of Ettringer Tuff showing a variety of rock fragments and tephra in a matrix of volcanic
ash. Public domain image by Roll-Stone of Wikimedia.
 Information about Tuff

[1] Geologic Map of the Cochetopa Park and North Pass Calderas, Northeastern San Juan Mountains, Colorado: Peter W. Lipman, United
States Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map 3123, pamphlet 48 pages, 2 map sheets, scale 1:50,000, 2012.

[2] Slides of the Fluorspar, Beryllium, and Uranium Deposits at Spor Mountain, Utah: David A. Lindsey, slide collection posted on the United
States Geological Survey website, last accessed June 2016.

[3] Pre-1980 Tephra-Fall Deposits Erupted from Mount St. Helens, Washington: Donal R. Mullineaux, United States Geological Survey
Professional Paper 1563, last accessed June 2016.

Many Types of Tuff

"Tuff" is a name that is used for a broad range of materials. The only requirement is that the materials are
ejecta produced by a volcanic eruption. Tuff can contain fragments of dust-size particles to boulder-size
particles and be composed of many different types of material.

Mount St. Helens tephra: Photograph of an outcrop of stratified tuff that formed from tephra produced by pre-1980 eruptions at
Mount St. Helens, Washington. This photograph shows several layers of tephra with different textures and different compositions,
each from a different eruptive event. [3]
Many tuff deposits contain fragments of bedrock that are unrelated to volcanic activity. These materials are
involved when the volcanic explosion occurs below the ground. The subsurface explosion crushes the
overlying bedrock and launches it into the air mixed with tephra and volcanic ash produced from the magma
source below.

Different volcanoes are supplied with magma of different compositions. Many tuff deposits form from magma
with a rhyolitic composition, but andesitic, basaltic, and other types of magma might contribute to the tuff.

Tuff also varies by particle size. Near the vent, a tuff might consist mainly of large blocks of material in a
volcanic ash matrix. With distance from the vent, the clasts will be smaller in size. At the edges of the rock
unit, the tuff might be mainly composed of very fine ash.
 Pictures of Metamorphic Rocks
Photos of Common Foliated and Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rock Types

Amphibolite is a non-foliated metamorphic rock that forms through recrystallization under conditions of high viscosity and
directed pressure. It is composed primarily of hornblende(amphibole) and plagioclase, usually with very little quartz. The
specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

What are Metamorphic Rocks?

Metamorphic rocks have been modified by heat, pressure, and chemical processes, usually while buried deep
below Earth's surface. Exposure to these extreme conditions has altered the mineralogy, texture, and chemical
composition of the rocks.

There are two basic types of metamorphic rocks. Foliated metamorphic rocks such
as gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate have a layered or banded appearance that is produced by exposure to heat
and directed pressure.

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks such as hornfels, marble, quartzite, and novaculite do not have a layered
or banded appearance.
Hornfels is a fine-grained nonfoliated metamorphic rock with no specific composition. It is produced by contact metamorphism.
Hornfels is a rock that was "baked" while near a heat source such as a magma chamber, sill, or dike. The specimen shown above is
about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Gneiss is a foliated metamorphic rock that has a banded appearance and is made up of granular mineral grains. It typically
contains abundant quartz or feldspar minerals. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Marble is a non-foliated metamorphic rock that is produced from the metamorphism of limestone or dolostone. It is composed
primarily of calcium carbonate. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Phyllite is a foliated metamorphic rock that is made up mainly of very fine-grained mica. The surface of phyllite is typically
lustrous and sometimes wrinkled. It is intermediate in grade between slate and schist. The specimen shown above is about two
inches (five centimeters) across.
Novaculite is a dense, hard, fine-grained, siliceous rock that breaks with a conchoidal fracture. It forms from sediments deposited
in marine environments where organisms such as diatoms (single-celled algae that secrete a hard shell composed of silicon
dioxide) are abundant in the water. The specimen shown above is about three inches across.

Lapis Lazuli, the famous blue gem material, is actually a metamorphic rock. Most people are surprised to learn that, so we added
it to this photo collection as a surprise. Blue rocks are rare, and we bet that it captured your eye. The round objects in the photo are
lapis lazuli beads about 9/16 inch (14 millimeters) in diameter. Image © iStockPhoto / RobertKacpura.
Quartzite is a non-foliated metamorphic rock that is produced by the metamorphism of sandstone. It is composed primarily
of quartz. The specimen above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Slate is a foliated metamorphic rock that is formed through the metamorphism of shale. It is a low-grade metamorphic rock that
splits into thin pieces. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Schist is a metamorphic rock with well-developed foliation. It often contains significant amounts of mica which allow the rock to
split into thin pieces. It is a rock of intermediate metamorphic grade between phyllite and gneiss. The specimen shown above is a
"chlorite schist" because it contains a significant amount of chlorite. It is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Soapstone is a metamorphic rock that consists primarily of talc with varying amounts of other minerals such as micas, chlorite,
amphiboles, pyroxenes, and carbonates. It is a soft, dense, heat-resistant rock that has a high specific heat capacity. These
properties make it useful for a wide variety of architectural, practical, and artistic uses.
 Amphibolite
A metamorphic rock composed primarily of amphibole minerals and plagioclase feldspar

Amphibolite: Amphibolite is a coarse-grained metamorphic rock that has amphibole minerals such as the hornblende group as its
primary ingredient. The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

What is Amphibolite ?
Amphibolite is a coarse-grained metamorphic rock that is composed mainly of green, brown, or black
amphibole minerals and plagioclase feldspar. The amphiboles are usually members of the hornblende group.
It can also contain minor amounts of other metamorphic minerals such
as biotite, epidote, garnet, wollastonite, andalusite, staurolite, kyanite,
and sillimanite. Quartz, magnetite, and calcite can also be present in small amounts.

How Does Amphibolite Form?

Amphibolite is a rock of convergent plate boundaries where heat and pressure cause regional metamorphism.
It can be produced through the metamorphism of mafic igneous rocks such as basalt and gabbro, or from
the metamorphism of clay-rich sedimentary rocks such as marl or graywacke. The metamorphism sometimes
flattens and elongates the mineral grains to produce a schistose texture.
Amphibolite: Some amphibolites are greenish, as determined by the color of the amphibole minerals. This specimen is actually
an igneous rock. Some geologists call an igneous rock composed primarily of amphibole minerals an amphibolite or
"hornblendite." USGS image.

Uses of Amphibolite
Amphibolite has a variety of uses in the construction industry. It is harder than limestone and heavier
than granite. These properties make it desirable for certain uses. Amphibolite is quarried and crushed for use
as an aggregate in highway construction and as a ballast stone in railroad construction. It is also quarried and
cut for use as a dimension stone.

Higher quality stone is quarried, cut, and polished for architectural use. It is used as facing stone on the exterior
of buildings, and used as floor tile and panels indoors. Some of the most attractive pieces are cut for use as
countertops. In these architectural uses, amphibolite is one of the many types of stone sold as "black granite."

Some amphibolite deposits, such as the one at Gore Mountain in the Adirondacks of New York, contain
significant amounts of garnet. If enough garnet is present and of proper quality, the amphibolite can be mined
and the garnet recovered for use as an abrasive.
 Hornfels
A metamorphic rock without foliation.

Hornfels: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

What is Hornfels?
Hornfels is a fine-grained nonfoliated metamorphic rock with no specific composition. It is produced by
contact metamorphism. Hornfels is a rock that was "baked" while near a heat source such as a magma chamber,
sill, or dike.
 Gneiss

Gneiss: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across. It is easy to see the "salt and pepper" banding of this
rock.

What is Gneiss?
Gneiss is a foliated metamorphic rock identified by its bands and lenses of varying composition, while other
bands contain granular minerals with an interlocking texture. Other bands contain platy or elongate minerals
with evidence of preferred orientation. It is this banded appearance and texture - rather than composition - that
define a gneiss.

Gneissic Granodiorite: An outcrop of gneissic granodiorite in the Zarembo Island area of southeastern Alaska.
How Does Gneiss Form?
Gneiss usually forms by regional metamorphism at convergent plate boundaries. It is a high-grade
metamorphic rock in which mineral grains recrystallized under intense heat and pressure. This alteration
increased the size of the mineral grains and segregated them into bands, a transformation which made the rock
and its minerals more stable in their metamorphic environment.

Gneiss can form in several different ways. The most common path begins with shale, which is a sedimentary
rock. Regional metamorphism can transform shale into slate, then phyllite, then schist, and finally into
gneiss. During this transformation, clay particles in shale transform into micas and increase in size. Finally,
the platy micas begin to recrystallize into granular minerals. The appearance of granular minerals is what
marks the transition into gneiss.

Intense heat and pressure can also metamorphose granite into a banded rock known as "granite gneiss." This
transformation is usually more of a structural change than a mineralogical transformation. Granite gneiss can
also form through the metamorphism of sedimentary rocks. The end product of their metamorphism is a
banded rock with a mineralogical composition like granite.

Folded Gneiss: A photograph of polished gneiss from the stock of a countertop vendor. The view shown in the photo is about 12
inches across. Click to enlarge.

Composition and Texture of Gneiss

Although gneiss is not defined by its composition, most specimens have bands of feldspar and quartz grains
in an interlocking texture. These bands are usually light in color and alternate with bands of darker-colored
minerals with platy or elongate habits. The dark minerals sometimes exhibit an orientation determined by the
pressures of metamorphism.

Some specimens of gneiss contain distinctive minerals characteristic of the metamorphic environment. These
minerals might include biotite, cordierite, sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, andalusite, and garnet. Gneiss
is sometimes named for these minerals, examples of which include "garnet gneiss" and "biotite gneiss."

Garnet Gneiss: A coarse-grained gneiss composed mainly of hornblende (black), plagioclase (white), and garnet (red) from
Norway. Public domain photo by Woudloper.

Garnet Gneiss: A cabochon cut and polished from garnet gneiss. A cabochon cut from this type of material is rarely seen, but it
would be an interesting gem for a geologist. The stone is approximately 38 x 27 millimeters in size.
Garnet Gneiss: A photograph of polished garnet gneiss from the stock of a countertop vendor. The view shown in the photo is
about 12 inches across. Click to enlarge.

Uses of Gneiss
Gneiss usually does not split along planes of weakness like most other metamorphic rocks. This allows
contractors to use gneiss as a crushed stone in road construction, building site preparation, and landscaping
projects.

Some gneiss is durable enough to perform well as a dimension stone. These rocks are sawn or sheared into
blocks and slabs used in a variety of building, paving, and curbing projects.

Some gneiss accepts a bright polish and is attractive enough for use as an architectural stone. Beautiful floor
tiles, facing stone, stair treads, window sills, countertops, and cemetery monuments are often made from
polished gneiss.
Corundum Gneiss: This is a specimen of corundum gneiss from Gallatin Valley, Montana. This specimen is about four inches
across and has a round blue sapphire crystal on the left side.

Commercial Terminology
Don't be surprised if you see gneiss labeled as "granite" at a cabinet shop or monument company. In the
dimension stone trade, any rock with visible, interlocking grains of feldspar is considered to be "granite" in
that industry. Seeing gneiss, gabbro, labradorite, diorite, and other types of rock marketed as "granite"
disturbs many geologists. However, this long-time practice of the dimension stone trade simplifies discussions
with customers since not everyone knows the technical names of unusual igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Gneiss in the Classroom

Small rock and mineral specimens about one inch in size are usually adequate for student examination and
identification. However, many rock units, identified as gneiss in the field, have bands that are thicker than one
inch. If samples of these rock units are broken into one-inch pieces, many of them will be too small to exhibit
the banding features of gneiss. This will confuse many students and cause others to incorrectly identify the
rock.

Teachers can avoid these problems by collecting specimens that clearly display a banded structure. Teachers
who purchase specimens must examine them carefully before they are presented to students.

After students have learned to identify gneiss and many other rock types, presenting specimens of gneiss that
do not exhibit banding can be a challenging way to have students: A) consider possibilities that are not
obvious, and, B) realize that a single rock specimen may not adequately represent a rock unit.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Marble
A non-foliated metamorphic rock that forms when limestone is subjected to heat and pressure.

Pink Marble: A piece of pink marble about four inches (ten centimeters) across. The pink color is most likely derived from iron.
Image by NASA.

What is Marble?
Marble is a metamorphic rock that forms when limestoneis subjected to the heat and pressure of
metamorphism. It is composed primarily of the mineral calcite (CaCO3) and usually contains other minerals,
such as clay minerals, micas, quartz, pyrite, iron oxides, and graphite. Under the conditions of
metamorphism, the calcite in the limestone recrystallizes to form a rock that is a mass of interlocking calcite
crystals. A related rock, dolomitic marble, is produced when dolostone is subjected to heat and pressure.

Photo Gallery: The Many Uses of Marble

 From monuments to crushed stone to cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, very few rocks have as many
uses as marble.

Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal is one of the most beautiful and famous buildings in the world. It was built between 1632 and 1653 as a
mausoleum for Mumtaz Mahal, the third wife of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. Marble was used extensively throughout the
building, including the marble domes and towers. Photo © iStockphoto / standby.

The Properties of Marble and Its Uses

Very few rocks have as many uses as marble. It is used for its beauty in architecture and sculpture. It is used
for its chemical properties in pharmaceuticals and agriculture. It is used for its optical properties in cosmetics,
paint, and paper. It is used because it is an abundant, low-cost commodity in crushed stone prepared for
construction projects. Marble has many unique properties that make it a valuable rock in many different
industries. The photographs and captions below illustrate just a few of its varied uses.

Many Colors of Marble

Marble occurs in a very wide range of colors. Marble formed from the purest limestones is white in color. Iron oxide impurities in
the limestone will produce a yellow, orange, pink or red color. Clay minerals can produce gray colors that often occur in bands
after the compositional stratification of the original limestone. Abundant bituminous materials can produce dark gray to black
marble. Marble that contains serpentineoften has a green color. Photo © iStockphoto / Tina Lorien.

Supreme Court Building

The Supreme Court building was constructed between 1932 and 1935 using several different types of marble. Vermont marble
was used extensively in the exterior. The inner courtyards were made using bright white marble from Georgia, and the interior
corridors and entrance halls are made from creamy white marble from Alabama. Photo © iStockphoto / GBlakeley.
 Washington Monument

The Washington Monument was built of marble between 1848 and 1884. Initial work on the structure was done using marble
from a quarry located near Texas, Maryland. The project was then delayed for nearly 30 years due to a lack of funds. When
construction resumed in 1876, similar stone from the Texas quarry was not available, so stone from the Sheffield quarry near
Sheffield, Massachusetts was used. The Sheffield quarry had problems delivering stone in a timely manner, and in 1880 their
contract was cancelled. A new contract then went to the Cockeysville Quarry near Baltimore, Maryland which supplied a slightly
darker dolomitic marble. These different stone sources can be seen in the monument as labeled in the photo above. Photo and
annotation by the United States Geological Survey.
 Marble Stair Treads, Risers, Floor Tile

Marble is a material used in prestige architecture and interior design. This photo shows stair treads and risers made from
brecciated marble and floor tiles made from marble in a variety of colors. Photo © iStockphoto / Nikada.
 Bust of Artemis

Marble is a translucent stone that allows light to enter and produce a soft "glow." It also has the ability to take a very high polish.
These properties make it a beautiful stone for producing sculptures. It is soft, making it easy to sculpt, and when it is fine-grained
it has uniform properties in all directions. Some of the world's most famous sculptures have been produced from marble. This bust
of the Greek goddess, Artemis, is a copy of an original Greek work. Photo © iStockphoto / Diane Diederich.

Lincoln Memorial

The Lincoln Memorial was built between 1914 and 1922. Many different stones were used in the memorial. The terrace walls and
lower steps were made of granite from Massachusetts. The upper steps, columns, and outside facade were made using marble
from Colorado. The interior walls are Indiana limestone (called "Indiana Marble" by many architects). The floor was made using
pink marble from Tennessee, and the statue of Lincoln is made from a very bright white marble from Georgia. Each type of stone
was selected for its properties along with an effort to utilize stone from many parts of the United States. Photo © iStockphoto /
ntn.

Cemetery Markers

Marble is often used as a cemetery marker. It is a very attractive stone. It is economical because it is relatively easy to cut and
engrave. In comparison to rocks like granite, it is not as resistant to acid precipitation and tends to lose edges and detail over time.
Photo © iStockphoto / JPecha.

Whiting

Marble of exceptionally white color is sometimes used to produce a product known as "whiting," a white powder that is used as a
pigment, brightener, and filler in paint, paper and other products. Photo © iStockphoto / nsilcock.
 Cutting Marble

A large-diameter diamond saw cuts a block of marble into dimension stone at a factory. Slabs and blocks of marble are used for
stair treads, floor tiles, facing stone, cemetery stones, window sills, ashlars, sculptures, benches, paving stones and many other
uses. Photo © iStockphoto / maskpro.

Agricultural Lime

Some marble is heated in a kiln to drive off the carbon dioxide that is contained within the calcite. What remains after kiln
treatment is the calcium oxide - known as "lime." Lime is used as an agricultural soil treatment to reduce the acidity in soil. When
applied in combination with fertilizer, it can increase the yield of a soil. This test plot shows a portion of a corn field where no
lime and no fertilizer were applied. The plants in that plot are struggling to survive. Photo by the Agricultural Research Service,
United States Department of Agriculture.
 Marble Dimension Stone

Marble cut into blocks and slabs of specific size is known as "dimension stone." Photo © iStockphoto / Thomas Lehmann.

Marble Quarry

Equipment working in a marble quarry near Madrid, Spain. In this quarry the marble is being sawn into blocks for the production
of dimension stone. Photo © iStockphoto / vallefrias.
 Acid Neutralization

Marble is composed of calcium carbonate. That makes it very effective at neutralizing acids. Highest purity marble is often
crushed to a powder, processed to remove impurities and then used to make products such as Tums and Alka-Seltzer that are used
for the treatment of acid indigestion. Crushed marble is also used to reduce the acid content of soils, the acid levels of streams, and
as an acid-neutralizing material in the chemical industry. Photo © iStockphoto / NoDerog.

Crushed Stone - Construction Aggregate

Some marble is mined, crushed, sized and sold as a construction aggregate. It can be used as fill, subbase, landscape stone and
other uses where soundness and abrasion resistance are not critical. Because marble is composed of calcite, it cleaves more
readily than limestone and does not have the strength, soundness, and abrasion resistance of granite and other more competent
rocks. Photo © iStockphoto / AdShooter.
 Soft Abrasive

Marble is composed of calcite, a mineral with a Mohs hardness of three. It is softer than most bathroom and kitchen surfaces and
can be used on them as a scrubbing agent without producing scratches or other damage.

Calcium Feed Supplement

Dairy cows and chickens need a steady supply of calcium to produce milk and eggs. Farms that raise these animals often use
animal feeds that have been supplemented with additional calcium. Powdered limestone and marble are used to produce these
supplements because they are softer than the animal's teeth, soluble, and rich in calcium. Photo © iStockphoto / NiDerLander.
Ruby in Marble: Marble is often the host rock for corundum, spinel, and other gem minerals. This specimen is a piece of white
marble with a large red ruby crystal from Afghanistan. Specimen is about 1 1/4 inches across (about 3 centimeters). Specimen and
photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

How Does Marble Form?

Most marble forms at convergent plate boundaries where large areas of Earth's crust are exposed to regional
metamorphism. Some marble also forms by contact metamorphism when a hot magma body heats adjacent
limestone or dolostone.

Before metamorphism, the calcite in the limestone is often in the form of lithified fossil material and biological
debris. During metamorphism, this calcite recrystallizes and the texture of the rock changes. In the early stages
of the limestone-to-marble transformation, the calcite crystals in the rock are very small. In a freshly-broken
hand specimen, they might only be recognized as a sugary sparkle of light reflecting from their tiny cleavage
faces when the rock is played in the light.

As metamorphism progresses, the crystals grow larger and become easily recognizable as interlocking crystals
of calcite. Recrystallization obscures the original fossils and sedimentary structures of the limestone. It also
occurs without forming foliation, which normally is found in rocks that are altered by the directed pressure of
a convergent plate boundary.

Recrystallization is what marks the separation between limestone and marble. Marble that has been exposed
to low levels of metamorphism will have very small calcite crystals. The crystals become larger as the level
of metamorphism progresses. Clay minerals within the marble will alter to micas and more complex silicate
structures as the level of metamorphism increases.
Marble Dimension Stone: Marble cut into blocks and slabs of specific size is known as "dimension stone." Photo © iStockphoto
/ Thomas Lehmann.

Physical Properties and Uses of Marble

Marble occurs in large deposits that can be hundreds of feet thick and geographically extensive. This allows
it to be economically mined on a large scale, with some mines and quarries producing millions of tons per
year.

Most marble is made into either crushed stone or dimension stone. Crushed stone is used as an aggregate in
highways, railroad beds, building foundations, and other types of construction. Dimension stone is produced
by sawing marble into pieces of specific dimensions. These are used in monuments, buildings, sculptures,
paving and other projects. We have an article about "the uses of marble" that includes photos and descriptions
of marble in many types of uses.

Gray Marble: This specimen has calcite cleavage faces up to several millimeters in size that are reflecting light. The specimen is
about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Calcium carbonate medicines: Marble is composed of calcium carbonate. That makes it very effective at neutralizing acids.
Highest purity marble is often crushed to a powder, processed to remove impurities, and then used to make products such as Tums
and Alka-Seltzer that are used for the treatment of acid indigestion. Crushed marble is also used to reduce the acid content of soils,
the acid levels of streams, and as an acid-neutralizing material in the chemical industry. Photo © iStockphoto / NoDerog.

Color: Marble is usually a light-colored rock. When it is formed from a limestone with very few impurities,
it will be white in color. Marble that contains impurities such as clay minerals, iron oxides, or bituminous
material can be bluish, gray, pink, yellow, or black in color.

Marble of extremely high purity with a bright white color is very useful. It is often mined, crushed to a powder,
and then processed to remove as many impurities as possible. The resulting product is called "whiting." This
powder is used as a coloring agent and filler in paint, whitewash, putty, plastic, grout, cosmetics, paper, and
other manufactured products.

Acid Reaction: Being composed of calcium carbonate, marble will react in contact with many acids,
neutralizing the acid. It is one of the most effective acid neutralization materials. Marble is often crushed and
used for acid neutralization in streams, lakes, and soils.

It is used for acid neutralization in the chemical industry as well. Pharmaceutical antacid medicines such as
"Tums" contain calcium carbonate, which is sometimes made from powdered marble. These medicines are
helpful to people who suffer from acid reflux or acid indigestion. Powdered marble is used as an inert filler in
other pills.

Hardness: Being composed of calcite, marble has a hardness of three on the Mohs hardness scale. As a
result, marble is easy to carve, and that makes it useful for producing sculptures and ornamental objects. The
translucence of marble makes it especially attractive for many types of sculptures.

The low hardness and solubility of marble allows it to be used as a calcium additive in animal feeds. Calcium
additives are especially important for dairy cows and egg-producing chickens. It is also used as a low-hardness
abrasive for scrubbing bathroom and kitchen fixtures.

Ability to Accept a Polish: After being sanded with progressively finer abrasives, marble can be polished
to a high luster. This allows attractive pieces of marble to be cut, polished, and used as floor tiles, architectural
panels, facing stone, window sills, stair treads, columns, and many other pieces of decorative stone.
Another Definition of Marble
The name "marble" is used in a different way in the dimension stone trade. Any crystalline carbonate rock
that has an ability to accept a polish is called "marble." The name is sometimes used for other soft rocks such
as travertine, verd antique, serpentine, and some limestones.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Phyllite
What is Phyllite?

Phyllite: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters)

across.

Phyllite is a foliate metamorphic rock that is made up mainly of very fine-grained mica. The surface of phyllite is typically
lustrous and sometimes wrinkled. It is intermediate in grade between slate and schist.
 Novaculite
Native Americans and European settlers valued this rock for different reasons

Novaculite: Specimen of novaculite showing its fine-grained texture and conchoidal fracture. Specimen is approximately 3 inches
across.

What is Novaculite?
Novaculite is a dense, hard, fine-grained siliceous rock that breaks with a conchoidal fracture. It forms from
sediments deposited in marine environments where organisms such as diatoms (single-celled algae that secrete
a hard shell composed of silicon dioxide) are abundant in the water. When the diatoms die, their silicon dioxide
shells fall to the seafloor. In some areas these diatom shells are the primary ingredient of the seafloor
sediments.

During diagenesis (the transformation from sediment to rock) the silicon dioxide from the diatom shells is
transformed into chalcedony (a microcrystalline silicon dioxide). At this point the rock is chert. The chert is
transformed into novaculite as further diagenesis and low-grade metamorphism recrystallize the chalcedony
into microcrystalline quartz grains.

The two primary differences between chert and novaculite are: 1) chert is composed mainly of chalcedony
while novaculite is composed mainly of microcrystalline quartz grains; and, 2) chert is a sedimentary rock,
while novaculite is a chert that has experienced a higher level of diagenetic alteration and low-grade
metamorphism.
Arkansas novaculite sharpening stones: Sharpening stones made of Arkansas novaculite. The white stone has a coarse texture
for initial sharpening, the mottled stone has an intermediate texture for resharpening, and the black stone has a very fine texture
for honing an ultrasharp edge. The stones are used with a drop of oil that lubricates the sharpening strokes and keeps metal from
loading the pore spaces in the stone. Stones are about two inches wide, six inches in length and 1/2 inch thick.

Novaculite Localities
The most famous locality for novaculite is where the Arkansas Novaculite Formation outcrops in the Ouachita
Mountains of central Arkansas and southeastern Oklahoma. It is a Devonian to Mississippian-age rock unit
that ranges from about 60 feet thick in the northern Ouachitas to about 900 feet thick in the southern Ouachitas.

Outcrops of the Arkansas Novaculite Formation are prominent landscape features of the Ouachita Mountains.
Compared to most other types of rock, novaculite is very resistant to chemical and physical weathering. This
makes it a ridge-former and a cliff-former in the areas where it outcrops. Peaks, cliffs, and ridges formed by
novaculite are prominent landscape features of the Ouachitas.

Novaculite ridges: Ridges of the Caballos Novaculite in the Lightning Hills of Brewster County, Texas. The Lightning overthrust
crops out in the valley between the ridges. In the subsurface, the Caballos novaculite yields oil and gas from a tripolitic zone near
the top of the rock unit and from fracture porosity in the lower portion of the rock unit. USGS Photo taken in November, 1930 and
included in U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 187.
First Use of Arkansas Novaculite
Native Americans were the first people to mine the Arkansas Novaculite Formation. They noticed its
conchoidal fracture and discovered that it could be knapped - just like flint - into projectile points, scrapers,
and cutting tools. They mined novaculite, used it to manufacture cutting tools and weapons, and traded the
material and products over a broad area. The Quapaw, Osage, Caddo, Tunica, Chickasaw, and Natchez tribes
were especially involved in the mining.

Prehistoric people in other parts of the world have worked novaculite deposits to manufacture weapons and
cutting tools. Novaculite and manufactured products from these areas were transported and traded across great
distances.

Water wells in novaculite: Novaculite is often a highly fractured rock unit that can serve as an adequate aquifer for private water
supplies. United States Geological Survey image.

A World-Famous Sharpening Stone

European settlers in the Ouachita region were the second people to mine the Arkansas Novaculite Formation.
They valued it for a different reason. They found that novaculite could be used to sharpen metal tools and
weapons. They soon began producing sharpening tools and trading them with distant partners.

Arkansas “whetstones,” “oil stones,” and “sharpening stones” became world-famous for their ability to
produce a sharp edge on a metal blade. This created a demand for novaculite that was strong in the 1800s but
declined as people used fewer blades that required resharpening. In the early 1900s, demand declined further
as artificial abrasives and sharpening machines began to replace the sharpening stone. Although sharpening
stones made with synthetic abrasives are cost-competitive with novaculite and perform well, a steady demand
for novaculite still supports several producers of novaculite sharpening tools.

The Arkansas Novaculite Formation yields sharpening-grade stones in a range of textures. “Washita Stone”
has the appearance of unglazed porcelain, a porosity of several percent and serves as a good stone for coarse
sharpening. An extremely fine-grained material known as “Arkansas Stone” has almost no porosity and is an
excellent tool for honing a razor-sharp blade. These stones are broken from the quarry with black-powder
blasting, sawn to shape with a diamond saw, and then lapped to form a surface that is perfectly flat and smooth.
 Physical Properties of Novaculite
Usually ranges from white, through gray, to black. Other colors occur when the stone has impurities - brown,
Color
red, pink, bluish.

Streak Colorless (harder than the streak plate)

Luster Usually dull to earthy when porous. Specimens with very little porosity can have a waxy luster.

Diaphaneity Translucent on thin edges to opaque.

Cleavage None - typically breaks with a conchoidal fracture.

Mohs Hardness 7

Specific Gravity 2.5 - 2.7

Distinguishing
Conchoidal fracture, glassy luster, hardness.
Characteristics

Silicon dioxide (SiO2). Some specimens contain up to 99% silicon dioxide. Some specimens have a high carbonate
Chemical Composition
content of up to 30%.

Uses Used to make cutting tools, sharpening stones, streak plates, and tripoli. Reservoir rock.

Novaculite Information

[1] Novaculite: H. Pennington, Encyclopedia of Arkansas, website article last accessed June 2016.

[2] Novaculite (Silica Stone): Arkansas Geological Survey, Industrial Minerals of Arkansas, website article last accessed June 2016.

[3] Exploration for the Arkansas Novaculite Reservoir, in the Southern Ouachita Mountains, Arkansas: T.J. Godo, P. Li and M.E. Ratchford,
Search and Discovery Article #10337, July 2011.

Other Uses for Novaculite

AGGREGATE

Novaculite is a very durable rock that resists abrasion and is well suited for use as road base, railroad ballast,
and rip-rap. Although it works especially well, its use in these applications is avoided. The reason: novaculite
is so abrasive on metal that it causes excessive wear on excavating equipment used to mine it, on crushers and
classifiers used to process it, and it wears out the beds of trucks that haul it. Novaculite is also not used as a
concrete aggregate for the same reasons and because it reacts with cement to produce pop-outs (aggregate
grains that separate from the concrete to produce a pit in the pavement surface).

REFRACTORY

Novaculite’s heat-resistant properties make it a good material for making refractory products. It has also been
used in glass manufacturing, with some of it being used in Pyrex products. The abrasive properties of
novaculite make it useful for manufacturing deburring media, files, and grinding media.
TRIPOLI

The upper portion of the Arkansas Novaculite Formation in some areas has a significant carbonate content. In
these areas the novaculite weathers to yield a granular quartz residue with a very high silica content and a very
fine grain size. This material is mined and processed into a product known as tripoli. Most of the tripoli used
in the United States today is a filler or extender in plastics, rubber, paint, caulking compounds, and other
products. Tripoli is added to soaps and scouring powders to serve as an abrasive. It is also used as an abrasive
in metal finishing, woodworking, lapidary, and auto painting shops.

RESERVOIR ROCK

Novaculite sometimes serves as a reservoir for oil and natural gas. Several oil and gas fields in the Ouachita
overthrust belt of Oklahoma and Texas produce from the Caballos Novaculite. Tripolitic chert zones near the
top of the rock unit can have significant porosity, and the highly fractured novaculite is another form of
porosity. Areas underlain by fractured novaculite are also preferred drilling sites when drilling for
groundwater.

GOLD TESTING

Small blocks of black novaculite are also used in the "acid test" for determining the gold content of jewelry.
In this, the jeweler rubs the suspected gold item across a fine-grained block of black novaculite to produce a
tiny streak of metal. A drop of aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid) of known
concentration is placed on the streak. If the streak disappears, it was dissolved by the aqua regia. Aqua regia
solutions of different concentration will dissolve different karat weights of gold. Standard aqua regia solutions
have been developed to identify gold of 10k, 12k, 14k, 18k, 20k, and 22k purity.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Lapis Lazuli
A metamorphic rock, gem material, and mineral pigment that obtains its blue color from the mineral lazurite.

Lapis Lazuli Gemstones: As a general rule, solid blue lapis or solid blue with a few grains of gold pyrite are the most desirable
colors. In the photo above the bottom two cabochons approach that ideal. The large cabochon on the top right has a few thin veins
of calcite and some calcite mottling. This stone is attractive and some people might prefer it, but the calcite reduces its desirability
for most people. The top left cabochon has large patches of calcite that are intergrown with blue lazurite to yield a faded denim
color. It also contains many visible grains of pyrite. For most people, it would be the least desirable stone in the photo; however,
some people will enjoy it. Desirability in lapis varies from stone to stone and from person to person.

What is Lapis Lazuli?

Lapis lazuli, also known simply as "lapis," is a blue metamorphic rock that has been used by people as
a gemstone, sculpting material, and ornamental material for thousands of years.

Unlike most other gem materials, lapis lazuli is not a mineral. Instead, it is a rock composed of multiple
minerals. The blue color of lapis lazuli is mainly derived from the presence of lazurite, a blue silicate mineral
of the sodalite group with a chemical composition of (Na,Ca)8(AlSiO4)6(S,Cl,SO4,OH)2.
Lapis Lazuli - The Rock: This photo shows a specimen of marble in which small patches of lazurite and abundant crystals of
pyrite have formed. This is a beautiful rock specimen, but its usefulness as a rough for cutting high-quality lapis lazuli cabochons
or beads is limited because the amount of lazurite present at any location within the rock is lower than optimal. However, this type
of rock can be dyed to look like reasonable quality lapis. This image © iStockphoto / Epitavi.

Geologic Occurrence of Lapis Lazuli

Lapis lazuli forms near igneous intrusions where limestoneor marble has been altered by contact
metamorphism or hydrothermal metamorphism. In these rocks, lazurite replaces portions of the host rock and
often preferentially develops within certain bands or layers.

Afghanistan is the world's leading source of lapis lazuli. Some parts of the country have been actively mined
for thousands of years. Other countries that produce notable amounts of lapis lazuli include Chile, Russia,
Canada, Argentina, and Pakistan. In the United States small amounts of lapis lazuli have been produced in
California, Colorado, and Arizona.

Physical Properties of Lapis Lazuli

A metamorphic rock that contains enough of the mineral lazurite to impart a distinct blue color. It may also contain
Classification
significant amounts of calcite, pyrite, and minor amounts of other minerals.

Color Blue. Often with white calcite veining or mottling, and gold grains of pyrite.

Streak Blue.

Luster Dull, but polishes to a bright luster.

Diaphaneity Semi-translucent to opaque.

Cleavage None, though it may split easily along foliation or calcite veins and layers.

Mohs Hardness Varies between the 3 of calcite and the 5 to 5.5 of lazurite. Not well suited for use as a ring stone or in bracelets.

Specific Gravity 2.7 to 2.9 or more depending upon the amount of pyrite

Diagnostic
Blue color, association with pyrite, and hardness.
Properties

Uses Cabochons, beads, carvings, spheres, inlay, and pigments.

Banded Lapis: A piece of rough lapis lazuli showing distinct calcite banding and pyrite on a fracture face. Image © iStockphoto /
J-Palys.

Composition and Properties of Lapis

In addition to lazurite, specimens of lapis lazuli usually contain calcite and pyrite. Sodalite,
hauyne, wollastonite, afghanite, mica, dolomite, diopside, and a diversity of other minerals might also be
present. To be called "lapis lazuli," a rock must have a distinctly blue color and contain at least 25% blue
lazurite.

Calcite is often the second most abundant mineral present in lapis lazuli. Its presence can be very obvious,
appearing as white layers, fractures, or mottling. It can also be finely intermixed with lazurite to produce a
rock with a faded denim color.

Pyrite usually occurs in lapis lazuli as tiny, randomly spaced grains with a contrasting gold color. When
abundant, the grains can be concentrated or intergrown into distinct layers or patches. It can occasionally occur
as a fracture-filling mineral.

As a rock, lapis lazuli is composed of several minerals, each with its own hardness, cleavage/fracture
characteristics, specific gravity, and color. Hardness ranges from a Mohs 3 for calcite to the 6.5 of pyrite. The
hardness of the material depends upon where you test it.
Ancient lapis pendant: A Mesopotamian pendant made of lapis lazuli, c. 2900 BC. Public domain image by Randy Benzie.

Lapis Lazuli History

Lapis lazuli has been popular through most of recorded human history. Mining for lapis occurred in the
Badakhshan Province of northeastern Afghanistan as early as 7000 BC. The lapis was used to make beads,
small jewelry items and small sculptures. These have been found at Neolithic archaeological sites dating back
to about 3000 BC in Iraq, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.

Lapis lazuli appears in many Egyptian archaeological sites that date back to about 3000 BC. It was used in
many ornamental objects and jewelry. Powdered lapis was used as a cosmetic and a pigment.

In Biblical times the word "sapphire" was often used as a name for lapis lazuli. For that reason, many scholars
believe that at least some of the references to sapphire in the Bible are actually references to lapis lazuli. Some
modern translations of the Bible use the word "lapis" instead of "sapphire."

Lapis lazuli started to be seen in Europe during the Middle Ages. It arrived in the form of jewelry, cutting
rough, and finely ground pigment.

Today lapis lazuli is still used in jewelry and ornamental objects. As a pigment it has been replaced with
modern materials except by artists who strive to use historical methods.

Lazurite Crystal: A crystal of lazurite on marble from Badakhshan Province, Afghanistan. The specimen is about 3.1 x 3.1 x 1.5
centimeters in size. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Lapis Lazuli as a "Conflict Mineral"?

Afghanistan has been one of the world's primary sources of lapis lazuli through most of recorded history. Most
of the country's production comes from thousands of small mines in the Badakhshan Province. This is an area
with a destitute economy, where opium poppy growing and gemstone mining are the only important sources
of outside revenue.

Much of the area where the lapis lazuli mining occurs is occupied by the Taliban and local members of the
Islamic State. They operate illegal mines, attack other mines to capture their production, and demand
protection payments from intimidated mine operators. Revenue from these activities is used to fund war and
terrorism.
Numerous advocacy groups and some members of the Afghanistan government would like to see
Afghanistan's lapis lazuli classified as an international "conflict mineral." This would require the country's
government to track the production and sale of lapis lazuli from mine to market. It would also involve an
international effort to keep illicit lapis lazuli from being traded. The Kimberly Process, used for tracking the
flow of diamonds, would serve as a model for the tracking of illicit lapis lazuli.

Lapis and Turquoise Necklace: Lapis lazuli and turquoise beads in a necklace with sterling silver. Lapis lazuli and turquoise are
a common pairing in beaded jewelry. Image © iStockphoto / Alexander Kuzovlev.

Use as a Gem and Ornamental Material

Lapis lazuli is most widely known for its use as a gemstone. It is a popular material for cutting into cabochons
and beads. It is also used in inlay or mosaic projects and often as a material for small sculptures. These uses
made lapis the most popular opaque blue gemstone.

Although personal preferences vary, the most popular lapis has a uniform, deep blue to violet blue color. Many
people enjoy a few randomly placed grains of gold pyrite or a few fractures or mottles of white calcite.
However, when pyrite or calcite is present in more than minor amounts, the desirability of the material and
the value are significantly lowered. Gray inclusions or mottling also quickly lowers desirability.

Lapis lazuli has some durability problems that limit its suitability for certain uses. Lapis has a Mohs
hardness of about 5, which makes it very soft for use in a ring, cuff links or bracelet - especially if the top of
the stone is raised above the top of the setting or bezel. In these uses, lapis will show signs of abrasion with
continued use.

Lapis is best used in earrings, pins, and pendants, where abrasion is less likely to occur. When stored as
unmounted stones or in jewelry, lapis can be damaged if the pieces are not isolated from one another. Jewelry
is best stored in separate boxes or bags, or in trays with separate compartments for each item. Loose cut stones
should be stored in separate papers, in bags, or in gem containers where the stones will not rub or abrade one
another.
Lapis Lazuli Spheres and Rough: Small blue spheres of lapis lazuli shown together with two pieces of high-quality, solid blue
untreated lapis rough from Afghanistan. The spheres are approximately 14 to 15 millimeters in diameter. Image © iStockphoto /
RobertKacpura.

Treatment of Lapis Lazuli

Lapis lazuli is frequently treated after it is cut and before it is sold as finished gemstones, sculptures, or
ornaments. Lapis lazuli is slightly porous and that allows it to accept and hold dye. Much of the material that
enters the market has been treated with a blue dye to remove the visibility of white calcite. It is then frequently
treated with wax or oil that improve the luster of polished surfaces and seal the dyed calcite.

Ultramarine Pigment: Photo looking down into a small jar of ultramarine pigment made from finely ground and beneficiated
lapis lazuli.

Lapis Lazuli Used as a Pigment

High-quality lapis lazuli has been used as a mineral pigment for over 1,000 years. Bright blue pieces of lapis
are trimmed of impurities and ground to a fine powder; the powder can then be mixed with oil or another
vehicle for use as a paint.
Higher-grade pigments can be produced by washing the powder with mild acid to remove calcite and dolomite
that dilute the blue color. The material is then processed to remove grains of pyrite and other foreign minerals.
This lapis-derived pigment was named "ultramarine blue," a name that has been subsequently used for
hundreds of years.

During the Renaissance and into the 1800s, paintings done with ultramarine blue were considered to be a
luxury because of their high cost. High-quality lapis lazuli was mined in Afghanistan and transported to
Europe to manufacture ultramarine blue. This costly pigment was normally used by only the most
accomplished artists and those who had wealthy clients to support the additional expense.

Ultramarine blue made from lapis lazuli is one of the few natural pigments with a permanent and vivid blue
color, good opacity, and high stability. It has always been very expensive and today can sell for over $1,000
per pound.

Starting in the mid-1800s, artists and chemists began developing synthetic blue pigments for use as
alternatives to ultramarine blue made from lapis lazuli. Some of these pigments also bear the name
"ultramarine." An artist who wants an ultramarine pigment made from lapis lazuli today must be sure that the
pigment is not synthetic and is actually made from lapis lazuli. Synthetic ultramarine pigments have their
advantages. Their blue color is usually deeper and more consistent than traditional ultramarine, and they also
cost far less.

Today, because of cost, very little ultramarine made from lapis lazuli is used, mainly by artists who are striving
to learn historical techniques or achieve results similar to master painters of the past. It is prepared by a few
pigment manufacturers who continue to use lapis lazuli from the historical sources in Afghanistan.

Paintings Done With Ultramarine Blue: Four well-known paintings done using ultramarine pigment. Clockwise from top
right: The Starry Night by Vincent Van Gogh; Girl With a Pearl Earring by Johannes Vermeer; Bacchus and Ariadne by Titian;
and, The Virgin in Prayer by Sassoferrato. All images are in the public domain and were obtained from Wikimedia.org.
Examples of Ultramarine in Paintings
A few master painters (examples of which are provided below) considered the use of ultramarine and other
costly pigments an essential part of producing paintings with optimum color.

Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890) used ultramarine to paint The Starry Night in 1889. The oil on canvas painting
is considered to be one of his best works and is today in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New
York City. It is a widely recognized painting.

Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675) used ultramarine to paint the headscarf of the Girl with a Pearl Earring in
about 1665. The oil on canvas painting has been exhibited at museums throughout the world, and also served
as the inspiration for a novel and a film. It is currently in the collection of the Mauritshuis in The Hague.

Titian (1488-1576) used ultramarine blue to paint the dramatic sky and draperies in his oil on canvas painting
of Bacchus and Ariadne. The painting is now on display at the National Gallery in London.

Many painters have used ultramarine blue to paint the robe of Mary, mother of Jesus. Giovanni Sassoferrato
(1609-1685) produced one of the most vivid examples when he painted The Virgin in Prayer between 1640
and 1650. The oil on canvas painting is on exhibit at the National Gallery in London.
 Quartzite
The metamorphic rock composed almost entirely of quartz.

Quartzite: A specimen of quartzite showing its conchoidal fracture and granular texture. The specimen shown is about two inches
(five centimeters) across.

What is Quartzite?
Quartzite is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock composed almost entirely of quartz. It forms when a quartz-
rich sandstone is altered by the heat, pressure, and chemical activity of metamorphism. These conditions
recrystallize the sand grains and the silica cement that binds them together. The result is a network of
interlocking quartz grains of incredible strength.

The interlocking crystalline structure of quartzite makes it a hard, tough, durable rock. It is so tough that it
breaks through the quartz grains rather than breaking along the boundaries between them. This is a
characteristic that separates true quartzite from sandstone.
Quartzite Under a Microscope: A specimen of the Bo Quartzite collected near South Troms, Norway, observed through a
microscope in thin-section under cross-polarized light. The quartz grains in this view range in color from white to gray to black,
and they form a tight interlocking network. Photograph by Jackdann88, used here under a Creative Commons license.

Physical Properties of Quartzite

Quartzite is usually white to gray in color. Some rock units that are stained by iron can be pink, red, or purple.
Other impurities can cause quartzite to be yellow, orange, brown, green, or blue.

The quartz content of quartzite gives it a hardness of about seven on the Mohs Hardness Scale. Its extreme
toughness made it a favorite rock for use as an impact tool by early people. Its conchoidal fracture allowed it
to be shaped into large cutting tools such as ax heads and scrapers. Its coarse texture made it less suitable for
producing tools with fine edges such as knife blades and projectile points.

Quartzite scree: A steep slope covered with an unstable blanket of quartzite scree. Scree is a name used for resistant pieces of
broken rock that cover a talus slope. This photo was taken near Begunje na Gorenjskem, Slovenia. A Creative Commons image
by Pinky sl.

Where Does Quartzite Form?

Most quartzite forms during mountain-building events at convergent plate boundaries. There, sandstone is
metamorphosed into quartzite while deeply buried. Compressional forces at the plate boundary fold and fault
the rocks and thicken the crust into a mountain range. Quartzite is an important rock type in folded mountain
ranges throughout the world.
Ridge-Forming Quartzite: An outcrop of the Chimney Rock Formation in Catoctin Mountain Park near Thurmont, Maryland.
Catoctin Mountain is part of the Blue Ridge Mountains. The Chimney Rock Formation in this area caps many of the ridges,
drapes the flanks of the mountains as scree, and is made up mostly of quartzite. Photo by Alex Demas, United States Geological
Survey.

Quartzite as a Ridge-Former
Quartzite is one of the most physically durable and chemically resistant rocks found at Earth's surface. When
the mountain ranges are worn down by weathering and erosion, less-resistant and less-durable rocks are
destroyed, but the quartzite remains. This is why quartzite is so often the rock found at the crests of mountain
ranges and covering their flanks as a litter of scree.

Quartzite is also a poor soil-former. Unlike feldspars which break down to form clay minerals, the weathering
debris of quartzite is quartz. It is therefore not a rock type that contributes well to soil formation. For that
reason it is often found as exposed bedrock with little or no soil cover.

Fuchsitic Quartzite: A specimen of quartzite that contains significant amounts of green fuchsite, a chromium-rich muscovite
mica. This specimen measures about 7 centimeters across and was collected from a small abandoned quarry where the flaggy
rocks were produced and cut for use as decorative stones. The quarry is in the Elmers Rock Greenstone Belt, Wyoming.
Photograph by James St. John, used here under a Creative Commons license.
How the Name "Quartzite" Is Used
Geologists have used the name "quartzite" in a few different ways, each with a slightly different meaning.
Today most geologists who use the word "quartzite" are referring to rocks that they believe are metamorphic
and composed almost entirely of quartz.

A few geologists use the word "quartzite" for sedimentary rocks that have an exceptionally high quartz
content. This usage is falling out of favor but remains in older textbooks and other older publications. The
name "quartz arenite" is a more appropriate and less confusing name for these rocks.

It is often difficult or impossible to differentiate quartz arenite from quartzite. The transition of sandstone into
quartzite is a gradual process. A single rock unit such as the Tuscarora Sandstone might fully fit the definition
of quartzite in some parts of its extent and be better called "sandstone" in other areas. Between these areas,
the names "quartzite" and "sandstone" are used inconsistently and often guided by habit. It is often called
"quartzite" when rock units above and below it are clearly sedimentary. This contributes to the inconsistency
in the ways that geologists use the word "quartzite."

"Aventurine": Pieces of green, yellow, and reddish orange "aventurine" from India. These pieces of rough average about 1 inch
across and were sold for making tumbled stones in a rock tumbler. Much of the "aventurine" sold for lapidary use is actually
quartzite. Often it exhibits no aventurescence.

Hammer With Caution !

Wise geologists, who have memorable experiences with quartzites, hit them with a rock hammer only when
necessary. If a freshly broken piece is needed for examination, they break off a small protrusion with a light
tap. That small piece is usually more than enough.

Don't hit quartzite hard with a rock hammer. It's not a good idea. If you must, be sure that you are wearing
impact-resistant goggles, gloves, long sleeves, long pants, and sturdy shoes. A sharp hammer blow usually
bounces off. That bounce can cause injury. When the rock does break, the impact often yields sparks and sharp
pieces of rock traveling at high velocity.

Be certain that nearby field partners are warned and safely away. Hold the base of your goggles with your free
hand before striking the rock. That will protect the lower half of your face from sparks and sharp flakes of
high velocity rock. You have been warned.
Quartzite Countertop: A kitchen island countertop made of quartzite. In the dimension stone industry, some quartzite is sold as
"granite" because in that industry, any hard silicate rock is often called "granite." Image © iStockphoto and Theanthrope.

Quartzite arrowhead: Quartzite was often used as a tool by early people. It is durable enough for use as impact tools such as
hammerstones. It breaks with a conchoidal fracture, which made it useful for tools with sharp edges, such as hoes, axes, and
scrapers. Although it is very difficult to knap, some ancient people were able to knap it into knife blades and projectile points. The
photo shows a quartzite arrowhead found in Alabama. If the arrowhead is turned under a bright light, the grains in the quartzite
produce a sparkling luster.

Uses of Quartzite
Quartzite has a diversity of uses in construction, manufacturing, architecture, and decorative arts. Although
its properties are superior to many currently used materials, its consumption has always been low for various
reasons. The uses of quartzite and some reasons that it is avoided are summarized below.

Architectural Use

In architecture, marble and granite have been the favorite materials for thousands of years. Quartzite, with
a Mohs hardness of seven along with greater toughness, is superior to both in many uses. It stands up better
to abrasion in stair treads, floor tiles, and countertops. It is more resistant to most chemicals and environmental
conditions. It is available in a range of neutral colors that many people prefer. The use of quartzite in these
uses is growing slowly as more people learn about it.

Construction Use

Quartzite is an extremely durable crushed stone that is suitable for use in the most demanding applications.
Its soundness and abrasion resistance are superior to most other materials.

Unfortunately, the same durability that makes quartzite a superior construction material also limits its use. Its
hardness and toughness cause heavy wear on crushers, screens, truck beds, cutting tools, loaders, tires, tracks,
drill bits, and other equipment. As a result, the use of quartzite is mainly limited to geographic areas where
other aggregates are not available.

Manufacturing Use

Quartzite is valued as a raw material because of its high silica content. A few unusual deposits have a silica
content of over 98%. These are mined and used to manufacture glass, ferrosilicon, manganese ferrosilicon,
silicon metal, silicon carbide, and other materials.

Decorative Use

Quartzite can be a very attractive stone when it is colored by inclusions. Inclusions of fuchsite (a green
chromium-rich variety of muscovite mica) can give quartzite a pleasing green color. If the quartzite is
semitransparent to translucent, the flat flakes of mica can reflect light to produce a glittering luster known as
aventurescence.

Material that displays this property is known as "aventurine," a popular material used to produce beads,
cabochons, tumbled stones, and small ornaments. Aventurine can be pink or red when stained with iron.
Included dumortierite produces a blue color. Other inclusions produce white, gray, orange, or yellow
aventurine.

Stone Tools

Quartzite has been used by humans to make stone tools for over one million years. It was mainly used for
impact tools, but its conchoidal fracture allowed it to be broken to form sharp edges. Broken pieces of quartzite
were used for crude cutting and chopping tools.

Quartzite was not the preferred material for producing cutting tools. Flint, chert, jasper, agate,
and obsidian all can be knapped to produce fine cutting edges, which are difficult to produce when working
quartzite. Quartzite served as an inferior substitute for these preferred materials.
 Slate
What is Slate? What Minerals are in Slate? What is Slate Used For?

Slate is a fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock that is created by the alteration of shale or mudstone by low-grade regional
metamorphism. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

What is Slate?
Slate is a fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock that is created by the alteration of shale or mudstone by
low-grade regional metamorphism. It is popular for a wide variety of uses such as roofing, flooring, and
flagging because of its durability and attractive appearance.

Composition of Slate
Slate is composed mainly of clay minerals or micas, depending upon the degree of metamorphism to which it
has been subjected. The original clay minerals in shale alter to micas with increasing levels of heat and
pressure. Slate can also contain abundant quartz and small amounts of feldspar, calcite, pyrite, hematite,
and other minerals.
Slate roof: Most of the slate mined throughout the world is used to produce roofing slates. Slate performs well in this application
because it can be cut into thin sheets, absorbs minimal moisture, and stands up well in contact with freezing water. A disadvantage
is the cost of the slate and its installation in comparison with other roofing materials. As a result, in new construction slate is
mainly confined to high-end projects and prestige architecture. Image © iStockphoto / Iain Sarjeant.

Color of Slate
Most slates are gray in color and range in a continuum of shades from light to dark gray. Slate also occurs in
shades of green, red, black, purple, and brown. The color of slate is often determined by the amount and type
of iron and organic material that are present in the rock.

How Does Slate Form?

The tectonic environment for producing slate is usually a former sedimentary basin that becomes involved in
a convergent plate boundary. Shales and mudstones in that basin are compressed by horizontal forces with
minor heating. These forces and heat modify the clay minerals in the shale and mudstone. Foliation develops
at right angles to the compressive forces of the convergent plate boundary to yield a vertical foliation that
usually crosses the bedding planes that existed in the shale.

School slate: School slate used for writing practice and arithmetic. Students wrote on the slate with a "pencil" made from
slate, soapstone, or clay. These slates were widely used until the late 1800s, when wood-case pencils were easily produced and
the price of paper became affordable. Image © iStockphoto / Bruce Lonngren.

Uses of the Word "Slate"

The word "slate" has not been used consistently over time and in some industries. Today most geologists are
careful not to use the word "slate" when talking about "shale." However, in the past the word slate was often
used freely in reference for shale.

This confusion of terms partially arises from the fact that shale is progressively converted into slate. Imagine
driving your car eastwards in Pennsylvania through areas of increasing metamorphism, starting where the rock
is definitely "shale" and stopping to examine rock at each outcrop. You will have a difficult time deciding
where on that route "shale" has been converted into "slate." It can be difficult to pick up a rock and apply the
proper name where the rocks have been lightly metamorphosed.

In the coal mining industry of the Appalachian Basin, the word "slate" is still used by many miners in reference
to the shale that forms the roof and floor of a mine, and for fragments of shale that are separated from the coal
in preparation plants. Experienced miners train newer miners, and archaic language is passed along.
In the 1800s, elementary school students used a small piece of slate mounted in a wooden frame for writing
practice and arithmetic problems. Writing was done with a small pencil made of slate, soapstone, or clay. The
slate could be wiped clean with a soft cloth. Small slates were also used in schools and businesses to list daily
events, schedules, menus, prices, and other notices. Today, over 150 years after writing slates started to
disappear from schools, the word "slate" is still used in phrases such as "clean slate," "wipe the slate clean,"
"slated for today," "put it on the slate" and more.

Slate siding: Slate is sometimes used as facing stone on building exteriors. Image © iStockphoto / John Bloor.

Slaty Cleavage
Foliation in slate is caused by the parallel orientation of platy minerals in the rock, such as microscopic grains
of clay minerals and mica. These parallel mineral grain alignments give the rock an ability to break smoothly
along planes of foliation. People exploit this property of slate to produce thin sheets of slate that are used in
construction projects and manufacturing.

Slate tile flooring: Slate is a durable rock that is suitable for use as flooring, stair treads, sidewalk slabs, and patio stone. It is also
produced in a variety of colors that allow it to be incorporated into a variety of design projects. Shown above are multi-color
flooring tiles. Image © iStockphoto / Chad Truemper.
Uses of Slate
Most of the slate mined throughout the world is used to produce roofing slates. Slate performs well in this
application because it can be cut into thin sheets, absorbs minimal moisture, and stands up well in contact with
freezing water. A disadvantage is the cost of the slate and its installation in comparison with other roofing
materials. As a result, in new construction slate is mainly confined to high-end projects and prestige
architecture.

Slate is also used for interior flooring, exterior paving, dimension stone, and decorative aggregate. Small
pieces of slate are also used to make turkey calls. The photos on this page document several uses of slate.
Historically slate has been used for chalkboards, student writing slates, billiard tables, cemetery markers,
whetstones, and table tops. Because it is a good electrical insulator, it was also used for early electric panels
and switch boxes.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Schist
A foliated metamorphic rock that contains abundant platy mineral grains.

Muscovite schist: The dominant visible mineral in this schist is muscovite. Its platy grains are aligned in a common orientation,
and that allows the rock to be split easily in the direction of the grain orientation. The specimen shown is about two inches (five
centimeters) across.

What is Schist?
Schist is a foliated metamorphic rock made up of plate-shaped mineral grains that are large enough to see
with an unaided eye. It usually forms on a continental side of a convergent plate
boundary where sedimentary rocks, such as shales and mudstones, have been subjected to compressive
forces, heat, and chemical activity. This metamorphic environment is intense enough to convert the clay
minerals of the sedimentary rocks into platy metamorphic minerals such as muscovite, biotite, and chlorite.
To become schist, a shale must be metamorphosed in steps through slate and then through phyllite. If the
schist is metamorphosed further, it might become a granular rock known as gneiss.

A rock does not need a specific mineral composition to be called “schist.” It only needs to contain enough
platy metamorphic minerals in alignment to exhibit distinct foliation. This texture allows the rock to be broken
into thin slabs along the alignment direction of the platy mineral grains. This type of breakage is known as
schistosity.

In rare cases the platy metamorphic minerals are not derived from the clay minerals of a shale. The platy
minerals can be graphite, talc, or hornblende from carbonaceous, basaltic, or other sources.
Chlorite schist: A schist with chlorite as the dominant visible mineral is known as a "chlorite schist." The specimen shown is
about two inches (five centimeters) across.

How Does Schist Form?

Schist is a rock that has been exposed to a moderate level of heat and a moderate level of pressure. Let’s trace
its formation from its protoliths - the sedimentary rocks from which it forms. These are usually shales or
mudstones.

In the convergent plate boundary environment, heat and chemical activity transform the clay minerals of shales
and mudstones into platy mica minerals such as muscovite, biotite, and chlorite. The directed pressure pushes
the transforming clay minerals from their random orientations into a common parallel alignment where the
long axes of the platy minerals are oriented perpendicular to the direction of the compressive force. This
transformation of minerals marks the point in the rock’s history when it is no longer sedimentary but becomes
the low-grade metamorphic rock known as “slate.”

Slate is has a dull luster, it can be split into thin sheets along the parallel mineral alignments, and the thin
sheets will ring when they are dropped onto a hard surface. If the slate is exposed to additional metamorphism,
the mica grains in the rock will begin to grow. The grains will elongate in a direction that is perpendicular to
the direction of compressive force. This alignment and increase in mica grain size gives the rock a silky luster.
At that point the rock can be called a “phyllite.” When the platy mineral grains have grown large enough to
be seen with the unaided eye, the rock can be called “schist.” Additional heat, pressure, and chemical activity
might convert the schist into a granular metamorphic rock known as “gneiss.”
Garnet mica schist: This rock is composed of fine-grained muscovite mica with numerous visible grains of red garnet. The
specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Emeralds in mica schist: Photograph of emerald crystals in mica schist from the Malyshevskoye Mine, Sverdlovsk Region,
Southern Ural, Russia. The large crystal is about 21 millimeters in length. Photograph © iStockphoto and Epitavi.

Types of Schist and Their Composition

As explained above, mica minerals such as chlorite, muscovite, and biotite are the characteristic minerals of
schist. These were formed through metamorphism of the clay minerals present in the protolith. Other common
minerals in schist include quartz and feldspars that are inherited from the protolith. Micas, feldspars, and
quartz usually account for most of the minerals present in a schist.

Schists are often named according to the eye-visible minerals of metamorphic origin that are obvious and
abundant when the rock is examined. Muscovite schist, biotite schist, and chlorite schist (often called
“greenstone”) are commonly used names. Other names based upon obvious metamorphic minerals
are garnet schist, kyaniteschist, staurolite schist, hornblende schist, and graphiteschist.

Some names used for schist often consist of three words, such as garnet graphite schist. In these cases the
dominant metamorphic mineral’s name is used second, and the less abundant mineral name is used first.
Garnet graphite schist is a schist that contains graphite as its dominant mineral, but abundant garnet is visible
and present.
Garnet mica schist in thin section: This is a microscopic view of a garnet grain that has grown in schist. The large black grain is
the garnet, the red elongate grains are mica flakes. The black, gray, and white grains are mostly silt or smaller size grains of quartz
and feldspar. The garnet has grown by replacing, displacing, and including the mineral grains of the surrounding rock. You can
see many of these grains as inclusions within the garnet. From this photo it is easy to understand why clean, gem-quality garnets
with no inclusions are very hard to find. It is also hard to understand how garnet can grow into nice euhedral crystals under these
conditions. Photo by Jackdann88, used here under a Creative Commons license.

Schist as a Construction Material

Schist is not a rock with numerous industrial uses. Its abundant mica grains and its schistosity make it a rock
of low physical strength, usually unsuitable for use as a construction aggregate, building stone, or decorative
stone. The only exception is for its use as a fill when the physical properties of the material are not critical.

Schist as a Gem Material Host Rock

Schist is often the host rock for a variety of gemstonesthat form in metamorphic rocks. Gem-
quality garnet, kyanite, tanzanite, emerald, andalusite, sphene, sapphire, ruby, scapolite, iolite, chryso
beryl and many other gem materials are found in schist.

Gem materials found in schist are often highly included. This is because their mineral crystals grow within
the rock matrix, often including mineral grains of the host rock instead of replacing them or pushing them
aside. The best metamorphic host rock for gem materials is usually limestone, which is easily dissolved or
replaced when the gem materials are formed.
 Soapstone
What is Soapstone? How does it Form? How is it Used ?

Soapstone: A metamorphic rock that consists primarily of talc with varying amounts of other minerals such as micas, chlorite,
amphiboles, pyroxenes, and carbonates. It is a soft, dense, heat-resistant rock that has a high specific heat capacity. These
properties make it useful for a wide variety of architectural, practical, and artistic uses.

Some Soapstone History

People have quarried soapstone for thousands of years. Native Americans in eastern North America used the
soft rock to make bowls, cooking slabs, smoking pipes, and ornaments as early as the Late Archaic Period
(3000 to 5000 years ago). [1] Native Americans on the west coast traveled in canoes from the mainland to San
Clemente Island (60 miles offshore!) to obtain soapstone for cooking bowls and effigy carving as early as
8000 years ago. [2]

The people of Scandinavia began using soapstone during the Stone Age, and it helped them enter the Bronze
Age when they discovered that it could be easily carved into molds for casting metal objects such as knife
blades and spearheads. They were among the first to discover the ability of soapstone to absorb heat and
radiate it slowly. That discovery inspired them to make soapstone cooking pots, bowls, cooking slabs, and
hearth liners.

Throughout the world, in locations where the soapstone is exposed at the surface, it was one of the first rocks
to be quarried. Soapstone's special properties continue to make it the "material of choice" for a wide variety
of uses.
Soapstone statue: The famous "Christ the Redeemer" statue that overlooks the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil is made of
reinforced concrete and faced with soapstone. The statue is 120 feet tall and was built on Corcovado Mountain. CIA image.

Steatite: A traditional Inuit carving of a female's head done in black steatite, a very fine-grained variety of soapstone. Photo ©
iStockphoto / Pierre Chouinard.

What is Soapstone?
Soapstone is a metamorphic rock that is composed primarily of talc, with varying amounts of chlorite,
micas, amphiboles, carbonates, and other minerals. [4] Because it is composed primarily of talc it is usually
very soft. Soapstone is typically gray, bluish, green, or brown in color, often variegated. Its name is derived
from its "soapy" feel and softness.

The name "soapstone" is often used in other ways. Miners and drillers use the name for any soft rock that is
soapy or slippery to the touch. In the craft marketplace, sculptures and ornamental objects made from soft
rocks such as alabaster or serpentine are often said to be made from "soapstone." Be careful when purchasing
if the type of rock used in making the object is important to you.

Many people use the name "steatite" interchangeably with "soapstone." However, some people reserve the
name "steatite" for a fine-grained unfoliated soapstone that is nearly 100% talc and highly suited for carving.
Soapstone pencils: Talc is very soft and has a white streak. Since soapstone is made primarily of talc, it will deposit a white
powder when it is rubbed against almost any object. This white mark is similar to talcum powder and is easily brushed off without
leaving a permanent mark. Soapstone pencils are used by tailors to mark fabric. Soapstone markers are also used by welders. The
heat-resistant powder does not burn away and continues to be visible when the workpiece is heated during the welding process.

How Does Soapstone Form?

Soapstone most often forms at convergent plate boundaries where broad areas of Earth’s crust are subjected
to heat and directed pressure. Peridotites, dunites, and serpentinites in this environment can be
metamorphosed into soapstone. On a smaller scale, soapstone can form where siliceous dolostones are altered
by hot, chemically active fluids in a process known as metasomatism.

Physical Properties of Soapstone

Soapstone is composed primarily of talc and shares many physical properties with that mineral. These
physical properties make soapstone valuable for many different uses. These useful physical properties include:

 soft and very easy to carve

 nonporous
 nonabsorbent
 low electrical conductivity
 heat resistant
 high specific heat capacity
 resistant to acids and alkalis

Soapstone is a rock, and its mineral composition can vary. Its composition depends upon the parent rock
material and the temperature/pressure conditions of its metamorphic environment. As a result, the physical
properties of the soapstone can vary from quarry to quarry and even within a single rock unit.

The level of metamorphism sometimes determines its grain size. Soapstone with a fine grain size works best
for highly detailed carvings. The presence of minerals other than talc and the level of metamorphism can
influence its hardness. Some of the harder varieties of soapstone are preferred for countertops because they
are more durable than a pure talc soapstone.
Soapstone bullet mold from the Revolutionary War era. The two halves of this mold would be placed together and secured with
wooden sticks through the four holes. Then molten lead would be poured into the five bullet molds. The mold would be opened
after cooling, the lead sprue would be cut from the bullet, and the bullet surface would be filed smooth. Soapstone was used to
make bullet molds because it was easily carved, heat resistant, and durable enough to be used hundreds of times. Image from the
Guilford Courthouse National Military Park, National Park Service.

How is Soapstone Used?

The special properties of soapstone make it suitable, or the material of choice, for a wide variety of uses. A
number of examples of soapstone use are explained below and in the photograph captions on this page.

 Countertops in kitchens and laboratories

 Sinks
 Cooking pots, cooking slabs, boiling stones
 Bowls and plates
 Cemetery markers
 Electrical panels
 Ornamental carvings and sculptures
 Fireplace liners and hearths
 Woodstoves
 Wall tiles and floor tiles
 Facing stone
 Bed warmers
 Marking pencils
 Molds for metal casting
 Cold stones
Soapstone countertops: The dark countertops and sink in this photo are made from soapstone. Soapstone is heat resistant, stain
resistant, nonporous, and resistant to attack from acids and bases. It is often used as a natural stone countertop in kitchens and
laboratories. Image © iStockphoto / Virginia Hamrick.

Soapstone Kitchen and Laboratory Countertops

Soapstone is often used as an alternative natural stone countertop instead of granite or marble. In laboratories
it is unaffected by acids and alkalis. In kitchens it is not stained or altered by tomatoes, wine, vinegar, grape
juice, and other common food items. Soapstone is unaffected by heat. Hot pots can be placed directly on it
without fear of melting, burning, or other damage.

Soapstone is a soft rock, and it is easily scratched in countertop use. However, a gentle sanding and treatment
with mineral oil will easily remove shallow scratches. Soapstone is not suitable for use as a workbench top
where it will receive rough treatment and where sharp or abrasive objects will be placed upon it.

Soapstone electrical panels: Remains of the original 1907 soapstone control panel of the Cos Cob Power Plant near Greenwich,
Connecticut. Thick slabs of soapstone were often used to hold high-voltage equipment and wiring because soapstone is heat
resistant and does not conduct electricity. Image by Jet Lowe, Historic American Buildings Survey, National Park Service.
Soapstone Tiles and Wall Panels
Soapstone tiles and panels are an excellent choice where heat and moisture are present. Soapstone is dense,
without pores, does not stain, and repels water. Those properties make soapstone tiles and wall panels a good
choice for showers, tub surrounds, and backsplashes.

Soapstone is heat resistant and does not burn. That makes it an excellent wall covering behind wood-burning
stoves and ovens. Fireplaces are also lined with soapstone to create a hearth that quickly absorbs heat and
radiates it long after the fire is out. This property of soapstone was recognized in Europe over 1000 years ago,
and many early hearths there were lined with soapstone.

Whiskystones are small soapstone cubes that are refrigerated and then used to chill a glass of whisky. They do not melt and dilute
the drink. Since soapstone has a very high specific heat capacity and changes temperature very slowly, a few stones can keep a
drink cold for 30 minutes or more.

Soapstone Woodstoves
Soapstone does not burn or melt at wood-burning temperatures, and it has the ability to absorb heat, hold heat,
and radiate heat. These properties make it an excellent material for making wood-burning stoves. The stove
becomes hot and radiates that heat into the room. It also holds heat, keeping the coals hot and often allowing
the owner to add more wood without the need for kindling.

Soapstone pipe: Native Americans have used soapstone to make smoking pipes and pipe bowls. They used soapstone because it
is easy to carve and drill. Its high specific heat capacity enabled the outside of the bowl to have a lower temperature than the
burning tobacco inside. Image © iStockphoto / Gill André.
Boiling stones: Native Americans made "boiling stones" from soapstone. Cooking was done in a small pit lined with a thick
animal skin. A boiling stone would be placed in a nearby fire until it was very hot. A stick was then poked through the hole in the
stone, and the stone was lifted from the fire, carried to the cooking pit, and dropped into the stew. National Park Service photo,
Ocmulgee National Monument.

Soapstone bowls: Native Americans made cooking bowls from soapstone. These bowls would be placed in a fire and used to
cook stews and meat. The mouth of the unbroken bowl is about four inches across. Soapstone worked well for this type of cooking
because it is heat resistant and can withstand the heat of a wood fire. National Park Service photo, Grand Teton National Park.

Soapstone Cooking Pots

Soapstone cooking pots absorb heat readily from the stove and radiate it into the soup or stew. Because their
walls are thick, they take a little longer to heat than a thin metal pot. However, they heat their contents evenly
and retain their heat when removed from the stove - the contents of the pot keep cooking until the pot itself
begins to cool. Soapstone pots are highly prized by people who learn how to use them.

Stone Age people made the first cooking pots from soapstone without the aid of metal tools. The soft rock
could be worked with sharp stones, antlers, or bone. Skilled craftsmen carved the pots directly from the
outcrop. Small soapstone pots were highly prized and traded widely. Large soapstone pots were very heavy
and difficult to move. Archaeologists believe that large soapstone pots were used at sites where the residents
had intentions of living there for a long time.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Soapstone Information

[1] Origin of Soapstone within the Wissahickon Formation: Analyses of Native American Quarries along the Lower Patuxent River, Maryland;
Rachel Burks, Steven Lev and Wayne Clark, Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, Vol. 38, No. 7, p. 234, October 2006.

[2] California's Ancient Maritime Heritage, John W. Foster, California Department of Parks and Recreation, website article last accessed June
2016.

[3] Soapstone Production through Norwegian History: Geology, Properties, Quarrying and Use; Per Storemyr and Tom Heldal; in: Asmosia 5:
Interdisciplinary Studies on Ancient Stone; p. 359-369; J.J. Herrmann, N. Herz and R. Newman, editors; Archetype Publications Ltd., 2002.

[4] Talc: The Softest Mineral: Website article by Geology.com staff, April 2012.

Soapstone ink well: Soapstone inkwell from the 1700s with the initials "AL" carved on one side. Image from Guilford
Courthouse National Military Park, National Park Service.
 Pictures of Sedimentary Rocks
Photos of Common Clastic, Chemical, and Organic Sedimentary Rock Types.

Breccia is a clastic sedimentary rock that is composed of large (over two-millimeter diameter) angular fragments. The spaces
between the large fragments can be filled with a matrix of smaller particles or a mineral cement which binds the rock together.
The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

What Are Sedimentary Rocks?

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of sediments. There are three basic types of sedimentary
rocks.

Clastic sedimentary rocks such as breccia, conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and shale are formed from
mechanical weathering debris.

Chemical sedimentary rocks, such as rock salt, iron ore, chert, flint, some dolomites, and
some limestones, form when dissolved materials precipitate from solution.

Organic sedimentary rocks such as coal, some dolomites, and some limestones, form from the accumulation
of plant or animal debris.
Coal is an organic sedimentary rock that forms mainly from plant debris. The plant debris usually accumulates in a swamp
environment. Coal is combustible and is often mined for use as a fuel. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five
centimeters) across.

Chert is a microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline sedimentary rock material composed of silicon dioxide (SiO 2). It occurs as
nodules and concretionary masses, and less frequently as a layered deposit. It breaks with a conchoidal fracture, often producing
very sharp edges. Early people took advantage of how chert breaks and used it to fashion cutting tools and weapons. The
specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock that contains large (greater than two millimeters in diameter) rounded particles. The
space between the pebbles is generally filled with smaller particles and/or a chemical cement that binds the rock together. The
specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Flint is a hard, tough, chemical or biochemical sedimentary rock that breaks with a conchoidal fracture. It is a form of
microcrystalline quartz that is typically called “chert” by geologists. It often forms as nodules in sedimentary rocks such as chalk
and marine limestones.
Dolomite (also known as "dolostone" and "dolomite rock") is a chemical sedimentary rock that is very similar to limestone. It is
thought to form when limestone or lime mud is modified by magnesium-rich ground water. The specimen shown above is about
four inches (ten centimeters) across.

Limestone is a rock that is composed primarily of calcium carbonate. It can form organically from the accumulation of shell,
coral, algal, and fecal debris. It can also form chemically from the precipitation of calcium carbonate from lake or ocean water.
Limestone is used in many ways. Some of the most common are: production of cement, crushed stone, and acid neutralization.
The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Iron Ore is a chemical sedimentary rock that forms when iron and oxygen (and sometimes other substances) combine in solution
and deposit as a sediment. Hematite (shown above) is the most common sedimentary iron ore mineral. The specimen shown
above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Rock Salt is a chemical sedimentary rock that forms from the evaporation of ocean or saline lake waters. It is also known by the
mineral name "halite." It is rarely found at Earth's surface, except in areas of very arid climate. It is often mined for use in the
chemical industry or for use as a winter highway treatment. Some halite is processed for use as a seasoning for food. The
specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Oil Shale is a rock that contains significant amounts of organic material in the form of kerogen. Up to 1/3 of the rock can be solid
organic material. Liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons can be extracted from the oil shale, but the rock must be heated and/or treated
with solvents. This is usually much less efficient than drilling rocks that will yield oil or gasdirectly into a well. The processes
used for hydrocarbon extraction also produce emissions and waste products that cause significant environmental concerns.

Shale is a clastic sedimentary rock that is made up of clay-size (less than 1/256 millimeter in diameter) weathering debris. It
typically breaks into thin flat pieces. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock made up mainly of sand-size (1/16 to 2 millimeter diameter) weathering debris.
Environments where large amounts of sand can accumulate include beaches, deserts, flood plains, and deltas. The specimen
shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Siltstone is a clastic sedimentary rock that forms from silt-size (between 1/256 and 1/16 millimeter diameter) weathering debris.
Specimens in the photo are about two inches (five centimeters) across.
 Breccia
What Is Breccia, How Does It Form, and What Is Its Composition?

Chert Breccia: The angular clasts in this breccia are chert fragments. The matrix is an iron-stained mix of clay- through sand-size
particles. The specimen is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

What is Breccia?
Breccia is a term most often used for clastic sedimentary rocks that are composed of large angular fragments
(over two millimeters in diameter). The spaces between the large angular fragments can be filled with a matrix
of smaller particles or a mineral cement that binds the rock together.

How Does Breccia Form?

Breccia forms where broken, angular fragments of rock or mineral debris accumulate. One possible location
for breccia formation is at the base of an outcrop where mechanical weathering debris accumulates. Another
would be in stream deposits near the outcrop such as an alluvial fan. Some breccias form as debris
flow deposits. The angular particle shape reveals that they have not been transported very far (transport wears
the sharp points and edges of angular particles into rounded shapes). After deposition, the fragments are bound
together by a mineral cement or by a matrix of smaller particles that fills the spaces between the fragments.
Limestone Breccia: A breccia that contains clasts of multiple types of limestone. Specimen is about four inches (ten centimeters)
across.

How Does Breccia Differ From Conglomerate?

Breccia and conglomerate are very similar rocks. They are both clastic sedimentary rocks composed of
particles larger than two millimeters in diameter. The difference is in the shape of the large particles. In breccia
the large particles are angular in shape, but in conglomerate the particles are rounded. This reveals a difference
in how far the particles were transported. Near the outcrop where the fragments were produced by mechanical
weathering, the shape is angular. However, during transport by water away from the outcrop, the sharp points
and edges of those angular fragments are rounded. The rounded particles would form a conglomerate.

Debris Flow Breccia: Outcrop of a breccia thought to have formed from debris flow deposits in Death Valley National Park. The
largest clasts are about three feet (one meter) across and are thought to be from the Noonday Dolomite. United States Geological
Survey image.

What is Breccia's Composition?

Breccia has many compositions. Its composition is mainly determined by the rock and mineral material that
the angular fragments were produced from. The climate of the source area can also influence composition.
Most breccias are a mix of rock fragments and mineral grains. The type of rock that the fragments were
produced from is often used as an adjective when referring to the rock. Some examples: sandstone breccia,
limestone breccia, granite breccia, chert breccia, basalt breccia, and others. Often a breccia will contain many
types of angular rock fragments. These are known as polymict breccias or polymictic breccias.

Talus Slopes: Scene of a mountain environment where talus, the angular mechanical weathering debris that might form breccia, is
produced in abundance. Panorama from Kearsarge Pass looking east over Big Pothole Lake into the Owens Valley. Image ©
iStockphoto / Tom Grundy.

What Color is Breccia?

Breccia can be any color. The color of the matrix or cement along with the color of the angular rock fragments
determine its color. Breccia can be a colorful rock, as shown in the photos on this page.

Alluvial Fan: An alluvial fan in Death Valley National Park. Material on the fan was weathered from the mountains in the
background and transported a very short distance. United States Geological Survey image.
Impact Breccia: A 457.7-gram breccia specimen from the Popigai impact crater in northern Siberia. Note the variety of colors,
sizes, shapes, and textures within a single mass - the result of a major meteorite impact which threw millions of tons of rock into
the air. As fragments fell back to Earth, rocks from different strata were mixed together. Photograph by Geoffrey Notkin
© Aerolite Meteorites.

Is the Word "Breccia" Used in Other Ways?

Geologists have been very generous in their use of the word "breccia." It is common to hear the term used
when referring to a rock or rock debris made up of angular fragments. Although it is mainly used for rocks of
sedimentary origin, it can be used for other types of rocks. A few more uses of the word are given below.

Collapse Breccia: Broken rock that originates from a cavern or magma chamber collapse.

Fault Breccia: Broken rock found in the contact area between two fault blocks and produced by movement of the
fault.

Flow Breccia: A lava texture produced when the crust of a lava flow is broken and jumbled during movement.

Igneous Breccia: A term used for a rock composed of angular fragments of igneous rocks. "Flow breccia" and
"pyroclastic breccia" could be called "igneous breccia."

Impact Breccia: A deposit of angular rock debris produced by the impact of an asteroid or other cosmic body. See an
article about "impactites."

Pyroclastic Breccia: A term used for a deposit of igneous rock debris that was ejected by a volcanic blast or pyroclastic
flow.

When you hear the word "breccia" used in reference to a rock or rock material, it is fairly safe to assume that
it means angular-shaped pieces.

What are the Uses of Breccia?

The rock, breccia, has very few uses. However, the word "breccia" is used as a trade name for a group of
dimension stone products with a broken, angular pattern. Names such as "Breccia Oniciata," "Breccia
Pernice," and "Breccia Damascata" are cut and polished limestones and marbles that reveal a broken, angular
pattern. These breccias are used as architectural stones for interior building veneers, tiles, window sills, and
other decorative applications. These are proprietary names applied to the rock from specific quarries.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Coal
What Is Coal and How Does It Form?

Bituminous Coal: Bituminous coal is typically a banded sedimentary rock. In this photo you can see bright and dull bands of coal
material oriented horizontally across the specimen. The bright bands are well-preserved woody material, such as branches or
stems. The dull bands can contain mineral material washed into the swamp by streams, charcoal produced by fires in the swamp,
or degraded plant materials. This specimen is approximately three inches across (7.5 centimeters). Photo by the West Virginia
Geological and Economic Survey.

What is Coal?
Coal is an organic sedimentary rock that forms from the accumulation and preservation of plant materials,
usually in a swamp environment. Coal is a combustible rock and, along with oil and natural gas, it is one of
the three most important fossil fuels. Coal has a wide range of uses; the most important use is for
the generation of electricity.
Coal-Forming Environments: A generalized diagram of a swamp, showing how water depth, preservation conditions, plant
types, and plant productivity can vary in different parts of the swamp. These variations will yield different types of coal.
Illustration by the West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey.

Peat: A mass of recently accumulated to partially carbonized plant debris. This material is on its way to becoming coal, but its
plant debris source is still easily recognizable.

How Does Coal Form?

Coal forms from the accumulation of plant debris, usually in a swamp environment. When a plant dies and
falls into the swamp, the standing water of the swamp protects it from decay. Swamp waters are usually
deficient in oxygen, which would react with the plant debris and cause it to decay. This lack of oxygen allows
the plant debris to persist. In addition, insects and other organisms that might consume the plant debris on land
do not survive well under water in an oxygen-deficient environment.

To form the thick layer of plant debris required to produce a coal seam, the rate of plant debris accumulation
must be greater than the rate of decay. Once a thick layer of plant debris is formed, it must be buried by
sediments such as mud or sand. These are typically washed into the swamp by a flooding river. The weight of
these materials compacts the plant debris and aids in its transformation into coal. About ten feet of plant debris
will compact into just one foot of coal.

Plant debris accumulates very slowly. So, accumulating ten feet of plant debris will take a long time. The fifty
feet of plant debris needed to make a five-foot thick coal seam would require thousands of years to accumulate.
During that long time, the water level of the swamp must remain stable. If the water becomes too deep, the
plants of the swamp will drown, and if the water cover is not maintained the plant debris will decay. To form
a coal seam, the ideal conditions of perfect water depth must be maintained for a very long time.

If you are an astute reader you are probably wondering: "How can fifty feet of plant debris accumulate in
water that is only a few feet deep?" The answer to that question is the primary reason that the formation of a
coal seam is a highly unusual occurrence. It can only occur under one of two conditions: 1) a rising water level
that perfectly keeps pace with the rate of plant debris accumulation; or, 2) a subsiding landscape that perfectly
keeps pace with the rate of plant debris accumulation. Most coal seams are thought to have formed under
condition #2 in a delta environment. On a delta, large amounts of river sediments are being deposited on a
small area of Earth's crust, and the weight of those sediments causes the subsidence.

For a coal seam to form, perfect conditions of plant debris accumulation and perfect conditions of subsidence
must occur on a landscape that maintains this perfect balance for a very long time. It is easy to understand
why the conditions for forming coal have occurred only a small number of times throughout Earth's history.
The formation of a coal requires the coincidence of highly improbable events.

Rank
(From Lowest Properties
to Highest)

A mass of recently accumulated to partially carbonized plant debris. Peat is an organic

Peat sediment. Burial, compaction, and coalification will transform it into coal, a rock. It has a
carbon content of less than 60% on a dry ash-free basis.

Lignite is the lowest rank of coal. It is a peat that has been transformed into a rock, and
that rock is a brown-black coal. Lignite sometimes contains recognizable plant structures.
By definition it has a heating value of less than 8300 British Thermal Units per pound on a
Lignite
mineral-matter-free basis. It has a carbon content of between 60 and 70% on a dry ash-
free basis. In Europe, Australia, and the UK, some low-level lignites are called "brown
coal."

Sub bituminous coal is a lignite that has been subjected to an increased level of organic
metamorphism. This metamorphism has driven off some of the oxygen and hydrogen in
the coal. That loss produces coal with a higher carbon content (71 to 77% on a dry ash-
Sub Bituminous
free basis). Sub bituminous coal has a heating value between 8300 and 13000 British
Thermal Units per pound on a mineral-matter-free basis. On the basis of heating value, it
is subdivided into sub bituminous A, sub bituminous B, and sub bituminous C ranks.

Bituminous is the most abundant rank of coal. It accounts for about 50% of the coal
produced in the United States. Bituminous coal is formed when a sub bituminous coal is
subjected to increased levels of organic metamorphism. It has a carbon content of
between 77 and 87% on a dry ash-free basis and a heating value that is much higher than
Bituminous
lignite or sub bituminous coal. On the basis of volatile content, bituminous coals are
subdivided into low-volatile bituminous, medium-volatile bituminous, and high-volatile
bituminous. Bituminous coal is often referred to as "soft coal"; however, this designation
is a layman's term and has little to do with the hardness of the rock.

Anthracite is the highest rank of coal. It has a carbon content of over 87% on a dry ash-
free basis. Anthracite coal generally has the highest heating value per ton on a mineral-
Anthracite matter-free basis. It is often subdivided into semi-anthracite, anthracite, and meta-
anthracite on the basis of carbon content. Anthracite is often referred to as "hard coal";
however, this is a layman's term and has little to do with the hardness of the rock.
Anthracite coal: Anthracite is the highest rank of coal. It has a bright luster and breaks with a semi-conchoidal fracture.

What is Coal "Rank"?

Plant debris is a fragile material compared to the mineral materials that make up other rocks. As plant debris
is exposed to the heat and pressure of burial, it changes in composition and properties. The "rank" of a coal is
a measure of how much change has occurred. Sometimes the term "organic metamorphism" is used for this
change.

Based upon composition and properties, coals are assigned to a rank progression that corresponds to their level
of organic metamorphism. The basic rank progression is summarized in the table here.

Lignite: The lowest rank of coal is "lignite." It is peat that has been compressed, dewatered, and lithified into a rock. It often
contains recognizable plant structures.

What are the Uses of Coal?

Electricity production is the primary use of coal in the United States. Most of the coal mined in the United
States is transported to a power plant, crushed to a very small particle size, and burned. Heat from the burning
coal is used to produce steam, which turns a generator to produce electricity. Most of the electricity consumed
in the United States is made by burning coal.

Coal-Fired Power Plant: Photo of a power plant where coal is burned to produce electricity. The three large stacks are cooling
towers where water used in the electricity generation process is cooled before reuse or release to the environment. The emission
streaming from the right-most stack is water vapor. The combustion products from burning the coal are released into the tall, thin
stack on the right. Within that stack are a variety of chemical sorbents to absorb polluting gases produced during the combustion
process. Image © iStockphoto / Michael Utech.

Coal has many other uses. It is used as a source of heat for manufacturing processes. For example, bricks and
cement are produced in kilns heated by the combustion of a jet of powdered coal. Coal is also used as a power
source for factories. There it is used to heat steam, and the steam is used to drive mechanical devices. A few
decades ago most coal was used for space heating. Some coal is still used that way, but other fuels and coal-
produced electricity are now used instead.

Coke production remains an important use of coal. Coke is produced by heating coal under controlled
conditions in the absence of air. This drives off some of the volatile materials and concentrates the carbon
content. Coke is then used as a high-carbon fuel for metal processing and other uses where an especially hot-
burning flame is needed.

Coal is also used in manufacturing. If coal is heated the gases, tars, and residues produced can be used in a
number of manufacturing processes. Plastics, roofing, linoleum, synthetic rubber, insecticides, paint products,
medicines, solvents, and synthetic fibers all include some coal-derived compounds. Coal can also be converted
into liquid and gaseous fuels; however, these uses of coal are mainly experimental and done on a small scale.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Chert
What Is Chert, How Does It Form, and What Is It Used For?

Chert: This specimen of chert is about two inches (five centimeters) across. It displays conchoidal fracture and has broken to
produce sharp edges.

What is Chert?
Chert is a microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline sedimentary rock material composed of silicon dioxide
(SiO2). It occurs as nodules, concretionary masses, and as layered deposits. Chert breaks with a conchoidal
fracture, often producing very sharp edges. Early people took advantage of how chert breaks and used it to
fashion cutting tools and weapons. The name "flint" is also used for this material.

How Does Chert Form?

Chert can form when microcrystals of silicon dioxide grow within soft sediments that will
become limestone or chalk. In these sediments, enormous numbers of silicon dioxide microcrystals grow into
irregularly-shaped nodules or concretions when dissolved silica is transported to the formation site by the
movement of groundwater. If the nodules or concretions are numerous, they can enlarge and merge with one
another to form a nearly continuous layer of chert within the sediment mass. Chert formed in this manner is a
chemical sedimentary rock.

Diatoms are microscopic,

single-celled algae that live in
marine or fresh water. They
produce hard parts made of
silicon dioxide. NASA Image.
Some of the silicon dioxide in chert is thought to have a biological origin. In some oceans and shallow seas,
large numbers of diatoms and radiolarians live in the water. These organisms have a glassy silica skeleton.
Some sponges also produce "spicules" that are composed of silica. When these organisms die, their silica
skeletons fall to the bottom, dissolve, recrystallize, and might become part of a chert nodule or chert layer.
Chert formed in this way could be considered a biological sedimentary rock.

Marble Bar Chert: Outcrop of the 3.4 Ga Marble Bar Chert, Pilbara Craton, Australia. The hematite-rich chert has been used as
evidence of high levels of atmospheric oxygen in the early Archean. Image by NASA Astrobiological Institute.

What is Chert's Composition?

Chert is a microcrystalline silicon dioxide (SiO2). As chert nodules or concretions grow within a sediment
mass, their growth can incorporate significant amounts of the surrounding sediment as inclusions. These
inclusions can impart a distinctive color to the chert.

What Color is Chert?

Chert occurs in a wide variety of colors. Continuous color gradients exist between white and black or between
cream and brown. Green, yellow, and red cherts are also common. The darker colors can result from inclusions
of sediment or organic matter. The name "flint" is often used in reference to the darker colors of chert. Red to
reddish brown cherts receive their color from included iron oxide. The name "jasper" is frequently used for
these reddish cherts.

Chert Arrowhead: A chert (flint) arrowhead bound to a wooden arrow shaft with sinew. Image © iStockphoto / Brian Brockman.
Flintlock: A close-up of the lock of a flintlock rifle, a weapon of the 18th century used in the Revolutionary War. Note the piece
of chert (flint) in the hammer. Image © iStockphoto / Kakupacal.

Chert cabochons: Occasionally, specimens of chert with attractive colors or interesting patterns are cut as gemstones. These
chert cabochons are examples.

What are the Uses of Chert?

Chert has very few uses today; however, it was a very important tool-making material in the past. Chert has
two properties that made it especially useful: 1) it breaks with a conchoidal fracture to form very sharp edges,
and, 2) it is very hard (7 on the Mohs Scale). The edges of broken chert are sharp and tend to retain their
sharpness because chert is a very hard and very durable rock. Thousands of years ago people discovered these
properties of chert and learned how to intentionally break it to produce cutting tools such as knife blades,
arrowheads, scrapers, and ax heads. Tons of chert fragments have been found at locations where these objects
were produced in what was one of the earliest manufacturing activities of people.

Chert is not found everywhere. It was a precious commodity that early people traded and transported long
distances. As early as 8000 BC, the people of what are now England and France dug shafts up to 300 feet deep
into layers of soft chalk to mine chert nodules. These are some of the oldest mining operations ever discovered.

Chert is a very hard material that produces a spark when it is struck against steel. The heat from this spark can
be used to start fires. A "flintlock" is an early firearm in which a charge of gunpowder is ignited by a flint
hammer striking a metal plate (see photo).

A variety of metamorphosed chert known as "novaculite" has a porous, even texture that makes it useful as a
sharpening stone. The Arkansas Novaculite Formation has become world famous as a source of high-quality
sharpening stones and novaculite abrasive products.
 Conglomerate
What Is Conglomerate? How Does It Form? What Is It Used For?

Conglomerate: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across. It is made up of chert and limestone clasts
bound in a matrix of sand and clay.

What is Conglomerate?
Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock that contains large (greater than two millimeters in diameter)
rounded clasts. The space between the clasts is generally filled with smaller particles and/or a chemical cement
that binds the rock together.

What is the Composition of Conglomerate?

Conglomerate can have a variety of compositions. As a clastic sedimentary rock, it can contain clasts of any
rock material or weathering product that is washed downstream or down current. The rounded clasts of
conglomerate can be mineral particles such as quartz, or they can be sedimentary, metamorphic, or igneous
rock fragments. The matrix that binds the large clasts together can be a mixture of sand, mud, and chemical
cement.
Conglomerate-Forming Environment: A beach where strong waves have deposited rounded, cobble-size rocks. If buried and
lithified, these materials might be transformed into a conglomerate. Image © iStockphoto / Jason van der Valk.

Conglomerate-Size Sediment Clasts: Pebble-size clasts of many compositions deposited together on a beach. Quartz, sandstone,
and limestone clasts are all easily recognizable. Largest clast is about two inches (five centimeters) across. Image © iStockphoto /
Ivan Ivanov.

How Does Conglomerate Form?

Conglomerate forms where sediments of rounded clasts at least two millimeters in diameter accumulate. It
takes a strong water current to transport and shape particles this large. So the environment of deposition might
be along a swiftly flowing stream or a beach with strong waves. There must also be a source of large-size
sediment particles somewhere up current. The rounded shape of the clasts reveals that they were tumbled by
running water or moving waves.

In September 2012, NASA's Mars rover Curiosity discovered an outcrop of conglomerate exposed on the
surface of Mars. The rounded clasts within the conglomerate provide evidence that a stream or a beach had
moved the rocks and tumbled them into rounded pebbles. This conglomerate was the most convincing
evidence that water once flowed on the surface of Mars. See photo below.
Martian Conglomerate: This image was acquired by NASA's Curiosity rover on the surface of Mars. It shows an outcrop of
conglomerate and some pebble-size weathering debris. The round pebbles are too large to have been moved and shaped by wind,
thus they had to have been transported a significant distance by water. This photo from September 2012 was the strongest
evidence of the existence of water on Mars that had been obtained at that time.

Conglomerates often begin by being deposited as a sediment consisting mainly of pebble and cobble-size
clasts. The finer-size sand and clay, which fill the spaces between the larger clasts, is often deposited later on
top of the large clasts and then sifts down between them to fill the interstitial spaces. The deposition of a
chemical cement then binds the sediment into a rock.

Conglomerate Close-Up: A detailed view of conglomerate showing the pebble-size clasts with sand and smaller size particles
filling the spaces between them. The largest pebbles in this view are about ten millimeters across. Image by the United States
Geological Survey.

What is Conglomerate Used For?

Conglomerate has very few commercial uses. Its inability to break cleanly makes it a poor candidate for
dimension stone, and its variable composition makes it a rock of unreliable physical strength and durability.
Conglomerate can be crushed to make a fine aggregate that can be used where a low-performance material is
suitable. Many conglomerates are colorful and attractive rocks, but they are only rarely used as an ornamental
stone for interior use.
Analysis of conglomerate can sometimes be used as a prospecting tool. For example, most diamond deposits
are hosted in kimberlite. If a conglomerate contains clasts of kimberlite, then the source of that kimberlite
must be somewhere upstream.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Flint
A hard, tough material that humans have used to make tools for millions of years

Flint arrowheads: One of the most common uses of flint by prehistoric people was in the making of arrowheads. They were hard,
tough and very sharp. Image by Derek McLean.

What is Flint?
Flint is a hard, tough chemical or biochemical sedimentary rock that breaks with a conchoidal fracture. It is
a form of microcrystalline quartz that is typically called “chert” by geologists. It often forms as nodules in
sedimentary rocks such as chalk and marine limestones. The nodules can be dispersed randomly throughout
the rock unit but are often concentrated in distinct layers. Some rock units form through the accumulation of
siliceous skeletal material. These can recrystallize to form a layer of bedded flint. Flint is highly resistant to
weathering and is often found as pebbles or cobbles along streams and beaches.

Flintknapping: Prehistoric people became highly skilled at flintknapping, a method of shaping flint into useful objects such as
drills, arrowheads, knife blades, and spearheads. National Park Service image.
A Preferred Material for Making Tools
Flint has been used by humans to make stone tools for at least two million years. [1] The conchoidal fracture
of flint causes it to break into sharp-edged pieces. Early people recognized this property of flint and learned
how to fashion it into knife blades, spear points, arrowheads, scrapers, axes, drills, and other sharp tools using
a method known as flintknapping. If these tools were broken or damaged in use, they were often reshaped into
smaller tools of similar function.

The value of flint for making sharp tools was discovered and utilized by Stone Age people in almost every
early culture located where flint could easily be found. Their survival depended upon having a durable material
that could be used to produce sharp tools.

Flint knife: A lithic knife made from flint. Photo © iStockphoto / Martin Vallière.

Ohio Flint: The Vanport Flint has been quarried by people for at least 12,000 years. It outcrops in a layer between one and twelve
feet thick along Flint Ridge in eastern Ohio. Native Americans produced the flint from hundreds of quarries along the ridge. Some
of these people travelled hundreds of miles to collect the flint, used it to make a variety of tools and weapons, and traded it widely
throughout what is now the eastern United States.
Flint Ridge Quarries, Ohio
One of the most important localities for flint in eastern North America is Flint Ridge in eastern Ohio. Native
Americans discovered this deposit and produced flint from hundreds of small quarries along the ridge. [2]
This “Ohio flint” occurred in distinctive colors and was treasured by Native Americans. They travelled
hundreds of miles to collect it and spread the distinctive material in trade across eastern North America. It has
been found as artifacts as far south as the Gulf of Mexico and as far west as the Rocky Mountains. [3]

Alibates flint quarries: Heavily quarried landscape at the Alibates Flint Quarry National Monument. Over 700 quarries can still
be seen today. These were all dug by hand without metal tools. National Park Service image.

Alibates flint: The Alibates Flint has been used by people of southwestern North America for about 13,000 years. The quarries
used by these people have been preserved as part of the Alibates Flint Quarry National Monument. National Park Service image.

Alibates Flint Quarries

In the area that is now the Texas panhandle, Native Americans discovered an area where weathered flint
littered the ground. This flint was weathering out of a dolomite beneath the thin soil cover. These people
discovered that fresh, unweathered flint of high quality could be obtained by digging down a few feet.
From about 13,000 years ago into the 1800's, this area was continuously mined for the high-quality flint. The
flint was used to produce projectile points, scrapers, knives, and other stone tools. In the 1800's the flint was
also mined for use as gunflints. Over 700 small quarries are still visible today and have been preserved as part
of the Alibates Flint National Monument.

Grime's Graves flint mines: Shown in this satellite view are the remains of mining pits at the Grime's Graves flint mining
complex, near Brandon, England. Neolithic people constructed vertical shafts down through the Cretaceous chalk to a layer of
flint about 40 feet below the surface. Each shaft required the removal of about 2000 tonnes of chalk and required a team of
workers several months to construct. About 60 tons of flint could be removed from each of these pits and the short horizontal
excavations that followed the high-quality flint layer at the base. Starting about 3000 BC until about 1900 BC, these miners built
over 400 shafts over an area of about 100 acres and removed thousands of tons of flint. [4] View Larger Map

Neolithic Flint Miners

Perhaps the most impressive story about flint is that of the ancient mining complexes that were built in what
is now England during Neolithic times. These excavations began about 4000 BC and continued until the
widespread use of metals about 2,000 years later. [5]

One flint mining complex of particular note was Grime's Graves located near Brandon, England. Here ancient
miners dug shafts down through 40 feet of Cretaceous chalk to a layer of high-quality flint below. Each shaft
was several feet in diameter and required the removal of about 2,000 tonnes of chalk. Most of the digging was
done without metal tools, using red deer antlers as picks. Over 400 of these shafts were sunk over an area of
about 100 acres. [6]

Although these mining operations were amazing feats of engineering, just as impressive was the geological
understanding of the workers. They knew that the flint was below the ground even though it did not outcrop
anywhere in the immediate area. They also knew that the highest quality flint layer was below lower quality
zones that were encountered during the early digging.

Flintlock: Close-up of a French flintlock rifle showing a flint ready to strike the steel frizzen, which will produce the spark
needed to ignite the powder. Photo © iStockphoto / Michael Westhoff.
Flint as a Source of Fire
Another important property of flint is its ability to generate sparks of hot material when it is struck against
steel. This property allows flint to be used as a fire-starter. Skilled people can use a piece of flint, a piece of
steel, and a little tinder to quickly start a fire.

Early firearms, such as a flintlock, had a piece of flint attached to a spring-loaded hammer that was released
when the trigger was pulled. The hammer struck a piece of steel known as a "frizzen" to create a shower of
sparks that ignited a small pan of powder. That touched off the primary charge which exploded to propel the
ball down the barrel.

Flint gemstone: Flint is often cut into dome-shaped stones known as cabochons. These can be set into pins, belt buckles,
pendants, bolos, and other jewelry items.

Flint as a Gemstone
Flint is a very durable material that accepts a bright polish and often occurs in attractive colors. It is
occasionally cut into cabochons, beads, and baroque shapes for use as a gemstone. It is also used to
produce tumbled stones in a rock tumbler.

Flint nodule: Flint is a variety of microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline quartz. It occurs as nodules and concretionary masses and
less frequently as a layered deposit. It breaks consistently with a conchoidal fracture and was one of the first materials used to
make tools by early people. They used it to make cutting tools. After thousands of years, people continue to use it. It is presently
used as the cutting edge in some of the finest surgical tools. This specimen is about four inches (ten centimeters) across and is
from Dover Cliffs, England.
Chalk cliffs: Chalk cliffs can be an excellent place to find flint. As the soft chalk weathers away, flint nodules fall to the beach
below. Image of chalk cliffs along the Baltic Sea, photo © iStockphoto / hsvrs.

Flint as a Construction Material

Where flint is abundant it is sometimes used as a construction material. It is very durable and resists weathering
better than almost any other natural stone. It is common to see walls, homes, and larger buildings that are built
partially or entirely with flint as a facing stone in southern England and many parts of Europe.

Flint wall: A portion of a wall of a medieval building in Suffolk, UK, built with split flints. Photo © iStockphoto / John
Woodcock.

Flint Information

[1] The World’s Oldest Stone Artefacts from Gona, Ethiopia: Their Implications for Understanding Stone Technology and Patterns of Human
Evolution Between 2.6 and 1.5 Million Years Ago, Sileshi Semaw, Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 27, pages 1197-1214, February
2000.

[2] Flint: Ohio’s Official Gemstone: Garry L. Getz, Educational Leaflet Number 6, Ohio Geological Survey, 2012.

[3] Ohio’s State Gemstone - Flint: Website article, Ohio History Central: An Online Encyclopedia of Ohio History, Ohio Historical Society, 1999.

[4] The Neolithic Flint Mines of Sussex: Britain's Earliest Monuments, website article, Bournemouth University Archaeology Group, 2011.

[5] Emmer Green (Hanover) South Chalk Mine Site Records, Subterranea Britannica, 2003. (This reference is provided for the excellent
photographs of the underground workings showing the main flint seam.)

[6] Grime's Graves Flint Mining Complex: Article from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, April 2012.

A Confusion of Names
Flint is a microcrystalline variety of quartz. Materials of this description have been given a wide variety of
names, including chert, jasper, agate, and chalcedony. Most geologists use the word "chert" for this material.

Some people believe that the name "flint" should be reserved for dark-colored chert that formed as nodules in
limestone or chalk. Some archaeologists believe that the name "flint" should only be used when the material
has been fashioned into an artifact.

The name "flint" has been so closely associated with starting fires that man-made materials used to produce
sparks in cigarette lighters and survival kits have been given the name "flints."

"Novaculite" is another similar material. It has a sedimentary origin that is similar to flint, but diagenesis and
metamorphism have increased the size of the quartz microcrystals. It has been used for thousands of years for
making sharp tools and weapons. Some specimens have a texture that make them useful as a sharpening stone.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Dolomite
A sedimentary rock similar to limestone. Also known as "dolostone" and "dolomite rock."

"The Dolomites" are a mountain range in northeastern Italy and part of the Italian Alps. They are one of the largest
exposures of dolomite rock on Earth - from which the name is obtained. The Dolomites are a UNESCO World
Heritage Site. Image © iStockphoto / Dan Breckwoldt.

Dolomite: A Mineral and a Rock

"Dolomite" is a word that is used by geologists in two different ways: 1) as the name of the mineral
dolomite; and, 2) as the name of a rock known as dolomite, dolostone, or dolomite rock.

This page is about dolomite rock. If you are looking for an article about the mineral, please go here.
Dolomite rock: A specimen of fine-grained dolomite rock from Lee, Massachusetts. It is about four inches (ten centimeters)
across.

What is Dolomite?
Dolomite, also known as "dolostone" and "dolomite rock," is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of the
mineral dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2. Dolomite is found in sedimentary basins worldwide. It is thought to form by
the postdepositional alteration of lime mud and limestone by magnesium-rich groundwater.

Dolomite and limestone are very similar rocks. They share the same color ranges of white-to-gray and white-
to-light brown (although other colors such as red, green, and black are possible). They are approximately the
same hardness, and they are both soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. They are both crushed and cut for use as
construction materials and used for their ability to neutralize acids.

Dolomitization
Dolomite is very common in the rock record, but the mineral dolomite is rarely observed forming in
sedimentary environments. For this reason it is believed that most dolomites form when lime muds or
limestones are modified by postdepositional chemical change.

Dolomite originates in the same sedimentary environments as limestone - warm, shallow, marine
environments where calcium carbonate mud accumulates in the form of shell debris, fecal material, coral
fragments, and carbonate precipitates. Dolomite is thought to form when the calcite(CaCO3) in carbonate mud
or limestone is modified by magnesium-rich groundwater. The available magnesium facilitates the conversion
of calcite into dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). This chemical change is known as "dolomitization." Dolomitization
can completely alter a limestone into a dolomite, or it can partially alter the rock to form a "dolomitic
limestone."
Dolomite aggregate: Dolomite aggregate used for asphalt paving, from Penfield, New York. These specimens are approximately
1/2 inch to 1 inch (1.3 centimeters to 2.5 centimeters) across.

Identification in the Field and Classroom

Dolomite is slightly harder than limestone. Dolomite has a Mohs hardness of 3.5 to 4, and limestone
(composed of the mineral calcite) has a hardness of 3.

Dolomite is slightly less soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. Calcite will effervesce vigorously in contact with
cold, dilute (5%) hydrochloric acid, while dolomite produces a very weak effervescence.

These differences are often not significant enough to make a positive identification in the field. Distinguishing
the rocks in the field is further complicated by a compositional continuum that ranges from limestone to
dolomitic limestone to dolomite. A chemical analysis that determines the relative abundances of calcium and
magnesium is needed to accurately name the rocks.

Dolostone: Photograph of a specimen of the Little Falls Dolostone from Herkimer County, New York. This dolostone is the host
rock for the doubly-terminated quartz crystals known as "Herkimer Diamonds." It is vuggy, has a high silica content, and is
much harder and tougher than the typical dolomite. The Herkimer Diamonds are found in petroleum-lined vugs in the rock unit.
Part of a Herkimer Diamond is visible in the large vug on the left side of this specimen.
"Dolomite Rock" and "Dolostone"
Some geologists are uncomfortable using the word "dolomite" for both a mineral and a rock of the same
composition. They instead prefer using "dolomite rock" or "dolostone" when speaking of the sedimentary rock
and "dolomite" when speaking of the mineral. Although these terms simplify communication and improve
accuracy, many geologists continue to use the word "dolomite" for both the mineral and the rock.

Granular dolomite: A specimen of coarsely crystalline dolomitic marble from Thornwood, New York. This specimen is
approximately 3 inches (6.7 centimeters) across.

Metamorphism of Dolomite
Dolomite behaves like limestone when it is subjected to heat and pressure. It begins to recrystallize as the
temperature rises. As this occurs, the size of the dolomite crystals in the rock increases, and the rock develops
a distinctly crystalline appearance.

If you examine the photo of granular dolomite, you will see that the rock is composed of easily recognizable
dolomite crystals. The coarse crystalline texture is a sign of recrystallization, most often caused by
metamorphism. Dolomite that has been transformed into a metamorphic rock is called "dolomitic marble."
Lime kiln: Dolomite and limestone have been heated in kilns to produce lime for thousands of years. This stone structure is the
Olema Lime Kiln, located in Marin County, California. It was built in 1850 for the production of lime. National Park Service
photo.

Uses of Dolomite
Dolomite and limestone are used in similar ways. They are crushed and used as an aggregate in construction
projects. They are kiln-fired in the manufacture of cement. They are cut into blocks and slabs for use as a
dimension stone. They are calcined to produce lime. In some of these uses, dolomite is preferred. Its greater
hardness makes it a superior construction material. Its lower solubility makes it more resistant to the acid
content of rain and soil.

The dolomitization process results in a slight volume reduction when limestone is converted into dolomite.
This can produce a porosity zone in the strata where dolomitization has occurred. These pore spaces can be
traps for subsurface fluids like oil and natural gas. This is why dolomite is often a reservoir rock that is
sought in the exploration for oil and natural gas. Dolomite can also serve as a host rock for lead, zinc,
and copper deposits.

In the chemical industry, dolomite is used as a source of magnesia (MgO). The steel industry uses dolomite
as a sintering agent in processing iron ore and as a flux in the production of steel. In agriculture, dolomite is
used as a soil conditioner and as a feed additive for livestock. Dolomite is used in the production of glass and
ceramics. Dolomite has been used as a minor source of magnesium, but today most magnesium is produced
from other sources.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Limestone
What Is Limestone and How Is It Used?

Limestone: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

What is Limestone?
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the form of the
mineral calcite. It most commonly forms in clear, warm, shallow marine waters. It is usually an organic
sedimentary rock that forms from the accumulation of shell, coral, algal, and fecal debris. It can also be a
chemical sedimentary rock formed by the precipitation of calcium carbonate from lake or ocean water.

A Limestone-Forming Environment: An underwater view of a coral reef system from the Kerama Islands in the East China Sea
southwest of Okinawa. Here the entire seafloor is covered by a wide variety of corals which produce calcium carbonate skeletons.
A United States Geological Survey image by Curt Storlazzi.
Limestone-Forming Environment: Marine
Most limestones form in shallow, calm, warm marine waters. That type of environment is where organisms
capable of forming calcium carbonate shells and skeletons can easily extract the needed ingredients from
ocean water. When these animals die, their shell and skeletal debris accumulate as a sediment that might be
lithified into limestone. Their waste products can also contribute to the sediment mass. Limestones formed
from this type of sediment are biological sedimentary rocks. Their biological origin is often revealed in the
rock by the presence of fossils.

Some limestones can form by direct precipitation of calcium carbonate from marine or fresh water. Limestones
formed this way are chemical sedimentary rocks. They are thought to be less abundant than biological
limestones.

Today Earth has many limestone-forming environments. Most of them are found in shallow water areas
between 30 degrees north latitude and 30 degrees south latitude. Limestone is forming in the Caribbean Sea,
Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Mexico, around Pacific Ocean islands, and within the Indonesian
archipelago.

One of these areas is the Bahamas Platform, located in the Atlantic Ocean about 100 miles southeast of
southern Florida (see satellite image). There, abundant corals, shellfish, algae, and other organisms produce
vast amounts of calcium carbonate skeletal debris that completely blankets the platform. This is producing an
extensive limestone deposit.

The Bahamas Platform: A NASA satellite image of the Bahamas Platform where active limestone formation occurs today. The
main platform is over 100 miles wide, and a great thickness of calcium carbonate sediments have accumulated there. In this image
the dark blue areas are deep ocean waters. The shallow Bahamas Platform appears as light blue. Enlarge image.
Limestone-Forming Environment: Evaporative

Limestone stalactite: A drop

of water hangs and
evaporates on the tip of a
stalactite. National Park
Service image.

Limestone can also form through evaporation. Stalactites, stalagmites, and other cave formations (often called
"speleothems") are examples of limestone that formed through evaporation. In a cave, droplets of water
seeping down from above enter the cave through fractures or other pore spaces in the cave ceiling. There they
might evaporate before falling to the cave floor. When the water evaporates, any calcium carbonate that was
dissolved in the water will be deposited on the cave ceiling. Over time, this evaporative process can result in
an accumulation of icicle-shaped calcium carbonate on the cave ceiling. These deposits are known as
stalactites. If the droplet falls to the floor and evaporates there, a stalagmite could grow upwards from the cave
floor.

The limestone that makes up these cave formations is known as "travertine" and is a chemical sedimentary
rock. A rock known as "tufa" is a limestone formed by evaporation at a hot spring, lake shore, or other area.

Related: The "Acid Test" for Carbonate Minerals

What is the Acid Test?

To most geologists, the term "acid test" means placing a drop of dilute (5% to 10%) hydrochloric acid on a
rock or mineral and watching for bubbles of carbon dioxide gas to be released. The bubbles signal the presence
of carbonate minerals such as calcite, dolomite, or one of the minerals listed in Table 1.

The bubbling release of carbon dioxide gas can be so weak that you need a hand lens to observe single bubbles
slowly growing in the drop of hydrochloric acid - or so vigorous that a flash of effervescence is produced.
These variations in effervescence vigor are a result of the type of carbonate minerals present, the amount of
carbonate present, the particle size of the carbonate, and the temperature of the acid.
Magnesite: The mineral magnesite, which has a chemical composition of MgCO3, will effervesce weakly with warm hydrochloric
acid and very weakly with cold acid. Specimen is about 6.4 cm across.

What Causes the Fizz?

Carbonate minerals are unstable in contact with hydrochloric acid. When acid begins to effervesce (fizz) on a
specimen, a reaction similar to the one shown below is taking place.

On the left side of this reaction, the mineral calcite (CaCO3) is in contact with hydrochloric acid (HCl). These
react to form carbon dioxide gas (CO2), water (H2O), dissolved calcium (Ca++), and dissolved chlorine (Cl--).
The carbon dioxide bubbles that you observe are evidence that the reaction is taking place. When that occurs,
calcite or another carbonate mineral is present.

Many other carbonate minerals react with hydrochloric acid. Each of these minerals consists of one or more
metal ions combined with a carbonate ion (CO3--). The chemistry of these reactions is similar to the calcite
reaction above. The mineral reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce carbon dioxide gas, water, a dissolved
metal ion, and dissolved chlorine. The reactions for magnesite (MgCO3) and siderite (FeCO3) are shown
below.
Calcite: This transparent specimen of calcite shows cleavage that is characteristic of the mineral. Calcite, with a composition of
CaCO3, will react strongly with either cold or warm hydrochloric acid. Specimen measures about 10 cm across.

Acid Reactions of Carbonate Minerals

Mineral Chemical Composition Cold Acid Reaction Warm Acid Reaction

Aragonite CaCO3 strong strong

Azurite Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2 yes strong

Calcite CaCO3 strong strong

Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 weak yes

Magnesite MgCO3 very weak weak

Malachite Cu2CO3(OH)2 yes yes

Rhodochrosite MnCO3 weak yes

Siderite FeCO3 very weak weak

Smithsonite ZnCO3 weak yes

Strontianite SrCO3 yes yes

Witherite BaCO3 weak weak

Table 1: A list of commonly and occasionally encountered carbonate minerals with their chemical formula and reactions to cold and warm
hydrochloric acid. Test results can vary because of weathering, previous testing, contamination, and specimen purity.

The Vigor of Carbonate Reactions

Careful observation is important because some carbonate minerals react vigorously and others barely react
with cold acid.
The carbonate mineral that is most commonly encountered by geologists is calcite (CaCO3). Calcite is a
"ubiquitous" mineral. Ubiquitous means "found everywhere." Calcite occurs in igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentary rocks and is the most commonly encountered carbonate mineral. If you place one drop of
cold hydrochloric acid on calcite, the entire drop of acid will erupt with bubbles and a vigorous fizz will last
for a few seconds.

Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 is another commonly encountered carbonate mineral. If you place one drop of cold
hydrochloric acid on a piece of dolomite, the reaction is weak or not observed. Instead of seeing an obvious
fizz, you will see a drop of acid on the surface of the mineral that might have a few bubbles of carbon dioxide
gas slowly growing on the dolomite surface.

However, if warm acid is placed on dolomite an obvious fizz will occur. This occurs because the acid and
rock react more vigorously at higher temperatures.

If you place a drop of hydrochloric acid on powdered dolomite, a visible reaction will occur. This is because
the surface area has been increased, making more dolomite available to the acid. (You can easily make
dolomite powder by scratching a specimen of dolomite across a streak plate. Then test the powder by placing
a drop of hydrochloric acid on the powder. Another easy way to produce a small amount of mineral powder
is to scratch the specimen with a nail.)

Different carbonate minerals have different responses to hydrochloric acid. A list of common and occasionally
encountered carbonate minerals is given in Table 1 with their chemical composition and their relative reaction
with cold and warm hydrochloric acid.

When a mineral has a weak response to acid, you must be observant and patient to see it. For example,
magnesite has a very weak reaction with cold HCl. If you powder a small amount of magnesite on a streak
plate and place a drop of acid on it, you might not see any action for several seconds. Then, as tiny bubbles
begin to form on particles of magnesite, the drop of acid will appear to grow larger in size. That occurs as
carbon dioxide is liberated from the mineral and displaces the water. Observing the formation of bubbles with
a hand lens can be helpful.

Dolostone: Dolostone is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of the mineral dolomite, which has a chemical composition of
CaMg(CO3)2. Dolomite will effervesce weakly with cold hydrochloric acid, producing a few bubbles. The reaction is more
noticeable when the acid is warm and/or the stone is powdered. The specimen in the photo is about 10 cm across.

The Acid Test on Rocks

LIMESTONE, DOLOSTONE, AND MARBLE
Some rocks contain carbonate minerals, and the acid test can be used to help identify them. Limestone is
composed almost entirely of calcite and will produce a vigorous fizz with a drop of hydrochloric
acid. Dolostone is a rock composed of almost entirely of dolomite. It will produce a very weak fizz when a
drop of cold hydrochloric acid is placed upon it, a more obvious fizz when powdered dolostone is tested, and
a stronger fizz when hot hydrochloric acid is used.

Limestone and dolostone can be a little more complex. They are sometimes composed of a mixture of calcite
and dolomite and have acid reactions that are deceptive. A dolostone can contain enough calcite to fool you
into calling it a limestone. For these rocks the acid test might not be enough for a confident identification - but
at least you will know that the rock has a significant carbonate mineral content.

Marble is a limestone or a dolostone that has been metamorphosed. It will have an acid reaction that is similar
to the limestone or dolostone from which it was formed.

Other Applications of the "Acid Test": Geologists can use dilute hydrochloric acid to help identify the cementing agent of
sandstones. They place a drop of dilute HCl on the sandstone and closely observe. If calcite is the cementing agent, an
effervescence will occur and some of the sand grains might be liberated. A hand lens or small microscope is used to make the
observations. The photo above is a magnified view of a piece of Oriskany Sandstone, an Ordovician-age rock unit from the
Appalachian Basin that serves as a natural gas reservoir and a natural gas storage unit. Oriskany sandstone is often cemented by
calcite.

OTHER ROCKS THAT FIZZ

Always remember that "calcite is ubiquitous." (Ubiquitous means that it is found almost everywhere.)

Many rocks contain small amounts of calcite or other carbonate minerals. All of these can produce a fizz even
though the carbonate is only a minor part of a rock's composition. These rocks might contain small veins or
crystals of carbonate minerals that produce a fizz in contact with acid. These veins and crystals can be so tiny
that they are not visible to the unaided eye. This small amount of carbonate might fizz the first time a drop of
acid is applied but be depleted and not fizz if acid is applied a second time to the same location on the rock.

Some sedimentary rocks are bound together with calcite or dolomite cement. Sandstone, siltstone,
and conglomerate sometimes have calcite cement that will produce a vigorous fizz with cold hydrochloric
acid. Some conglomerates and breccias contain clasts of carbonate rocks or minerals that react with acid.

Many shales were deposited in marine environments and contain enough calcium carbonate to produce a
vigorous acid fizz. These shales were formed when mud was deposited in an environment similar to or adjacent
to where limestone was formed. They are composed of sedimentary clay minerals intermixed with a small
amount of calcite. They are known as "calcareous shales."

Don't allow an acid fizz to guide the identification process. In many cases it will instead add detail to your
observation such as: "calcareous shale" or "sandstone with carbonate cement." This is valuable information.

Vinegar can be used for the acid test: Vinegar can be a safe, economical and easy-to-obtain "acid" for identifying calcite and
dolomite. Vinegar is dilute acetic acid that produces a very weak reaction with calcite and dolomite - best observed with a hand
lens.

The "Vinegar Test"

Vinegar is a dilute acetic acid solution (about 5% to 10%) that produces a weak effervescent reaction with calcite
and dolomite. It can be used instead of hydrochloric acid for introducing students to the acid test. Vinegar is easy
to obtain, inexpensive, and safer to use than hydrochloric acid.

The effervescence using vinegar usually requires a hand lens for clear observation and is only observable with
carbonate minerals that have a strong reaction with hydrochloric acid. Vinegar is often used when the acid test is
part of a precollege course. Protective gloves, glasses, paper towels, and immediate access to an eyewash station
are recommended.

EXTREME ACID REACTIONS

A few rocks can produce an extreme reaction with hydrochloric acid. These are usually rocks composed of
calcite or aragonite with abundant pore space or extremely high surface areas. Some specimens of chalk,
coquina, oolite, and tufa are examples. When a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid is placed on these specimens,
an eruption of acid foam can rise up off of the rock and spread to an unexpected diameter. The reaction is very
brief (and may not be repeatable), but it is so sudden and vigorous that it can surprise an inexperienced person.
This description is for one drop of acid. If more is used an even more vigorous reaction will occur. (These
extreme reactions will not occur with every specimen of these rocks. Be aware when testing them or presenting
them to students for testing.)

The extremely vigorous reaction of cold hydrochloric acid with these specimens occurs because the rocks are
so porous or because they have a very high surface area under a single drop of acid.
TEST UNWEATHERED MATERIAL

Calcite and other carbonate minerals have a low resistance to weathering and can be attacked by acids in
natural waters and soils. When testing material that has been exposed at Earth's surface, it is very important
to test unweathered material. A fresh surface can usually be obtained by breaking the rock.

DECEIVED BY POROSITY!

Some rocks are porous and contain a reservoir of air. Small amounts of air escaping into a drop of acid from
below can give the appearance of a gentle acid reaction. Don't be fooled. If you place a drop of acid on some
sandstones, a few bubbles will emerge out of pore spaces. It's not a carbonate cement. To avoid this problem
scratch the rock across a streak plate and test the powder or the grains that are produced.

Contamination in Mineral Identification Labs

When students are given minerals to identify, two situations can cause problems with their work.

1) In mineral identification labs, some students are ready to call any mineral that produces an acid reaction
"calcite" or another carbonate. However, calcite is a ubiquitous mineral and it is often present as an intimate
part of other mineral specimens and rocks. These can produce a false acid reaction. To avoid being misled,
students should always be cautioned to confirm a specimen's identity with multiple properties. If a specimen
fizzes with acid but has a Mohs hardness of seven and breaks with a conchoidal fracture, then it certainly isn't
calcite!

Depending upon the experience of the students, specimens that are very true to their properties can be
presented to the class, or specimens with some challenges can be used. Lots of minerals found in the field will
not be absolutely true to properties. It's better to learn that lesson in the lab and go into the field with wisdom.

2) Since calcite is one of the index minerals of the Mohs Hardness Scale, it is often used to test the hardness
of mineral specimens. This can place small amounts of calcite potentially on every unknown specimen in the
lab! Don't assume that a single acid reaction is correct. Test the specimen in a second location if you suspect
that contamination has occurred.

In a mineral identification lab, barite is commonly confused with calcite because of contamination. The barite
might naturally contain small amounts of calcite, or the hardness testing of a previous student might have left
small amounts of calcite on a barite specimen. Students are often drawn to an identification as "calcite" simply
because of the acid test. If that mineral exhibits a bit of cleavage and is not very hard, then many students will
arrive at an incorrect identification.

Acid Test Safety

Hydrochloric acid, properly diluted to a 10% concentration, can cause irritation if it contacts the skin or eyes. It
can also fade clothing. Hydrochloric acid should kept in clearly-labeled dispensing bottles and used with quick and
easy access to paper towels, water, and an eyewash station. Safety glasses and protective gloves are
recommended.

If skin contact occurs the area should be flushed with plenty of water. If eye contact occurs the eye should be
flushed for 15 minutes with plenty of water. If a contact lens is worn, the eye should be flushed, contact lens
removed, and flushing continued. Seek prompt medical attention for eye contact.

Specimens that are tested with acid should be rinsed after testing to remove or dilute unreacted acid.
Limiting Frivolous Acid Use in Labs
Most students are intrigued with the acid test and want to try it. To limit frivolous acid use, students should
be instructed to use a single drop of acid for the test and to only test specimens when carbonate minerals are
suspected. If that is not done, some students will use the acid frivolously. This behavior is encouraged if the
classroom is equipped with large acid bottles that are filled to the top. However, if the acid bottles are small
and nearly empty at the beginning of class, students usually ration their use of the acid to appropriate amounts.
Small, nearly empty bottles makes less acid available to spill.

Acid dispensing bottles: Small acid dispensing bottles work well for the acid test. They dispense the acid one-drop-at-a-time and
will not spill if they are knocked over. If you are a teacher supervising the acid test in a classroom, give students small bottles that
are nearly empty. That will reduce the amount of frivolous acid use that might otherwise occur. Label the bottles clearly and
instruct students in acid use before making them available.

Acid Bottle Selection

The type of bottle selected for dispensing the acid is important. Laboratory supply stores sell bottles that are
designed for dispensing acid one-drop-at-a-time. The lid is always on these bottles (except when they are
being cleaned or refilled), and they do not produce a spill when they are knocked over. Bottles with a
removable lid that has a squeeze bulb dispenser will be occasionally knocked over when the lid is off if they
are being used by normal humans.

Acid dispensing bottles should be made of rigid plastic with a small opening which allows acid to be easily
dispensed one-drop-at-a-time. Soft dispensing bottles or bottles with a larger opening can dispense a large
amount of acid with an accidental squeeze.

Sources of Hydrochloric Acid

Hydrochloric acid diluted to a 10% solution cannot be purchased in most communities. The best place to
purchase commercially prepared solutions is from a laboratory supply company. Purchasing it ready-for-use
is the recommended way to obtain it. Don't try to prepare your own solution if you don't know exactly what
you are doing and have an equipped laboratory. Your chemistry department might be able to assist you with
ordering acid. Some generous chemists will prepare a 10% solution for you.

Mineral Specimens as "Consumables"

Mineral specimens that are used properly in the science classroom or laboratory will need to be replaced
frequently. Students will be investigating them with hardness tests, streak tests, acid tests and other
experiments. All of these tests damage the specimen and make it less fit for the next group of students. To
keep the acid test from fouling your entire collection, ask students to rinse specimens after testing with acid
and limit testing to only when it is needed.

Contributor: Hobart King

Composition of Limestone
Limestone is by definition a rock that contains at least 50% calcium carbonate in the form of calcite by weight.
All limestones contain at least a few percent other materials. These can be small particles of quartz, feldspar,
clay minerals, pyrite, siderite, and other minerals. It can also contain large nodules of chert, pyrite, or siderite.

The calcium carbonate content of limestone gives it a property that is often used in rock identification - it
effervesces in contact with a cold solution of 5% hydrochloric acid.

Chalk: A fine-grained, light-colored limestone formed from the calcium carbonate skeletal remains of tiny marine organisms.
Coquina: This photo shows the shell hash known as coquina. The rock shown here is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Tufa: A porous limestone that forms from the precipitation of calcium carbonate, often at a hot spring or along the shoreline of a
lake where waters are saturated with calcium carbonate.

Varieties of Limestone
There are many different names used for limestone. These names are based upon how the rock formed, its
appearance or its composition, and other factors. Here are some of the more commonly used varieties.

Chalk: A soft limestone with a very fine texture that is usually white or light gray in color. It is formed mainly from the
calcareous shell remains of microscopic marine organisms such as foraminifers, or the calcareous remains from
numerous types of marine algae.

Coquina: A poorly-cemented limestone that is composed mainly of broken shell debris. It often forms on beaches
where wave action segregates shell fragments of similar size.

Fossiliferous Limestone: A limestone that contains obvious and abundant fossils. These are normally shell and skeletal
fossils of the organisms that produced the limestone.

Lithographic Limestone: A dense limestone with a very fine and very uniform grain size that occurs in thin beds which
separate easily to form a very smooth surface. In the late 1700s, a printing process (lithography) was developed to
reproduce images by drawing them on the stone with an oil-based ink and then using that stone to press multiple
copies of the image.
Oolitic Limestone: A limestone composed mainly of calcium carbonate "oolites," small spheres formed by the
concentric precipitation of calcium carbonate on a sand grain or shell fragment.

Travertine: A limestone that forms by evaporative precipitation, often in a cave, to produce formations such as
stalactites, stalagmites, and flowstone.

Tufa: A limestone produced by precipitation of calcium-laden waters at a hot spring, lake shore, or other location.

Crinoidal Limestone: A limestone that contains a significant amount of crinoid fossils. Crinoids are organisms that have the
morphology of a stemmed plant but are actually animals. Rarely, crinoidal and other types of limestone, have the ability to accept
a bright polish and have interesting colors. These specimens can be made into unusual organic gems. This cabochon is about 39
millimeters square and was cut from material found in China.

Arenaceous Limestone: This image is a microscopic view of a polished surface of the Loyalhanna Limestone from Fayette
County, Pennsylvania. The Loyalhanna is a Late Mississippian calcareous sandstone to arenaceous limestone, composed of
siliceous sand grains embedded in a calcium carbonate matrix or bound by a calcium carbonate cement. It is cross-bedded with
features that have caused geologists to argue if it is of marine bar or eolian dune origin. This view shows about one centimeter of
rock between opposing corners of the photo with sand grains measuring about 1/2 millimeter in diameter. The Loyalhanna is
valued as an antiskid aggregate. When it is used to make concrete paving, sand grains in aggregate particles exposed on a wet
pavement surface provide traction for tires, giving the pavement an antiskid quality.

Uses of Limestone
Limestone is a rock with an enormous diversity of uses. It could be the one rock that is used in more ways
than any other. Most limestone is made into crushed stone and used as a construction material. It is used as a
crushed stone for road base and railroad ballast. It is used as an aggregate in concrete. It is fired in a kiln with
crushed shale to make cement.

Some varieties of limestone perform well in these uses because they are strong, dense rocks with few pore
spaces. These properties enable them to stand up well to abrasion and freeze-thaw. Although limestone does
not perform as well in these uses as some of the harder silicate rocks, it is much easier to mine and does not
exert the same level of wear on mining equipment, crushers, screens, and the beds of the vehicles that transport
it.

Some additional but also important uses of limestone include:

Dimension Stone: Limestone is often cut into blocks and slabs of specific dimensions for use in construction and in
architecture. It is used for facing stone, floor tiles, stair treads, window sills, and many other purposes.

Roofing Granules: Crushed to a fine particle size, crushed limestone is used as a weather and heat-resistant coating
on asphalt-impregnated shingles and roofing. It is also used as a top coat on built-up roofs.

Flux Stone: Crushed limestone is used in smelting and other metal refining processes. In the heat of smelting,
limestone combines with impurities and can be removed from the process as a slag.

Portland Cement: Limestone is heated in a kiln with shale, sand, and other materials and ground to a powder that will
harden after being mixed with water.

AgLime: Calcium carbonate is one of the most cost-effective acid-neutralizing agents. When crushed to sand-size or
smaller particles, limestone becomes an effective material for treating acidic soils. It is widely used on farms
throughout the world.

Lime: If calcium carbonate (CaC03) is heated to high temperature in a kiln, the products will be a release of carbon
dioxide gas (CO2) and calcium oxide (CaO). The calcium oxide is a powerful acid-neutralization agent. It is widely used
as a soil treatment agent (faster acting than aglime) in agriculture and as an acid-neutralization agent by the chemical
industry.

Animal Feed Filler: Chickens need calcium carbonate to produce strong egg shells, so calcium carbonate is often
offered to them as a dietary supplement in the form of "chicken grits." It is also added to the feed of some dairy cattle
who must replace large amounts of calcium lost when the animal is milked.

Mine Safety Dust: Also known as "rock dust." Pulverized limestone is a white powder that can be sprayed onto exposed
coal surfaces in an underground mine. This coating improves illumination and reduces the amount of coal dust that
activity stirs up and releases into the air. This improves the air for breathing, and it also reduces the explosion hazard
produced by suspended particles of flammable coal dust in the air.
Limestone has many other uses. Powdered limestone is used as a filler in paper, paint, rubber, and plastics.
Crushed limestone is used as a filter stone in on-site sewage disposal systems. Powdered limestone is also
used as a sorbent (a substance that absorbs pollutants) at many coal-burning facilities.

Limestone is not found everywhere. It only occurs in areas underlain by sedimentary rocks. Limestone is
needed in other areas and is so important that buyers will pay five times the value of the stone in delivery
charges so that limestone can be used in their project or process.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Iron Ore
What Is Iron Ore, How Does It Form, and What Is It Used For?

Iron Ore: A specimen of oolitic hematite iron ore. The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

What is Iron Ore?

Earth's most important iron ore deposits are found in sedimentary rocks. They formed from chemical
reactions that combined iron and oxygen in marine and fresh waters. The two most important minerals in these
deposits are iron oxides: hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4). These iron ores have been mined to
produce almost every iron and steel object that we use today - from paper clips to automobiles to the steel
beams in skyscrapers.

How Does Iron Ore Form?

Nearly all of Earth's major iron ore deposits are in rocks that formed over 1.8 billion years ago. At that time
Earth's oceans contained abundant dissolved iron and almost no dissolved oxygen. The iron ore deposits began
forming when the first organisms capable of photosynthesis began releasing oxygen into the waters. This
oxygen immediately combined with the abundant dissolved iron to produce hematite or magnetite. These
minerals deposited on the sea floor in great abundance, forming what are now known as the "banded iron
formations." The rocks are "banded" because the iron minerals deposited in alternating bands with silica and
sometimes shale. The banding might have resulted from seasonal changes in organism activity.
Steel Mill: Most iron ore is used to make steel. Here a steel slab is being cut to length in a steel mill. Image © iStockphoto /
Alfredo Tisi.

What is Iron Ore Used For?

The primary use of iron ore is in the production of iron. Most of the iron produced is then used to make steel.
Steel is used to make automobiles, locomotives, ships, beams used in buildings, furniture, paper clips, tools,
reinforcing rods for concrete, bicycles, and thousands of other items. It is the most-used metal by both tonnage
and purpose.

Contributor: Hobart King

Banded Iron Formation: Close-up view of a banded iron formation. In this specimen bands of hematite (silver) alternate with
bands of jasper (red). This photo spans an area of rock about one foot wide. Photo taken by André Karwath, GNU Free
Documentation License.
 Rock Salt

What is Rock Salt?

Rock Salt: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters)
across.

Rock Salt is a chemical sedimentary rock that forms from the evaporation of ocean or saline lake waters. It is also known
by the mineral name "halite". It is rarely found at Earth's surface, except in areas of very arid climate. It is often mined for
use in the chemical industry or for use as a winter highway treatment. Some halite is processed for use as a seasoning
for food.
 Geology and Resources of Some World Oil-Shale Deposits
Reprint of: USGS Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5294

By John R. Dyni

Introduction What is Oil Shale?

Oil shale is commonly defined as a fine-grained

sedimentary rock containing organic matter that
yields substantial amounts of oil and combustible
gas upon destructive distillation. Most of the
organic matter is insoluble in ordinary organic
solvents; therefore, it must be decomposed by
heating to release such materials. Underlying
most definitions of oil shale is its potential for the
economic recovery of energy, including shale oil
and combustible gas, as well as a number of
byproducts. A deposit of oil shale having economic
potential is generally one that is at or near enough
to the surface to be developed by open-pit or
conventional underground mining or by in-situ
methods.

Oil shales range widely in organic content and oil

Oil shale is a rock that contains significant amounts of organic material in the form of kerogen.
yield. Commercial grades of oil shale, as
Up to 1/3 of the rock can be solid organic material. Liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons can be
determined by their yield of shale oil, ranges from extracted from the oil shale but the rock must be heated and/or treated with solvents. This is
about 100 to 200 liters per metric ton (l/t) of rock. usually much less efficient than drilling rocks that will yield oil or gas directly into a well. The
The U.S. Geological Survey has used a lower limit processes used for hydrocarbon extraction also produce emissions and waste products that
cause significant environmental concerns.
of about 40 l/t for classification of Federal oil-shale
lands. Others have suggested a limit as low as 25 Oil shale usually meets the definition of "shale" in that it is "a laminated rock consisting of at
l/t. least 67% clay minerals," however, it sometimes contains enough organic material and
carbonate minerals that clay minerals account for less than 67% of the rock.
Deposits of oil shale are in many parts of the
world. These deposits, which range from
Cambrian to Tertiary age, may occur as minor
accumulations of little or no economic value or
giant deposits that occupy thousands of square
kilometers and reach thicknesses of 700 m or
more. Oil shales were deposited in a variety of
depositional environments, including fresh-water
to highly saline lakes, epicontinental marine
basins and subtidal shelves, and in limnic and
coastal swamps, commonly in association with
deposits of coal.

In terms of mineral and elemental content, oil

shale differs from coal in several distinct ways. Oil
shales typically contain much larger amounts of
inert mineral matter (60-90 percent) than coals,
which have been defined as containing less than
40 percent mineral matter. The organic matter of
oil shale, which is the source of liquid and gaseous
hydrocarbons, typically has a higher hydrogen and
lower oxygen content than that of lignite and United States of America Oil Shale
bituminous coal.

In general, the precursors of the organic matter in

oil shale and coal also differ. Much of the organic
matter in oil shale is of algal origin, but may also
include remains of vascular land plants that more
commonly compose much of the organic matter in
coal. The origin of some of the organic matter in
oil shale is obscure because of the lack of
recognizable biologic structures that would help
identify the precursor organisms. Such materials
may be of bacterial origin or the product of
bacterial degradation of algae or other organic
matter.

The mineral component of some oil shales is Areas underlain by the Green River Formation in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming, United States
composed of carbonates including calcite, (after Dyni, 2005) and major areas of surface minable Devonian oil shale in the eastern United
dolomite, and siderite, with lesser amounts of States (after Matthews and others 1980). More information on United States oil shale.
aluminosilicates. For other oil shales, the reverse
is true-silicates including quartz, feldspar, and clay
minerals are dominant and carbonates are a minor
component. Many oil-shale deposits contain Oil Shale - Country Menu
small, but ubiquitous, amounts of sulfides
including pyrite and marcasite, indicating that the
 Introduction  Morocco
sediments probably accumulated in dysaerobic to
anoxic waters that prevented the destruction of the  Australia  Russia
organic matter by burrowing organisms and  Brazil  Sweden
oxidation.  Canada  Syria
 China  Thailand
Although shale oil in today's (2004) world market  Estonia  Turkey
is not competitive with petroleum, natural gas, or  Israel  United States
coal, it is used in several countries that possess  Jordan  References Cited
easily exploitable deposits of oil shale but lack
other fossil fuel resources. Some oil-shale
deposits contain minerals and metals that add
byproduct value such as alum [KAl(SO4)2.12H2O], Australia Oil Shale
nahcolite (NaHCO3), dawsonite [NaAl(OH)2CO3],
sulfur, ammonium sulfate, vanadium, zinc, copper,
and uranium.

The gross heating value of oil shales on a dry-

weight basis ranges from about 500 to 4,000
kilocalories per kilogram (kcal/kg) of rock. The
high-grade kukersite oil shale of Estonia, which
fuels several electric power plants, has a heating
value of about 2,000 to 2,200 kcal/kg. By
comparison, the heating value of lignitic coal
ranges from 3,500 to 4,600 kcal/kg on a dry,
mineral-free basis (American Society for Testing
Materials, 1966).

Tectonic events and volcanism have altered some

deposits. Structural deformation may impair the
mining of an oil-shale deposit, whereas igneous
intrusions may have thermally degraded the
organic matter. Thermal alteration of this type may
be restricted to a small part of the deposit, or it may
be widespread making most of the deposit unfit for
recovery of shale oil.
Deposits of oil shale in Australia (locations after Crisp and others, 1987; and, Cook and
Sherwood 1989). More information on Australia oil shale.
The purpose of this report is to (1) discuss the
geology and summarize the resources of selected Brazil Oil Shale
deposits of oil shale in varied geologic settings
from different parts of the world and (2) present
new information on selected deposits developed
since 1990 (Russell, 1990).

Recoverable Resources

The commercial development of an oil-shale

deposit depends upon many factors. The geologic
setting and the physical and chemical
characteristics of the resource are of primary
importance. Roads, railroads, power lines, water,
and available labor are among the factors to be
considered in determining the viability of an oil-
shale operation. Oil-shale lands that could be
mined may be preempted by present land usage
such as population centers, parks, and wildlife
refuges. Development of new in-situ mining and
processing technologies may allow an oil-shale
operation in previously restricted areas without
causing damage to the surface or posing problems
of air and water pollution.

The availability and price of petroleum ultimately

effect the viability of a large-scale oil-shale Deposits of oil shale in Brazil (locations after Padula, 1969). More information on Brazil oil
industry. Today, few, if any deposits can be shale .

economically mined and processed for shale oil in

competition with petroleum. Nevertheless, some
countries with oil-shale resources, but lack
petroleum reserves, find it expedient to operate an
Canada Oil Shale
oil-shale industry. As supplies of petroleum
diminish in future years and costs for petroleum
increase, greater use of oil shale for the production
of electric power, transportation fuels,
petrochemicals, and other industrial products
seems likely.

Determining Grade of Oil Shale

The grade of oil shale has been determined by

many different methods with the results expressed
in a variety of units. The heating value of the oil
shale may be determined using a calorimeter.
Values obtained by this method are reported in
English or metric units, such as British thermal
units (Btu) per pound of oil shale, calories per Oil-shale deposits in Canada (locations after Macauley, 1981). More information on Canada oil
gram (cal/gm) of rock, kilocalories per kilogram shale.
(kcal/kg) of rock, megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg)
of rock, and other units. The heating value is
useful for determining the quality of an oil shale
that is burned directly in a power plant to produce Estonia and Sweden Oil Shale
electricity. Although the heating value of a given
oil shale is a useful and fundamental property of
the rock, it does not provide information on the
amounts of shale oil or combustible gas that would
be yielded by retorting (destructive distillation).

The grade of oil shale can be determined by

measuring the yield of oil of a shale sample in a
laboratory retort. This is perhaps the most
common type of analysis that is currently used to
evaluate an oil-shale resource. The method
commonly used in the United States is called the
"modified Fischer assay," first developed in
Germany, then adapted by the U.S. Bureau of
Mines for analyzing oil shale of the Green River
Formation in the western United States (Stanfield
and Frost, 1949). The technique was
subsequently standardized as the American
Society for Testing and Materials Method D-3904-
80 (1984). Some laboratories have further
modified the Fischer assay method to better
evaluate different types of oil shale and different
methods of oil-shale processing.

The standardized Fischer assay method consists

of heating a 100-gram sample crushed to -8 mesh
(2.38-mm mesh) screen in a small aluminum retort
to 500ºC at a rate of 12ºC per minute and held at
that temperature for 40 minutes. The distilled
vapors of oil, gas, and water are passed through a
condenser cooled with ice water into a graduated
centrifuge tube. The oil and water are then
separated by centrifuging. The quantities reported
are the weight percentages of shale oil (and its Location of the kukersite deposits in northern Estonia and Russia (locations after Kattai and
specific gravity), water, shale residue, and "gas Lokk, 1998; and Bauert, 1994). Also, areas of Alum Shale in Sweden (locations after Andersson
and others, 1985). More information on Estonia and Sweden oil shale
plus loss" by difference.

The Fischer assay method does not determine the

total available energy in an oil shale. When oil
shale is retorted, the organic matter decomposes
into oil, gas, and a residuum of carbon char
remaining in the retorted shale. The amounts of
individual gases-chiefly hydrocarbons, hydrogen,
and carbon dioxide-are not normally determined
but are reported collectively as "gas plus loss,"
which is the difference of 100 weight percent
minus the sum of the weights of oil, water, and
spent shale. Some oil shales may have a greater
energy potential than that reported by the Fischer
assay method depending on the components of
the "gas plus loss."

The Fischer assay method also does not

necessarily indicate the maximum amount of oil
that can be produced by a given oil shale. Other
retorting methods, such as the Tosco II process,
are known to yield in excess of 100 percent of the
yield reported by Fischer assay. In fact, special
methods of retorting, such as the Hytort process,
can increase oil yields of some oil shales by as
much as three to four times the yield obtained by
the Fischer assay method (Schora and others,
1983; Dyni and others, 1990). At best, the Fischer
assay method only approximates the energy Israel and Jordan Oil Shale
potential of an oil-shale deposit.

Newer techniques for evaluating oil-shale

resources include the Rock-Eval and the
"material-balance" Fischer assay methods. Both
give more complete information about the grade of
oil shale, but are not widely used. The modified
Fischer assay, or close variations thereof, is still
the major source of information for most deposits.

It would be useful to develop a simple and reliable

assay method for determining the energy potential
of an oil shale that would include the total heat
energy and the amounts of oil, water, combustible
gases including hydrogen, and char in sample
residue.

Origin of Organic Matter

Organic matter in oil shale includes the remains of

algae, spores, pollen, plant cuticle and corky
fragments of herbaceous and woody plants, and
other cellular remains of lacustrine, marine, and
land plants. These materials are composed chiefly
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur.
Some organic matter retains enough biological Deposits of oil shale in Israel (locations after Minster, 1994). Also, oil-shale deposits in Jordan
structures so that specific types can be identified (locations after Jaber and others, 1997; and, Hamarneh, 1998). More information on Israel and
Jordan oil shale.
as to genus and even species. In some oil shales,
the organic matter is unstructured and is best
described as amorphous (bituminite). The origin of
this amorphous material is not well known, but it is Morocco Oil Shale
likely a mixture of degraded algal or bacterial
remains. Small amounts of plant resins and waxes
also contribute to the organic matter. Fossil shell
and bone fragments composed of phosphatic and
carbonate minerals, although of organic origin, are
excluded from the definition of organic matter used
herein and are considered to be part of the mineral
matrix of the oil shale.

Most of the organic matter in oil shales is derived

from various types of marine and lacustrine algae.
It may also include varied admixtures of
biologically higher forms of plant debris that
depend on the depositional environment and
geographic position. Bacterial remains can be
volumetrically important in many oil shales, but
they are difficult to identify.

Most of the organic matter in oil shale is insoluble

in ordinary organic solvents, whereas some is Oil-shale deposits in Morocco (locations after Bouchta, 1984). More information
bitumen that is soluble in certain organic solvents. on Morocco oil shale.
Solid hydrocarbons, including gilsonite, wurtzilite,
grahamite, ozokerite, and albertite, are present as
veins or pods in some oil shales. These
hydrocarbons have somewhat varied chemical China, Russia, Syria, Thailand and Turkey
and physical characteristics, and several have
been mined commercially.

Thermal Maturity of Organic

Matter

The thermal maturity of an oil shale refers to the

degree to which the organic matter has been
altered by geothermal heating. If the oil shale is
heated to a high enough temperature, as may be
the case if the oil shale were deeply buried, the
organic matter may thermally decompose to form
oil and gas. Under such circumstances, oil shales
can be source rocks for petroleum and natural
gas. The Green River oil shale, for example, is
presumed to be the source of the oil in the Red
Wash field in northeastern Utah. On the other
hand, oil-shale deposits that have economic
potential for their shale-oil and gas yields are Other countries with oil shale. More information on China, Russia, Syria, Thailand and
geothermally immature and have not been Turkey oil shale
subjected to excessive heating. Such deposits are
generally close enough to the surface to be mined
by open-pit, underground mining, or by in-situ
methods.

The degree of thermal maturity of an oil shale can

be determined in the laboratory by several
methods. One technique is to observe the
changes in color of the organic matter in samples
collected from varied depths in a borehole.
Assuming that the organic matter is subjected to
geothermal heating as a function of depth, the
colors of certain types of organic matter change
from lighter to darker colors. These color
differences can be noted by a petrographer and
measured using photometric techniques.

Geothermal maturity of organic matter in oil shale

is also determined by the reflectance of vitrinite (a
common constituent of coal derived from vascular
land plants), if present in the rock. Vitrinite
reflectance is commonly used by petroleum
explorationists to determine the degree of
geothermal alteration of petroleum source rocks in
a sedimentary basin. A scale of vitrinite
reflectances has been developed that indicates
when the organic matter in a sedimentary rock has
reached temperatures high enough to generate oil
and gas. However, this method can pose a
problem with respect to oil shale, because the
reflectance of vitrinite may be depressed by the
presence of lipid-rich organic matter.

Vitrinite may be difficult to recognize in oil shale

because it resembles other organic material of
algal origin and may not have the same
reflectance response as vitrinite, thereby leading
to erroneous conclusions. For this reason, it may
be necessary to measure vitrinite reflectance from
laterally equivalent vitrinite-bearing rocks that lack
the algal material.

In areas where the rocks have been subjected to

complex folding and faulting or have been intruded
by igneous rocks, the geothermal maturity of the
oil shale should be evaluated for proper
determination of the economic potential of the
deposit.

Classification of Oil Shale

Oil shale has received many different names over

the years, such as cannel coal, boghead coal,
alum shale, stellarite, albertite, kerosene shale,
bituminite, gas coal, algal coal, wollongite,
schistes bitumineux, torbanite, and kukersite.
Some of these names are still used for certain
types of oil shale. Recently, however, attempts
have been made to systematically classify the
many different types of oil shale on the basis of the
depositional environment of the deposit, the
petrographic character of the organic matter, and
the precursor organisms from which the organic
matter was derived.

A useful classification of oil shales was developed

by A.C. Hutton (1987, 1988, 1991), who pioneered
the use of blue/ultraviolet fluorescent microscopy
in the study of oil-shale deposits of Australia.
Adapting petrographic terms from coal
terminology, Hutton developed a classification of
oil shale based primarily on the origin of the
organic matter. His classification has proved to be
useful for correlating different kinds of organic
matter in oil shale with the chemistry of the
hydrocarbons derived from oil shale.

Hutton (1991) visualized oil shale as one of three

broad groups of organic-rich sedimentary rocks:
(1) humic coal and carbonaceous shale, (2)
bitumen-impregnated rock, and (3) oil shale. He
then divided oil shale into three groups based
upon their environments of deposition - terrestrial,
lacustrine, and marine.

Terrestrial oil shales include those composed of

lipid-rich organic matter such as resin spores,
waxy cuticles, and corky tissue of roots, and stems
of vascular terrestrial plants commonly found in
coal-forming swamps and bogs. Lacustrine oil
shales include lipid-rich organic matter derived
from algae that lived in freshwater, brackish, or
saline lakes. Marine oil shales are composed of
lipid-rich organic matter derived from marine
algae, acritarchs (unicellular organisms of
questionable origin), and marine dinoflagellates.

Several quantitatively important petrographic

components of the organic matter in oil shale-
telalginite, lamalginite, and bituminite-are adapted
from coal petrography. Telalginite is organic
matter derived from large colonial or thick-walled
unicellular algae, typified by genera such as
Botryococcus. Lamalginite includes thin-walled
colonial or unicellular algae that occurs as laminae
with little or no recognizable biologic structures.
Telalginite and lamalginite fluoresce brightly in
shades of yellow under blue/ultraviolet light.

Bituminite, on the other hand, is largely

amorphous, lacks recognizable biologic
structures, and weakly fluoresces under blue light.
It commonly occurs as an organic groundmass
with fine-grained mineral matter. The material has
not been fully characterized with respect to its
composition or origin, but it is commonly an
important component of marine oil shales. Coaly
materials including vitrinite and inertinite are rare
to abundant components of oil shale; both are
derived from humic matter of land plants and have
moderate and high reflectance, respectively,
under the microscope.

Within his three-fold grouping of oil shales

(terrestrial, lacustrine, and marine), Hutton (1991)
recognized six specific oil-shale types: cannel
coal, lamosite, marinite, torbanite, tasmanite, and
kukersite. The most abundant and largest
deposits are marinites and lamosites.

Cannel coal is brown to black oil shale composed

of resins, spores, waxes, and cutinaceous and
corky materials derived from terrestrial vascular
plants together with varied amounts of vitrinite and
inertinite. Cannel coals originate in oxygen-
deficient ponds or shallow lakes in peat-forming
swamps and bogs (Stach and others, 1975, p.
236-237).

Lamosite is pale- and grayish-brown and dark gray

to black oil shale in which the chief organic
constituent is lamalginite derived from lacustrine
planktonic algae. Other minor components in
lamosite include vitrinite, inertinite, telalginite, and
bitumen. The Green River oil-shale deposits in
western United States and a number of the
Tertiary lacustrine deposits in eastern
Queensland, Australia, are lamosites.

Marinite is a gray to dark gray to black oil shale of

marine origin in which the chief organic
components are lamalginite and bituminite derived
chiefly from marine phytoplankton. Marinite may
also contain small amounts of bitumen, telalginite,
and vitrinite. Marinites are deposited typically in
epeiric seas such as on broad shallow marine
shelves or inland seas where wave action is
restricted and currents are minimal. The
Devonian-Mississippian oil shales of eastern
United States are typical marinites. Such deposits
are generally widespread covering hundreds to
thousands of square kilometers, but they are
relatively thin, often less than about 100 m.

Torbanite, tasmanite, and kukersite are related to

specific kinds of algae from which the organic
matter was derived; the names are based on local
geographic features. Torbanite, named after
Torbane Hill in Scotland, is a black oil shale whose
organic matter is composed mainly of telalginite
derived largely from lipid-rich Botryococcus and
related algal forms found in fresh- to brackish-
water lakes. It also contains small amounts of
vitrinite and inertinite. The deposits are commonly
small, but can be extremely high grade.
Tasmanite, named from oil-shale deposits in
Tasmania, is a brown to black oil shale. The
organic matter consists of telalginite derived
chiefly from unicellular tasmanitid algae of marine
origin and lesser amounts of vitrinite, lamalginite,
and inertinite. Kukersite, which takes its name
from Kukruse Manor near the town of Kohtla-
Järve, Estonia, is a light brown marine oil shale. Its
principal organic component is telalginite derived
from the green alga, Gloeocapsomorpha prisca.
The Estonian oil-shale deposit in northern Estonia
along the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland and
its eastern extension into Russia, the Leningrad
deposit, are kukersites.

Evaluation of Oil-Shale
Resources

Relatively little is known about many of the world's

deposits of oil shale and much exploratory drilling
and analytical work need to be done. Early
attempts to determine the total size of world oil-
shale resources were based on few facts, and
estimating the grade and quantity of many of these
resources were speculative, at best. The situation
today has not greatly improved, although much
information has been published in the past decade
or so, notably for deposits in Australia, Canada,
Estonia, Israel, and the United States.

Evaluation of world oil-shale resources is

especially difficult because of the wide variety of
analytical units that are reported. The grade of a
deposit is variously expressed in U.S. or Imperial
gallons of shale oil per short ton (gpt) of rock, liters
of shale oil per metric ton (l/t) of rock, barrels, short
or metric tons of shale oil, kilocalories per kilogram
(kcal/kg) of oil shale, or gigajoules (GJ) per unit
weight of oil shale. To bring some uniformity into
this assessment, oil-shale resources in this report
are given in both metric tons of shale oil and in
equivalent U.S. barrels of shale oil, and the grade
of oil shale, where known, is expressed in liters of
shale oil per metric ton (l/t) of rock. If the size of
the resource is expressed only in volumetric units
(barrels, liters, cubic meters, and so on), the
density of the shale oil must be known or
estimated to convert these values to metric tons.
Most oil shales produce shale oil that ranges in
density from about 0.85 to 0.97 by the modified
Fischer assay method. In cases where the density
of the shale oil is unknown, a value of 0.910 is
assumed for estimating resources.

Byproducts may add considerable value to some

oil-shale deposits. Uranium, vanadium, zinc,
alumina, phosphate, sodium carbonate minerals,
ammonium sulfate, and sulfur are some of the
potential byproducts. The spent shale after
retorting is used to manufacture cement, notably
in Germany and China. The heat energy obtained
by the combustion of the organic matter in oil shale
can be used in the cement-making process. Other
products that can be made from oil shale include
specialty carbon fibers, adsorbent carbons,
carbon black, bricks, construction and decorative
blocks, soil additives, fertilizers, rock wool
insulating material, and glass. Most of these uses
are still small or in experimental stages, but the
economic potential is large.

This appraisal of world oil-shale resources is far

from complete. Many deposits are not reviewed
because data or publications are unavailable.
Resource data for deeply buried deposits, such as
a large part of the Devonian oil-shale deposits in
eastern United States, are omitted, because they
are not likely to be developed in the foreseeable
future. Thus, the total resource numbers reported
herein should be regarded as conservative
estimates. This review focuses on the larger
deposits of oil shale that are being mined or have
the best potential for development because of their
size and grade.
 Shale
Shale is the most abundant sedimentary rock and is in sedimentary basins worldwide.

Shale: Shale breaks into thin pieces with sharp edges. It occurs in a wide range of colors that include red, brown, green, gray, and
black. It is the most common sedimentary rock and is found in sedimentary basins worldwide.

What is Shale?
Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock that forms from the compaction of silt and clay-size mineral particles
that we commonly call "mud." This composition places shale in a category of sedimentary rocks known as
"mudstones." Shale is distinguished from other mudstones because it is fissile and laminated. "Laminated"
means that the rock is made up of many thin layers. "Fissile" means that the rock readily splits into thin pieces
along the laminations.

Uses of Shale
Some shales have special properties that make them important resources. Black shales contain organic material
that sometimes breaks down to form natural gas or oil. Other shales can be crushed and mixed with water to
produce clays that can be made into a variety of useful objects.
Conventional Oil and Natural Gas Reservoir: This drawing illustrates an "anticlinal trap" that contains oil and natural gas. The
gray rock units are impermeable shale. Oil and natural gas forms within these shale units and then migrates upwards. Some of the
oil and gas becomes trapped in the yellow sandstone to form an oil and gas reservoir. This is a "conventional" reservoir - meaning
that the oil and gas can flow through the pore space of the sandstone and be produced from the well.

Conventional Oil and Natural Gas

Black organic shales are the source rock for many of the world's most important oil and natural gas deposits.
These shales obtain their black color from tiny particles of organic matter that were deposited with the mud
from which the shale formed. As the mud was buried and warmed within the earth, some of the organic
material was transformed into oil and natural gas.

The oil and natural gas migrated out of the shale and upwards through the sediment mass because of their low
density. The oil and gas were often trapped within the pore spaces of an overlying rock unit such as
a sandstone (see illustration). These types of oil and gas deposits are known as "conventional reservoirs"
because the fluids can easily flow through the pores of the rock and into the extraction well.

Although drilling can extract large amounts of oil and natural gas from the reservoir rock, much of it remains
trapped within the shale. This oil and gas is very difficult to remove because it is trapped within tiny pore
spaces or adsorbed onto clay mineral particles that make up the shale.
Unconventional Oil and Gas Reservoir: This drawing illustrates the new technologies that enable the development of
unconventional oil and natural gas fields. In these gas fields, the oil and gas are held in shales or another rock unit that is
impermeable. To produce that oil or gas, special technologies are needed. One is horizontal drilling, in which a vertical well is
deviated to horizontal so that it will penetrate a long distance of reservoir rock. The second is hydraulic fracturing. With this
technique, a portion of the well is sealed off and water is pumped in to produce a pressure that is high enough to fracture the
surrounding rock. The result is a highly fractured reservoir penetrated by a long length of well bore.

Unconventional Oil and Natural Gas

In the late 1990s, natural gas drilling companies developed new methods for liberating oil and natural gas that
is trapped within the tiny pore spaces of shale. This discovery was significant because it unlocked some of the
largest natural gas deposits in the world.

The Barnett Shale of Texas was the first major natural gas field developed in a shale reservoir rock. Producing
gas from the Barnett Shale was a challenge. The pore spaces in shale are so tiny that the gas has difficulty
moving through the shale and into the well. Drillers discovered that they could increase the permeability of
the shale by pumping water down the well under pressure that was high enough to fracture the shale. These
fractures liberated some of the gas from the pore spaces and allowed that gas to flow to the well. This technique
is known as "hydraulic fracturing" or "hydrofracing."

Drillers also learned how to drill down to the level of the shale and turn the well 90 degrees to drill horizontally
through the shale rock unit. This produced a well with a very long "pay zone" through the reservoir rock (see
illustration). This method is known as "horizontal drilling."

Horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing revolutionized drilling technology and paved the way for
developing several giant natural gas fields. These include theMarcellus Shale in the Appalachians,
the Haynesville Shale in Louisiana and the Fayetteville Shale in Arkansas. These enormous shale reservoirs
hold enough natural gas to serve all of the United States' needs for twenty years or more.
Shale in brick and tile: Shale is used as a raw material for making many types of brick, tile, pipe, pottery, and other
manufactured products. Brick and tile are some of the most extensively used and highly desired materials for building homes,
walls, streets, and commercial structures. © iStockphoto / Guy Elliott.

Shale Used to Produce Clay

Everyone has contact with products made from shale. If you live in a brick house, drive on a brick road, live
in a house with a tile roof, or keep plants in "terra cotta" pots, you have daily contact with items that were
probably made from shale.

Many years ago these same items were made from natural clay. However, heavy use depleted most of the
small clay deposits. Needing a new source of raw materials, manufacturers soon discovered that mixing finely
ground shale with water would produce a clay that often had similar or superior properties. Today, most items
that were once produced from natural clay have been replaced by almost identical items made from clay
manufactured by mixing finely ground shale with water.

Shale Used to Produce Cement

Cement is another common material that is often made with shale. To make cement, crushed limestone and
shale are heated to a temperature that is high enough to evaporate off all water and break down the limestone
into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is lost as an emission, but the calcium oxide
combined with the heated shale makes a powder that will harden if mixed with water and allowed to dry.
Cement is used to make concrete and many other products for the construction industry.
Oil shale: A rock that contains a significant amount of organic material in the form of solid kerogen. Up to 1/3 of the rock can be
solid organic material. This specimen is approximately four inches (ten centimeters) across.

Oil Shale
Oil shale is a rock that contains significant amounts of organic material in the form of kerogen. Up to 1/3 of
the rock can be solid kerogen. Liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons can be extracted from oil shale, but the rock
must be heated and/or treated with solvents. This is usually much less efficient than drilling rocks that will
yield oil or gas directly into a well. Extracting the hydrocarbons from oil shale produces emissions and waste
products that cause significant environmental concerns. This is one reason why the world's extensive oil shale
deposits have not been aggressively utilized.

Oil shale usually meets the definition of "shale" in that it is "a laminated rock consisting of at least 67% clay
minerals." However, it sometimes contains enough organic material and carbonate minerals that clay minerals
account for less than 67% of the rock.

Shale core samples: When shale is drilled for oil, natural gas, or mineral resource evaluation, a core is often recovered from the
well. The rock in the core can then be tested to learn about its potential and how the resource might be best developed.

Composition of Shale
Shale is a rock composed mainly of clay-size mineral grains. These tiny grains are usually clay minerals such
as illite, kaolinite, and smectite. Shale usually contains other clay-size mineral particles such as quartz, chert,
and feldspar. Other constituents might include organic particles, carbonate minerals, iron oxide minerals,
sulfide minerals, and heavy mineral grains. These "other constituents" in the rock are often determined by the
shale's environment of deposition, and they often determine the color of the rock.
Black shale: Organic-rich black shale. Natural gas and oil are sometimes trapped in the tiny pore spaces of this type of shale.

Colors of Shale
Like most rocks, the color of shale is often determined by the presence of specific materials in minor amounts.
Just a few percent of organic materials or iron can significantly alter the color of a rock.

Shale gas plays: Since the late 1990s, dozens of previously unproductive black organic shales have been successfully developed
into valuable gas fields. See the article: "What is Shale Gas?"

Black and Gray Shale

A black color in sedimentary rocks almost always indicates the presence of organic materials. Just one or two
percent organic materials can impart a dark gray or black color to the rock. In addition, this black color almost
always implies that the shale formed from sediment deposited in an oxygen-deficient environment. Any
oxygen that entered the environment quickly reacted with the decaying organic debris. If a large amount of
oxygen was present, the organic debris would all have decayed. An oxygen-poor environment also provides
the proper conditions for the formation of sulfide minerals such as pyrite, another important mineral found in
most black shales.

The presence of organic debris in black shales makes them the candidates for oil and gas generation. If the
organic material is preserved and properly heated after burial, oil and natural gas might be produced. The
Barnett Shale, Marcellus Shale, Haynesville Shale, Fayetteville Shale, and other gas-producing rocks are
all dark gray or black shales that yield natural gas. The Bakken Shale of North Dakota and the Eagle Ford
Shale of Texas are examples of shales that yield oil.

Gray shales sometimes contain a small amount of organic matter. However, gray shales can also be rocks that
contain calcareous materials or simply clay minerals that result in a gray color.

Utica and Marcellus Shale: Two black organic shales in the Appalachian Basin are thought to contain enough natural gas to
supply the United States for several years. These are the Marcellus Shale and Utica Shale.

Red, Brown, and Yellow Shale

Shales that are deposited in oxygen-rich environments often contain tiny particles of iron oxide or iron
hydroxide minerals such as hematite, goethite, or limonite. Just a few percent of these minerals distributed
through the rock can produce the red, brown, or yellow colors exhibited by many types of shale. The presence
of hematite can produce a red shale. The presence of limonite or goethite can produce a yellow or brown shale.

Green Shale

Green shales are occasionally found. This should not be surprising because some of the clay minerals and
micas that make up much of the volume of these rocks are typically a greenish color.
Natural gas shale well: In less than ten years, shale has skyrocketed to prominence in the energy sector. New drilling and well
development methods such as hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling can tap the oil and natural gas trapped within the tight
matrix of organic shales. © iStockphoto / Edward Todd.

Hydraulic Properties of Shale

Hydraulic properties are characteristics of a rock such as permeability and porosity that reflect its ability to
hold and transmit fluids such as water, oil, or natural gas.

Shale has a very small particle size, so the interstitial spaces are very small. In fact they are so small that oil,
natural gas, and water have difficulty moving through the rock. Shale can therefore serve as a cap rock for oil
and natural gas traps, and it also is an aquiclude that blocks or limits the flow of groundwater.

Although the interstitial spaces in a shale are very small, they can take up a significant volume of the rock.
This allows the shale to hold significant amounts of water, gas, or oil but not be able to effectively transmit
them because of the low permeability. The oil and gas industry overcomes these limitations of shale by using
horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing to create artificial porosity and permeability within the rock.

Some of the clay minerals that occur in shale have the ability to absorb or adsorb large amounts of water,
natural gas, ions, or other substances. This property of shale can enable it to selectively and tenaciously hold
or freely release fluids or ions.

Expansive soils map: The United States Geological Survey has prepared a generalized expansive soils map for the lower 48
states.
Engineering Properties of Shale Soils
Shales and the soils derived from them are some of the most troublesome materials to build upon. They are
subject to changes in volume and competence that generally make them unreliable construction substrates.

Landslide: Shale is a landslide-prone rock.

Expansive Soils
The clay minerals in some shale-derived soils have the ability to absorb and release large amounts of water.
This change in moisture content is usually accompanied by a change in volume which can be as much as
several percent. These materials are called "expansive soils." When these soils become wet they swell, and
when they dry out they shrink. Buildings, roads, utility lines, or other structures placed upon or within these
materials can be weakened or damaged by the forces and motion of volume change. Expansive soils are one
of the most common causes of foundation damage to buildings in the United States.

Shale delta: A delta is a sediment deposit that forms when a stream enters a standing body of water. The water velocity of the
stream suddenly decreases and the sediments being carried settle to the bottom. Deltas are where the largest volume of Earth's
mud is deposited. The image above is a satellite view of the Mississippi delta, showing its distributary channels and
interdistributary deposits. The bright blue water surrounding the delta is laden with sediment.
Slope Stability
Shale is the rock most often associated with landslides. Weathering transforms the shale into a clay-rich soil
which normally has a very low shear strength - especially when wet. When these low-strength materials are
wet and on a steep hillside, they can slowly or rapidly move down slope. Overloading or excavation by humans
will often trigger failure.

Shale on Mars: Shale is also a very common rock on Mars. This photo was taken by the mast camera of the Mars Curiosity
Rover. It shows thinly bedded fissile shales outcropping in the Gale Crater. Curiosity drilled holes into the rocks of Gale Crater
and identified clay minerals in the cuttings. NASA image.

Environments of Shale Deposition

An accumulation of mud begins with the chemical weathering of rocks. This weathering breaks the rocks
down into clay minerals and other small particles which often become part of the local soil. A rainstorm might
wash tiny particles of soil from the land and into streams, giving the streams a "muddy" appearance. When
the stream slows down or enters a standing body of water such as a lake, swamp, or ocean, the mud particles
settle to the bottom. If undisturbed and buried, this accumulation of mud might be transformed into a
sedimentary rock known as "mudstone." This is how most shales are formed.

The shale-forming process is not confined to Earth. The Mars rovers have found lots of outcrops on Mars with
sedimentary rock units that look just like the shales found on Earth (see photo).

Contributor: Hobart King

 Sandstone
A clastic sedimentary rock composed of sand-size grains of mineral, rock, or organic material.

Sandstone: The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

What is Sandstone?
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed of sand-size grains of mineral, rock, or organic material. It also
contains a cementing material that binds the sand grains together and may contain a matrix of silt- or clay-size
particles that occupy the spaces between the sand grains.

Sandstone is one of the most common types of sedimentary rock and is found in sedimentary basins throughout
the world. It is often mined for use as a construction material or as a raw material used in manufacturing. In
the subsurface, sandstone often serves as an aquifer for groundwater or as a reservoir for oil and natural gas.

What is Sand?
To a geologist, the word "sand" in sandstone refers to the particle size of the grains in the rock rather than the
material of which it is composed. Sand-size particles range in size from 1/16 millimeter to 2 millimeters in
diameter. Sandstones are rocks composed primarily of sand-size grains.
Sandstone: Close-up view of the sandstone specimen shown above.

Weathering and Transport of Sand

The grains of sand in a sandstone are usually particles of mineral, rock, or organic material that have been
reduced to "sand" size by weathering and transported to their depositional site by the action of moving water,
wind, or ice. Their time and distance of transport may be brief or significant, and during that journey the grains
are acted upon by chemical and physical weathering.

If the sand is deposited close to its source rock, it will resemble the source rock in composition. However, the
more time and distance that separate the source rock from the sand deposit, the greater its composition will
change during transport. Grains that are composed of easily-weathered materials will be modified, and grains
that are physically weak will be reduced in size or destroyed.

If a granite outcrop is the source of the sand, the original material might be composed of grains of hornblende,
biotite, orthoclase, and quartz. Hornblende and biotite are the most chemically and physically susceptible to
destruction, and they would be eliminated in the early stage of transport. Orthoclase and quartz would persist
longer, but the grains of quartz would have the greatest chance of survival. They are more chemically inert,
harder, and not prone to cleavage. Quartz is typically the most abundant type of sand grain present in
sandstone. It is extremely abundant in source materials and is extremely durable during transport.

Types of Sand Grains

The grains in a sandstone can be composed of mineral, rock, or organic materials. Which and in what
percentage depends upon their source and how they have suffered during transport.

Mineral grains in sandstones are usually quartz. Sometimes the quartz content of these sands can be very high
- up to 90% or more. These are sands that have been worked and reworked by wind or water and are said to
be "mature." Other sands can contain significant amounts of feldspar, and if they came from a source rock
with a significant quartz content they are said to be "immature."
 Siltstone
A clastic sedimentary rock composed of silt-size grains.

Siltstone Colors: Siltstone occurs in a wide variety of colors. It is usually gray, brown, or reddish brown. It can also be white,
yellow, green, red, purple, orange, black, and other colors. The colors are a response to the composition of the grains, the
composition of the cement, or stains from subsurface waters. Specimens in the photo are about two inches across. Click for
larger image.

What is Siltstone?
Siltstone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of silt-sized particles. It forms where water, wind, or ice
deposit silt, and the silt is then compacted and cemented into a rock.

Silt accumulates in sedimentary basins throughout the world. It represents a level of current, wave, or wind
energy between where sand and mud accumulate. These include fluvial, aeolian, tidal, coastal, lacustrine,
deltaic, glacial, paludal, and shelf environments. Sedimentary structures such as layering, cross-bedding,
ripple marks, erosional contacts, and fossils provide evidence of these environments.

Siltstone is much less common than sandstone and shale. The rock units are usually thinner and less extensive.
Only rarely is one notable enough to merit a stratigraphic name.

What Is Silt?
The word "silt" does not refer to a specific substance. Instead, it is a word used for loose granular particles in
a specific size range.

Silt-sized particles range between 0.00015 and 0.0025 inches in diameter, or between 0.0039 and 0.063
millimeters in diameter. They are intermediate in size between coarse clay on the small side and fine sand on
the large side.

Grains of coarse silt are large enough that most people can see them without magnification on a background
of contrasting color. Most people are not able to sense them if they roll a few grains of silt between their thumb
and index finger. Most people are able to detect a few grains of silt by biting them gently between their front
teeth. (This test is not recommended, but some experienced geologists and soil scientists use it for quick field
identification of silt in sediment and soil.)

Silt does not have a definite composition. It is usually a mixture of clay minerals, micas, feldspars, and quartz.
The small-size fraction of silt is mostly clay. The coarse-size fraction is mostly grains of feldspar and quartz.

Siltstone Outcrop: An exposure of the Holtzclaw siltstone near Louisville, Kentucky. It shows the thinly bedded and
differentially weathered character of the rock unit. Siltstones are rarely of sufficient thickness or lateral persistence to merit a
stratigraphic name. Public domain photo by John Knouse.

What Color is Siltstone?

Siltstone occurs in a wide range of colors. It is usually gray, brown, or reddish brown. White, yellow, green,
red, purple, orange, black, and other colors occur. The color is caused by the composition of the grains, the
composition of the cement that binds them together, and stains produced by contact with subsurface waters.

Field Identification
Siltstone can be difficult to identify in the field without close examination. Weathered surfaces often appear
to show sedimentary structures where none are present. Different layers weather at different rates. Siltstone is
often interbedded with other lithologies.

Identification requires breaking off a small piece and observing the grain size. Scraping the surface with a nail
or knife blade will dislodge tiny silt grains instead of dislodging sand grains or producing a
white effervescent powder.

Siltstone Uses and Economics

Siltstone has very few uses. It is rarely the target of mining for use as a construction material or manufacturing
feedstock. The intergranular pore spaces in siltstone are too small for it to serve as a good aquifer. It is rarely
porous enough or extensive enough to serve as an oil or gas reservoir. Its main use is as a low-quality fill when
better materials are not locally available.
 What are Minerals?

Minerals are the foundation of industries ranging from construction to manufacturing to agriculture to
technology and even cosmetics.

Rhodochrosite: Specimen of rhodochrosite from the Sunnyside Mine, San Juan County, Colorado. Rhodochrosite is a
manganese carbonate mineral (MnCO3) that is used as an ore of manganese and is also cut as a gemstone. USGS image.

We Use Minerals Many Times Every Day!

Every person uses products made from minerals every day. The salt that we add to our food is the
mineral halite. Antacid tablets are made from the mineral calcite.

It takes many minerals to make something as simple as a wooden pencil. The "lead" is made
from graphite and clay minerals, the brass band is made of copper and zinc, and the paint that colors it contains
pigments and fillers made from a variety of minerals. A cell phone is made using dozens of different minerals
that are sourced from mines throughout the world.

The cars that we drive, the roads that we travel, the buildings that we live in, and the fertilizers used to produce
our food are all made using minerals. In the United States, about three trillion tons of mineral commodities
are consumed each year to support the standard of living of 300 million citizens. That is about ten tons of
mineral materials consumed for every person, every year.
Common items made from minerals: Most of the things that we use in our daily life are either made from minerals or produced
using mineral products. Antacid tablets are made from calcite, table salt is crushed halite, several minerals are used to make a
wood pencil, and dozens of minerals from many different countries are used to make a cell phone.

Did You Know? The white "m" on a piece of M&M's candy is a titanium oxide
pigment, most likely produced from the mineral rutile.

Structure of the mineral halite: The mineral "halite" has a chemical composition of NaCl. That means it contains equal numbers
of sodium and chloride atoms. In this case they are electrically charged atoms, known as ions. Those ions are arranged in a cubic
pattern that repeats in all directions. The small sodium ions are positioned between the larger chloride ions.

What are Minerals?

To meet the definition of "mineral" used by most geologists, a substance must meet five requirements:

 naturally occurring
 inorganic
 solid
 definite chemical composition
 ordered internal structure

"Naturally occurring" means that people did not make it. Steel is not a mineral because it is an alloy produced
by people. "Inorganic" means that the substance is not made by an organism. Wood and pearls are made by
organisms and thus are not minerals. "Solid" means that it is not a liquid or a gas at standard temperature and
pressure.

"Definite chemical composition" means that all occurrences of that mineral have a chemical composition that
varies within a specific limited range. For example: the mineral halite (known as "rock salt" when it is mined)
has a chemical composition of NaCl. It is made up of an equal number of atoms of sodium and chlorine.
"Ordered internal structure" means that the atoms in a mineral are arranged in a systematic and repeating
pattern. The structure of the mineral halite is shown in the illustration on this page. Halite is composed of an
equal ratio of sodium and chlorine atoms arranged in a cubic pattern.

Did You Know? Although liquid water is not a mineral, it is a mineral when it
freezes. Ice is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical
composition and an ordered internal structure. Learn more.

The Word "Mineral"

The word "mineral" is used in many different ways. The definition given above is a formal definition preferred
by geologists.

The word also has a nutritional meaning. It is used in reference to the many inorganic chemicals that organisms
need to grow, repair tissue, metabolize, and carry out other body processes. Mineral nutrients for the human
body include: iron, calcium, copper, sulfur, phosphorus, magnesium and many others.

An archaic use of the word "mineral" comes from the Linnaean taxonomy in which all things can be assigned
to the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms.

The word "mineral" is also used inconsistently in geology. In mining, anything obtained from the ground and
used by man is considered to be a "mineral commodity" or a "mineral material." These include: crushed stone,
which is a manufactured product made from crushed rocks; lime, which is a manufactured product made from
limestone or marble (both composed of the mineral calcite); coal which is organic; oil and gas which are
organic fluids; rocks such asgranite that are mixtures of minerals; and, rocks such as obsidian which do not
have a definite composition and ordered internal structure.

Minerals in rocks: Most rocks are aggregates of minerals. This rock, a granite pegmatite, is a mixture of mineral grains. It
contains pink orthoclase, milky quartz, black hornblende and black biotite.
Mineral Commodities in Industry
2010 United States Mineral Commodity Consumption
Mineral Commodity Millions of Metric Tons

Crushed Stone 1,200.0

Sand and Gravel 786.1

Salt 55.8

Iron Ore 48.0

Phosphate Rock 30.5

Gypsum 22.5

Clays 21.3

Dimension Stone 14.0

Lime 18.5

Sulfur 11.30

Bauxite 8.4

Potash 5.6

Soda Ash 5.2

Barite 2.66

Copper 1.74

Lead 1.40

Values above are estimates of mineral commodity consumption from the United States Geological Survey. Many
other commodities could be added to this table.

The construction industry is the largest consumer of mineral commodities. Crushed stoneis used for
foundations, road base, concrete, and drainage. Sand and gravel are used in concrete and foundations. Clays
are used to make cement, bricks, and tile. Iron ore is used to make reinforcing rods, steel beams, nails, and
wire. Gypsum is used to make drywall. Dimension stone is used for facing, curbing, flooring, stair treads, and
other architectural work. These are just a few of the many uses for these commodities in construction.

In agriculture, phosphate rock and potash are used to make fertilizer. Lime is used as an acid-neutralizing soil
treatment. Mineral nutrients are added to animal feed.

The chemical industry uses large amounts of salt, lime, and soda ash. Large amounts of metals, clay, and
mineral fillers/extenders are used in manufacturing.
 Mohs Hardness Scale is a set of reference minerals used for classroom
hardness testing. Determining the hardness of a mineral is one of the most
important tests used in mineral identification.

The Acid Test: Geologists use dilute hydrochloric acid to identify carbonate
minerals. Carbonate minerals will effervesce with various levels of vigor in
contact with the acid.

Physical Properties of Minerals

There are approximately 4000 different minerals, and each of those minerals has a unique set of physical
properties. These include: color, streak, hardness, luster, diaphaneity, specific gravity, cleavage, fracture,
magnetism, solubility, and many more. These physical properties are useful for identifying minerals.
However, they are much more important in determining the potential industrial uses of the mineral. Let's
consider a few examples.

The mineral talc, when ground into a powder, is perfectly suited for use as a foot powder. It is a soft, slippery
powder so it will not cause abrasion. It has the ability to absorb moisture, oils, and odor. It adheres to the skin
and produces an astringent effect - yet it washes off easily. No other mineral has a set of physical properties
that are as suitable for this purpose.

The mineral halite, when crushed into small grains, is perfectly suited for flavoring food. It has a salty taste
that most people find pleasing. It dissolves quickly and easily, allowing its flavor to spread through the food.
It is soft, so if some does not dissolve it will not damage your teeth. No other mineral has physical properties
that are better suited for this use.

The mineral gold is perfectly suited for use in jewelry. It can be easily shaped into a custom item of jewelry
by a craftsperson. It has a pleasing yellow color that most people enjoy. It has a bright luster that does not
tarnish. Its high specific gravity gives it a nice "heft" that is preferred by most people over lighter metals.
Other metals can be used to make jewelry, but these properties make gold an overwhelming favorite. (Some
people might add that gold's rarity and value are two additional properties that make it desirable for jewelry.
However, rarity is not a property, and its value is determined by supply and demand.)
Star sapphire: A deep blue star sapphire 8 mm x 6 mm cabochon from Thailand. Inclusions of rutile within the stone align with
the crystallographic axis of the corundum to produce the star - which is only clearly visible and centered when the back of the
stone is cut at 90 degrees to the C-axis of the crystal. This stone has been heat treated to darken the stone and enhance visibility of
the star.

Mineral Information

[1] Minerals on Geology.com: Links to content about minerals on the geology.com website.

[2] USGS Mineral Information: Links to information about minerals on the United States Geological Survey website.

[3] State and National Geological Surveys: Links to geological survey websites, most of which contain information about minerals found and
produced in their location.

[4] USGS Mineral Resources Program: The sole Federal source of scientific information on mineral potential, production, consumption, and
environmental effects.

[5] The Mineral and Locality Database: The largest mineralogy database and reference website on the internet.

Physical Properties: Determining Factors

The primary characteristics of a mineral that determine its physical properties are its composition and the
strength of the bonds in its ordered internal structure. Here are some examples:

Galena, a lead sulfide, has a much higher specific gravity than bauxite, an aluminum hydroxide. This
difference is because of their composition. Lead is much heavier than aluminum.

Diamond and graphite both consist of pure carbon. Diamond is the hardest natural mineral, and graphite is
one of the softest. This difference occurs because of the types of bonds connecting the carbon atoms in their
mineral structures. Each carbon atom in diamond is bonded to four other carbon atoms with strong covalent
bonds. Graphite has a sheet structure in which atoms within the sheets are bonded to one another with strong
covalent bonds, but the bonds between the sheets are weak electrical bonds. When graphite is scratched the
weak bonds fail easily, making it a soft mineral.
The gemstones ruby and sapphire are color variations of the mineral corundum. These color differences are
caused by composition. When corundum contains trace amounts of chromium, it exhibits the red color of a
ruby. However, when it contains trace amounts of iron or titanium, it exhibits the blue color of sapphire. If, at
the time of crystallization, enough titanium is present to form tiny crystals of the mineral rutile, a star sapphire
may form. This occurs when tiny crystals of rutile align systematically within the crystalline structure of the
corundum to give it a silky luster that might produce a "star" that aligns with the primary crystallographic axis
(see photo).

Contributor: Hobart King

 Andalusite and Chiastolite

Andalusite: A scatter of faceted andalusite. If you look closely at these gems, you can see that many of them appear to be
composed of a mosaic of color. This is an expression of the strong pleochroism of andalusite. Image by cobalt123, used here
under a Creative Commons license.

What is Andalusite?
Andalusite is a rock-forming mineral that is mined for use in high-temperature refractories. Gem-quality
specimens are cut into faceted gems and cabochons.

Andalusite forms during the regional metamorphism of shale. It is found in schist and gneiss at some present
and ancient convergent plate boundaries where the rocks have been exposed to the temperatures and pressures
needed for its formation. In these rocks, andalusite is often associated with kyanite and sillimanite.

Andalusite also forms during the contact metamorphism of argillaceous rocks. In this situation, it can form
within the metamorphosed rock or in veins and cavities within the igneous rock. It can be associated
with cordierite in hornfels, granite, and granitic pegmatite.
Chiastolite: A cabochon cut from a specimen of the chiastolite variety of andalusite. This specimen exhibits a sharp cross, formed
from graphite particles that were pushed out of the way during crystal growth. The diagonal fiber of this specimen is a result of
needle-like crystals (possibly rutile crystals) that have grown within the andalusite crystal.

What is Chiastolite?
Chiastolite is a variety of andalusite that contains black particles of graphite arranged in geometric patterns.
The graphite is pushed aside by crystal growth within a rock that is being metamorphosed. As growth occurs,
the particles become concentrated at crystal interfaces. The result can be a cross-shaped pattern within the
mineral - similar to the "cross-stone" shown in the photo here. People have known about these cross stones
for centuries and have valued them for their perceived religious or spiritual meaning. Attractive specimens are
often cut and polished for use as amulets, charms, and novelty gems.

Twinned andalusite crystals: Twinned crystals of andalusite (chiastolite) in a piece of black micaceous schist. Photo by
Moha112100, used here under a Creative Commons license.

Physical Properties of Andalusite

Chemical
Silicate
Classification

Color Reddish brown, olive green, white to gray

Streak White

Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to nearly opaque

Cleavage Good

Mohs Hardness 6.5 to 7.5

Specific Gravity 3.17

Diagnostic
Crystal form, associated minerals, strongly pleochroic, symmetrical inclusions
Properties

Chemical
Al2SiO5
Composition

Crystal System Orthorhombic

Used to manufacture high-temperature porcelain of spark plugs; used to make high-temperature ceramics used in
Uses
furnaces, kilns, incinerators; high-quality crystals are often used as gemstones.

Physical Properties and Uses of Andalusite

Andalusite has a number of useful physical properties. It has the ability to withstand high temperatures without
alteration. For that reason it is used to make high-temperature ceramics and refractories. The white porcelain
of many spark plugs is made using andalusite.

Andalusite is one of a small number of minerals that commonly forms prismatic crystals with a square cross-
section. This can be important information for identification in the field.

Transparent specimens of andalusite are often strongly pleochroic. This makes them have different apparent
colors when viewed from different directions. This pleochroic effect allows andalusite to be cut into unique
gemstones.

Although twinning is not common in andalusite, nicely crystallized specimens that possess twinning can be
distinctive. Twinning can produce cross-shaped structures perpendicular to the crystallographic c-axis, similar
to what is shown in the rock in the photo above.

Andalusite: Crystals of andalusite showing their prismatic habit and square cross-section. These crystals are from Lisens Valley,
Austria. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.
Andalusite as an Indicator Mineral

Stability fields: This chart shows the

temperature / pressure ranges where
andalusite, kyanite, and sillimanite
are stable.

Andalusite, kyanite, and sillimanite all share the chemical composition of Al2SiO5. However, they have
different crystal structures. Their crystal structure differs because they form under extremely different
conditions of temperature and pressure. The phase diagram at left summarizes the conditions under which
these minerals form.

Andalusite is the low-temperature mineral of the three. Sillimanite is the high-temperature mineral, and
kyanite forms at high pressures and lower temperatures.

Information from a phase diagram can be useful during mineral exploration. If a geologist finds andalusite in
the field, the phase diagram reveals the possible range of temperatures and pressures that the rocks were
subjected to when the andalusite crystallized. If the mineral being sought has a dramatically different
temperature and pressure of crystallization, then it might not be present in those rocks. If the pressure range
of the target mineral is higher, then it is possible that it exists at depth. If the temperature range of the target
mineral is higher, then exploration should move toward a heat source or toward greater depth. That is a
simplified example of how the phase diagram can be used.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Anhydrite
An evaporite mineral used as a soil treatment and to produce construction materials

Anhydrite: Anhydrite from Balmat, New York. This specimen of massive anhydrite has a typical gray color and a sugary
appearance on broken surfaces caused by exposure of cleavage faces. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

What is Anhydrite?
Anhydrite is an evaporite mineral that occurs in extensive layered deposits in sedimentary basins where large
volumes of sea water have been evaporated. It is typically interbedded with halite, gypsum, and limestone in
accumulations that can be up to hundreds of feet thick. On a much smaller scale, anhydrite can form in
shoreline or tidal flat sediments from the evaporation of sea water.

Anhydrite also occurs as a vein-filling mineral in hydrothermal deposits. It is deposited from solution, often
along with calcite and halite, as gangue in sulfide mineral deposits. Anhydrite is also found in the cap rock of
salt domes and in cavities of trap rock.

Anhydrite is an anhydrous calcium sulfate with a composition of CaSO4. It is closely related to gypsum, which
has a chemical composition of CaSO4.2H2O. The worldwide abundance of gypsum greatly exceeds the
abundance of anhydrite.

Anhydrite receives its name from the Greek "anhydrous" which means "without water." It readily converts to
gypsum under humid conditions or in contact with groundwater. This transition involves the absorption of
water and a significant change in volume. That expansion can cause deformation in the rock units. If gypsum
is heated to about 200 degrees Celsius, it will yield water and be converted to anhydrite. This reaction occurs
much less often.
 Physical Properties of Anhydrite
Chemical Classification Sulfate

Color Colorless, white, and light shades of brown, red, gray, pink, blue, violet

Streak White

Luster Vitreous to pearly

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Perfect cleavage in three directions to form cubic-shaped cleavage fragments

Mohs Hardness 3 to 3.5

Specific Gravity 2.9 to 3

Diagnostic Properties Cubic cleavage, harder than gypsum, higher specific gravity than calcite, no acid reaction.

Chemical Composition CaSO4

Crystal System Orthorhombic

Uses Soil treatment. Ingredient in plaster and other construction materials.

Anhydrite: Massive anhydrite from Balmat, New York showing sedimentary layering and sugary appearance on broken surfaces.
Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

Physical Properties and Identification

One of the most distinctive properties of anhydrite is its cubic cleavage. It cleaves in three directions at right
angles. This can easily be seen in coarsely crystalline specimens or with a hand lens in fine-grained
specimens. This distinctive cleavage has earned anhydrite the nickname of "cube spar."
Anhydrite can be a small challenge to identify when it occurs in massive form. It can be confused with gypsum,
calcite, or halite - which it is almost always associated with. Compared to gypsum, anhydrite exhibits cleavage
in three directions at right angles and has a greater hardness. Its right angle cleavage and lack of acid reaction
allows it to be distinguished from calcite. Compared to halite, anhydrite is insoluble and slightly harder.

Anhydrite: Anhydrite from Mound House, Nevada with a very fine texture that could be confused with lithographic limestone.
Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

Uses of Anhydrite
Anhydrite can be substituted for gypsum in some of its uses. Both minerals are crushed for use as a soil
treatment, and in this purpose anhydrite is superior. One ton of anhydrite has more calcium than one ton of
gypsum - because gypsum is about 21% water by weight. This yields more calcium per ton in a soil
application. Anhydrite also has a higher solubility, which helps it benefit the soil quickly.

Small amounts of anhydrite are used as drying agents in plaster, paint, and varnish. It is also used along with
gypsum to produce plaster, joint compound, wallboard, and other products for the construction industry.
Anhydrite has also been used as a source of sulfur in the production of sulfuric acid.

Synthetic Anhydrite
Hydrofluoric acid is produced using fluorite and sulfuric acid. For every ton of hydrofluoric acid produced,
about 3 1/2 tons of synthetic anhydrite is produced. For decades this synthetic anhydrite was considered to be
a nuisance product that had a disposal expense. However, much of it is now dried in a kiln and used as a raw
material for producing cement, plaster, and flooring. It is also used as a filler in the production of plastics and
paper products.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Apatite, Phosphorite and Phosphate Rock

Apatite Crystals: A scatter of small greenish yellow apatite crystals from Cerro del Mercado, Durango, Mexico. These hexagonal
crystals are small, mostly about 8 millimeters in length. Apatite crystals of this clarity are not often found in large sizes. Image
copyright by Geology.com.

What is Apatite?
Apatite is the name of a group of phosphate minerals with similar chemical compositions and physical
properties. They are an important constituent of phosphorite, a rockmined for its phosphorus content and used
to make fertilizers, acids, and chemicals. Apatite has a relatively consistent hardness and serves as the index
mineral for a hardness of five in the Mohs Hardness Scale. Specimens with excellent clarity and color are
sometimes cut as faceted gemstones. Those with good color and translucence are cut as cabochons.

Physical Properties of Apatite

Chemical
Phosphate
Classification

Green, brown, blue, yellow, violet, pink, colorless. Transparent specimens with excellent clarity and vivid color are used
Color
as gemstones.

Streak White

Luster Vitreous to subresinous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Poor to indistinct

Mohs Hardness 5

Specific Gravity 3.1 to 3.3

Diagnostic
Color, crystal form, and hardness. Brittle, often highly fractured. Can be scratched with a steel knife blade.
Properties
 A group of calcium phosphates.

Fluorapatite: Ca5(PO4)3F
Chemical
Hydroxylapatite: Ca5(PO4)3(OH)
Composition
Chlorapatite: Ca5(PO4)3Cl
Carbonate-rich apatite/francolite:
Ca5(PO4,CO3)3(F,O)

Crystal System Hexagonal

Fertilizer, phosphoric acid, hydrofluoric acid, gemstones, ore of rare earth elements, pigments, gemstone. Serves as a
Uses
hardness of 5 on the Mohs Hardness Scale.

Physical Properties
Apatite is best known for its use as an index mineral with a hardness of 5 in the Mohs Hardness Scale. It is
usually green in color, but can be yellow, brown, blue, purple, pink, or colorless. These colors are often so
vivid that apatite has frequently been cut as a gemstone. Apatite is a brittle material. It breaks by both fracture
and cleavage, but the cleavage is generally indistinct. Hexagonal apatite crystals are sometimes found
in igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Faceted Apatite: Five faceted stones from Madagascar in various colors. Clockwise from left: a green 8 x 6.2 millimeter oval of
1.23 carats; a yellow 8 x 6.3 millimeter oval of 1.37 carats; a bluish green 8.1 x 6.2 millimeter oval of 1.38 carats; a blue 7.1 x 5
millimeter oval of 0.91 carats (heat treated); and, a bluish green 7.1 x 5.2 millimeter oval of 1.05 carats (heat treated).

Geologic Occurrence
Apatite forms under a wide variety of conditions and is found in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary
rocks. The most important deposits of apatite are in sedimentary rocks formed in marine and lacustrine
environments. There, phosphatic organic debris (such as bones, teeth, scales, and fecal material) had
accumulated and was mineralized during diagenesis. Some of these deposits contain enough phosphorus that
they can be mined and used to produce fertilizers and chemical products.
Apatite occasionally occurs as well-formed hexagonal crystals in hydrothermal veins and pegmatite pockets.
These crystals often have a very high clarity and a vivid color and have been cut into gems for collectors.
Mineral collectors also enjoy these well-formed apatite crystals, and the prices paid for them often exceeds
their value as gem rough.

Phosphate rock from the Upper Zhujiaqing Formation of the Yunnan Province of Southwestern China with a fossiliferous
peloidal texture. Photograph by James St. John, used here under a Creative Commons License.

Phosphate Rock and Phosphorite

Phosphate rock and phosphorite are names used for sedimentary rocks that contain at least 15% to 20%
phosphate on the basis of weight. The phosphorous content in these rocks is mainly derived from the presence
of apatite minerals. Determining which apatite-group minerals are contained in the rock cannot be determined
without laboratory testing because their particle sizes are so small.

Most phosphate rock has a non-detrital origin similar to limestone. Some of the phosphate is deposited by
precipitation from solution; some is the remains and waste products of organisms; and, some is deposited by
groundwater during diagenesis.

Like limestone, phosphate rock is deposited in sedimentary basins where the influx of detrital material is
relatively low. That allows the phosphate to accumulate with very little dilution from other materials. Where
the dilution rate is high, phosphatic shales, mudstones, limestones, and sandstones will form instead of
phosphate rock.
Phosphate rock from the Simplot Mine, Phosphoria Formation of southeastern Idaho, with a peloidal texture. Photograph
by James St. John, used here under a Creative Commons License.

Uses of Apatite as Phosphate Rock

Most of the phosphate rock mined throughout the world is used to produce phosphate fertilizer. It is also used
to produce animal feed supplements, phosphoric acid, elemental phosphorous, and phosphate compounds for
the chemical industry.

China is the largest producer of phosphate rock, producing approximately 100 million tons in 2014. The United
States, Russia, Morocco, and Western Sahara are also major phosphate producers. Over 75% of the world's
reserves of phosphate rock are located in Morocco and Western Sahara.

Phosphate rock is the only material that can be used to produce enough fertilizer to satisfy world demand.
Without it, farmers would not be able to produce enough food to feed the world's population. It is surprising
that one type of rock, a rock that most people know nothing about, is so important to keeping the world fed
and alive.

Cat's-Eye Apatite: Two nice cabochons with a chatoyanceproduced by a fine silk of rutile needles. The stone on the left is a
yellow 7 x 5.9 millimeter oval of 1.82 carats cut from apatite mined in Kenya. The stone on the right is a greenish golden (heat-
treated) 9.3 x 6.9 millimeter oval of 2.77 carats cut from apatite mined in Kenya.
Gemology
Transparent specimens of apatite with vivid green, blue, yellow, or pink color and excellent clarity are often
cut into faceted gemstones. Some stones are heat treated to improve their color.

Attractive translucent stones of excellent color are cut en cabochon. Rarely, translucent apatite contains a fine
silk of parallel rutile crystals. When cut en cabochon with the silk oriented parallel to the bottom of the stone,
these specimens will often exhibit a chatoyance known as "cat's eye."

As a gemstone, apatite is more popular with gem collectors than it is with jewelry buyers. The mineral has a
Mohs hardness of 5, breaks with parting, and is very brittle. These characteristics make it too fragile for use
in most types of jewelry.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Arsenopyrite
Mineral Properties and Uses

What is Arsenopyrite?

Arsenopyrite from Gold Hill, Utah. Specimen is approximately 4

inches (10 centimeters) across

Arsenopyrite is an iron arsenic sulfide. It is the most common arsenic mineral and the primary ore of arsenic metal.
Arsenopyrite is most often found as a hydrothermal vein mineral and sometimes as a mineral of contact metamorphism. It
is sometimes referred to in old texts as "mispickel".

Physical Properties of Arsenopyrite

Chemical
sulfide
Classification

Color silver white to steel gray

Streak dark grayish black

Luster metallic

Diaphaneity opaque

Cleavage poor

Mohs Hardness 5.5 to 6

Specific Gravity 5.9 to 6.2

Diagnostic smells like garlic when crushed,

Properties crystal form

Chemical
iron arsenic sulfide, FeAsS
Composition

Crystal System monoclinic

Uses poison, preservative, pigment

 Augite
A common rock-forming mineral of dark-colored igneous rocks.

Augite: A specimen of the "jeffersonite" variety of augite. Approximately 11 x 6.3 x 4.3 centimeters in size. From the Franklin
Mining District of Sussex County, New Jersey. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Igneous rock composition chart: This chart illustrates the generalized mineral composition of igneous rocks. Augite, as the most
abundant pyroxene mineral, can play an important role in the composition of gabbro, basalt, diorite, and andesite.

What is Augite?
Augite is a rock-forming mineral that commonly occurs in mafic and intermediate igneous rocks such
as basalt, gabbro, andesite, and diorite. It is found in these rocks throughout the world, wherever they occur.
Augite is also found in ultramafic rocks and in some metamorphic rocksthat form under high temperatures.

Augite has a chemical composition of (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6 with many paths of solid solution.
Commonly associated minerals include orthoclase, plagioclase, olivine, and hornblende.

Augite is the most common pyroxene mineral and a member of the clinopyroxene group. Some people use the
names "augite" and "pyroxene" interchangeably, but this usage is strongly discouraged. There are a large
number of pyroxene minerals, many of which are distinctly different and easy to identify.
Augite, diopside, jadeite, spodumene, and hypersthene are just a few of the distinctly different pyroxene
minerals.

Physical Properties of Augite

Chemical
A single chain inosilicate
Classification

Color Dark green, black, brown

White to gray to very pale green. Augite is often brittle, breaking into splintery fragments on the streak plate. These can
Streak
be observed with a hand lens. Rubbing the debris with a finger produces a gritty feel with a fine white powder beneath.

Luster Vitreous on cleavage and crystal faces. Dull on other surfaces.

Diaphaneity Usually translucent to opaque. Rarely transparent.

Cleavage Prismatic in two directions that intersect at slightly less than 90 degrees.

Mohs Hardness 5.5 to 6

Specific Gravity 3.2 to 3.6

Diagnostic
Two cleavage directions intersecting at slightly less than 90 degrees. Green to black color. Specific gravity.
Properties

Chemical A complex silicate.

Composition (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6

Crystal System Monoclinic

Uses No significant commercial use.

Physical Properties of Augite

Augite is usually green, black, or brown in color with a translucent to opaque diaphaneity. It usually exhibits
two distinct cleavage directions that intersect at slightly less than 90 degrees. A hand lens is often needed to
properly observe the cleavage, especially in fine-grained rocks.

Light reflecting from cleavage surfaces and crystal faces of augite produces a vitreous luster, while light
striking other surfaces produces a dull luster. Augite has a Mohs hardness of 5.5 to 6. Its specific gravity of
3.2 to 3.6 is higher than most other minerals in the rocks in which it occurs.
Augite: A specimen of the "fassaite" variety of augite. Approximately 5 x 3.1 x 1.4 centimeters in size. From the Skardu District
of Pakistan. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Uses of Augite
Augite does not have any physical, optical, or chemical properties that make it especially useful. It is therefore
one of the few minerals that has no commercial use. The calcium content of augite has been found to be of
limited use in studies of the temperature history of igneous rocks.

Extraterrestrial Augite
Augite is a mineral that has been found beyond Earth. It is a common mineral of lunar basalts. It has also been
identified in many stone meteorites. Some of these meteorites are thought to be pieces of Mars or the Moon
that were launched into space by large impact events.
 Azurite
A deep blue mineral, gem material, ornamental stone, ore of copper, and pigment.

Azurite with Malachite Nodule: A specimen of nodular azurite sawn and polished to reveal its beautiful blue structures. A
specimen like this would be a superb gem material or ornamental stone. Approximately 8.6 x 7.5 x 3.1 centimeters in size. From
the Bisbee area of Cochise County, Arizona. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

What is Azurite?
Azurite is a copper carbonate hydroxide mineral with a chemical composition of Cu 3(CO3)2(OH)2. It is best
known for its characteristic deep blue to violet-blue color. The blue color, known as "azure," is like the deep
blue evening skies often seen above deserts and winter landscapes.

Azurite is not a common or abundant mineral, but it is beautiful and its blue color attracts attention. It has
been used by people in many parts of the world for thousands of years. Ancient people used it as an ore
of copper, as a pigment, as a gemstone, and as an ornamental stone. It is still used for all of these purposes
today.
Azurite and Chrysocolla: A slab of rock showing fractures filled with azurite and chrysocolla. Slab is about 8 centimeters long.
Photographed wet to show full color. From near Bisbee, Arizona.

Geologic Occurrence
Azurite is a secondary mineral that usually forms when carbon-dioxide-laden waters descend into the Earth
and react with subsurface copper ores. The carbonic acid of these waters dissolves small amounts of copper
from the ore. The dissolved copper is transported with the water until it reaches a new geochemical
environment. This new environment could be a location where water chemistry or temperature changes, or
where evaporation occurs. If conditions are right, the mineral azurite might form. If these conditions persist
for a long time, a significant accumulation of azurite might develop. This has occurred in many parts of the
world.

Azurite precipitation occurs in pore spaces, fractures, and cavities of the subsurface rock. The resulting azurite
is usually massive or nodular. In rare situations, azurite is found as stalactitic and botryoidal growths. Well-
formed monoclinic crystals are infrequently found. These can only occur if azurite precipitates unrestricted in
a fracture or cavity and is not disrupted by later crystallization or rock movements.

Malachite is another copper carbonate mineral that forms under conditions similar to azurite. These minerals
are often found in the same deposit and are often intergrown with one another. This produces a material known
as azurmalachite, which, when of high quality, can be used as a beautiful lapidary material.

In the United States, Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah are the notable locations for finding azurite. More
important deposits have been found in France and Namibia. Noteworthy occurrences have been found in
Mexico, Chile, Australia, Russia, and Morocco.
Azurite Nodules in Sandstone: Small azurite nodules about one centimeter in size in a matrix of fine-grained sandstone. From
the Nacimiento Mine, New Mexico.

Physical Properties of Azurite

Chemical Classification Carbonate

Color Deep blue to violet blue; "azure"

Streak Light blue

Luster Vitreous, earthy

Diaphaneity Opaque, translucent, transparent

Cleavage Two distinct directions, one perfect, one poor

Mohs Hardness 3.5 to 4

Specific Gravity 3.7 to 3.9

Diagnostic Properties Deep blue color, effervescence in dilute HCl, high specific gravity, low hardness.

Chemical Composition Copper carbonate. Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2

Crystal System Monoclinic

Uses Minor ore of copper, gem material, ornamental stone, pigment.

Physical Properties of Azurite

The most diagnostic property of azurite is it distinctive deep blue color. It is also soft with a Mohs hardness of
only 3.5 to 4. It contains copper, which gives its blue color and a specific gravity of 3.7 to 3.9, which is
exceptionally high for a non-metallic mineral. Azurite is a carbonate mineral and produces a slight
effervescence with dilute hydrochloric acid, producing a light blue liquid. Azurite produces a light blue
streak on unglazed porcelain.
Uses of Azurite
While azurite is not an extremely abundant mineral and is rarely found in large deposits, it has been used in a
number of ways. Some of these are explained below.

Azurite "Blueberries": Small nodules of azurite, between five and ten millimeters across, that weathered out of a poorly-
cemented sandstone near La Sal, Utah.

Copper Prospecting and Mining

Geologists know that abundant azurite is often found in the rocks above deposits of copper ore. That enables
them to use azurite as an indicator mineral in the search for subsurface copper deposits. The presence of
abundant azurite indicates the possibility of finding some form of copper ore below, nearby, or up a
contemporary or ancient hydraulic gradient.

Azurite has been used as an ore of copper metal for thousands of years. The ancient Egyptians mined it on the
Sinai Peninsula and smelted it to produce copper. Today, azurite deposits on their own are usually not large
enough to be worth opening a copper mine. Where other copper ores are mined, azurite might be removed if
it is of adequate grade and easy to mine.
Azurmalachite Cabochons: Azurite is frequently associated with malachite, and that association can produce very interesting
gem materials. These cabochons were cut from a material known as "azurmalachite" produced at the Morenci Mine in Arizona.
They were cut from thin vein material and have a natural wall-rock backing. Both cabs are about 25 millimeters tall.

Azurite Granite: A piece of "K2 Granite" or "Azurite Granite," an ornamental stone recently found along the border between
China and Pakistan. It performs well as a lapidary material and gemstone. Photographed dry. This piece is about ten centimeters
across, and the largest orb is about on centimeters across.

Jewelry and Ornamental Stone

Azurite is easy to cut and shape into cabochons, beads, small carvings, and ornaments. It also accepts a bright
polish. Unfortunately, azurite has problems that limit its use in jewelry. The greatest concern is the fact that
azurite has a Mohs hardness of just 3.5 to 4.0. It also is brittle and can break along cleavage planes. This lack
of durability makes it easily damaged if used in a ring, bracelet, or other jewelry item that is subject to abrasion.

Azurite also slowly weathers to malachite. This results in a lightening and greening of the gemstone's deep
blue color. Store azurite jewelry in darkness, away from heat, and where air circulation is limited. This might
be in a closed jewelry box or drawer.

Azurite jewelry is difficult to clean. A gentle cleaning with a soft damp cloth or with cool soapy water is best.
Abrasive cleaners or excessive cleaning will damage the stone. Ultrasonic and steam cleaning can cause
damage.

If jewelry containing azurite needs repairs, the repairs should be done in a way that does not heat the stone.
Hydroxide minerals are very sensitive to heat. Heating will cause azurite to green or blacken.

Azurite is rarely treated to enhance its color. However, it is frequently treated with resins and other substances
that impregnate and stabilize the rough. Much of the inexpensive material sold as "azurite" is a composite
made of crushed azurite in a binder of resin or other substance. Often, chrysocolla, malachite, or other minerals
are blended in.

An interesting ornamental stone found near the border between China and Pakistan has recently appeared in
the lapidary market. It is a white granite with orbs of bright blue azurite dispersed through the stone. Most
people who see it initially think that it is fake, but it can be sawn to reveal round azurite areas inside, and x-
ray diffraction reveals azurite. This azurite granite is commonly called "K2 granite" after the second-highest
mountain in the world, because the rock was first discovered near the base of the mountain.
Azurite Pigment: High-purity azurite finely ground into a powder and ready for use as a pigment. Azurite has been used as a
pigment for thousands of years. Today, synthetic pigments are used more than natural pigments. They are lower in cost and
standardized in their properties.

Azurite Pigments

Azurite was ground and used as a pigment in blue paint as early as ancient Egypt. Through time, its use became
much more common. During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, it was the most important blue pigment used
in Europe. Much of the azurite used to make the pigment was mined in France.

Making pigment from azurite was costly. During the Middle Ages it was difficult to mine, transportation was
slow, and grinding and processing were slow and difficult. Azurite pigment was gradually replaced, starting
in the 18th century, when man-made pigments such as "Prussian blue" and "blue verditer" were invented.
These synthetic pigments are standardized products with uniform properties. That makes them predictable in
their use. They are also less costly to produce.

Many paintings done during the Middle Ages, before azurite was replaced with Prussian blue, show
deterioration of the blue color. Over time and exposure to the atmosphere and light, azurite slowly weathers
to malachite. Much of the blue azurite pigment used during the Middle Ages now shows obvious signs of
green malachite as a weathering product. This is another reason why man-made pigments are now used instead
of azurite. Azurite pigment and paints are still available today and are easy to find. But they are mainly used
by painters who want to employ historical methods in their work.
Azurite Crystals: Well-formed crystals of azurite are popular with mineral collectors because of their rarity and beauty. This
small cluster of blade-shaped azurite crystals is from the Tsumeb Mine in Namibia. This specimen is small, about 1.4 x 1.4 x 0.4
centimeters in size. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Mineral Collecting

Azurite is popular with mineral collectors. They appreciate its deep blue monoclinic crystals, nodular habit
with interesting structures, and representative examples of its botryoidal and stalactitic habits. Excellent
specimens can sell for hundreds, thousands, or tens of thousands of dollars depending upon their quality and
size.

The instability of azurite is a problem for collectors. If exposed to heat or high humidity, specimen surfaces
will begin to weather to malachite. This causes a dull, faded or greenish appearance depending upon the
severity of alteration. Valuable specimens are best stored in closed collection drawers where there is limited
air circulation, darkness, and cool, stable temperatures.
 Barite
The nonmetallic mineral with an incredible specific gravity.

Barite: Barite from Kings Creek, South Carolina. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

What is Barite?
Barite is a mineral composed of barium sulfate (BaSO4). It receives its name from the Greek word "barys"
which means "heavy." This name is in response to barite's high specific gravity of 4.5, which is exceptional
for a nonmetallic mineral. The high specific gravity of barite makes it suitable for a wide range of industrial,
medical, and manufacturing uses. Barite also serves as the principal ore of barium.

Barite Rose: This "barite rose" is a cluster of bladed barite crystals that have grown in sand, incorporating many of the sand
grains within each crystal. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.
Barite Occurrence
Barite often occurs as concretions and void-filling crystals in sediments and sedimentary rocks. It is
especially common as concretions and vein fillings in limestone and dolostone. Where these carbonate rock
units have been heavily weathered, large accumulations of barite are sometimes found at the soil-bedrock
contact. Many of the commercial barite mines produce from these residual deposits.

Barite is also found as concretions in sand and sandstone. These concretions grow as barite crystallizes within
the interstitial spaces between sand grains. Sometimes crystals of barite grow into interesting shapes within
the sand. These structures are known as "barite roses" (see photo). They can be up to several inches in length
and incorporate large numbers of sand grains. Occasionally barite is so abundant in a sandstone that it serves
as the "cement" for the rock.

Barite is also a common mineral in hydrothermal veins and is a gangue mineral associated with sulfide ore
veins. It is found in association with ores of antimony, cobalt, copper, lead, manganese, and silver. In a few
locations barite is deposited as a sinter at hot springs.

Physical Properties of Barite

Chemical Classification Sulfate

Color Colorless, white, light blue, light yellow, light red, light green

Streak White

Luster Vitreous to pearly

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Very good, basal, prismatic

Mohs Hardness 2.5 to 3.5

Specific Gravity 4.5

Diagnostic Properties High specific gravity, three cleavage directions at right angles

Chemical Composition Barium sulfate, BaSO4

Crystal System Orthorhombic

Uses Drilling mud; high-density filler for paper, rubber, plastics

Physical Properties of Barite

Barite is generally easy to identify. It is one of just a few nonmetallic minerals with a specific gravity of four
or higher. Combine that with its low Mohs hardness (2.5 to 3.5) and its three directions of right-angle
cleavage, and the mineral can usually be reliably identified with just three observations.

In the classroom, students often have difficulty identifying specimens of massive barite with fine-grained
crystals. They look at the specimen, see the sugary appearance, correctly attribute it to cleavage, and apply a
drop of dilute hydrochloric acid. The mineral effervesces and they think that they have calcite or a piece
of marble. The problem is that the effervescence is caused by contamination. The students tested the hardness
of the barite with a piece of calcite from their hardness kit. Or the specimen of barite can naturally contain
calcite. However, any student who tests the specific gravity will discover that calcite or marble are incorrect
identifications.

Barite is also a good mineral to use when teaching about specific gravity. Give students several white mineral
specimens that are about the same size (we suggest calcite, quartz, barite, talc, gypsum). Students should be
able to easily identify barite using the "heft test" (placing Specimen "A" in their right hand and Specimen "B"
in their left hand and "hefting" the specimens to determine which one is heaviest). Students in third or fourth
grade are capable of using the heft test to identify barite.

Gas well site: Barite is used to make high-density drilling mud for wells. Aerial photo of a gas well site. © iStockphoto / Edward
Todd.

Barite from Canada: Barite from Madoc, Ontario, Canada. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

Uses of Barite
Most barite produced is used as a weighting agent in drilling muds. This is what 99% of the barite consumed
in the United States is used for. These high-density muds are pumped down the drill stem, exit through the
cutting bit and return to the surface between the drill stem and the wall of the well. This flow of fluid does
two things: 1) it cools the drill bit; and, 2) the high-density barite mud suspends the rock cuttings produced by
the drill and carries them up to the surface.
Barite is also used as a pigment in paints and as a weighted filler for paper, cloth and rubber. The paper used
to make some playing cards has barite packed between the paper fibers. This gives the paper a very high
density that allows the cards to be "dealt" easily to players around a card table. Barite is used as a weighting
filler in rubber to make "anti-sail" mudflaps for trucks.

Barite is the primary ore of barium, which is used to make a wide variety of barium compounds. Some of
these are used for x-ray shielding. Barite has the ability to block x-ray and gamma-ray emissions. Barite is
used to make high-density concrete to block x-ray emissions in hospitals, power plants, and laboratories.

Barite compounds are also used in diagnostic medical tests. If a patient drinks a small cup of liquid that
contains a barium powder in a milkshake consistency, the liquid will coat the patient's esophagus. An x-ray of
the throat taken immediately after the "barium swallow" will image the soft tissue of the esophagus (which is
usually transparent to x-rays) because the barium is opaque to x-rays and blocks their passage. A "barium
enema" can be used in a similar way to image the shape of the colon.

Barite from Australia: Barite from Edith River, Northern Territory, Australia. Specimen is approximately 2 inches (5
centimeters) across.

Barite from Utah: Barite from Mercur, Utah. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.
Barite Production
2015 Barite Production
Thousand
Country
Metric Tons
China 3,000
India 900
Iran 300
Kazakhstan 300
Mexico 220
Morocco 900
Pakistan 120
Peru 100
Thailand 130
Turkey 200
Vietnam 90
United States 700
Other
500
Countries
Barite production is from the
USGS Mineral Commodity
Summary.

The oil and gas industry is the primary user of barite worldwide. There it is used as a weighting agent in
drilling mud. This is a growth industry, as global demand for oil and natural gas has been on a long-term
increase. In addition, the long-term drilling trend is more feet of drilling per barrel of oil produced.

This has caused the price of barite to increase. Price levels during 2012 were between 10% and 20% higher
than 2011 in many important markets. The typical price of drilling mud barite is about $150 per metric ton at
the mine.

Substitutes for barite in drilling mud include celestite, ilmenite, iron ore, and synthetic hematite. None of
these substitutes have been effective at displacing barite in any major market area. They are too expensive or
do not perform competitively.

China and India are the leading producers of barite, and they also have the largest reserves. The United States
does not produce enough barite to supply its domestic needs. In 2011 the United States produced about
700,000 metric tons of barite and imported about 2,300,000 metric tons.
 Bauxite
Almost all of the aluminum that has ever been produced has been made from bauxite

Bauxite from Little Rock, Arkansas, exhibiting a pisolitic structure and characteristic red iron staining. Specimen is
approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

What is Bauxite?
Bauxite is not a mineral. It is a rock formed from a laterite soil that has been severely leached of silica and
other soluble materials in a wet tropical or subtropical climate. It is the primary ore of aluminum. Almost all
of the aluminum that has ever been produced has been extracted from bauxite.

What is Bauxite's Composition?

Bauxite does not have a specific composition. It is a mixture of hydrous aluminum oxides, aluminum
hydroxides, clay minerals, and insoluble materials such as quartz, hematite, magnetite, siderite, and
goethite. The aluminum minerals in bauxite can include: gibbsite Al(OH)3, boehmite AlO(OH), and, diaspore,
AlO(OH).

Physical Properties of Bauxite

Color White, gray, sometimes stained yellow, orange, red, pink, or brown by iron or included iron minerals

Streak Usually white, but iron stain can discolor

Luster Dull, earthy

Diaphaneity Opaque

Cleavage None

Mohs Hardness 1 to 3

Specific Gravity 2 to 2.5

 Diagnostic Properties Often exhibits pisolitic structure; color

Chemical Composition Variable but always rich in aluminum oxides and aluminum hydroxides

Crystal System n/a

Uses Primary ore of aluminum, also used as an abrasive

Physical Properties of Bauxite

Bauxite is typically a soft (H:1-3), white to gray to reddish brown material with a pisolitic structure, earthy
luster and a low specific gravity (SG: 2.0-2.5). These properties are useful for identifying bauxite; however,
they have nothing to do with bauxite's value or usefulness. This is because bauxite is almost always processed
into another material with physical properties that are distinctly different from bauxite.

Pisolites in bauxite: Close-up view of the bauxite specimen in the photo at top of page. This photo shows detail of the pisolites.

Bauxite Used for Aluminum Production

Bauxite is the principal ore of aluminum. The first step in producing aluminum is to crush the bauxite and
purify it using the Bayer Process. In the Bayer Process, the bauxite is washed in a hot solution of sodium
hydroxide, which leaches aluminum from the bauxite. The aluminum is precipitated out of solution in the
form of aluminum hydroxide, Al(OH)3. The aluminum hydroxide is then calcined to form alumina, Al2O3.

Aluminum is smelted from the alumina using the Hall-Heroult Process. In the Hall-Heroult Process, the
alumina is dissolved in a molten bath of cryolite (Na3AlF6). Molten aluminum is removed from the solution
by electrolysis. This process uses an enormous amount of electricity. Aluminum is usually produced where
electricity costs are very low.
Bauxite without pisolites: Bauxite from Demerara, Guyana. Some specimens of bauxite do not have the pisolitic structures.
Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

Use of Bauxite as an Abrasive

Calcined alumina is a synthetic corundum, which is a very hard material (9 on the Mohs Hardness Scale).
Calcined alumina is crushed, separated by size, and used as an abrasive. Aluminum oxide sandpaper, polishing
powders, and polishing suspensions are made from calcined alumina.

Sintered bauxite is often used as a sand-blasting abrasive. It is produced by crushing bauxite to a powder and
then fusing it into spherical beads at a very high temperature. These beads are very hard and very durable. The
beads are then sorted by size for use in different types of sandblasting equipment and for different sandblasting
applications. Their round shape reduces wear on the delivery equipment.

Use of Bauxite as a Proppant

Sintered bauxite is also used as an oil field proppant. In drilling for oil and natural gas, the reservoir rock is
often fractured by pumping fluids into the well under very high pressures. The pressure builds up to very high
levels that cause the reservoir rock to fracture. When fracturing occurs, water and suspended particles known
as "proppants" rush into the fractures and push them open. When the pumps are turned off, the fractures close,
trapping the proppant particles in the reservoir. If an adequate number of crush-resistant particles remain in
the reservoir, the fractures will be "propped" open, allowing for a flow of oil or natural gas out of the rocks
and into the well. This process is known as hydraulic fracturing.

Powdered bauxite can be fused into tiny beads at very high temperatures. These beads have a very high crush
resistance, and that makes them suitable as a proppant. They can be produced in almost any size and in a range
of specific gravity. The specific gravity of the beads and their size can be matched to the viscosity of the
hydraulic fracturing fluid and to the size of fractures that are expected to develop in the rock. Manufactured
proppants provide a wide selection of grain size and specific gravity compared to a natural proppant known
as frac sand.

Substitutes for Bauxite

World bauxite resources are adequate for decades of production at current rates. Other materials could be used
instead of bauxite for alumina production. Clay minerals, alunite, anorthosite, power plant ash, and oil
shale could be used to produce alumina but at higher costs, using different processes. Silicon carbide could
be used in place of bauxite-based abrasives. Synthetic mullite could be used in place of bauxite-based
refractories.

Bauxite Localities
2010 Estimated Bauxite
Production
Thousand
Country
Metric Tons

Australia 68,414

China 44,000

Brazil 28,100

India 18,000

Guinea 17,400

Jamaica 8,540

Russia 5,475

Kazakhstan 5,310

Suriname 4,000

Greece 2,500

The values above are estimated

bauxite production for 2010. Data
from the USGS Mineral
Commodity Summary.

Bauxite is found in abundance at many locations around the world. In 2010 the ten leading bauxite producing
countries were: Australia, China, Brazil, India, Guinea, Jamaica, Russia, Kazakhstan, Suriname, and Greece.
Each of these countries has enough reserves for many years of continued production. Some have reserves for
over 100 years of production.

The United States has small amounts of bauxite in Arkansas, Alabama, and Georgia; however, there is very
little mining of bauxite in the United States, and at least 99% of consumption is imported.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Benitoite
Douglas Sterrett's 1911 USGS report on the mineral's discovery, geology, mining, and properties.

Faceted benitoite: Five tiny gemstones of faceted benitoite in a color gradient set from nearly colorless to violetish-
blue. Each stone is a round brilliant of about 3.5 millimeters and weighing about .20 carat. Photo
by TheGemTrader.com.

Benitoite and neptunite crystals: This specimen is a plate of translucent blue benitoite crystals and black neptunite crystals on a
background of white natrolite. (This association is typical and an important characteristic of the mineral.) The crystals are about 2
centimeters in length and the plate measures about 15 x 11 x 2 centimeters in size. The specimen is from the Dallas Gem Mine,
San Benito River headwaters area, New Idria District, Diablo Range, San Benito County, California. Specimen and photo by
Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.
 Information Sources

[1] Douglas B. Sterrett (1911). Benitoite, Gems and Precious Stones, Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1909, Part II
Nonmetals, pages 742-748, published 1911.

Description of Benitoite
An excellent description of the new California gem mineral, benitoite, has recently been given by G. D.
Louderback, of the University of California. The locality was visited during the summer of 1909 by the present
writer, and every facility was given for the examination of the deposit by the Dallas Mining Company through
the kindness of Mr. Thomas Hayes, at that time acting superintendent. The following description has been
abstracted in part from Doctor Louderback's report and notes supplied from personal observation have been
added.

Who Discovered Benitoite?

The difficulty mentioned by Doctor Louderback in learning who was the original discoverer of the benitoite
property was encountered by the writer. It is evident that J. M. Couch, of Coalinga, grubstaked by R. W.
Dallas, was instrumental in finding the deposit. Whether he discovered it while out alone or on a second trip
with L. B. Hawkins, of Los Angeles, is a point in dispute. Material taken to Los Angeles by Mr. Hawkins was
pronounced volcanic glass and valueless. According to Mr. Couch, specimens given to Harry U. Maxfield, of
Fresno, were shown to G. Eacret, of Shreve & Co., San Francisco, and to G. D. Louderback. Specimens cut
by Mr. Eacret were thought to be sapphire. Doctor Louderback found the material to be a new mineraland
named it benitoite after the county in which it was found.

Benitoite mine map: Map showing the location in San Benito County in central California.
Location of the Benitoite Deposit
The benitoite mine is in the southeastern part of San Benito County, near the Fresno County line. The deposit
is about 35 miles by road northwest of Coalinga in the Diablo Range, about three-fourths of a mile south of
Santa Rita Peak, and on one of the tributaries of San Benito River. The elevation of the mine is about 4,800
feet above sea level; the elevation of Santa Rita Peak is 5,161 feet. The mine is in the end of one of the
branching ridges from the south side of Santa Rita Peak. The end of the southward extension of this ridge is a
low knob about 160 feet above the creek. This knob is called the apex, and from it a small spur extends to the
west down to the creek. The benitoite mine is in the south side of this spur, about 50 feet lower than the apex
and 250 feet west of it.

Geology of the Benitoite Deposit

The benitoite deposit occurs in a large area of serpentinewhich extends many miles northward past the New
Idria quicksilver mine and a few miles southward, and forms the summit of an anticlinal ridge pitching down
to Coalinga. This serpentine is of the usual type of the Coast Ranges and presents different phases from hard
dark-green and greenish-black material to softer lighter-colored rock containing more or less talcose and
chloritic minerals. Slickenside seams and lentil-shaped blocks and masses are common through the serpentine,
much of which is decomposed near the surface and breaks down to light grayish-green soil which has a greasy
feeling when rubbed between the fingers. Inclusions of masses of schists and other rocks of the Franciscan
formation occur in the serpentine. These schists may be micaceous or more basic, having
common hornblende, actinolite, or glaucophane as characteristic minerals.

The benitoite deposit is located in one of these basic inclusions, a portion of which has a somewhat schistose
structure, while the rest is nearly massive. These phases were probably originally different adjacent formations
that have been metamorphosed. Part of the massive form is a dark-gray to greenish-gray rock that might be
called trap. In some specimens the following minerals are determinable under the
microscope: augite, plagioclase crushed and recrystallized and containing clinozoisite prisms, secondary
albite, yellow serpentine, and a little titanite and pyrite. The rock is therefore a partly metamorphosed diabase
or gabbro. The more schistose phases are grayish-blue to blue and grade into vein material. They are
composed of one or more varieties of hornblende, some partially chloritized, with albite, and, near the vein,
with natrolite. The hornblende occurs in minute needles, felted masses of needles, blades, and stouter prisms.
These have a bluish to yellowish green to nearly colorless pleochroism, and are in part probably actinolite and
in part glaucophane or allied hornblende. The natrolite fails and the albite is also less abundant in the
hornblende rock at some distance from the vein.

The vein is a highly mineralized shattered zone in the schistose rock. The fractures and joints with the vein
filling are about parallel with the schistosity of the rock, which averages nearly east and west in strike with
local variations and has a varying dip of 20° to 70° N. A sketch map of a small area on the benitoite mine hill
giving the outcrops with their dips and strikes and the formations encountered in the mine workings shows
the schist and gabbro inclusion in the serpentine to be quite irregular in shape. The width at the mine between
the serpentine walls is about 150 feet and at a distance of 150 feet east of the mine it is only about 90 feet;
about 80 feet farther east at the apex it is over 100 feet. This schist inclusion has been described by Kalph
Arnold as 150 feet wide at its widest point and at least 1,200 feet long.

The metamorphism of the schist inclusion has been of two kinds — first mashing and sheeting of the original
basic rock producing schistosity and opening channels for solutions and then a passage of mineral-bearing
solutions recrystallizing and replacing the minerals of the rock with albite. The albite permeated the rock for
many feet each side of the fracture zone. The conditions of temperature or pressure of the solutions became
changed, so that natrolite was next deposited. The natrolite did not permeate far into the rock, but formed a
coating on the walls of the fissures. Neptunite and benitoite were formed with the natrolite at this stage in the
fissures and openings but did not penetrate the wall rock. This whole mineralized zone containing many bands
and masses of natrolite with gem minerals in the joints, fissures, and open spaces in the brecciated hornblende
rock may be called the vein.
The unfilled cavities and seams in the vein zone aided by later fractures and faults has offered an easy passage
for more recent decomposing meteoric waters. The latter have leached portions of hornblende schist along
and included in the vein, have removed part of the minerals of the vein, and have stained the natrolite on the
walls of the cavities and seams with iron and manganese oxides. The rock, leached of albite, has a more or
less porous texture and is composed principally of fine fibrous blue hornblende and actinolite.

Benitoite crystal structure: Crystal structure of benitoite, BaTiSi3O9, P-6c2, projected onto the (a,c) plane. Public domain image
by Perditax.

Development of the Benitoite Mine

Development work at the benitoite mine at the time of the writer's visit consisted of a large and a small open
cut, a prospect drift or tunnel with a crosscut tunnel, and an incline shaft. The large open cut or "glory hole"
was 20 to 45 feet wide, 85 feet long, and from a few feet to 35 feet deep; it had a north of east direction into
the hillside. The smaller open cut was to the north side of the entrance of the larger cut and at a lower level, it
was about 60 feet long and 10 to 15 feet deep. The prospect tunnel was driven 120 feet in a direction N. 70°
E. from the end of the large open cut. The crosscut tunnel was 45 feet long and driven to the north at a right
angle from the main tunnel at a distance of 50 feet from the mouth. The incline shaft was sunk 35 feet deep
from the north side of the open cut at about the middle.

The prospect tunnel cut through the hornblende schist formation into decomposed serpentine. The contact was
evidently a fault line, and near it the serpentine contained much talcose and scaly asbestiform material. The
fault was directly across the schistosity with a north-south strike and a. dip of 45° W. This prospect tunnel
encountered a little natrolite (vein material) in the hornblende schist in its upper west side, 15 feet beyond the
crosscut tunnel, which crossed a small streak of vein material containing a little benitoite about 10 feet from
the main tunnel. Vein material formed the roof of the prospect tunnel for several feet near its mouth. The
"glory hole" was excavated in a very large pocket or bulge in the vein, a portion of which may still be seen
along the north wall of the open cut. The incline shaft was apparently sunk in the lower part of this outcrop
and did not encounter benitoite. The smaller open cut exposed vein material with benitoite, which was more
plentiful near the east end of the cut than at the west end. The vein and the schist in this cut were much
blackened and stained with films and seams of manganese dioxide. About 30 feet S. 60° E. of the upper end
of the huge open cut a ledge of altered blue hornblende schist outcrops prominently. This ledge also carries a
streak of natrolite with benitoite. Benitoite has been found in bowlders a few hundred yards west of the mine
on the hillside and in the creek. These bowlders have evidently rolled from the outcrop on the hill above and
probably from near the mine. Doctor Louderback states that benitoite lias been found for a distance of about
230 feet at the surface along the mineral zone and in very small quantity at its extremes. The writer observed
benitoite in place through a distance of about 170 feet in an east and west direction.

The strike of the ledge outcropping to the east of the open cut was about N. 60° W., with a high northerly dip.
The strike encountered in the tunnel, about 30 feet lower and to the north, was nearly cast and west with a dip
of about 40° N. In the upper part of the face of the open cut the dip was high, about 65° N., and below the
middle of the face it was low, 15° to 25° N. Along the north side of the open cut and in the lower cut the strike
was about east and west and the dip was probably rather low, 20° to 30° N. These measurements do not agree
closely with those of Doctor Louderback, especially in regard to the dip of the vein. Jointing of the rock and
the irregular nature of the vein, however, make accurate measurements difficult. Doctor Louderback places
the dip at 65° to 69° N., but the dip measured by the writer is much lower, probably 15° to 30° N. in the lower
part of the cut. The evidence for this measurement is found in the position of the vein at the outcrop and in the
tunnel, of the layers of blue schist and natrolite in the end of the cut, and of the ledge along the north side of
the open cut and in the lower cut. Such a low dip would account for the failure of the incline to cut the
mineralized zone. The failure might also be due to the pinching out of the vein a short distance below the large
pocket opened in the "glory hole." The impression gained by a study of the deposit and by plotting the location
of the vein where encountered in different places was that the deposit consists of an ore shoot pitching to the
west and lying in a fracture zone in hornblende schist with an irregular east and west strike and north dip. This
shoot had a lenticular cross section with a thickness of more than 25 feet in the thickest part but pinching out
on the sides. The upper edge of the shoot has been removed by erosion. A portion of the lover edge was
encountered in the tunnel. The eastern extension of such a shoot would have been removed by erosion and the
western extension would be underground, to the north of, west of, and below, the open cut.

Doctor Louderback mentions the outcrop of spheroidal gabbro on the southeast of the benitoite deposit on the
hillside. The outcrop of rock on the north side of the vein zone, on the summit of the ridge, is of a similar
nature and has been mentioned above as diabase or gabbro. The same rock was encountered in the crosscut
tunnel 40 feet below the surface and 30 feet north of the main tunnel. Underground this rock occurred in large
loose spheroidal bowlders ranging up to several feet in thickness, with large openings between them. This
material was difficult to mine and required careful timbering. The open spaces evidently extended to the
surface above, as a strong draft of air came through them. The spheroidal shape of the blocks and the open
spaces between them were doubtless formed by decomposition and leaching along fracture planes.

Fluorescent benitoite: This is a photograph of small benitoite crystals under ultraviolet light. The mineral exhibits a brilliant blue
color under ultraviolet radiation. Public domain photo by Parent Géry.
Mineralogy of the Benitoite Zone
The benitoite occurs with neptunite in crusts, seams, and thicker deposits of white natrolite on the walls of
geode-like cavities and fissures in the hornblende schist. These deposits occur in both irregularly shaped
masses and in seams with more definite directions. They inclose fragments of hornblende schist which has
been heavily impregnated with natrolite. In some of the inclusions the gradation from the hornblende rock
containing much natrolite to natrolite containing acicular inclusions of hornblende is complete. The benitoite
is embedded in or attached to natrolite, being in some places completely, in other places partly, enveloped by
it. In the latter places the benitoite projects into the cavities along with the coarse drusy surfaces of the natrolite.
Natrolite with or without benitoite and neptunite fills some of the fissures and former cavities completely. The
benitoite is always in contact with natrolite and has not been found embedded in the hornblende rock alone. It
is in many places attached to hornblende impregnated with natrolite and is partly or completely inclosed in
natrolite on the remaining sides. The neptunite is subject to the same relations with the natrolite and is, in
places, partly surrounded by benitoite. These facts point to the same period of formation for the three minerals
with the power of crystallization arranged in the following order: neptunite, benitoite, and natrolite.

Obtaining Benitoite Specimens

The benitoite is obtained by breaking open masses of vein rock and carefully chiseling or working the crystals
out of the inclosing natrolite. Many gems are injured or ruined by this method. The removal of the natrolite
by acid has been tried with partial success. Large slabs of rock 2 to 3 or more feet across are obtained coated
with natrolite and carrying benitoite and neptunite. The last two minerals are either visible on the drusy surface
of the natrolite or are completely covered by natrolite. The position of the benitoite and neptunite is often
marked by lumps or a thickening of the natrolite crust. By carefully cutting into these lumps beautiful crystals
are sometimes uncovered. Often the inclosing crust or shell of white natrolite can be split from a crystal of
neptunite or benitoite in two or three large pieces, so that the covering can readily be replaced over the crystal.
Such material makes beautiful specimens. Slabs of bluish hornblende rock with a drusy pure white crust of
natrolite containing brilliant reddish-black neptunite and blue benitoite in fine crystals are excellent for the
same purpose.

The minerals associated with benitoite are described and analyses are given in the paper of Louderback and
Blasdale. Neptunite is titanium silicate containing iron, manganese, potassium, sodium, and magnesium. It
occurs in black to reddish- black prismatic crystals of the monoclinic system, the length commonly being
several times the thickness. It has a prismatic cleavage and the thin splinters or powder show a deep reddish-
brown color. The hardness is between 5 and 6 and the specific gravity 3.18 to 3.19. Neptunite is practically
insoluble in hydrochloric acid.

The natrolite, with which the benitoite and neptunite are associated, does not generally occur in distinct
crystals of any size. It forms massive granular white aggregates of crystallized material with curved ridge-like
or cockscomb-like groups of crystals and drusy botryoidal masses in the cavities. Natrolite is a hydrous silicate
of sodium and aluminum crystallizing in the orthorhombic system.

Other minerals occurring in smaller quantity in the cavities are emerald-green copper stain, amphibole needles,
albite, aegirine, and psilomelane. The amphiboles are actinolite, a variety intermediate between crossite and
crocidolite, and a little glaucophane.
 Physical Properties of Benitoite
Chemical
Barium Titanium Silicate
Classification

Most specimens are violetish-blue. Some specimens are colorless. A range of color and saturation between colorless and
Color
deep violetish-blue occurs. Rare orange heat-treated specimens are known.

Streak White

Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Poor

Mohs Hardness 6 to 6.5

Specific Gravity 3.6

Diagnostic Tabular dipyramidal crystals. Intense blue fluorescence under short-wave ultraviolet light. Associated with serpentine
Properties and albite, but more importantly with rare minerals such as natrolite, joaquinite, and neptunite.

Chemical
BaTiSi3O9
Composition

Crystal System Hexagonal

Uses Gemstone, collector mineral, Official State Gem of California.

Chemical and Physical Properties of Benitoite

The chemical and physical properties of benitoite and its associated minerals have been described by
Louderback and Blasdale, and the following notes are taken from their description. The chemical analyses
show it to be an acid barium titano-silicate corresponding to the formula BaTiSi3O9 . Benitoite is insoluble in
ordinary acids, but is attacked by hydrofluoric acid and dissolves in fused sodium carbonate. Alone, it fuses
quietly to a transparent glass at about 3. The color of benitoite is not affected by heating the stone to redness
and allowing to cool. The hardness is greater than orthoclase and less than peridot, or about 6 to 6 1/2, and
the specific gravity is 3.64 to 3.67.

Benitoite crystallizes in the trigonal division of the hexagonal system. The common forms observed are the
base c(0001), trigonal prisms m(1010), and n(0110), and the trigonal pyramids p(1011) and π(0111). Other
forms are rather rare and of small importance. Of these faces the pyramid π generally has the largest
development. This gives the crystal a triangular aspect with the corners truncated by smaller planes. The prism
faces are narrow, though generally present. Many of the crystals are naturally etched on one or more sets of
faces. Such faces are a little dulled or slightly pitted. Benitoite has an imperfect pyramidal cleavage and a
conchoidal fracture.
Faceted benitoite: Three blue stones of faceted benitoite. Benitoite is often cut into round brilliants because of its high refractive
index and dispersion. Cutters must orient benitoite carefully to take full advantage of its pleochroism. Photo
by TheGemTrader.com.

Benitoite Gemology
The mean refractive index of benitoite is greater than that of sapphire, and measures 1.757 to 1.804 (sapphire
1.759 to 1.767). The birefringence is high and the pleochroism very strong. The crystals are generally
transparent with a pale to deep-blue and bluish-violet color. Color variations are common in the same crystal,
and the change from dark to light blue or colorless may be sharp or gradual. The pleochroism of benitoite is
pale to dark-blue or purplish and colorless. The richest colors are seen when the crystals are viewed parallel
to the base. The intensity of the blue diminishes as the light ray penetrates the crystal at other angles until
perpendicular to the base, when the crystal is colorless. Care is necessary, therefore, in cutting the gem so as
to secure the best effects. Pale-colored stones should be cut with the table perpendicular to the base or parallel
to the vertical axis of the crystal to secure the full color value. Deeper colored stones may be cut in the same
way or with the table in an intermediate position, if the color is very strong. By cutting intensely colored stones
with the table only slightly out of parallel to the base, the color may be reduced to a desirable shade. The
dichroscope may be used to determine the position of the vertical axis and accordingly of the base
perpendicular to it. When viewed perpendicular to the vertical axis with a dichroscope the twin colors or two
rays of light are very intense to pale blue (depending on the depth of color of the crystal) and colorless. When
viewed parallel to the vertical axis, or perpendicular to the base, the two rays are colorless and remain so while
the dichroscope is rotated. The color of one of the rays becomes stronger as the crystal is rotated from this
position. Benitoite crystals exhibiting two shades of color, as dark and light blue or blue and colorless in
different parts of the same crystal, may be cut so as to show these variations, or sometimes in such, a way that
the resulting color is of nearly uniform intensity.

Benitoite has been cut as a brilliant, with the step or trap cut, and "en cabochon." The brilliant cut is especially
suitable to show the brilliancy and fire of the gem. The brilliancy is due to the high refractive index and the
fire or red flash, often seen in dull or artificial light is, in part at least, caused by the dispersion of the mineral.
Of the colors produced by dispersion during the refraction of light in benitoite yellow and green are largely
absorbed in the colored gems so that principally red and violet-colored lights are seen. These flashes of colored
lights along with the natural fine blue of benitoite render the gem particularly beautiful. The step cut displays
the color of benitoite to advantage, with only slight loss of brilliancy. Cabochon-cut gems from crystals with
color variations or partially flawed material have some beauty.

The size of the gems cut from benitoite range in weight from a small fraction of a carat to several carats.
According to Doctor Louderback the largest perfect stone so far cut weighs over 7 carats and is about three
times as heavy as the next largest flawless gem so far obtained. The majority of larger cut stones weigh from
1 1/2 to 2 carats.

The principal production is in stones weighing less than 1 1/2 carats. The use of benitoite in rings or jewelry
subjected to hard wear is limited by its comparative softness. The beautiful color, brilliancy, and fire of the
gem, however, adapt it to other classes of fine jewelry. Since the supply of benitoite is thought to be limited
and a fairly large demand has already arisen for the gem, it is probable the price will be kept high, possibly as
high as that of sapphire, its nearest rival in color.

Other Benitoite Deposits?

So far benitoite has been found at one place only. J. M. Couch, one of the original discoverers of the benitoite
deposit, has located several prospects in formations resembling that at the benitoite mine. In one of these,
three-fourths of a mile to the north on the east side of Santa Rita Peak, cavities lined with natrolite crusts and
crystals have been found in a bluish hornblende schist rock very similar to that at the original mine. The schist
near the vein is composed of bluish hornblende and actinolite needles penetrating granular masses of albite.
This rock also incloses crystals of natrolite showing that part of it was formed later than or during the
crystallization of the natrolite. In the cavities the natrolite occurs in simple well-developed white columnar
crystals up to a centimeter or more in thickness and several times as long. Neither benitoite nor neptunite have
been found associated with this natrolite.
 Beryl
This minor ore of beryllium is one of the most important gem minerals.

Aquamarine beryl: A spectacular crystal of aquamarine from the Shigar Valley of northern Pakistan. This specimen clearly
shows the hexagonal form with terminations and a vivid blue color. The specimen is approximately 15 x 11 x 7.5 centimeters in
size. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

What is Beryl?
Beryl is a relatively rare silicate mineral with a chemical composition of Be3Al2Si6O18. It is found
in igneous and metamorphic rocks in many parts of the world. Before 1969, beryl served as the only
important ore of berylliummetal. Since then, most of the world's supply of beryllium is refined from
bertrandite, a beryllium silicate hydroxide, mined at Spor Mountain, Utah. Small amounts of beryl, mostly
produced as a by-product of gemstone mining, are still used to produce beryllium.

The major economic interest in beryl today is its use as a gemstone. It is one of the most important gem
minerals, and the gems are named by their color as emerald (green), aquamarine (greenish blue to blue),
morganite (pink to orange), red beryl (red), heliodor (yellow to greenish yellow), maxixe (deep blue),
goshenite (colorless), and green beryl (light green). Emerald and aquamarine are the most popular. Compared
to other gemstones, emeralds are second only to diamonds in terms of the dollar value imported into the
United States. Occasionally, chatoyantspecimens of beryl are found that can be cut into cabochons to produce
interesting cat's-eye gemstones.
Emerald beryl: Vivid green beryl crystals from the Cosquez Mine in Colombia. The cluster measures 5 x 4.2 x 3 centimeters.
Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Geologic Occurrence of Beryl

Beryl is a mineral that contains a significant amount of beryllium. Beryllium is a very rare metal, and that
limits the occurrence of beryl to a few geological situations where beryllium is present in sufficient amounts
to form minerals. It mainly occurs in granite, rhyolite, and granite pegmatites; in metamorphic
rocks associated with pegmatites; and, in veins and cavities where hydrothermal activity is associated with
rocks of granitic composition. These different types of deposits are often found together and serve as an
exploration model for finding beryl.

Beryl is also found where carbonaceous shale, limestone, and marble have been acted upon by regional
metamorphism. The famous emerald deposits of Colombia and Zambia have been formed under these
conditions. The carbonaceous material is thought to provide the chromiumor vanadium needed to color the
emerald.

Physical Properties of Beryl

Chemical
Silicate
Classification

Color Green, yellow, blue, red, pink, orange, colorless

Streak Colorless (harder than the streak plate)

Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Translucent to transparent

Cleavage Imperfect

Mohs Hardness 7.5 to 8

Specific Gravity 2.6 to 2.8

Crystals are prismatic with flat terminations, hexagonal, and without striations. Hardness and relatively low specific
Diagnostic Properties
gravity.

Chemical
Be3Al2Si6O18
Composition

Crystal System Hexagonal (occurs in prismatic to tabular crystals)

Uses Gemstones, a minor ore of beryllium.

Physical Properties of Beryl

The most important physical properties of beryl are those that determine its usefulness as a gem. Color and
clarity are very important. Beryl occurs in a diversity of colors, with some of those colors being highly
desirable. It also occurs in transparent crystals that have clarity and size that are sufficient for faceting. Many
beryls have a color that can be improved by heating.

Beryl's durability is generally good. It has a Mohs hardness of 7.5 to 8, which helps it resist scratches when
worn in jewelry. Beryl breaks by cleavage and it is also brittle. Many specimens, especially of emerald, are
fractured or highly included. These weaknesses can make it vulnerable to damage by impact, pressure or
temperature change.

Beryl can be difficult to identify. When it occurs as a crystal, its prismatic, hexagonal form with flat
terminations and lack of striations is a good aid in identification. Beryl's high hardness and relatively low
specific gravity can be helpful for identifying massive specimens.

Uses of Beryl (ore of beryllium)

Beryl was once the only important ore of beryllium metal, but today the mining of bertrandite at Spor
Mountain, Utah supplies about 80% of the world's beryllium. The extraction of beryllium from beryl is very
costly, and as long as bertrandite is available in large amounts, beryl will be a minor ore of that metal.
Red beryl: A specimen of red beryl on matrix from the Wah Wah Mountains of Utah. The specimen measures 4.7 x 3.8 x 3.1
centimeters. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Gem Beryls
The primary economic use of beryl today is as a gemstone. It occurs in a wide variety of colors that appeal to
many consumers. A brief description of popular gem beryl varieties is presented in the sections below.

Lab-created emerald: Synthetic emeralds can be created in a lab, and these stones are usually superior to natural emerald in their
clarity and color. The emeralds in this photo were made by Chatham Created Gems. The faceted stone measures 5.1 x 3 mm and
weighs 0.23 carats. The emerald crystal on the right measures about 8 x 6 x 5 mm and weighs 2 carats.
Cesium-bearing beryl from Madagascar. Specimen is approximately 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) across.

Emerald

Emeralds are gem-quality specimens of beryl that are defined by their green color. To be considered an
"emerald," a stone must have a rich, distinct color in the bluish green to green to yellowish green range. If the
color is not a rich saturated green, the stone should be called a "green beryl" instead of an "emerald."

There are some disagreements between buyers and sellers on judging the color boundary between emerald
and green beryl. Some also believe that the name "emerald" is reserved for stones with a green color caused
by chromium rather than by vanadium. Material colored by iron is almost always too light to be called emerald
and usually lacks the distinct green color typically associated with emerald.

Emerald is the most popular beryl. Excellent specimens are also quite valuable. Emerald, sapphire and
ruby are considered to be the "big three" of colored stones. More money is spent on these in the United States
than all other colored stones combined. In many years, the United States imports a higher dollar value of
emerald than of ruby and sapphire combined. Colombia, Zambia, Brazil, and Zimbabwe are major producers
of gem-quality emerald. A small amount of emerald is sporadically mined in the United States near Hiddenite,
North Carolina.

Emerald is a beautiful stone, but it is often fractured or highly included. Most of the emerald entering the retail
market has been treated in some way. Fractures are often impregnated with glass or resins to stabilize the stone
and make the fractures less visible. Stones are often waxed or oiled to hide fractures and surface-reaching
inclusions. Heating and drilling are often done to reduce the visibility of inclusions.

Even after these treatments, a person with a small amount of knowledge can usually look into a display case
at the typical mall jewelry store and with reasonable success identify natural stones and lab-created stones by
their clarity. Lab-created stones have a bright green color and are transparent. Natural stones are usually
translucent or have visible inclusions and fractures. Natural stones without these characteristics are extremely
rare and have a very high price. Many people prefer natural stones and their visible flaws. Others prefer the
clarity and color of lab-created stones and their significantly lower price. Lab-created emeralds account for a
significant percentage of the stones on display and being sold in many department stores and mall jewelry
stores.

Aquamarine

Aquamarine is the second most popular gem beryl. Like emerald, its identity is defined by its color.
Aquamarine has a distinct greenish blue to blue color. Unlike emerald, light-colored stones in this color range
are still called aquamarine. The stones that are richly colored are the most desirable, and the stones with a very
pale color are made into inexpensive jewelry. Aquamarine differs from emerald in another way - it normally
has far fewer inclusions and fractures. So, most of the aquamarine seen in mall jewelry stores is usually eye
clean and without visible fractures.

The color of aquamarine can usually be improved by heating. Most stones entering the retail market have been
heated. Many of the greenish blue stones offered for sale were distinctly bluish green or even yellow before
treatment.

Morganite beryl: An interesting specimen of morganite with tourmaline crystals from the Pederneira Mine in Minas Gerais,
Brazil. This specimen has been nicknamed the "Sword in the Stone." Approximately 13.8 x 8.0 x 11.7 centimeters in size.
Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Morganite

Morganite, also known as "pink beryl" and "rose beryl," is a rare variety of beryl that ranges in color between
yellowish orange, orange, pink, and lilac. "Rose," "salmon," and "peach" are words often used to describe the
gem's color. Trace amounts of manganese are thought to cause the pink color.

Morganite is the third most commonly seen variety of beryl in jewelry stores, but the selection is usually
limited, and stones with top color are very hard to find. Most morganite sold in jewelry has been heat treated
to improve its color. Heating generally removes traces of yellow from the stone and converts orange or
yellowish stones into a more desirable pink color. Some morganite has been irradiated to deepen its color.
Synthetic morganite has been produced but has not been widely marketed because morganite is not well known
to consumers.

Three things have limited the popularity of morganite: 1) most specimens have a very light color; 2) jewelry
manufacturers are hesitant to make a large commitment to the gem because they usually do not have a steady
source of supply; and, 3) consumers are not familiar with morganite because it has never been strongly
promoted.
Heliodor beryl: A highly etched greenish yellow heliodor crystal of gem quality from Ukraine. Approximately 4.4 x 2.5 x 2.0
centimeters in size. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Yellow Beryl

Yellow beryl, also called "golden beryl" or "heliodor," is a yellow to greenish yellow beryl. A few vendors
call it "yellow emerald" but many believe that name is inappropriate. Yellow beryl is a durable stone that often
has a beautiful yellow color and a relatively low price. The public is not familiar with the gem, and as a result
the demand is very low and so is the price. People who enjoy yellow gems and want an item of jewelry with
a yellow beryl will have a hard time finding it at most jewelry stores. It is most often seen in the inventory of
a jeweler who does custom designs.

Small amounts of iron are thought to produce the color of yellow beryl, which can often be changed with
heating or irradiation. Despite the fact that many specimens of yellow beryl depreciate with treatment to less
valuable colors, some specimens can be heated to a greenish blue similar to aquamarine, while others can be
irradiated to produce a more desirable yellow color. Those with plans to treat yellow beryl must experiment
because treatment success is variable.
Beryl gems: Faceted beryl gems, clockwise from bottom left: aquamarine, morganite, and heliodor, all from Madagascar; green
beryl from unknown locality.

Green Beryl

"Green beryl" is the name given to light green specimens of beryl that do not have a tone and saturation dark
enough to merit the name "emerald." Some of this light green beryl is colored by iron and lacks the distinct
green color associated with emerald. Some is colored by chromium or vanadium and does not have the proper
hue, tone, and saturation to be called "emerald."

The price difference between green beryl and emerald is significant, so some buyers or sellers hope to have
specimens judged in their favor. This can lead to problems because a precise color boundary between emerald
and green beryl has not been defined with industry-wide agreement. Green beryl can be an attractive gem, but
it is rarely seen in jewelry.

Natural red beryl: The photo above shows a faceted red beryl with a beautiful medium red color. It measures about 5.2 x 3.9
millimeters in size. From the Wah Wah Mountains of Utah. Photo by TheGemTrader.com.

Lab-created red beryl: Synthetic red beryl has the same composition and physical properties as a naturally occurring stone. The
gem in the photo weighs 1.23 carats and measures 7.4 x 5.4 mm. Finding a red beryl of this size and clarity in nature would be
nearly impossible.
Red Beryl

Red beryl is one of the world's rarest gem materials. Gem-quality material that is large enough to facet has
been found in very modest amounts in the Wah Wah Mountains and Thomas Range of Utah. Occurrences of
red beryl have been found in the Black Range of New Mexico, but crystals there are just a few millimeters in
length and are generally too small to facet.

Red beryl is usually a very strong and attractive red color. It has a high enough saturation that even small gems
have a very strong color. This is fortunate because most gems cut from red beryl are very small and only
suitable for cutting into melee. Gems over one carat in size are very rare and sell for thousands of dollars per
carat. The material is often included and fractured, and these characteristics are accepted just as they are
accepted in emerald.

In Utah, the host rocks of red beryl are rhyolitic lava flows. Here, crystals of red beryl formed in small vugs
and shrinkage cracks long after the rhyolite crystallized. It is thought that ascending beryllium-rich gases
encountered descending mineral-rich groundwater to create the geochemical environment needed to form red
beryl. Trace amounts of manganese are thought to cause the color.

Beryl is a relatively rare mineral because beryllium rarely occurs in large enough quantities to produce
minerals. Red beryl is extremely rare because the conditions needed to supply the color-producing manganese
at the proper time to a beryl-forming environment is improbable. So, the formation of red beryl requires the
coincidence of two nearly impossible events.

Red beryl was initially named "bixbite" after Maynard Bixby, who first discovered the material. That name
has been mostly abandoned because it was so often confused with bixbyite, a manganese iron oxide mineral
also named after Mr. Bixby. Some people call it "red emerald," but that name is rejected by many in the trade
because it causes confusion with another variety of beryl named "emerald."

Faceted Goshenite: This specimen displays the excellent clarity and transparency that are frequently seen in goshenite. Image by
DonGuennie, used here under a Creative Commonslicense.

Goshenite

Goshenite is the name used for colorless beryl. In most cases, color in beryl is caused by trace amounts of
certain metals that impart a color. That is often the case for goshenite, but color-inhibiting elements can keep
goshenite colorless.
Goshenite is often found in large hexagonal crystals with exceptional clarity and transparency. In the Middle
Ages these crystals were cut and polished into lenses for hand magnifiers, telescopes, and some of the earliest
eyeglasses. With a Mohs hardness of 7.5 to 8.0, these were some of the earliest scratch-resistant lenses.

Goshenite is sometimes cut into gemstones. These gems are mainly of interest to collectors. They are rarely
used in jewelry, because they lack color and their appearance is inferior to other colorless gems such as
diamond and white sapphire.

Maxixe

Another rare beryl is a very dark blue material known as "maxixe" (pronounced mashish). The dark blue color
is thought to be developed in the ground by exposure to natural radiation. Maxixe is an unfortunate material
because the wonderful blue color quickly fades in daylight to a pale brownish yellow color. The color can be
restored with additional irradiation, but that color is also quickly lost with exposure to light. Maxixe was first
found in 1917 in a mine in the Minas Gerais area of Brazil. It has since been found in small amounts at a few
other locations.

Cat's-eye beryl: This yellow heliodor was mined in Madagascar and cut into a 10 x 8 millimeter chatoyant oval. It has a beautiful
translucent color and a faint eye.

Chatoyant Beryl

Beryl occasionally contains a fine silk that allows it to be cut into a chatoyant gem. Aquamarine, golden
beryl, and emerald are the most likely beryls to be found with chatoyance. When properly oriented and cut en
cabochon, these gems usually produce a weak cat's eye, but occasionally a strong cat's eye is produced.

The most desirable chatoyant beryls are those with a highly desirable color and a bright, thin eye that perfectly
bisects the gem.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Biotite

Biotite is group of common rock-forming minerals found in igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Biotite: Biotite from Bancroft, Ontario, Canada. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

What is Biotite?
Biotite is a name used for a large group of black mica minerals that are commonly found
in igneous and metamorphic rocks. These include annite, phlogopite, siderophyllite, fluorophlogopite,
fluorannite, eastonite, and many others. These micas vary in chemical composition but are all sheet
silicate minerals with very similar physical properties.

A generalized chemical composition for the biotite group is:

K(Mg,Fe)2-3Al1-2Si2-3O10(OH,F)2

The name "biotite" is used in the field and in entry-level geology courses because these minerals generally
cannot be distinguished without optical, chemical, or x-ray analysis.

Biotite is a primary mineral found in a wide range of crystalline igneous rocks such
as granite, diorite, gabbro, peridotite, and pegmatite. It also forms under metamorphic conditions when
argillaceous rocks are exposed to heat and pressure to form schist and gneiss. Although biotite is not very
resistant to weathering and transforms into clay minerals, it is sometimes found in sediments and sandstones.

Physical Properties of Biotite

Chemical Classification Dark mica

Color Black, dark green, dark brown

Streak White to gray, flakes often produced

 Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Thin sheets are transparent to translucent, books are opaque.

Cleavage Basal, perfect

Mohs Hardness 2.5 to 3

Specific Gravity 2.7 to 3.4

Diagnostic Properties Dark color, perfect cleavage

Chemical Composition K(Mg,Fe)2-3Al1-2Si2-3O10(OH,F)2

Crystal System Monoclinic

Uses Very little industrial use

Properties of Biotite
Biotite is very easy to identify, and with a little experience a person will be able to recognize it on sight. It is
a black mica with perfect cleavage and a vitreous luster on the cleavage faces. When biotite is separated into
thin sheets, the sheets are flexible but will break upon severe bending. When held up to the light, the sheets
are transparent to translucent with a brown, gray, or greenish color. Experienced observers can sometimes
recognize phlogopite by its brown color.

Biotite angled view: Biotite from Bancroft, Ontario, Canada. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

Biotite Minerals
As noted above, biotite is a name used for a number of black mica minerals that have different chemical
compositions but very similar physical properties. These minerals generally cannot be distinguished from one
another without laboratory analysis. A small list of the biotite minerals is given below with their chemical
compositions.

Mineral Chemical Composition

Annite KFe3(AlSi3)O10(OH)2

Phlogopite KMg3(AlSi3)O10(OH)2
 Siderophyllite KFe2Al(Al2Si2)O10(F,OH)2

Eastonite KMg2Al(Al2Si3)O10(OH)2

Fluorannite KFe3(AlSi3)O10F2

Fluorophlogopite KMg3(AlSi3)O10F2

Biotite side view: An edge view of the biotite specimen from the photo above. Specimen is approximately 3/8 inch (.95
centimeter) thick.

Uses of Biotite
Biotite has a small number of commercial uses. Ground mica is used as a filler and extender in paints, as an
additive to drilling muds, as an inert filler and mold-release agent in rubber products, and as a non-stick surface
coating on asphalt shingles and rolled roofing. It is also used in the potassium-argon and argon-argon methods
of dating igneous rocks.

Biotite in sandstone: Core samples of biotitic sandstone from the Apple Creek Formation, Copper Queen Mine, near Salmon,
Idaho. USGS image.
The Other "Fool's Gold"
Biotite has been known to cause excitement in inexperienced gold panners. A few tiny flakes of biotite
swishing in a gold pan can produce bright bronze-colored reflections in the pan when struck by sunlight. These
reflections can fool the inexperienced panner into thinking that he has found gold. If the panner regains his
composure, removes one of these flakes from the pan and pokes it with a pin, it will break. First-time panners
quickly learn to do some testing before shouting "gold" - which probably isn't a good idea even when gold is
found because it can attract unwanted visitors to your panning spot.

Small flakes of biotite have also been known to cause excitement when they are observed in rocks. Their
bronze-colored reflections can fool the inexperienced observer into thinking that tiny flakes of gold are
present. Again, the pin test or a hand lens will usually yield a quick answer.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Bornite
Mineral Properties and Uses

What is Bornite?

Bornite is a copper iron sulfide mineral commonly found in hydrothermal veins, contact metamorphic rocks and in the
enriched zone of sulfide copper deposits. It is a common ore of copper and is easily recognized because it tarnishes
to iridescent shades of blue, purple, green and yellow. It is often mined as an ore of copper.

Physical Properties of Bornite

Chemical
sulfide
Classification

brownish bronze on a fresh

surface, iridescent purple,
Color
blue, and black on a
tarnished surface

Streak grayish black

Luster metallic

Diaphaneity opaque

Cleavage poor

Mohs Hardness 3

Specific Gravity 5.0 to 5.1

Diagnostic Properties color

Chemical
copper iron sulfide, Cu5FeS4
Composition

Crystal System tetragonal

Uses Primarily an ore of copper.

Bornite from Musina, South Africa. Specimen is approximately 3/4 inch
(1.9 centimeters) across.
 Calcite
The unique properties of calcite make it suitable for a variety of uses.

Calcite: Calcite in the form of white marble was the primary stone used in the Supreme Court building. © iStockphoto / Gary
Blakeley.

Calcite as pink marble: Calcite in the form of a pink marble from Tate, Georgia. This specimen is approximately four inches (ten
centimeters) across.

What is Calcite?
Calcite is a rock-forming mineral with a chemical formula of CaCO3. It is extremely common and found
throughout the world in sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks. Some geologists consider it to be a
"ubiquitous mineral" - one that is found everywhere.

Calcite is the principal constituent of limestone and marble. These rocks are extremely common and make
up a significant portion of Earth's crust. They serve as one of the largest carbon repositories on our planet.
The properties of calcite make it one of the most widely used minerals. It is used as a construction material,
abrasive, agricultural soil treatment, construction aggregate, pigment, pharmaceutical and more. It has more
uses than almost any other mineral.

Calcite in the form of oolitic limestone from Bedford, Indiana. Specimen is about four inches (ten centimeters) across.

Calcite as Limestone and Marble

Limestone is a sedimentary rock that is composed primarily of calcite. It forms from both the chemical
precipitation of calcium carbonate and the transformation of shell, coral, fecal and algal debris into calcite
during diagenesis. Limestone also forms as a deposit in caves from the precipitation of calcium carbonate.

Marble is a metamorphic rock that forms when limestone is subjected to heat and pressure. A close
examination of a broken piece of marble will usually reveal obvious cleavage faces of calcite. The size of the
calcite crystals is determined by the level of metamorphism. Marble that has been subjected to higher levels
of metamorphism will generally have larger calcite crystals.

Calcite in concrete used in a high-rise building: Calcite in the form of limestone is used to make cement and also used as the
aggregate in most concrete. A concrete slurry can be pumped or hoisted from the ground and poured into forms to produce the
structural elements of buildings. © iStockphoto / Frank Leung.
Uses of Calcite in Construction
The construction industry is the primary consumer of calcite in the form of limestone and marble. These rocks
have been used as dimension stones and in mortar for thousands of years. Limestone blocks were the primary
construction material used in many of the pyramids of Egypt and Latin America. Today, rough and polished
limestone and marble are still an important material used in prestige architecture.

Modern construction uses calcite in the form of limestone and marble to produce cement and concrete. These
materials are easily mixed, transported, and placed in the form of a slurry that will harden into a durable
construction material. Concrete is used to make buildings, highways, bridges, walls, and many other
structures.

Calcite with cleavage: Transparent calcite from Baxter Springs, Kansas, showing characteristic cleavage. Specimen is
approximately four inches (10 centimeters) across.

Calcite as agrilime: Acid-neutralizing qualities of calcite make finely crushed limestone a preferred material for soil treatment. ©
iStockphoto / Krzch-34.

Physical Properties of Calcite

Chemical Classification Carbonate

Color Usually white but also colorless, gray, red, green, blue, yellow, brown, orange
Streak White

Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Perfect, rhombohedral, three directions

Mohs Hardness 3

Specific Gravity 2.7

Diagnostic Properties Rhombohedral cleavage, powdered form effervesces weakly in dilute HCl, curved crystal faces and frequent twinning

Chemical Composition CaCO3

Crystal System Hexagonal

Uses Acid neutralization, a low-hardness abrasive, soil conditioner, heated for the production of lime

Calcite as an antacid: The acid-neutralizing ability of calcite is used in medicine. High-purity calcite was used to make these
antacid tablets. © iStockphoto / Rudi Tapper.

Uses in Acid Neutralization

Calcite has numerous uses as a neutralizer of acids. For hundreds of years, limestones and marbles have been
crushed and spread on fields as an acid-neutralizing soil treatment. They are also heated to produce lime that
has a much faster reaction rate in the soil.

Calcite is used as an acid neutralizer in the chemical industry. In areas were streams are plagued with acid
mine drainage, crushed limestone is dispensed into the streams to neutralize their waters.

Calcium carbonate derived from high-purity limestones or marbles is used in medicine. Mixed with sugar and
flavoring, calcium carbonate is made into chewable tablets used in the neutralization of stomach acids. It is
also an ingredient in numerous medications used to treat digestive and other ailments.
Calcium Carbonate Sorbents
Sorbents are substances that have the ability to "capture" another substance. Limestone is often treated and
used as sorbent material during the burning of fossil fuels. Calcium carbonate reacts with sulfur dioxide and
other gases in the combustion emissions, absorbs them, and prevents them from escaping to the atmosphere.

Calcite as marble blocks: White marble blocks for monuments or statuary, awaiting transport from a quarry in Portugal. ©
iStockphoto / Manuel Ribeiro.

Monuments and Statuary

Marble is an attractive and easily worked rock that has long been used for monuments and sculptures. Its lack
of significant porosity allows it to stand up well to freeze-thaw action outdoors, and its low hardness makes it
an easy stone to work. It has been used in projects as large as the pyramids and as small as a figurine. It is
widely used as cemetery markers, statues, mantles, benches, stairways, and much more.

Calcite as chalk: Calcite in the form of chalk from Dover, England. Specimen is about 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

Many Other Uses

In a powdered form, calcite often has an extremely white color. Powdered calcite is often used as a white
pigment or "whiting." Some of the earliest paints were made with calcite. It is a primary ingredient in
whitewash, and it is used as an inert coloring ingredient of paint.
Pulverized limestone and marble are often used as a dietary supplement in animal feed. Chickens that produce
eggs and cattle that produce milk need to consume a calcium-rich diet. Small amounts of calcium carbonate
are often added to their feeds to enhance their calcium intake.

Calcite has a hardness of three on the Mohs scale, and that makes it suitable as a low-hardness abrasive. It is
softer than the stone, porcelain, and plastic surfaces found in kitchens and bathrooms but more durable than
dried food and other debris that people want to remove. Its low hardness makes it an effective cleaning agent
that does not damage the surface being cleaned.

Pulverized limestone is also used as a mine safety dust. This is a nonflammable dust that is sprayed onto the
walls and roofs of underground coal mines to reduce the amount of coal dust in the air (which can be an
explosion hazard). The mine safety dust adheres to the wall of the mine and immobilizes the coal dust. Its
white color aids in illumination of the mine. It is the perfect material for this use.

Calcite as travertine cave formations: Calcite cave formations of Luray Caverns, Virginia, USA. © iStockphoto / Daniel Yost.

Calcite: A Carbon Dioxide Repository

Carbon dioxide is an important gas in Earth's environment. In the atmosphere it serves as a greenhouse gas
that works to trap and hold heat near the surface of the planet. The process of limestone formation removes
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and stores it away for long periods of time. This process has been
occurring for millions of years - producing enormous volumes of stored carbon dioxide. When these rocks are
weathered, used to neutralize acids, heated to make cement or metamorphosed severely, some of their carbon
dioxide is released and returned to the atmosphere. All of these processes of limestone formation and
destruction have an impact on Earth's climate.

Contributor: Hobart King

Calcite as lithographic limestone: Calcite in the form of lithographic limestone from Solnhofen, Bavaria, Germany. Note the
fine, uniform texture that is characteristic of lithographic limestone. Specimen is about 4 inches (ten centimeters) across.

Calcite as oolitic limestone: Calcite in the form of oolitic limestone from Tyrone, Pennsylvania. This specimen is approximately
four inches (ten centimeters) across.
Calcite as translucent onyx: Calcite in the form of translucent onyx from Tecali, Mexico. Specimen is about four inches (ten
centimeters) across.

Double refraction in calcite: Transparent calcite (known as "Iceland Spar") from Chihuahua, Mexico. This specimen shows
excellent double refraction. Specimen is about four inches (ten centimeters) across.

Calcite as calcareous tufa: Calcite in the form of calcareous tufa from Mumford, New York. This specimen is approximately
four inches (ten centimeters) across.
Calcite as travertine: Calcite in the form of travertine from Tivoli, Italy. Specimen is about four inches (ten centimeters) across.

Picasso Stone: A variety of marble with brown and black markings is known as "Picasso Stone." It is frequently cut and polished
as cabochons or used to produce tumbled stones. It is popular for jewelry and ornamental crafts.
White calcite as marble: Calcite in the form of white, coarsely crystalline marble from Tate, Georgia. Specimen is about four
inches (ten centimeters) across.

Calcite sand crystals: Calcite in the form of siliceous crystals from the Badlands, South Dakota. The calcite grew as crystals in a
sand, including the sand grains within its crystal structure. Specimen is about five inches (twelve centimeters) across.
 Cassiterite
Mineral Properties and Uses

What is Cassiterite?

Cassiterite is a tin oxide mineral that is found in vein

deposits, granitic rocks, pegmatites, areas of contact
metamorphism and the altered zone of ore deposits. It is also
found in placer deposits where it is most commonly mined
and given the name of "stream tin". It is the most widely
mined ore of tin.

Uses of Cassiterite

Cassiterite is the principle ore of tin. In the past, much of the

tin was used to produce "tin cans" (actually steel plated with
tin) for food containers. However, this use is being rapidly Cassiterite sand from Plateau State, Nigeria, Africa. Placer-mined tin is often
called "stream tin". Silt- to sand-size particles of cassiterite.
replaced by containers made of glass, plastic, paper,
aluminum and other materials. Small amounts are also used
to produce solder and polishing compounds.

Physical Properties of Cassiterite

Chemical
oxide
Classification

brown, black, reddish brown, brownish

Color
black

Streak colorless

Luster adamantine, splendent to submetallic

Diaphaneity opaque to translucent

Cleavage imperfect

Mohs Hardness 6 to 7
Particles of cassiterite from a placer deposit near Tinton, South Dakota.
Specific Gravity 6.8 to 7.1 Specimens are approximately 1/8 inch to 3/8 inch (.3 centimeter to .95
centimeter) across.
Diagnostic high specific gravity, luster, streak,
Properties fibrous appearance

Chemical
tin oxide, SnO2
Composition
Crystal System tetragonal

Uses an ore of tin

Cassiterite from near Keystone, South Dakota. Specimen is approximately 4

inches (10 centimeters) across.
 Chalcocite

Mineral Properties and Uses

What is Chalcocite?

Chalcocite is an iron sulfide mineral and an important ore of

copper. It is most commonly found as a supergene mineral in
the enriched zones of sulfide deposits. It is also occurs in
hydrothermal veins.

Physical Properties of Chalcocite

Chemical Classification sulfide

Color black, blackish lead gray

Streak grayish black

Chalcocite from Butte, Montana. This specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6
Luster metallic centimeters) across.

Diaphaneity opaque

Cleavage poor

Mohs Hardness 2.5 to 3

Specific Gravity 5.5 to 5.8

Diagnostic Properties color, soft, sooty appearance

Chemical Composition copper sulfide, Cu2S

Crystal System monoclinic

Uses Used as an ore of copper

Chalcocite from Musina, South Africa. Specimen is approximately 1 inch (2.5

centimeters) across.
 Chalcopyrite

The world's most important ore of copper for at least five thousand years.

Auriferous Chalcopyrite: A specimen of chalcopyrite with pyrrhotite from the Rouyn District, Quebec, Canada. Some
chalcopyrite contains enough gold or silver that it can be an ore of those metals without considering the copper content. This
specimen is about ten centimeters across.

What is Chalcopyrite?
Chalcopyrite is a brass-yellow mineral with a chemical composition of CuFeS2. It occurs in most sulfide
mineral deposits throughout the world and has been the most important ore of copper for thousands of years.

The surface of chalcopyrite loses its metallic luster and brass-yellow color upon weathering. It tarnishes to a
dull, gray-green color, but in the presence of acids the tarnish can develop a red to blue to purple iridescence.

The iridescent colors of weathered chalcopyrite attract attention. Some souvenir shops sell chalcopyrite that
has been treated with acid as "peacock ore." But, "peacock ore" is a more appropriate name for the
mineral bornite.

Related: Interesting Facts About Copper

 Copper Uses, Resources, Supply, Demand and Production Information

Republished from USGS Fact Sheets released in June, 2009 and January 2014

Copper - A Metal Used Through The Ages

Copper was one of the first metals ever extracted and used by
humans, and it has made vital contributions to sustaining and
improving society since the dawn of civilization. Copper was first
used in coins and ornaments starting about 8000 B.C., and at
about 5500 B.C., copper tools helped civilization emerge from
the Stone Age. The discovery that copper alloyed with tin
produces bronze marked the beginning of the Bronze Age at
about 3000 B.C.

Copper is easily stretched, molded, and shaped; is resistant to

corrosion; and conducts heat and electricity efficiently. As a
result, copper was important to early humans and continues to
be a material of choice for a variety of domestic, industrial, and
high-technology applications today.
In 1886, the Statue of Liberty represented the largest use of copper in a single structure. To
build the statue, about 80 tons of copper sheet was cut and hammered to a thickness of
How Do We Use Copper Today? about 2.3 millimeters (3/32 inch), or about that of two U.S. pennies placed together. Photo
copyright iStockphoto / A. Harris.

Presently, copper is used in building construction, power

generation and transmission, electronic product manufacturing,
and the production of industrial machinery and transportation
vehicles. Copper wiring and plumbing are integral to the
appliances, heating and cooling systems, and
telecommunications links used every day in homes and
businesses. Copper is an essential component in the motors,
wiring, radiators, connectors, brakes, and bearings used in cars
and trucks. The average car contains 1.5 kilometers (0.9 mile)
of copper wire, and the total amount of copper ranges from 20
kilograms (44 pounds) in small cars to 45 kilograms (99 pounds)
in luxury and hybrid vehicles.

Ancient Uses of Copper

As in ancient times, copper remains a component of coinage

This graph shows how copper was used in the United States during 2011 by industry sector.
used in many countries, but many new uses have been As an example: copper used in building construction could have been used for wiring,
identified. One of copper's more recent applications includes its plumbing, weatherproofing and many other individual types of use. Data for this chart is
use in frequently touched surfaces (such as brass doorknobs), from the United States Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summary for 2011.
where copper's antimicrobial properties reduce the transfer of
germs and disease. Semiconductor manufacturers have also
begun using copper for circuitry in silicon chips, which enables
microprocessors to operate faster and use less energy. Copper
rotors have also recently been found to increase the efficiency
of electric motors, which are a major consumer of electric
power.
What Properties Make Copper Useful?

The excellent alloying properties of copper have made it

invaluable when combined with other metals, such as zinc (to
form brass), tin (to form bronze), or nickel. These alloys have
desirable characteristics and, depending on their composition,
are developed for highly specialized applications. For example,
copper-nickel alloy is applied to the hulls of ships because it
does not corrode in seawater and reduces the adhesion of
marine life, such as barnacles, thereby reducing drag and
increasing fuel efficiency. Brass is more malleable and has
better acoustic properties than pure copper or zinc;
consequently, it is used in a variety of musical instruments,
including trumpets, trombones, bells, and cymbals.

Types of Copper Deposits Copper is an essential component in the motors, wiring, radiators, connectors, brakes, and
bearings used in cars and trucks. The average car contains 1.5 kilometers (0.9 mile) of
copper wire, and the total amount of copper ranges from 20 kilograms (44 pounds) in small
cars to 45 kilograms (99 pounds) in luxury and hybrid vehicles. Photo copyright iStockphoto
/ Rawpixel.
Copper occurs in many forms, but the circumstances that
control how, when, and where it is deposited are highly variable.
As a result, copper occurs in many different
minerals. Chalcopyrite is the most abundant and economically
significant of the copper minerals.

Research designed to better understand the geologic processes

that produce mineral deposits, including copper deposits, is an
important component of the USGS Mineral Resources Program.
Copper deposits are broadly classified on the basis of how the
deposits formed. Porphyry copper deposits, which are
associated with igneous intrusions, yield about two-thirds of the
world's copper and are therefore the world's most important type
of copper deposit. Large copper deposits of this type are found
in mountainous regions of western North and South America.

Another important type of copper deposit-the type contained

in sedimentary rocks-accounts for approximately one-fourth of
the world's identified copper resources. These deposits occur in
such areas as the central African copper belt and the Zechstein
basin of Eastern Europe.

Individual copper deposits may contain hundreds of millions of

tons of copper-bearing rock and commonly are developed by
using open-pit mining methods. Mining operations, which
usually follow ore discovery by many years, often last for
decades. Although many historic mining operations were not
Copper was one of the first metals used to make coins and that practice began in about
required to conduct their mining activities in ways that would 8000 BC. The coin shown above is a Roman follis featuring an image of Constantinus I.
reduce their impact on the environment, current Federal and Photo copyright iStockphoto / craetive.
State regulations do require that mining operations use
environmentally sound practices to minimize the effects of
mineral development on human and ecosystem health.

USGS mineral environmental research helps characterize the

natural and human interactions between copper deposits and
the surrounding aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Research
helps define the natural baseline conditions before mining
begins and after mine closure. USGS scientists are investigating
climatic, geologic, and hydrologic variables to better understand
the resource-environment interactions.

Copper Supply, Demand and Recycling

The world's production (supply) and consumption (demand) of

copper have increased dramatically in the past 25 years. As
large developing countries have entered the global market,
demand for mineral commodities, including copper, has
increased. In the past 20 years, the Andean region of South
America has emerged as the world's most productive copper
region. In 2007, about 45 percent of the world's copper was
produced from the Andes Mountains; the United States
produced 8 percent. Virtually all copper produced in the United
States comes from, in decreasing order of production, Arizona,
Utah, New Mexico, Nevada, or Montana.
Copper is an important element in a number of gemstones such
The risk of disruption to the global copper supply is considered as turquoise, azurite, malachite and chrysocolla. It gives these minerals their green or blue
to be low because copper production is globally dispersed and color and their high specific gravity. The cabochons shown above are some of the
many gemstones mined in Arizona.
is not limited to a single country or region. Because of its
importance in construction and power transmission, however,
the impact of any copper supply disruption would be high.

Copper is one of the most widely recycled of all metals;
approximately one-third of all copper consumed worldwide is
recycled. Recycled copper and its alloys can be remelted and
used directly or further reprocessed to refined copper without
losing any of the metal's chemical or physical properties.
Did You Know? At least 160 copper-bearing minerals have
been identified in nature; some of the more familiar minerals
are chalcopyrite, malachite, azurite, and turquoise.

How Do We Ensure Adequate Supplies of Arizona produces more copper than any other state. This brief history shows how Arizona's
copper mining built a state and changed a nation.
Copper for the Future?

Did You Know? Copper is necessary for human health; the

To help predict where future copper resources might be located,
best sources of dietary copper include seafood, organ meats,
USGS scientists study how and where known copper resources
are concentrated in the Earth's crust and use that knowledge to whole grains, nuts, raisins, legumes, and chocolate.
assess the potential for undiscovered copper resources.
Techniques to assess mineral resource potential have been
developed and refined by the USGS to support the stewardship
of Federal lands and to better evaluate mineral resource
availability in a global context.

In the 1990s, the USGS conducted an assessment of U.S.

copper resources and concluded that nearly as much copper
remained to be found as had already been discovered.
Specifically, the USGS found that about 350 million tons of
copper had been discovered and estimated that about 290
million tons of copper remained undiscovered in the United
States.

Visible from space, the Bingham Canyon copper mine in Utah has produced more than 12
million tons of porphyry copper. The mine is more than 4 kilometers (2.5 miles) across at
 the top and 800 meters (0.5 mile) deep and is one of the engineering wonders of the
Global Copper Resource Assessment world. Photograph by C.G. Cunningham, USGS.

The USGS assessed undiscovered copper in two deposit types

Did You Know? The United States was the world's largest
that account for about 80 percent of the world's copper supply.
Porphyry copper deposits account for about 60 percent of the copper producer until 2000; beginning in 2000, Chile became
world's copper. In porphyry copper deposits, copper ore the world's leading copper producer.
minerals are disseminated in igneous intrusions. Sediment-
hosted stratabound copper deposits, in which copper is
concentrated in layers in sedimentary rocks, account for about
20 percent of the world's identified copper resources. Globally,
mines in these two deposit types produce about 12 million tons
of copper per year.

This study considered potential for exposed and concealed

deposits within 1 kilometer of the surface for porphyry deposits
and up to 2.5 kilometers of the surface for sediment-hosted
stratabound deposits. For porphyry deposits, 175 tracts were
delineated; 114 tracts contain 1 or more identified deposits. Fifty
tracts were delineated for sediment-hosted stratabound copper
deposits; 27 contain 1 or more identified deposits.

Results of the assessment are provided by deposit type for 11

regions (table 1). The mean total undiscovered resource for
porphyry deposits is 3,100 million tons, and the mean total
undiscovered resource for sediment-hosted deposits is 400
million tons, for a global total of 3,500 million tons of copper.
The ranges of resource estimates (between the 90th and 10th
percentiles) reflect the geologic uncertainty in the assessment
process. Approximately 50 percent of the global total occurs in The qualities of copper that have made it the material of choice for a variety of domestic,
South America, South Central Asia and Indochina, and North industrial, and hightechnology applications have resulted in a steady rise in global copper
America combined. consumption. USGS studies of copper consumption show some interesting trends for the
1990 to 2012 time period. Copper consumption in emerging economies, such as China and
India, rose considerably, whereas the consumption rate in the United States, fell slightly.
South America has the largest identified and undiscovered Until 2002, the United States was the leading copper consumer and annually used about 16
copper resources (about 20 percent of the total undiscovered percent of total world refined copper (about 2.4 million tons). In 2002, the United States
was overtaken by China as the world's leading user of refined copper. The booming
amount). The world's largest porphyry deposits are mined in this
economy in China contributed to a quadrupling of its annual refined copper consumption
region. during the 12 years from 2000 to 2012. Graph by USGS.

Central America and the Caribbean host two undeveloped

giant (>2 million ton copper) porphyry copper deposits in
Panama. Most of the undiscovered resources are in a belt that
Did You Know? Before 1982, the U.S. penny was made
extends from Panama to southwestern Mexico.
entirely of copper; since 1982, the U.S. penny has been only
North America hosts highly mineralized porphyry copper tracts coated with copper.
that include supergiant (>25 million tons copper) porphyry
deposits in northern Mexico, the western United States, and
Alaska, as well as giant deposits in western Canada. The
estimated undiscovered porphyry copper resources are
approximately equal to the identified resources. In the United
States, undiscovered sediment-hosted stratabound copper
deposits in Michigan, Montana, and Texas are estimated to
contain about three times as much copper as has been
identified. Two giant deposits are known, in Michigan and
Montana.

Northeast Asia is relatively underexplored, with modest

identified porphyry copper resources and only one identified
giant porphyry copper deposit. However, the mean
undiscovered resources are estimated to be quite large. This
region has the largest ratio of undiscovered to identified
resources in the study. Distribution of known copper deposits in 2008. Red indicates copper associated with
igneous intrusions (porphyry copper deposits) and blue indicates copper contained in
sedimentary rocks (sediment-hosted copper deposits). Map by USGS. Enlarge Map
North Central Asia has 35 porphyry copper deposits, including
a supergiant deposit in Mongolia and a giant deposit in
Kazakhstan. The tract area is estimated to contain about three
times the amount of identified porphyry copper resource. This
region also hosts three giant sediment-hosted stratabound Did You Know? Copper is one of the few metals that occur in
copper deposits, in Kazakhstan and Russia. The USGS nature in native form. Because of this, it was one of the first
estimates that as much sediment-hosted stratabound copper as metals used by ancient peoples and it continues to be an
has already been discovered may be present. important metal today.
South Central Asia and Indochina are less thoroughly
explored than many other parts of the world; however, four giant
porphyry copper deposits have been identified to date in the
Tibetan Plateau. Undiscovered porphyry copper deposits may
contain eight times the identified amount of copper.

Southeast Asia Archipelagos host world-class, gold-rich

porphyry copper deposits such as a supergiant in Indonesia and
about 16 giant deposits in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and
the Philippines. Although parts of the region are well explored,
undiscovered porphyry resources are likely to exceed identified
resources.

Eastern Australia has one giant porphyry copper deposit and

several small porphyry deposits. Modest undiscovered
resources are expected under cover.

Eastern Europe and Southwestern Asia have been mined for

copper since ancient times, and giant porphyry copper deposits
have recently been identified. Undiscovered copper is predicted
to be about twice the identified resources, both for porphyry
deposits along a belt from Romania through Turkey and Iran
and for sediment-hosted stratabound deposits in Afghanistan.

Western Europe has the largest sediment-hosted stratabound

copper deposit in the world, in Poland. Undiscovered sediment-
hosted stratabound copper resources in southwestern Poland
are estimated to exceed identified resources by about 30
percent.

Africa and the Middle East have the world's largest

accumulation of sediment-hosted stratabound copper deposits,
with 19 giant deposits in the Central African Copperbelt in the
Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia. Significant
undiscovered copper resources remain to be discovered.

Contributors

The information in these USGS Fact Sheets was prepared by

Jeff Doebrich, Kathleen Johnson, Jane Hammarstrom, Michael
Zientek, and Connie Dicken.
 Physical Properties of Chalcopyrite
Chemical Classification Sulfide

Color Brass yellow. Tarnishes to gray green, sometimes iridescent.

Streak Greenish black

Luster Metallic

Diaphaneity Opaque

Cleavage Poor

Mohs Hardness 3.5 to 4

Specific Gravity 4.1 to 4.3

Diagnostic Properties Color, greenish streak, softer than pyrite, brittle.

Chemical Composition Copper iron sulfide, CuFeS2.

Crystal System Tetragonal

Uses The most important ore of copper for thousands of years.

Chalcopyrite on Dolomite: Tetragonal crystals of chalcopyrite on dolomite from Baxter Springs, Kansas. This specimen is about
10 centimeters across.

Physical Properties of Chalcopyrite

The most obvious physical properties of chalcopyrite are its brassy yellow color, metallic luster, and high
specific gravity. These give it a similar appearance to pyrite and gold. Distinguishing these minerals is easy.
Gold is soft, has a yellow streak and has a much higher specific gravity. Chalcopyrite is brittle and has a
greenish gray streak. Pyrite is hard enough that it cannot be scratched with a nail, but chalcopyrite is easily
scratched with a nail.

The name "fool's gold" is most often associated with pyrite because it is more common and more often
confused with gold. Chalcopyrite is also confused with gold, so the name "fool's gold" is also applied and
appropriate.

Chalcopyrite: Chalcopyrite from Ajo, Arizona. Specimen is approximately 10 centimeters across.

Chalcopyrite: Specimen of chalcopyrite from Rouyn District, Quebec, Canada. Specimen is approximately 10 centimeters across.

Geologic Occurrence of Chalcopyrite

Chalcopyrite forms under a variety of conditions. Some is primary, crystallizing from melts as accessory
minerals inigneous rocks. Some forms by magmatic segregation and is in the stratified rocks of a magma
chamber. Some occurs in pegmatite dikes and contact metamorphic rocks. Some is disseminated
through schist and gneiss. Many volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits containing chalcopyrite are known.
The most significant chalcopyrite deposits to be mined are hydrothermal in origin. In these, some chalcopyrite
occurs in veins and some replaces country rock. Associated ore minerals
include pyrite, sphalerite, bornite, galena, and chalcocite.

Chalcopyrite serves as the copper source for many secondary mineral deposits. Copper is removed from
chalcopyrite by weathering or solution, transported a short distance, then redeposited as secondary sulfide,
oxide, or carbonate minerals. Many malachite, azurite, covellite, chalcocite, and cuprite deposits contain
this secondary copper.

Uses of Chalcopyrite
The only important use of chalcopyrite is as an ore of copper, but this single use should not be understated.
Chalcopyrite has been the primary ore of copper since smelting began over five thousand years ago.

Some chalcopyrite ores contain significant amounts of zincsubstituting for iron. Others contain
enough silver or goldthat the precious metal content more than pays the costs of mining.
 Chlorite
A group of common sheet silicate minerals

Chlorite: Chlorite from Quebec, Canada. This specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) across.

What is Chlorite?
"Chlorite" is the name of a group of common sheet silicate minerals that form during the early stages of
metamorphism. Most chlorite minerals are green in color, have a foliated appearance, perfect cleavage, and
an oily to soapy feel. They are found in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.

Chlorite minerals are found in rocks altered during deep burial, plate collisions, hydrothermal activity, or
contact metamorphism. They are also found as retrograde minerals in igneous and metamorphic rocks that
have been weathered. Rocks that commonly contain abundant chlorite include greenschist, phyllite,
chlorite schist, and greenstone.

Chlorite Minerals
Mineral Composition

Baileychlore (Zn,Fe+2,Al,Mg)6(Al,Si)4O10(O,OH)8

Borocookeite Li1+3xAl4-x(BSi3O10)(OH)8

Chamosite (Fe+2,Mg,Al,Fe+3)6(Si,Al)4O10(OH,O)8

Clinochlore (Mg,Fe)5Al(Si3Al)O10(OH)8

Cookeite (Al2Li)Al2(Si3AlO10)(OH)8

Donbassite Al13(Al3Si9O30)(OH)24

Franklinfurnaceite Ca2Fe+3Mn+23Mn+3(Zn2Si2O10)(OH)8

Glagolevite Na(Mg,Al)6(AlSi3O10)(OH,O)8

Gonyerite (Mn,Mg)5Fe+3(Fe+3Si3O10)(OH)8
 Nimite (Ni,Mg,Al)6(Si,Al)4O10(OH)8

Odinite (Fe+2,Mg,Al,Fe+3,Ti,Mn)12(Al,Si)10O25OH20

Orthochamosite (Fe+2,Mg,Fe+3)5Al(Si3AlO10)(O,OH)8

Pennantite (Mn5Al)(Si3Al)O10(OH)8

Ripidolite (Mg,Fe,Al)6(Al,Si)4O10(OH)8

Sudoite Mg2(Al,Fe)3(Si3AlO10)(OH)8

Chlorite Minerals
Chlorite minerals have a generalized chemical composition of (X,Y)4-6(Si,Al)4O10(OH,O)8. The "X" and "Y"
in the formula represent ions, which might include: Fe+2, Fe+3, Mg+2, Mn+2, Ni+2, Zn+2, Al+3, Li+1, or Ti+4. The
composition and physical properties of chlorites vary as these ions substitute for one another in solid solution.

The most common chlorite minerals are clinochlore, pennantite, and chamosite. A more comprehensive list
of chlorite minerals and their chemical compositions is shown in the green table on this page.

Chlorite: A side view of chlorite showing its foliated appearance. Specimen is from Quebec, Canada and is approximately 3
inches (7.6 centimeters) across.

Where Does Chlorite Form?

Chlorite minerals most often form in rock environments where minerals are altered by heat, pressure, and
chemical activity. These generally have a temperature less than a few hundred degrees and are within a few
miles of Earth's surface.

Chlorite minerals often form in clay-rich sedimentary rocks that are buried in deep sedimentary basins or
subjected to regional metamorphism at a convergent plate boundary. Chlorite that forms here is usually
associated with biotite, muscovite, garnet, staurolite, andalusite, or cordierite. Metamorphic rocks rich in
chlorite might include phyllite and chlorite schist.
Another environment of chlorite mineral formation is in oceanic crust descending into subduction zones. Here,
amphiboles, pyroxenes, and micas are altered into chlorite.

Chlorite minerals also form during the hydrothermal, metasomatic, or contact metamorphism. These chlorite
minerals are often found in fractures, solution cavities, or the vesicles of igneous rocks.

Physical Properties of Chlorite

Chemical
Silicate
Classification

Color Various shades of green. Rarely yellow, white, pink, black

Streak Greenish to greenish gray

Luster Vitreous, pearly, dull

Diaphaneity Transparent, translucent, opaque

Cleavage Perfect in one direction

Mohs Hardness 2 to 3

Specific Gravity 2.6 to 3.3

Diagnostic
Color, hardness, foliated appearance, feels slightly greasy
Properties

A generalized formula: (X,Y)4-6(Si,Al)4O10(OH,O)8

Chemical
Composition The "X" and "Y" in the formula represent ions, which might include: Fe+2, Fe+3, Mg+2, Mn+2, Ni+2, Zn+2, Al+3, Li+1, or Ti+4. The
composition and physical properties of chlorites vary as these ions substitute for one another in solid solution.

Crystal System Monoclinic

Uses Very few industrial uses. Used as a filler and as a constituent of clay.

Physical Properties of Chlorites

Members of the chlorite mineral group are typically green in color, have a foliated appearance, perfect
cleavage, and an oily or soapy feel. Their variable chemical composition gives them a range of hardness and
specific gravity. This makes them difficult to differentiate in hand specimen.

Recognizing a mineral as a member of the chlorite group is usually easy. However, placing a specific name
on it can be difficult. Detailed optical, chemical, or x-ray analysis is usually required for positive identification.
The name "chlorite" is often used in classrooms and the field because the minerals are difficult or impossible
to identify. As a result, the individual chlorite minerals are poorly known.

Uses of Chlorite
Chlorite is a mineral with a low potential for industrial use. It does not have physical properties that make it
suited for a particular use, and it does not contain constituents that make it a target of mining. When found,
chlorite is usually intimately intermixed with other minerals, and the cost of separation would be high. As a
result, chlorite is not mined and processed for any specific use. Its major use is as a coincidental constituient
in crushed stone.
 Chromite
The only ore of chromium, the metal used to make stainless steel, nichrome, and chrome plating.

Chromite: Chromite from the Transvaal area of South Africa. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

What is Chromite?
Chromite is an oxide mineral composed of chromium, iron, and oxygen (FeCr2O4). It is dark gray to black in
color with a metallic to submetallic luster and a high specific gravity. It occurs in basic and ultrabasic igneous
rocks and in the metamorphic and sedimentary rocks that are produced when chromite-bearing rocks are
altered by heat or weathering.

Chromite is important because it is the only economic ore of chromium, an essential element for a wide
variety of metal, chemical, and manufactured products. Many other minerals contain chromium, but none of
them are found in deposits that can be economically mined to produce chromium.

Physical Properties of Chromite

Chemical Classification Oxide

Color Dark gray to black, rarely brownish black

Streak Dark brown

Luster Metallic to submetallic

Diaphaneity Opaque

Cleavage None

Mohs Hardness 5.5 to 6

Specific Gravity 4.0 to 5.1 (variable)

Diagnostic Properties Luster, streak

 Chemical Composition FeCr2O4 with magnesium substituting for iron in significant amounts

Crystal System Isometric

Uses An ore of chromium

Properties of Chromite
Chromite can be challenging to identify. Several properties must be considered to differentiate it from other
metallic ores. Hand specimen identification of chromite requires a consideration of: color, specific gravity,
luster, and a characteristic brown streak. The most important clue to identifying chromite is its association
with ultrabasic igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks such as serpentinite.

Chromite is sometimes slightly magnetic. This can cause it to be confused with magnetite. Chromite
and ilmenitehave very similar properties. Careful observations of hardness, streak, and specific gravity are
required to distinguish these minerals in hand specimens.

Chromite and Solid Solution

Did You Know? The color of many

gemstones is derived from trace
amounts of chromium. The red
color of rubies, the pink of some
sapphires, and the green color of
emeralds are derived from
chromium. Image © iStockphoto /
ProArtWork.

Magnesium frequently substitutes for iron in chromite. A solid solution series exists between the mineral
chromite (FeCr2O4) and the isomorphous mineral magnesiochromite (MgCr2O4). Intermediate specimens can
be rich in iron ((Fe,Mg)Cr2O4) or magnesium ((Mg,Fe)Cr2O4). For convenience in communication, these
minerals are often referred to collectively as "chromite."

Some mineralogists give a generalized chemical composition of (Mg,Fe)(Cr,Al) 2O4 for chromite. This
composition recognizes multiple solid solution paths between chromite and hercynite (FeAl2O4), spinel
(MgAl2O4), magnesiochromite (MgCr2O4), magnetite (Fe3O4), and magnesioferrite (MgFe2O4).

Because of the many different compositions in these solid solution series, geologists and metallurgists often
consider "chromite" to be any member of the solid solution series that has a significant Cr2O3 content.
Bushveld stratiform chromite deposit: A field photo of the Bushveld LG6 chromite seam. This clearly shows the stratiform
nature of the deposit. USGS photo by Klaus Schulz.

Stratiform, Podiform, and Beach Sands

Small amounts of chromite are found in many types of rock. However, chromite deposits that are large enough
for mining are generally found in: 1) stratiform deposits (large masses of igneous rock such as norite
or peridotite that slowly crystallized from subsurface magma); 2) podiform deposits (serpentines and other
metamorphic rocks derived from the alteration of norite and peridotite); and, 3) beach sands (derived from the
weathering of chromite-bearing rocks).

Chromite from South Africa: Chromite from the Transvaal area of South Africa. This specimen is approximately 3.5 inches (9
centimeters) across.

STRATIFORM DEPOSITS

Stratiform deposits are large masses of igneous rock that cooled very slowly in subsurface magma chambers.
During this slow cooling, chromite and associated minerals crystallized early while the magma was still at a
very high temperature. Their crystals then settled to the bottom of the magma chamber to form a layered
deposit. Some of the layers in these deposits can contain 50% or more chromite on the basis of weight.

Most of the world's known chromite occurs in two stratiform deposits: the Bushveld Complex in South Africa
and the Great Dyke in Zimbabwe. Other important stratiform deposits include: the Stillwater Complex in
Montana, the Kemi Complex of Finland, the Orissa Complex of India, the Goias in Brazil, the Mashaba
Complex of Zimbabwe and small deposits in Madagascar. Nearly all of these are Precambrian in age.

Chromite from Zimbabwe: Chromite from Shurugwi, Zimbabwe. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

PODIFORM DEPOSITS

Podiform deposits are large slabs of oceanic lithosphere that have been thrust up onto a continental plate.
These slabs of rock, also known as "ophiolites," can contain significant amounts of chromite. In these deposits
the chromite is disseminated through the rock and not highly concentrated in easy-to-mine layers. Podiform
deposits are known in Kazakhstan, Russia, the Philippines, Zimbabwe, Cyprus, and Greece.

The first discoveries of podiform chromite deposits were made near Baltimore, Maryland in the early 1800s.
These deposits supplied nearly all of the world's chromite until about 1850. These deposits were small and are
no longer in production.

BEACH SANDS

Chromite is found in beach sands derived from the weathering of chromite-bearing rocks and laterite soils that
developed over peridotite. Beach sand rich in chromite and other heavy minerals is sometimes mined,
processed to remove heavy minerals, and returned to the environment.

Two facts allow these chromite sands to occasionally contain economic deposits of chromite. First, chromite
is one of the more weathering-resistant minerals of peridotite. That causes it to be concentrated in residual
soils that form in the weathering zone above chromite-rich rocks. Second, chromite has a higher specific
gravity than other minerals in peridotite. This causes it to be selectively transported and deposited by wave
and current actions, concentrating it in certain locations at streams and beaches. These deposits are sometimes
rich enough and large enough that they can be mined for chromite.
Uses of Chromite and Chromium

Did You Know? School buses and

yellow lines on highways are often
painted with "chrome yellow"
paint. The "chrome" means
chromium was used as an
ingredient. Image © iStockphoto /
2windspa.

Chromium is a metal used to induce hardness, toughness, and chemical resistance in steel. The alloy produced
is known as "stainless steel." When alloyed with iron and nickel, it produces an alloy known as "nichrome"
which is resistant to high temperatures and used to make heating units, ovens, and other appliances. Thin
coatings of chromium alloys are used as platings on auto parts, appliances, and other products. These are given
the name "chrome plated." It is also used to make superalloys that can perform well in the hot, corrosive, and
high-stress environment of jet engines.

Chromium's name comes from the Greek word "chroma" which means "color." Chromium is used as a
pigment in paint. The familiar yellow lines painted down the center of highways and the yellow paint used on
school buses are often "chrome yellow" - a color produced from chromium pigment. Chromium is an
important pigment in many types of paint, ink, dye, and cosmetics. Trace amounts of chromium produce the
color in many minerals and gemstones. The red color of ruby, the pink of some sapphires, and the green
color of emerald are caused by tiny amounts of chromium.

Chromite Production and Reserves

Country 2011 Mine Production 2012 Mine Production (estimated) Reserves

India 3,850 3,800 54,000

Kazakhstan 3,800 3,800 210,000

South Africa 10,200 11,000 200,000

Other Countries 5,450 5,300 NA

United States 0 0 620

The values above are estimated chromite production and reserves in thousands of metric tons. Data from USGS Mineral Commodity
Summaries. [2]

Chromium Production and Recycling in the United States

Chromium is not mined in the United States. The chromium consumed by United States industry comes from:
A) other countries in the form of chromite ore, ferrochromium or chromium metal; or, B) chromium recovered
from recycled metals. Over half of the chromium used in the United States today is from recycling.
Because chromium is essential for the defense and prosperity of the United States, the federal government
maintains a stockpile of chromite ore, ferrochromium, and chromium metal for use in a national emergency.
This type of emergency could occur if the United States was involved in a war and the enemy prevented the
delivery of chromite and chromium products by sea transport. In addition, small chromite deposits have been
located in the United States which could be mined if they are needed.

Chromite Information

[1] Stratiform Chromite Deposit Model: Ruth F. Schulte, Ryan D. Taylor, Nadine M. Piatak, and Robert R. Seal II; Chapter E of Mineral Deposit
Model for Resource Assessment; Scientific Investigations Report 2010-5070-E; 131 pages; November 2012.

[2] Chromium: John F. Papp, United States Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2013.

[3] Chromium: John F. Papp, United States Geological Survey, 2011 Minerals Yearbook, April 2013.

[4] Chromium Makes Stainless Steel Stainless: S. J. Kropschot and Jeff Doebrich, United States Geological Survey, Fact Sheet 2010-3089,
September 2010.

[5] How a Rogue Geologist Discovered a Diamond Trove in the Canadian Arctic: Carl Hoffman, Wired Magazine, Issue 16.12, last accessed
June 2016.

Chromite and Diamond Exploration

Kimberlite, the type of rock that holds many of the world's most important diamond deposits, usually contains
small amounts of chromite, ilmenite, and certain types of garnet. Although these minerals occur in very
small amounts, they are much more common in the rock than diamonds. Because these minerals do not occur
together in most other types of rocks, they can be a valuable indicator of a nearby kimberlite body if they are
found in stream sediments, glacial tills, residual soils, core samples, or well cuttings. Some of the greatest
diamond deposits on Earth were discovered using the geology of indicator minerals.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Chrysoberyl
An extreme gem: The third-hardest gem mineral. The gem with the finest "cat's-eye."
The color-change mineral alexandrite.

Chrysoberyl: Three faceted chrysoberyls showing a range of yellow and yellow-green color. These stones were produced in Sri
Lanka and are about 4.3 millimeters in diameter and weigh about 0.52 carats each - a very high weight for stones of this size,
caused by chrysoberyl's high specific gravity.

What Is Chrysoberyl?
Chrysoberyl is a beryllium-aluminum oxide mineral with a chemical composition of BeAl2O4. It is distinctly
different from the beryllium-aluminum silicate (Be3Al2(SiO3)6 mineral known as "beryl," although the similar
names can cause confusion.

Chrysoberyl is not found in deposits that are large enough to allow it to be used as an ore of beryllium. Its
only important use is as a gemstone; however, it excels in that use because of its very high hardness and its
special properties of chatoyance and color change.

The Diverse Gems of Chrysoberyl

Chrysoberyl is best known for its use as a gem. There are multiple varieties of gem chrysoberyl, each with its
own name and unique physical properties.

Ordinary chrysoberyl is a yellow to yellow-green to green gemstone with a translucent to transparent

diaphaneity. Transparent specimens are usually cut into faceted stones. Specimens that are translucent or with
silk are usually cut into cabochons. A photo of ordinary chrysoberyl is shown at the top of this page.
Cat's-Eye Chrysoberyl: Chrysoberyl that contains large numbers of fibrous inclusions can produce a "cat's-eye," a line of light
across the surface of the stone that orients perpendicular to the included fibers. Chrysoberyl is the gem that exhibits the finest
cat's-eyes, and when the term "cat's-eye" is used without a mineral name as a modifier, the speaker is most likely referring to
chrysoberyl. This specimen exhibits the "milk-and-honey" effect - when properly oriented, the stone has two apparently different
colors on each side of the cat's-eye line. This green cat's-eye chrysoberyl was produced in Sri Lanka and is about 5.6 x 4
millimeters in size.

Cat's-Eye
Chrysoberyl is the gemstone that produces the most distinct "cat's-eye," or chatoyance. If a person uses the
name "cat's-eye" without the name of another gemstone (for example, "cat's-eye tourmaline"), then he is most
likely referring to chatoyant chrysoberyl. Cat's-eye chrysoberyl has also been called "cymophane."

The phenomenon of cat's-eye occurs in cabochon-cut stones that contain a high density of parallel fibrous
inclusions. The "cat's-eye" is a line of light that reflects from the dome of the cabochon at right angles to the
parallel inclusions. The line of light is very similar to how a spool of silk thread will produce a line of reflection
across the top of the spool as it is moved back and forth under a source of light.

Some specimens of cat's-eye will appear to have a different color on each side of the cat's-eye line when
illuminated from the proper direction with respect to the observer's eye. It gives the illusion that the stone is
made of two different materials, a light material on one side of the line and a dark material on the other. This
phenomenon is known as the "milk-and-honey" effect. A photo of cat's-eye chrysoberyl showing the milk-
and-honey effect is shown on this page.
Alexandrite: A faceted specimen of color-change alexandrite of 26.75 carats from Tanzania, showing a blue-green color in
daylight and a purple-red color under incandescent light. Photographed by David Weinberg for Alexandrite.net and published here
under a GNU Free Document License.

Alexandrite
Alexandrite is the color-change variety of chrysoberyl. The most distinctive specimens appear to have a green
to blue-green color in daylight but change to a red to purplish-red color under incandescent light. Specimens
with strong and distinct color-change properties are rare, highly desirable, and sell at very high prices. Stones
over five carats are especially rare. A photo pair of an alexandrite gem in daylight and incandescent light is
shown on this page.

The change in color is thought to occur only in specimens where chromium substitutes for aluminum in the
mineral's atomic structure. The chrysoberyl in which this phenomenon was first observed was named
"alexandrite" after Tsar Alexander II of Russia. Since then the "alexandrite effect" has been observed in other
gems, which include color-change garnet, spinel, tourmaline, sapphire, and fluorite.

Alexandrite is a rare material, only found in very small deposits. It was first discovered in the Ural Mountains
of Russia in the late 1800s. Although that deposit has been mined out, small deposits have since been
discovered in Brazil, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, China, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Madagascar, Tasmania, and
the United States.

Alexandrite can also be strongly pleochroic (a stone that has a different apparent hue when viewed from
different directions). It is a trichroic stone (exhibiting three different hues from three different directions) with
a green, red, or yellow-orange hue depending upon the direction of observation. The pleochroism of
chrysoberyl is not apparent in all specimens and varies under different types of light. It is not as distinctive as
the color-change effect.

Physical Properties of Chrysoberyl

Chemical
Oxide
Classification

Color Usually ranges from brown to pale yellow, yellow-green and green

Streak Colorless

Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Poor, prismatic

Mohs Hardness 8.5

Specific Gravity 3.7 to 3.8

Diagnostic Properties Hardness, color

Chemical
Beryllium aluminum oxide, BeAl2O4
Composition

Crystal System Orthorhombic

 As a gemstone: chrysoberyl when transparent, "cat's-eye" when chatoyant, and "alexandrite" in specimens that
Uses
exhibit color change.

Physical Properties of Chrysoberyl

One of the most distinctive properties of chrysoberyl is its exceptional hardness. With a Mohs hardness of
8.5, it is the third-hardest gemstone and the third-hardest mineral that is even occasionally found at Earth's
surface. Although chrysoberyl is extremely hard, it does break with distinct cleavage in one direction and
indistinctly or poorly in two others. It also has a brittle tenacity.

Most specimens of chrysoberyl are nearly colorless or fall into the brown to yellow to green color range. Red
specimens are occasionally found.

Chrysoberyl often occurs in tabular or prismatic crystals with distinct striations (see photo below). It also
occurs in twinned crystals with distinct star and rosette shapes. These crystals usually persist well and retain
their shape during stream transport because of the mineral's exceptional hardness. This makes them easy to
identify in gem gravels, but the twinning often interferes with their usefulness as gems.

Chrysoberyl crystal: A beautiful chrysoberyl twinned crystal from Minas Gerais, Brazil. Photo by Yaiba Sakaguchi, used here
under public domain.

Geologic Occurrence
As a beryllium mineral, chrysoberyl only forms under those conditions where large amounts of beryllium are
present. This limits its abundance and geographic distribution. High concentrations of mobile beryllium most
often occur on the margins of magma bodies during the final stages of their crystallization. Thus, chrysoberyl
usually forms in pegmatites and in metamorphic rocksassociated with pegmatites. These include mica
schistsand dolomitic marbles.

Chrysoberyl is also found along with other gem minerals in placer deposits. It is a hard, weathering-resistant
mineral with a high specific gravity. These properties allow it to survive in sediments after other minerals
have been destroyed by abrasion and chemical weathering.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Cinnabar
A toxic mercury sulfide mineral. The primary ore of mercury, once used as a pigment.

Cinnabar: Massive cinnabar showing its characteristic red color and dull luster. Some contamination by clay. Photograph by H.
Zell, used here under a GNU Free Documentation License.

What is Cinnabar?
Cinnabar is a toxic mercury sulfide mineral with a chemical composition of HgS. It is the only important ore
of mercury. It has a bright red color that has caused people to use it as a pigment and carve it into jewelry and
ornaments for thousands of years in many parts of the world. Because it is toxic, its pigment and jewelry uses
have almost been discontinued.
Cinnabar in sediment porosity: Cinnabar sometimes precipitates from fluids moving through the porosity of a sediment or a
sedimentary rock. In those cases it can infill the pore spaces as a weak "cement." Photo © iStockphoto, only_fabrizio.

Geologic Occurrence of Cinnabar

Cinnabar is a hydrothermal mineral that precipitates from ascending hot waters and vapors as they move
through fractured rocks. It forms at shallow depths where temperatures are less than about 200 degrees
Celsius. It usually forms in rocks surrounding geologically recent volcanic activity but can also form near hot
springs and fumaroles.

Cinnabar precipitates as coatings on rock surfaces and as fracture fillings. Less often, cinnabar can be
deposited in the pore spaces of sediments. It is usually massive in habit and is rarely found as well-formed
crystals. Other sulfide minerals are generally found associated with cinnabar. These can
include pyrite, marcasite, realgar, and stibnite. Gangue minerals associated with cinnabar
include quartz, dolomite, calcite, and barite. Small droplets of liquid mercury are sometimes present on or
near cinnabar.

Cinnabar crystals: Bright red cinnabar crystals on a dolomite matrix. Crystals are about 1.3 centimeters in height, from Hunan,
China. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Properties of Cinnabar
The most striking property of cinnabar is its red color. Its bright color makes it easy to spot in the field and is
a fascination for those who discover it. It has a Mohs hardness of 2 to 2.5 and is very easily ground into a
very fine powder. It has a specific gravity of 8.1, which is extremely high for a nonmetallic mineral.

The luster of cinnabar ranges from dull to adamantine. Specimens with a dull luster are usually massive,
contain abundant impurities and do not have the brilliant red color of pure cinnabar. Adamantine specimens
are usually the rarely-found crystals.
 Physical Properties of Cinnabar
Chemical
Sulfide
Classification

Color Bright red to brownish red, sometimes gray

Streak Red

Luster Adamantine to dull

Diaphaneity Transparent, translucent, or opaque

Cleavage Perfect, prismatic

Mohs Hardness 2 to 2.5

Specific Gravity 8 to 8.2

Diagnostic Properties Specific gravity, color, streak, cleavage, association with volcanic activity.

Chemical
Mercury sulfide, HgS
Composition

Crystal System Trigonal

The only important ore of mercury. Its use as a pigment, gem, and ornamental carving material has declined due to
Uses
toxicity.

Metacinnabar: Crystals of metacinnabar on a rock surface. Specimen is from the Mount Diablo mine, Contra Costa County,
California. Specimen is about 3.3 x 2.1 x 2.0 centimeters in size. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Metacinnabar
Metacinnabar is a polymorph of cinnabar. It has the same chemical composition (HgS) as cinnabar but a
different crystal structure. Cinnabar is trigonal, while metacinnabar is isometric. The two minerals should not
be confused with one another because metacinnabar has a metallic gray color, a gray-to-black streak and a
metallic-to-submetallic luster.
Chinese red (cinnabar) lacquer box: A carved wooden box with a red lacquer finish from China's Ming Dynasty Period (box c.
1522-1566). Boxes like this were frequently painted with a lacquer containing a cinnabar pigment.

Mercury still: Textbook sketch of a still used for the distillation of mercury from cinnabar. Public domain image
from Alchimia, Anonymous, 1570.

Uses of Cinnabar
Cinnabar is the only important ore of mercury. For thousands of years, cinnabar has been mined and heated
in a furnace. The mercury escapes as a vapor that can be condensed into liquid mercury.

People began using cinnabar for pigments thousands of years ago in Italy, Greece, Spain, China, Turkey, and
the Mayan countries of South America. Through time, people in almost every country where volcanoes are
present discovered cinnabar and realized its utility as a pigment. Cinnabar is one of a very small number of
minerals that was independently discovered, processed and utilized by ancient people in many parts of the
world.
Cinnabar was mined at the volcano, ground into a very fine powder and then mixed with liquids to produce
many types of paint. The bright red pigments known as "vermilion" and "Chinese red" were originally made
from cinnabar.

Cinnabar has been especially popular for making red lacquer in China. Its use in lacquer has declined because
of its toxicity, but some use of cinnabar in lacquer continues. Cinnabar has also been used in powdered form
for ritual blessings and burials. Powdered cinnabar was used as a cosmetic in many parts of the world for
thousands of years. Eventually it was discovered that cinnabar is toxic, and its use in pigments, paints, and
cosmetics began to decline.

Today most, but not all, items made and sold under the name "cinnabar" have been made with less toxic and
nontoxic imitation materials. Antique items made with toxic mineral cinnabar are still found in the
marketplace.

Mercury switch: Mercury has the ability to conduct electricity and flow under the influence of gravity. This switch is currently in
the "off" position, but if it is moved so that the mercury runs to the right, surrounding the two wires, the circuit will be connected
and the switch will be in the "on" position. Photo by Medvedev, used here under a Creative Commons license.

Uses of Mercury
Because cinnabar is the only important ore of mercury, the demand for mercury has driven mining activity.
Mercury has many uses, but its toxicity has reduced its use in any application where reasonable substitutes
can be found. Large amounts of mercury are currently used in the chemical industry in the production of
chlorine and caustic soda during the electrolysis of brine.

Mercury was widely used in temperature- and pressure-measuring instruments such as thermometers and
barometers. It was often used in gravity switches because it flowed easily as a liquid and conducted electricity.
Most of these uses have been discontinued.

Mercury is currently used in some batteries and light bulbs, but their disposal is often regulated. Because it is
toxic, it was once widely used to protect seed corn from fungus and to deworm materials used to make felt. It
was used in dental amalgam but is being replaced by polymer resins and other materials. In almost all of its
use, mercury is being replaced with less toxic and nontoxic substitutes.

Mercury has been widely used in mining to separate goldand silver from ores and stream sediments. Large
amounts of mercury were spilled during these operations, and today, mercury used in the 1800s is still being
recovered from streams.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Zoisite and Clinozoisite
Two very similar minerals with the same chemical composition but different crystal structures

Blue zoisite - Tanzanite: Tanzanite is the most widely known zoisite and one of the world's most popular gemstones. This
violetish blue tanzanite is an exceptional faceted oval weighing 8.14 carats and measuring 14.4 x 10.5 x 7.6 millimeters in size.
On the basis of its color and clarity, it would be rated in the top 1% of the tanzanite produced by TanzaniteOne Mining Ltd., the
leading producer of tanzanite. Photo copyright by Richland Gemstones and used here with permission.

What are Zoisite and Clinozoisite?

Zoisite and clinozoisite are minerals that form during the regional metamorphism and hydrothermal alteration
ofigneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. In those environments they are found in massive form and
as prismatic crystals in veins that cut schists and marbles. They are also found as crystals in pegmatites that
form on the margins of igneous bodies.

The two minerals are dimorphs - they share the same chemical composition but have a different crystal
structure. Zoisite is the orthorhombic form of Ca2Al3(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH) and clinozoisite is the monoclinic
form. The minerals have extremely similar physical properties and can be very difficult to tell apart in hand
specimens unless the specimens are well-formed crystals. Clinozoisite forms a solid solution series with the
mineral epidote in which iron can substitute for aluminum.
Zoisite: Shown above are 4 specimens of zoisite in unusual colors. Top row: pink and yellow crystals with orthorhombic crystal
habit. Bottom row: (left) a parti-colored specimen with shades of green and pink in the same crystal; (right) a blue-green crystal
with nice termination. Specimens and images copyright by Lapigems.

Uses of Zoisite and Clinozoisite

Zoisite and clinozoisite are minerals that are usually found in small quantities. They have not been used in
significant amounts by industry. Transparent and colorful specimens of both minerals have been used
as gemstones. Zoisite is the mineral of some very diverse gem materials, one being the extremely
popular tanzanite which was discovered in the 1960s and immediately became one of the world's most
popular gems.
Thulite is a pink, opaque variety of zoisite that is often cut into cabochons or used to produce small sculptures. It can be an
attractive material but is rarely seen in commercial use because the supply is limited and the public is unfamiliar with the gem.

Ruby in Zoisite: Anyolite, also known as "ruby in zoisite," is a rock composed of zoisite, with red corundum crystals (ruby) and
often accented by black crystals of the hornblende, tschermakite. It is a rock that attracts attention and is cut into attractive
cabochons and used to produce small sculptures. Image © iStockphoto / MarcelC.

Tanzanite

Tanzanite is the most famous zoisite. It is a transparent blue zoisite that is colored by the presence of
vanadium. Some blue zoisite is found naturally, but most is produced by heat-treating brown zoisite. The heat
changes the oxidation state of vanadium to produce the blue color. Tanzanite is the second most popular blue
stone, after sapphire. It is a rare gem only found in one small area in northern Tanzania.

Thulite

Thulite is an opaque pink variety of zoisite that is cut into cabochons and used to produce small sculptures. It
is also a rare material, found in Norway, Namibia, Australia, North Carolina, and a few other locations. It is
rarely seen in commercial use.

Anyolite

Anyolite is a very colorful rock composed mainly of zoisite. It is also known as "ruby in zoisite" because it is
composed of green zoisite with bright red ruby crystals, sometimes accompanied by black crystals of
the hornblendetschermakite. It is used to produce cabochons, tumbled stones, small sculptures and
ornamental objects. Nice pieces of rough material are also sold as specimens.

A material with a similar appearance, "ruby in fuchsite" is often misidentified as ruby in zoisite. Careful
testing can easily differentiate these materials because the green fuchsite has a hardness of only 2 to 3, while
the green zoisite has a hardness of at least 6. In addition, most specimens of ruby in fuchsite exhibit blue
kyanite alteration rims around the ruby crystals, and this does not occur around ruby crystals in zoisite.

Clinozoisite

Gem-quality crystals of clinozoisite are sometimes cut into faceted stones. It is considered to be a "collectors"
stone because it is rarely seen in jewelry.
 Physical Properties of Zoisite and Clinozoisite
Zoisite Clinozoisite

Chemical Classification Silicate Silicate

Color Colorless, gray, yellow, brown, pink, green, blue, and violet Usually gray, yellow, green, or pink

Streak White White

Luster Vitreous to granular, sugary Vitreous to granular, sugary

Diaphaneity Translucent to transparent Translucent to transparent

Cleavage Perfect in one direction Perfect in one direction

Mohs Hardness 6.5 6.5

Specific Gravity 3.2 to 3.4 3.2 to 3.4

Diagnostic Properties Hardness, specific gravity, striated crystals Hardness, specific gravity, striated crystals

Chemical Composition Ca2Al3(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH) Ca2Al3(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)

Crystal System Orthorhombic Monoclinic

Uses Gemstones (tanzanite, anyolite, and thulite) and small sculptures Gemstones

Clinozoisite: Two views of the same crystal of clinozoisite from the Haramosh Mountains of Pakistan. The specimen is about 3.2
centimeters tall. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Physical Properties of Zoisite and Clinozoisite

Zoisite and clinozoisite have the same chemical composition. This gives them very similar physical properties,
as shown in the accompanying table. The difference between the two minerals is in their crystal structure.
Zoisite is a member of the orthorhombic crystal system, and clinozoisite is monoclinic. They are difficult to
tell apart in hand specimen unless well-formed crystals are present. Optical tests and x-ray diffraction are the
best ways to make positive identification.
 Copper
Mineral Properties and Uses

Copper: Copper from Bisbee, Arizona. This specimen is approximately 2.5 inches (6.4 centimeters) across.

What is Copper?
Native copper is an element and a mineral. It is found in the oxidized zones of copper deposits; in hydrothermal
veins; in the cavities of basalt that have been in contact with hydrothermal solutions; and as pore fillings and
replacements in conglomerates that have been in contact with hydrothermal solutions. It is rarely found in
large quantities, thus it is seldom the primary target of a mining operation. Most copper produced is extracted
from sulfide deposits.

Uses of Copper
Native copper was probably one of the early metals worked by ancient people. Nuggets of the metal could be
found in streams in a few areas, and its properties allowed it to be easily worked without a required processing
step. Today most copper is produced from sulfide ores.

Copper is an excellent conductor of electricity. Most copper mined today is used to conduct electricity - mostly
as wiring. It is also an excellent conductor of heat and is used in cooking utensils, heat sinks, and heat
exchangers. Large amounts are also used to make alloys such as brass (copper and zinc) and bronze (copper,
tin, and zinc). Copper is also alloyed with precious metals such as gold and silver. Copper has many other
uses.

Physical Properties of Copper

Chemical Classification Native element

Color Copper red on a fresh surface, dull brown on a tarnished surface

Streak Metallic copper red

Luster Metallic
Diaphaneity Opaque

Cleavage None

Mohs Hardness 2.5 to 3

Specific Gravity 8.9

Diagnostic Properties Color, luster, specific gravity, malleability, ductility

Chemical Composition Copper, Cu

Crystal System Isometric

Uses Conducts electricity and heat; wiring, electrical contacts and circuits; coinage, alloys
 Cordierite and the Gem Known as "Iolite"
Cordierite is the mineral known as "Iolite" when it is of gem quality.

Iolite: A blue-violet iolite faceted from material mined in Madagascar. This specimen is approximately 9.4 x 7.1 x 4.8 millimeters
in size and weighs about 1.83 carats. A nice iolite like this one could easily serve as an alternative gem for sapphire or tanzanite at
a much lower price.

Cordierite crystals: A cluster of cordierite crystals from the Richmond Soapstone Quarry in Cheshire County, New Hampshire.
The crystals are short and prismatic with a square cross-section. The cluster is about 19 centimeters tall. Specimen and photo by
Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

What is Cordierite?
Cordierite is a silicate mineral that is found in metamorphic and igneous rocks. It is typically blue to violet
in color and is one of the most strongly pleochroic minerals. Cordierite has a chemical composition of
(Mg,Fe)2Al4Si5O18 and forms a solid solution series with sekaninaite, which has a chemical composition of
(Fe,Mg)2Al4Si5O18.
"Cordierite" is a name used by geologists. When the mineral is transparent and of gem quality, it is known as
"iolite" in the gem and jewelry trade. Two older names for the mineral are "dichroite" and "water sapphire."
The name dichroite means "two color rock," inspired by cordierite's pleochroic property. The name water
sapphire is also related to pleochroism. It was used because a specimen could have the color of a sapphire
when viewed from one direction, but if the stone was rotated it could appear to be as clear as water.

Geologic Occurrence of Cordierite

Most cordierite forms during regional metamorphism of shales and other argillaceous rocks. When formed
under these conditions, it is found in schist and gneiss. Less often, it forms during contact metamorphism
and is found in hornfels. Cordierite is also found as an accessory mineral in granitic igneous rocks and
in pegmatites. When crystals of cordierite have the opportunity to grow without obstructions, they can form
short prismatic crystals with a rectangular cross-section.

In metamorphic rocks, cordierite is often found associated with sillimanite, kyanite, andalusite, and spinel.
Most gem-quality iolite is produced from placer deposits, where it occurs in association with other gems
even though its specific gravity is not high enough to cause a concentration. When exposed to weathering,
cordierite alters to mica and chlorite.

Cordierite pleochroism: One piece of cordierite from the Tulear Province of Madagascar, viewed from two different angles that
display its pleochroism. The top image shows the specimen from its angle of maximum violet color. The bottom image shows the
same specimen rotated by an angle of 90 degrees to show a yellowish color. This specimen is about 4 centimeters in length.
Photos by John Sobolewski, displayed here under a Creative Commons license.

Physical Properties of Cordierite

Chemical
Silicate
Classification
 Strongly pleochroic. Most specimens appear blue to violet in color but can be clear, gray, or yellow from other
Color
directions.

Streak Colorless

Luster Vitreous, greasy

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Fair to poor

Mohs Hardness 7 to 7.5

Specific Gravity 2.5 to 2.8

Diagnostic Properties Blue to violet color, strong pleochroism, visually similar to quartz

Chemical Composition (Mg,Fe)2Al4Si5O18

Crystal System Orthorhombic

Uses Very few uses; used rarely in ceramics. Transparent specimens are sometimes used as gems.

Industrial Uses of Cordierite

Cordierite is a mineral with very few industrial uses. It can be used as an ingredient for making ceramic parts
used in catalytic converters. However, synthetic cordierite is used instead because its supply is reliable and its
properties are consistent. Many other natural materials are losing their place in industry to synthetic materials
for these reasons.

Pleochroism in iolite: This video demonstrates pleochroism in iolite. Pleochroic materials appear to be different colors when
observed from different directions. In this video we watch a rotating piece of iolite change colors between blue and clear with
every 90 degrees of rotation. The color of the specimen depends upon the angle of observation.

People who facet iolite must study the stone and determine its direction of best color. Then the stone is cut with its table at right
angles to the direction of best color observation. That will produce a finished gem that exhibits its best color when viewed in the
face-up position.

Known as "Iolite" by Jewelers

When transparent and of high clarity, cordierite is used as a gemstone. It is known as "iolite" in the gem and
jewelry industry. Iolite is a blue pleochroic gem that has an appearance similar to sapphire and tanzanite. It
can serve as an alternative stone to either of these gems and is much lower in price. Unlike sapphire and
tanzanite, iolite in the gem market is not known to receive heat, irradiation, or other treatments to improve its
color. That is appealing to many people.

Iolite is a challenging material to facet because of its extreme pleochroism. The cutter must examine the stone
carefully and have its axis of top-quality color oriented perpendicular to the plane of the gem's table. A gem
of good color can only be obtained if these cutting rules are followed.

Faceted iolite gems weighing more than five carats are rare. Most stones are two carats or smaller. These small
stones often have the best color because iolite often has a dark tone.
Iolite has a Mohs hardness of 7 to 7 1/2, which is durable enough for many gem uses. Its main physical
disadvantage is its distinct cleavage in one direction. This makes it vulnerable to breakage when used in rings
or other items that could encounter rough use.

Iolite is almost never seen in mass-merchant jewelry. It is a gem that is unknown to the average consumer
because it is not being marketed. Jewelers do not order it or market it because they are not confident that an
abundant supply of quality material will be available to support them. This is surprising because significant
iolite resources exist in many countries. Its value in the gem trade has not been developed and thus its price is
low.

Cordierite crystals in matrix: A photo of cordierite crystals in their rock matrix from Minas Gerais, Brazil. Photo by Parent
Géry, used here under a Creative Commons license.

Pleochroism in Cordierite (Iolite)

Pleochroic materials appear to be different colors when viewed from different directions. When viewed from
the direction that produces its most attractive color, most cordierite is a distinct blue to violet in color. It is
one of the most strongly pleochroic minerals. Specimens that produce a strong violet color can be rotated to
produce light violet or dark yellow hues. Specimens that produce a strong blue color can be rotated to produce
yellow or colorless hues.

People who facet iolite must study the stone to determine its direction of best color. Then they must facet the
stone so that the direction of best color observation is at right angles to the table of the stone. That will produce
the best possible color in the finished gem. See the video on this page for a demonstration of pleochroism in
iolite.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Corundum
Corundum has historically been used as an abrasive, but it is most famous as the mineral of ruby and
sapphire.

Corundum: Two corundum crystal segments from India showing the mineral's hexagonal crystal habit and basal parting. These
specimens are red in color and might be called "ruby corundum." Image © iStockphoto / Lissart.

What is Corundum?
Corundum is a rock-forming mineral that is found in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. It is
an aluminum oxide with a chemical composition of Al2O3 and a hexagonal crystal structure.

The mineral is widely known for its extreme hardness and for the fact that it is sometimes found as beautiful
transparent crystals in many different colors. The extreme hardness makes corundum an excellent abrasive,
and when that hardness is found in beautiful crystals, you have the perfect material for cutting gemstones.

Natural and synthetic corundum are used in a wide variety of industrial applications because of their
toughness, hardness, and chemical stability. They are used to make industrial bearings, scratch-resistant
windows for electronic instruments, wafers for circuit boards, and many other products.

Corundum crystals: Photos of three corundum crystals. On the left is a common corundum from Transvaal, South Africa, that is
about 6 centimeters in height. In the center is a gem-quality ruby corundum from Karnataka, India, that is about 1.6 centimeters in
height. On the right is a blue sapphire corundum from Sri Lanka that is about two centimeters in height. All three specimens and
photos by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Made Famous by Rubies and Sapphires

Most people are familiar with corundum; however, very few people know it by its mineral name - instead they
know it by the names "ruby" and "sapphire." A gemstone-quality specimen of corundum with a deep red
color is known as a "ruby." A gemstone-quality corundum with a blue color is called a "sapphire." Colorless
corundum is known as "white sapphire." Corundum of any other color is known as "fancy sapphire."

Corundum parting: Hexagonal crystal segments of corundum that have been separated by parting. These specimens are about
one centimeter across. USGS photo by Andrew Silver.

Corundum gneiss with sapphire: A specimen of corundum gneiss from Gallatin Valley, Montana. This specimen is about
twelve centimeters across and has a round blue sapphire crystal on the left side.
Properties of Corundum
Corundum is an exceptionally hard and tough material. It is the third-hardest mineral, after diamond and
moissanite. It serves as the index mineral for a hardness of nine on the Mohs Hardness Scale.

Its hardness, high specific gravity, hexagonal crystals and parting are very good diagnostic properties to use
in its identification. A summary of the physical properties of corundum is given in the table below.

Physical Properties of Corundum

Chemical
Oxide
Classification

Typically gray to brown. Colorless when pure, but trace amounts of various metals produce almost any color. Chromium
Color
produces red (ruby) and combinations of iron and titanium produce blue (sapphire).

Streak Colorless (harder than the streak plate)

Luster Adamantine to vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage None. Corundum does display parting perpendicular to the c-axis.

Mohs Hardness 9

Specific Gravity 3.9 to 4.1 (very high for a nonmetallic mineral)

Diagnostic
Hardness, high specific gravity, hexagonal crystals sometimes tapering to a pyramid, parting, luster, conchoidal fracture
Properties

Chemical
Al2O3
Composition

Crystal System Hexagonal

Uses Historically used as an abrasive. Specimens with pleasing colors have a long history of gemstone use.

Montana alluvial sapphires: A scatter of small alluvial sapphires found in Montana. These blue stones are untreated and
measure about four to five millimeters across.
Geologic Occurrence of Corundum
Corundum is found as a primary mineral in igneous rockssuch as syenite, nepheline syenite, and pegmatite.
Some of the world's most important ruby and sapphire deposits are found where the gems have weathered
from basaltflows and are now found in the downslope soils and sediments.

Corundum is also found in metamorphic rocks in locations where aluminous shales or bauxites have been
exposed to contact metamorphism. Schist, gneiss, and marbleproduced by regional metamorphism will
sometimes contain corundum. Some of the sapphires and rubies of highest quality, color, and clarity are
formed in marble along the edges of subsurface magma bodies.

Corundum's toughness, high hardness, and chemical resistance enable it to persist in sediments long after other
minerals have been destroyed. This is why it is often found concentrated in alluvial deposits. These deposits
are the most important source of rubies and sapphires in several parts of the world. Traditional sources of
alluvial rubies and sapphires include Burma, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, India, Afghanistan, Montana, and other
areas. In the past few decades, several parts of Africa, including Madagascar, Kenya, Tanzania, Nigeria, and
Malawi, have become important producers of ruby and sapphire.

Emery wheels: An ad offering emery and corundum wheels, published in 1895 by The Springfield Manufacturing Company of
Bridgeport, Connecticut. This was at a time when genuine emery and corundum were used to make the wheels.

Hardness and Use as an Abrasive

The extreme hardness of corundum makes it especially useful as an abrasive. Crushed corundum is processed
to remove impurities and then screened to produce uniformly sized granules and powders. These are used for
grinding media, polishing compounds, sand papers, grinding wheels, and other cutting applications.

Some problems with using natural corundum as an abrasive are that the deposits are usually small, irregular
in shape, and the corundum is of variable quality. They are not reliable sources of consistent-quality material
needed to run a manufacturing process. Synthetic corundum, produced using calcined bauxite, has become a
more reliable source with more consistent properties. It has replaced natural corundum in most manufactured
products.
Aluminum oxide sandpaper is made by attaching size-graded particles of synthetic corundum (aluminum oxide) to a sheet of
paper. It is a sandpaper widely used for woodworking and other manufacturing work. Photo © iStockphoto / Ma-Ke.

Emery rock: A specimen of emery rock that is rich in corundum and spinel from Peekskill, New York. This specimen is
approximately six inches (fifteen centimeters) across. Emery has often been crushed, processed, and screened for use as an
industrial abrasive.
Emery nail files: "Emery boards" are a manicure and nail-care product that is made by gluing abrasive papers to a thin piece of
cardboard. They obtained their name in the 1800s when crushed emery was used as the abrasive. Today's emery boards are not
made with emery. Instead, many of them have a coarse side of synthetic corundum (aluminum oxide) and a fine side of garnet
abrasive. Photo © iStockphoto / Acerebel.

Emery
Emery stone is a granular metamorphic or igneous rock that is rich in corundum. It is a mixture of oxide
minerals, typically corundum, magnetite, spinel and/or hematite. It is the most common form of natural
corundum that has been used to manufacture abrasives.

The use of emery as an abrasive has declined significantly in the last several decades. It has been almost
completely replaced by manufactured abrasives such as silicon carbide. Silicon carbide has a Mohs hardness
of 9 to 9.5. It is inexpensive and usually performs better than natural abrasives made from corundum or emery.

Corundum as ruby, sapphire, and fancy sapphire: Gem-quality corundum is a highly prized and valuable material. When it is
bright red in color it is called "ruby." When it is blue it is called "sapphire." When colorless it is called a "white sapphire." Gem-
quality corundum of any other color is called "fancy sapphire." In the past, most gem corundum was produced in Asia and
Australia. In the 1990s, many gem corundum discoveries were made in Africa. All of the stones in this photo were mined in
Africa. Nearly all gem corundums are treated by heating or another process to improve their color.

Use as a Gemstone
In the gemstone and jewelry market, almost all of the attention goes to a small group of gems known as "the
big four": diamond, ruby, sapphire, and emerald. Two of these, ruby and sapphire, are gem corundums.

These most popular gems are highly sought after and have been mined in many parts of the world for thousands
of years. Today, millions of rubies and sapphires are required every year to meet the demands of the jewelry
market -- from inexpensive commercial stones sold in malls and department stores to spectacular specimens
used in designer and custom jewelry. The demand for attractive stones exceeds the abilities of mines to supply.
As a result, the prices paid for attractive natural stones have risen to high levels.

When a consumer wants a "ruby ring" or a "sapphire pendant," they are generally not interested in substituting
a red spinel, blue iolite, or other attractive gem of similar color. They want "ruby" or they want "sapphire."
Retail jewelers, especially those selling pieces and sets for under $500, have been increasingly presenting
synthetic or "lab-created" gems alongside the natural stones in their display cases.
The synthetic materials are genuine corundums. They have the same aluminum oxide composition and crystal
structure as natural rubies and sapphires. Their color is also produced by the same trace elements (chromium
for ruby and iron with titanium for sapphire).

They have the same optical appeal and a better physical appearance than similar-size natural stones of the
same price. As a result, many consumers now gladly purchase synthetic stones because they receive a more
attractive product at a price that they can afford. Over the long term, synthetic gems are likely to continue
displacing natural stones from the market, especially in the lower and middle price ranges where consumers
are very conscious about price.

Corundum watch bearings: Corundum (ruby) bearings in an antique pocket watch with a "jewel" movement. In the early 1900's,
synthetic corundum was being used as the jewel bearings in watches. Image © iStockphoto / RobertKacpura.

Corundum bearings: A drawing of jewel bearings and a capstone (red) holding a pivot wheel in a mechanical watch lubricated
by oil (yellow). Public domain image by Chris Burks Chetvorno.

Corundum "Jewels" in Watches

In the mid-1800s, watch makers in Switzerland needed tiny bearings that were highly resistant to abrasion.
They discovered that they could drill a hole into a tiny piece of corundum and use it for a smooth-running,
long-life bearing. The corundum was much harder than the metals used to make the moving parts of a watch,
and it was able to stand up to the continuous abrasion without failing. This made Swiss watches and their
"jewel movements" famous throughout the world for their long life and reliability. In the early 1900s, synthetic
corundum bearings replaced natural corundum bearings in most Swiss watches. This use of jewel bearings
created a positive reputation for Swiss watches that continues to this day - even while mechanical watches are
being replaced by digital watches.

Synthetic corundum: A boule of synthetic corundum. Because of its red color, it could be called "synthetic ruby." Material like
this is used for watch bearings, gemstones, laser gain mediums, and many other purposes.

Ruby laser: Diagram of the first working laser. It employed a thin ruby crystal as its gain medium. Public domain image by
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.

Ruby Lasers
Synthetic corundum is an essential part of many lasers. In fact, the first working laser was a "ruby laser," made
by Theodore Maiman at Hughes Research Labs in 1960. It employed a synthetic ruby crystal as the "gain
medium." The gain medium is a material in the laser that is the target of an intense burst of light. That light
causes electrons in the gain medium to jump up to a higher energy level causing the emission of photons,
which strike other atoms in the gain medium, causing them to be excited and emit more photons. This brief
chain reaction produces the very intense light of a laser beam. Lasers are named after the material used as a
gain medium, such as "ruby laser" or "titanium sapphire laser" or "YAG laser" (yttrium aluminum garnet).

In just a few decades, lasers have become common items of our society. Tiny lasers are used in CD and DVD
players. Lasers are used to cut metal, stone, and other tough materials. Lasers are used to remove tattoos,
perform cosmetic surgery, cataract surgery, and LASIK surgery for vision correction.
Synthetic corundum scanner windows: A self-check-out machine with a barcode scanner window at a retail store in Houston,
Texas. The window of the scanner is probably made from synthetic corundum. Public domain image by WhisperToMe.

Other Uses of Corundum

Corundum has many other uses. It is chemically inert and resistant to heat. These properties make it a perfect
material for making refractory products such as fire brick, kiln liners, and kiln furniture. Today, these products
are usually made with synthetic corundum.

Pure corundum is colorless, transparent, durable, and scratch resistant. Large crystals of clear synthetic
corundum are grown, sawn into thin sheets, and then used as the windows of grocery store scanners, watch
crystals, aircraft windows, and protective covers for electronic devices.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Cuprite
Mineral Properties and Uses

What is Cuprite?

Cuprite is a supergene copper oxide mineral found in the

oxidized zone of copper deposits. It is a minor ore of copper.

Physical Properties of Cuprite

Chemical
oxide
Classification

various shades of red, sometimes

Color
nearly black

Streak brownish red

Cuprite with chrysocolla from Butte, Montana. This specimen is approximately
Luster submetallic to adamantine 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) across.

Diaphaneity subtranslucent

Cleavage none

Mohs Hardness 3.5 to 4

Specific Gravity 5.8 to 6.1

Diagnostic
color, streak, luster
Properties

Chemical
copper oxide, Cu2O
Composition

Crystal System isometric

Uses ore of copper

 Diamond
The most popular gemstone. The hardest known substance. An amazing number of uses.

Diamond crystal: A gem-quality diamond crystal in the rock in which it was formed. It is a single octahedron with strong growth
lines on it surface and an estimated weight of about 1.5 carats. From the Udachnaya Mine, Yakutia, Siberia, Russia. Specimen and
photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

What is Diamond?
Diamond is a rare, naturally-occurring mineral composed of carbon. Each carbon atom in a diamond is
surrounded by four other carbon atoms and connected to them by strong covalent bonds. This simple, uniform,
tightly-bonded arrangement yields one of the most durable substances known.

Diamond is a fascinating mineral. It is chemically resistant and it is the hardest known natural substance.
These properties make it suitable for use as a cutting tool and for other uses where durability is required.
Diamond also has special optical properties such as a high index of refraction, high dispersion, and high luster.
These properties help make diamond the world's most popular gemstone.

Diamonds are a bit of a mystery. They are composed of the element carbon, and because of that many people
believe that they must have formed from coal. Many teachers still teach this in their classrooms. But that is
not true!

Physical Properties of Diamond

Chemical
Native element
Classification

Most diamonds are brown or yellow in color. The jewelry industry has favored colorless diamonds or those that have a
color so subtle that it is difficult to notice. Diamonds in vivid hues of red, orange, green, blue, pink, purple, yellow and other
Color
hues are very rare and sell for high prices when the color is spectacular. Most industrial grade diamonds are brown, yellow,
gray, green and black.
Streak Diamond is harder than a streak plate. Its streak is known as "none" or "colorless"

Luster Adamantine - the highest level of luster for a nonmetallic mineral.

Diaphaneity Transparent, translucent, opaque.

Cleavage Perfect, octahedral

Mohs Hardness 10 - the hardest mineral

Specific Gravity 3.4 to 3.6

Diagnostic
Hardness, heat conductivity, crystal form, index of refraction, dispersion
Properties

Chemical
C (elemental carbon)
Composition

Crystal System Isometric

Gemstones, industrial abrasives, diamond windows, speaker domes, heat sinks, low-friction microbearings, wear-resistant
Uses
parts, dies for wire manufacturing.

Diamond Consumption in the United States

In 2014, consumers in the United States spent about $24.3 billion on gemstones. Of that amount, $22.5 billion was
spent on diamonds, and about $1.8 billion was spent on colored stones. These statistics clearly show that diamonds
are the most popular gemstones with U.S. consumers by an enormous margin.

How Do Diamonds Form?

Diamonds are not native to Earth's surface. Instead they form at high temperatures and pressures that occur
in Earth's mantle about 100 miles down.

How do diamonds form?

A detailed article that explains the
four sources of diamonds found at
Earth's surface.

Most of the diamonds that have been discovered were delivered to Earth's surface by deep-source volcanic
eruptions. These eruptions begin in the mantle, and on their way up they tear out pieces of mantle rock and
deliver them to Earth's surface without melting. These blocks from the mantle are known as xenoliths. They
contain diamonds that were formed at the high temperature and pressure conditions of the mantle.

People produce diamonds by mining the rock that contains the xenoliths or by mining the soils and sediments
that formed as the diamond-bearing rock weathered away.
Some diamonds are thought to form in the high temperature-pressure conditions of subduction
zones or asteroid impact sites. Some are delivered to Earth in meteorites. No commercial diamond mines
have been developed in deposits with these origins.

Leading diamond producers: This chart shows the estimated annual production of gem-quality diamonds, in millions of carats,
for the world's leading diamond-producing nations. Graph by Geology.com. Data from USGS Mineral Commodity
Summaries. Learn about the countries that produce diamonds.

Gem Diamonds vs. Industrial Diamonds

Gem diamonds are stones with color and clarity that make them suitable for jewelry or investment use. These
stones are especially rare and make up a minor portion of worldwide diamond production. Gemstone
diamonds are sold for their beauty and quality.

Natural diamond crystals have a specific gravity that ranges between approximately 3.4 to 3.6. This range
exists because most diamonds contain impurities and have irregularities in their crystal structure. Gem quality
diamonds are the most perfect diamonds, with minimal impurities and defects. They have a specific gravity
that is very close to 3.52.

Industrial diamonds are mostly used in cutting, grinding, drilling, and polishing procedures. Here, hardness
and heat conductivity characteristics are the qualities being purchased. Size and other measures of quality
relevant to gemstones are not important. Industrial diamonds are often crushed to produce micron-sized
abrasive powders. Large amounts of diamonds that are gemstone quality but too small to cut are sold into the
industrial diamond trade.
A demonstration of dispersion: White light being separated into its component colors while passing through a prism. Diamonds
have a high dispersion. NASA Image.

Diamond as a Gemstone
Diamonds are the world's most popular gemstones. Many times more money is spent on diamonds than on all
other gemstones combined. Part of the reason for diamond's popularity is a result of its optical properties - or
how it reacts with light. Other factors include fashion, custom, and marketing.

Diamonds have a very high luster. The high luster is a result of a diamond reflecting a high percentage of the
light that strikes its surface and a high percentage of light that passes through the stone and is returned to the
eye of the observer.

Diamond also has a high dispersion. As white light passes through a diamond, this high dispersion causes that
light to separate into its component colors. Dispersion is what enables a prism to separate white light into the
colors of the spectrum. This property of dispersion is what gives diamonds their colorful "fire."

Diamond fire: A round brilliant cut diamond showing "fire." © iStockphoto / Greg Stanfield.
Argyle diamonds: Octahedral diamond crystals from the Argyle Mine of Western Australia. The Argyle Mine produces
diamonds in a wide range of colors. Most Argyle diamonds are brown, some are near colorless and a very rare number are red,
pink, blue or violet. It is the world's only consistent producer of pink diamonds. Image Copyright © 2016 Rio Tinto.

Cubic diamond crystal: A green diamond crystal. The color and cubic crystal shape are natural. Many natural diamond crystals
are cubic or octahedral in shape. This diamond is about 4 millimeters across and is suitable for industrial use.
Diamond Gemstone Quality
The quality of a diamond gemstone is primarily determined by four factors: color, cut, clarity, and carats. A
standardized method of assessing diamond quality was developed in the 1950s by the Gemological Institute
of America and is known as "The 4Cs of Diamond Quality" [5].

Color: Most gem-quality diamonds range from colorless to yellow. The most highly regarded stones are those
that are completely colorless. These are the ones sold for the highest prices. However, another category of
diamond gemstone is increasing in popularity. These are the "fancy" diamonds, which occur in a variety of
colors including red, pink, yellow, purple, blue, and green. The value of these stones is based upon their color
intensity, rarity, and popularity.

Cut: The quality of workmanship in a diamond has a large impact upon its quality. This influences not only
the geometric appearance of the stone but also the stone's luster and fire. Ideal stones are perfectly polished to
be highly reflective and emit a maximum amount of fire. The faceted faces are equal in size and identical in
shape. And, the edges of each faceted face meet perfectly with each of its neighbors.

Clarity: The ideal diamond is free from internal flaws and inclusions (particles of foreign material within the
stone). These detract from the appearance of the stone and interfere with the passage of light through the stone.
When present in large numbers or sizes, they can also reduce the strength of the stone.

Carat: Diamonds are sold by the carat (a unit of weight equal to 1/5th of a gram or 1/142nd of an ounce).
Small diamonds cost less per carat than larger stones of equal quality. This is because very small stones are
very common and large stones are especially rare.

Industrial diamonds: Small diamonds, less then 1 millimeter in size, that are suitable for industrial use as abrasive granules.
Industrial diamonds might be polycrystalline, have numerous inclusions, have poor clarity, contain fractures, or have some other
characteristic that disqualifies them from gem or technology uses.
Diamond drill bit: A drill bit used in the drilling of oil wells. Each of the cutting tips has small grains of diamond embedded in
the metal. These cut their way through the rock as the bit turns. © iStockphoto / mikeuk.

Diamond concrete saw: A concrete saw with a diamond blade of about four feet diameter. US Air Force Image.

Diamonds Used as an Abrasive

Because diamonds are very hard (ten on the Mohs scale) they are often used as an abrasive. Most industrial
diamonds are used for these purposes. Small particles of diamond are embedded in a saw blade, a drill bit or
a grinding wheel for the purpose of cutting, drilling or grinding. They might also be ground into a powder and
made into a diamond paste that is used for polishing or for very fine grinding.

There is a very large market for industrial diamonds. Demand for them exceeds the supply obtained through
mining. Synthetic diamonds are being produced to meet this industrial demand. They can be produced at a
low cost per carat and perform well in industrial use.

Other Uses of Diamonds

Most industrial diamonds are used as abrasives. However, small amounts of diamond are used in other
applications.

Diamond windows

are made from thin diamond membranes and are used to cover openings in lasers, x-ray machines, and vacuum
chambers. They are transparent, very durable, and resistant to heat and abrasion.
Diamond speaker domes

enhance the performance of high-quality speakers. Diamond is a very stiff material, and when made into a thin
dome it can vibrate rapidly without the deformation that would degrade sound quality.

Heat sinks

are materials that absorb or transmit excess heat. Diamond has the highest thermal conductivity of any material. It
is used to conduct heat away from the heat-sensitive parts of high-performance microelectronics.

Low-friction microbearings

are needed in tiny mechanical devices. Just as some watches have jewel bearings in their movements, diamonds
are used where extreme abrasion resistance and durability are needed.

Wear-resistant parts

can be produced by coating surfaces with a thin coating of diamond. In this process, diamond is converted into a
vapor that deposits on the surface of parts prone to wear.

Diamond simulants: The photos above compare strontium titanate, moissanite, and cubic zirconia with diamond. Moissanite and
cubic zirconia have dispersions that are competitive with diamond, and the dispersion of strontium titanate is over-the-top. In the
photo above, the strontium titanate is a 6-millimeter round. The other stones are 4-millimeter rounds. This difference in size does
give strontium titanate an advantage.

Diamond Simulants
Diamond simulants are materials that look like diamonds and have many similar physical properties, but they
have different chemical compositions. Diamond simulants can be natural materials such as
colorless zircon or sapphire. More often they are man-made materials such as cubic zirconia (ZrO2),
moissanite (SiC), YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet Y3Al5O12), or strontium titanate (SrTiO3).
Synthetic diamonds of various colors grown by the high-pressure high-temperature technique. Image by Wikipedia contributor
Materialscientist.

Diamond Information

[1] Gemstones: Donald W. Olson, U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2016.

[2] Gemstones: Donald W. Olson, U.S. Geological Survey, 2013 Minerals Yearbook, March 2016.

[3] Diamond, Industrial: Donald W. Olson, U.S. Geological Survey, 2016 Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2016.

[4] Diamond, Industrial: Donald W. Olson, U.S. Geological Survey, 2013 Minerals Yearbook, December 2015.

[5] Diamond Quality Factors: An explanation of how diamonds are evaluated using the 4Cs. Gemological Institute of America. Last accessed
July 2016.

Synthetic Diamonds

Synthetic Diamonds by Chemical

Vapor Deposition

Diamond is a very valuable material, and for over half a century many people and companies have worked to
create them in laboratories and factories. Synthetic diamonds are man-made materials that have the same
chemical composition, crystal structure, optical properties and physical behavior as natural diamonds.

The first commercially successful synthesis of diamond was accomplished in 1954 by workers at General
Electric. Since then, many companies have been successful at producing synthetic diamond suitable for
industrial use. Today, most of the industrial diamond consumed is synthetic, with China being the world leader
with a production of over 4 billion carats per year.
In the last decade, a few companies have developed technology that enables them to produce gem-quality
laboratory-created diamonds up to a few carats in size in several different colors - including colorless. Some
companies use high-pressure, high-temperature methods, while others use chemical vapor deposition methods.
Their man-made gems are being sold in jewelry stores and on the internet at a significant discount to natural
stones of similar quality and size. They have a beautiful appearance and an attractive price tag. Synthetic
diamonds are required to be sold with a disclosure that they are "synthetic" or "laboratory-created."

Will Consumers Accept Synthetic Diamonds?

Synthetic diamonds have been the dominant type of diamond in industrial applications since the end of the
20th century. Most of the diamonds used to make abrasives and cutting tools are now synthetic. Virtually all
diamonds used to make windows, speaker domes, heat sinks, low-friction microbearings, wear-resistant parts,
and other technology products are synthetic. Synthetic diamonds are less costly, have more consistent
properties, and are becoming available in made-to-order specifications. There are no emotional barriers for
synthetic diamonds to replace mined diamonds in these uses.

In the jewelry industry there is considerable debate about the willingness of consumers to accept synthetic
diamonds. Some believe that jewelry consumers want "real diamonds." Others believe that synthetic diamonds
will be favored by people who dislike the human rights and environmental problems associated with mined
diamonds. However, the real motivator will likely be price. Currently, synthetic diamonds made for jewelry
use have a 15 to 30% price advantage on mined diamonds. This will likely be the greatest motivator for
consumers to accept synthetic diamonds.

Observation and speculation.... If you walk into almost any mall jewelry store and look into the cases where
ruby, sapphire, and emeralds are being sold, you will see that most of the stones being offered are synthetic.
A person with very little training can spot them on sight. The synthetic materials have a superior appearance
and their prices are small compared to natural gems of similar size and appearance. Consumers get better
appearance for a lower price, and the majority of them have accepted that transaction.

The battle for emotion and sales dominance in the popular-price ruby, sapphire, and emerald market was won
by synthetics a couple decades ago. In the next decade the diamond market might also move in favor of
synthetics. It's already starting as synthetic diamonds take a visible position in the market. The price of
synthetic diamonds will likely decline as more and more machines to produce them are placed into service,
become more efficient, and competition among manufacturers intensifies. Eventually, the price differential
between natural and synthetic diamonds will be greater than most customers will be able to ignore, and they
will buy the synthetic. If the next world-class advertising campaign promotes synthetic diamonds, the shift in
consumer demand might come sooner and with greater intensity.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Diopside
A pyroxene mineral found in igneous and metamorphic rocks. A minor gemstone.

Chromium Diopside: A gemmy green specimen of chromium diopside from the the Outokumpu copper-zinc in Finland. This
specimen measures 6.5 x 6.2 x 2.9 centimeters in size. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

What is Diopside?
Diopside is a pyroxene mineral with a chemical composition of MgCaSi2O6. It occurs
in igneous and metamorphic rocks at many locations around the world.

Gem-quality crystals of diopside are faceted into attractive gemstones that are occasionally seen in
commercial jewelry. Granular diopside can be easily cut and polished. When it has an attractive color, it is
sometimes used as an ornamental stone.

Perhaps the most important use of diopside is its value as an indicator mineral in the search for diamonds.
Trail-to-lode prospecting using diopside and other indicator minerals has found diamond deposits in Canada,
the United States, Africa, and other locations.

Diopside has potential uses in the glass and ceramics industries, but the mineral usually occurs in
accumulations that are too small or impure for effective mining.

Geologic Occurrence of Diopside

The most common occurrence of diopside at Earth's surface is as a primary mineral in olivine-
rich basalts and andesites. In these rocks it can be present in quantities of a few weight percent.

Diopside also forms during contact metamorphism of limestones and dolomites. Most of the crystalline
diopside used to cut faceted gems and the granular diopside used as ornamental stone occurs in these carbonate
deposits.
Diopside is much more abundant in Earth's mantle than at the surface. Evidence for this is diopside as a
common mineral in ophiolites, and diopside as a common mineral in kimberlites and peridotites that were
formed during deep-source volcanic eruptions.

Physical Properties of Diopside

Chemical Classification Silicate.

Color Grayish white, light blue to purple, light green to vivid green, brown, black.

Streak White to light green.

Luster Vitreous, sugary, earthy.

Diaphaneity Opaque, translucent, transparent.

Cleavage Two distinct directions, at 87 and 93 degrees; imperfect; prismatic.

Mohs Hardness 5.5 to 6.5

Specific Gravity 3.2 to 3.5

Diagnostic Properties Cleavage, monoclinic crystal form.

Chemical Composition MgCaSi2O6

Crystal System Monoclinic.

Uses Gemstone, diamond indicator mineral, potential industrial use in ceramics.

Diopside as a Diamond Indicator Mineral

Most diamonds found at or near Earth's surface were delivered from the mantle during deep-source volcanic
eruptions. These diamonds occur in vertical igneous structures known as pipes, which are often composed of
kimberlite or peridotite.

These pipes are difficult to locate. Their surface exposure is usually covered with soil and vegetation, and it
might be only a few acres in size. The pipes are often found by searching soils and sediments for mineral
grains that are characteristic of the pipe but absent in local surface materials. Small particles of chromium-
rich diopside are bright green in color, are often abundant in the pipes, and are easy to recognize in surface
materials.

Geologists use these green diopside fragments to locate the pipes. They know that the fragments are liberated
as the pipe weathers, then scattered by the actions of mass wasting, streams, and glaciers. When diopside
fragments are discovered, the geologist knows that they originated up-slope, up-stream, or up-ice from the
location in which they were found.

A trail of diopside fragments can lead the geologist to the pipe from which they were weathered. This activity,
known as "trail-to-lode" prospecting, finds many diamond pipes and an even larger number of pipes without
diamonds.

Note: It would be almost impossible to locate pipes by looking for diamonds. Diamonds make up such a small
fraction of the overall rock in the pipe, and weathering debris from the pipe is then mixed into local rock
debris. An exceptional pipe might contain a couple carats of diamond per ton!
Chrome Diopside Gem: A faceted stone cut from chrome diopside mined in Russia. This gem is approximately 1.2 carats in
weight and about 7 millimeters by 5 millimeters in size.

Chrome Diopside Beads: Rondelle-shaped beads cut from bright green chrome diopside mined in Russia. The beads range in
size between 3 and 5 millimeters in diameter.

Chrome Diopside
Some crystals of diopside contain enough chromium to give them a rich green color. These can be cut into
beautiful faceted stones, beads, and cabochons. The appearance of these stones is best when they are under
two carats because the material is often dark or strongly saturated.

Chrome diopside is occasionally seen in commercial jewelry. It has a rich green color that enables it to serve
as an alternative gem for emerald at a significantly lower price. Diopside is rarely treated, unlike emerald
which is often treated with various materials to seal and hide fractures.

One problem with chrome diopside is its durability. It has two directions of perfect cleavage and a Mohs
hardness of only 5.5 to 6.5. This gives it a risk of being scratched or broken. The gem is best used in earrings,
necklaces, brooches, and other items that will not be subjected to abrasion or impact.

Even though chrome diopside is very attractive, there are barriers to it becoming a popular gem that is widely
seen in jewelry. First are the durability concerns described above; second is that the jewelry-buying public is
not familiar with diopside; and, third is the fact that a reliable supply of commercial stones in calibrated sizes
has not been developed.

Star Diopside: A black star diopside cabochons exhibiting four-ray stars. They are slightly magnetic, indicating that the silk is
probably magnetite crystals. These cabochons are approximately 8 millimeters across.

Star Diopside
Some diopside crystals are filled with microscopic needle-shaped inclusions that occur in parallel alignment
with the crystal structure of the mineral. This network of parallel inclusions is known as a "silk." When this
diopside is cut en cabochon, the parallel needles of the silk can reflect light much like how light is reflected
from a spool of silk thread.

A silk with one direction of needle alignment will produce chatoyance, also known as a cat's eye. Silk with
two or three directions of needle alignment will produce asterism. Two directions produces a four-ray star,
and three directions produces a six-ray star. For these phenomena to appear, the stone must be cut with the
needles oriented parallel to the bottom of the stone, and the top of the cabochon must be symmetrically cut.

The mineral needles that form the silk are known in some instances to be magnetite. They are sometimes
abundant enough to make the cut gems slightly magnetic. If you approach them slowly with a magnet, the
gems will move before the magnet touches them. The needles in some non-magnetic gems are thought to
be rutile or ilmenite.
Violane: A rarely-seen variety of diopside is violane. It is usually a blue to purple material that is cut into beads and cabochons.
The photo shows a cabochon and a piece of rough from the Khakassia area of Russia. This cabochon is approximately 38 x 28
millimeters in size.

Violane
Some diopside formed during the contact metamorphism of dolomite or limestone has a granular texture
similar to marble. This material is known as "violane." It is often white, gray, light blue, lilac, or purple in
color. Violane accepts a bright polish and is sometimes used to make cabochons, beads, and ornamental items.
Violane is a rare material in nature and almost never seen in commerce.

Diopside as an Industrial Mineral

Diopside has potential uses in ceramics, glass-making, biomaterials, nuclear waste immobilization, and fuel
cell technology. Unfortunately, natural diopside is rarely found in deposits that simultaneously have a size,
purity, and location that allows economic mining. This makes synthetic diopside cost-competitive with
diopside produced by mining.

Geographic Distribution of Diopside

Gem-quality chrome diopside and violane are mined in limited amounts in Siberia, Russia. Most of the chrome
diopside used in jewelry today comes from a few locations in Siberia. Small occurrences of chrome diopside
are also known in Austria, Brazil, Burma, Canada (Ontario and Quebec), Finland, India, Italy, Madagascar,
Pakistan, South Africa, Sri Lanka, and the United States (New York), but none of them produce regularly or
in significant quantities.
 Dolomite
A common rock-forming mineral and the primary constituent of a sedimentary rock known as
"dolostone"

Dolomite crystals: Dolomite crystals from Penfield, New York. This specimen is approximately 3 inches (6.7 centimeters)
across.

Granular Dolomite: Dolomitic marble from Thornwood, New York. This specimen is approximately 3 inches (6.7 centimeters)
across.

What is Dolomite?
Dolomite is a common rock-forming mineral. It is a calcium magnesium carbonate with a chemical
composition of CaMg(CO3)2. It is the primary component of the sedimentary rock known as dolostone and
the metamorphic rock known as dolomitic marble. Limestone that contains some dolomite is known as
dolomitic limestone.
Dolomite is rarely found in modern sedimentary environments, but dolostones are very common in the rock
record. They can be geographically extensive and hundreds to thousands of feet thick. Most rocks that are rich
in dolomite were originally deposited as calcium carbonate muds that were postdepositionally altered by
magnesium-rich pore water to form dolomite.

Dolomite is also a common mineral in hydrothermal veins. There it is often associated

with barite, fluorite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, or sphalerite. In these veins it often occurs as
rhombohedral crystals which sometimes have curved faces.

Physical Properties of Dolomite

Chemical
Carbonate
Classification

Color Colorless, white, pink, green, gray, brown, black

Streak White

Luster Vitreous, pearly

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Perfect, rhombohedral, three directions

Mohs Hardness 3.5 to 4

Specific Gravity 2.8 to 2.9

Diagnostic
Rhombohedral cleavage, powdered form effervesces weakly in dilute HCl, hardness
Properties

Chemical
CaMg(CO3)2
Composition

Crystal System Hexagonal

Construction aggregate, cement manufacture, dimension stone, calcined to produce lime, sometimes an oil and gas
Uses
reservoir, a source of magnesia for the chemical industry, agricultural soil treatments, metallurgical flux
Dolostone: Dolostone from Lee, Massachusetts. The "sugary" sparkle displayed by this rock is caused by light reflecting from
tiny dolomite cleavage faces. This specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

Physical Properties of Dolomite

The physical properties of dolomite that are useful for identification are presented in the table on this page.
Dolomite has three directions of perfect cleavage. This may not be evident when the dolomite is fine-grained.
However, when it is coarsely crystalline the cleavage angles can easily be observed with a hand lens. Dolomite
has a Mohs hardness of 3 1/2 to 4 and is sometimes found in rhombohedral crystals with curved faces.
Dolomite produces a very weak reaction to cold, dilute hydrochloric acid; however, if the acid is warm or if
the dolomite is powdered, a much stronger acid reaction will be observed. (Powdered dolomite can easily be
produced by scratching it on a streak plate.)

Dolomite is very similar to the mineral calcite. Calcite is composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), while
dolomite is a calcium magnesium carbonate (CaMg(CO3)2). These two minerals are one of the most common
pairs to present a mineral identification challenge in the field or classroom.

The best way to tell these minerals apart is to consider their hardness and acid reaction. Calcite has a hardness
of 3, while dolomite is slightly harder at 3 1/2 to 4. Calcite is also strongly reactive with cold hydrochloric
acid, while dolomite will effervesce weakly with cold hydrochloric acid.

Dolomite aggregate: Dolostone, used for asphalt paving from Penfield, New York. These specimens are approximately 1/2 inch
to 1 inch (1.3 centimeters to 2.5 centimeters) across.

Solid Solution and Substitution

Dolomite occurs in a solid solution series with ankerite (CaFe(CO3)2). When small amounts of iron are present,
the dolomite has a yellowish to brownish color. Dolomite and ankerite are isostructural.

Kutnahorite (CaMn(CO3)2) also occurs in solid solution with dolomite. When small amounts of manganese
are present, the dolomite will be colored in shades of pink. Kutnahorite and dolomite are isostructural.
Dolomitic marble from Thornwood, New York. This specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

Uses of Dolomite
Dolomite as a mineral has very few uses. However, dolostone has an enormous number of uses because it
occurs in deposits that are large enough to mine.

The most common use for dolostone is in the construction industry. It is crushed and sized for use as a road
base material, an aggregate in concrete and asphalt, railroad ballast, rip-rap, or fill. It is also calcined in the
production of cement and cut into blocks of specific size known as "dimension stone."

Dolomite's reaction with acid also makes it useful. It is used for acid neutralization in the chemical industry,
in stream restoration projects, and as a soil conditioner.

Dolomite is used as a source of magnesia (MgO), a feed additive for livestock, a sintering agent and flux in
metal processing, and as an ingredient in the production of glass, bricks, and ceramics.

Dolomite serves as the host rock for many lead, zinc, and copper deposits. These deposits form when hot,
acidic hydrothermal solutions move upward from depth through a fracture system that encounters a dolomitic
rock unit. These solutions react with the dolomite, which causes a drop in pH that triggers the precipitation
of metals from solution.

Dolomite also serves as an oil and gas reservoir rock. During the conversion of calcite to dolomite, a volume
reduction occurs. This can produce pore spaces in the rock that can be filled with oil or natural gas that migrate
in as they are released from other rock units. This makes the dolomite a reservoir rock and a target of oil and
gas drilling.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Epidote
Epidote is a metamorphic mineral and the name of a silicate mineral group.

Epidote: Epidote from Rockbridge County, Virginia. This specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

What is Epidote?
Epidote is a name that is used in two different ways in mineralogy: 1) the "Epidote Group" is the name of a
group of silicate minerals that share common structural and compositional characteristics; and, 2) "Epidote"
is the name of the most common mineral in the Epidote Group.

Physical Properties of Epidote

Chemical Classification Silicate

Color Usually yellowish green to pistachio green, sometimes brownish green to black

Streak Colorless

Luster Vitreous to resinous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent to nearly opaque

Cleavage Perfect in one direction, imperfect

Mohs Hardness 6 to 7

Specific Gravity 3.3 to 3.5

Diagnostic Properties Color, cleavage, specific gravity

Chemical Composition Ca2(Al2,Fe)(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)

Crystal System Monoclinic

Uses Semiprecious gem

What is Epidote (the mineral)?
Epidote is a silicate mineral that is commonly found in regionally metamorphosed rocks of low-to-moderate
grade. In these rocks, epidote is often associated with amphiboles, feldspars, quartz, and chlorite. It occurs
as replacements of mineral grains that have been altered by metamorphism. It is frequently found in veins that
cutgranite. It occurs as monoclinic crystals in pegmatites. It is also found in massive form and as monoclinic
crystals in marbles and schists that were formed or altered through contact metamorphism.

Epidote usually ranges between yellowish green to pistachio green in color. Less often it is brownish green to
black. In massive form it is usually translucent with a vitreous luster. Well-formed crystals from marble and
pegmatite are often transparent.

Epidote has a chemical composition of Ca2(Al2,Fe)(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH). It is an end member of a solid

solution series with clinozoisite. In that series, the iron of epidote is gradually replaced by aluminum to the
end member clinozoisite composition of Ca2Al3(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH). Clinozoisite is usually lighter in color
than epidote because iron is what produces epidote's greenish to brownish color.

Mineral Chemical Composition

(CaX)(Al2Fe)(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH)
Allanite
X is one of these rare earths: Ce, La, Nd, Y.

Askagenite (MnNd)(Al2Fe)(Si2O7)(SiO4)O2

Ca2Al3(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)
Clinozoisite
Sr sometimes substitutes for one Ca.

(CaX)(Al2Mg)(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH)
Dissakisite
X can be Ce or La.

Dollaseite (CaCe)(Mg2Al)(Si2O7)(SiO4)(OH)F

Ca2(Al2Fe)(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)
Epidote
Pb or Sr can substitute for one of the calcium.

(CaX)(Fe2Al)(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)
Ferriallanite
X can be Ce or La.

Hancockite (CaPb)(Al2(Fe,Mn)(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)

Khristovite (CaCe)(MgAlMn)(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)F

(XY)(Mn2Al)(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)
Manganipiemontite
(XY) can be (MnLa) or (CaSr).

Mukhinite (Ca2)(Al2V)(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)

(X)(Al2Mn)(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)
Piemontite
(X) can be (Ca2), (CaPb) or (CaSr).

Uedaite (MnCe)(Al2Fe)(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)

Zoisite Ca2Al3(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)
What is Epidote (the mineral group)?
Members of the epidote mineral group have a crystal structure that consists of isolated and paired silica
tetrahedrons. They share a generalized chemical composition of A2M3(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH). "A" is a pairing
of calcium, manganese, strontium, lead, or sometimes a rare earth element. "M" is usually aluminum pairing
with iron, magnesium, manganese, or vanadium. Some of the member minerals of the epidote group are listed
in the table with their chemical compositions.

Epidote crystals: Epidote from Rockbridge County, Virginia. This specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

Epidote in unakite: Tumbled stones made from unakite, an igneous rock composed mainly of green epidote, pink orthoclase
feldspar, and quartz. This unakite was mined in South Africa.

Epidote in Rocks
Epidote is a rock-forming mineral. Many regionally-metamorphosed rocks contain small amounts of epidote.
Two rock types that contain significant amounts of epidote are epidosite and unakite. Locations where these
rocks can be found are rare, but at those locations significant amounts of these rocks can be present.

Epidosite is a metamorphic rock composed mainly of epidote with small amounts of quartz. It forms
whenbasalts in sheeted dikes and ophiolites are transformed by hydrothermal activity or metasomatism.
Unakite is a rock that forms from the metamorphism of granite. Less-resistant minerals in the granite are
altered to epidote or replaced by epidote, with the orthoclase and quartz remaining. It is an interesting pink
and green colored rock that was first discovered in the Unakas Mountains of North Carolina, from which its
name was derived.

Unakite cabochons: Two cabochons cut from unakite. The cab on the left is about 30 x 19 millimeters in size and is cut from
material with a very coarse grain size. The cab on the right is about 39 x 30 millimeters in size and is cut from material with a fine
grain size.

Uses of Epidote
Epidote has no significant use as an industrial mineral and has only minor use as a gemstone. High-quality
transparent crystals are sometimes cut into faceted stones. These have never attracted much interest in the
commercial jewelry market, probably because their colors are not customer favorites. Most of the faceted
stones produced are purchased by gem and mineral collectors.

Unakite is a popular rock used by lapidaries to make beads, ornamental objects, and cut into cabochons. It is
considered to be a semiprecious stone. The bright pink and pistachio green colors are very unusual and attract
attention. Unakite is popular as a tumbled stone. A small amount of epidosite is also cut into cabochons.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Fluorite (also known as Fluorspar)
An important industrial mineral used in many chemical, ceramic, and metallurgical processes.

Fluorite: This photo shows several beautiful blue cubic crystals of fluorite with occasional pyrite crystals on their
faces. Fluorite is commonly found as cubic crystals, but blue crystals are unusual. The blue color can be caused by
trace amounts of yttrium substituting for calcium in the fluorite crystal structure. Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, used
here under a Creative Commons license.
Fluorite cleavage: Fluorite is the only common mineral with four directions of perfect cleavage. This perfect cleavage combined
with the mineral's isometric crystal structure frequently cause it to cleave into perfect octahedrons as shown here. These
specimens also show the purple and yellow colors that are typical of fluorite. Photo by Hannes Grobe, used here under a Creative
Commons license.

What is Fluorite?
Fluorite is an important industrial mineral composed of calcium and fluorine (CaF2). It is used in a wide
variety of chemical, metallurgical, and ceramic processes. Specimens with exceptional diaphaneity and color
are cut into gems or used to make ornamental objects.

Fluorite is deposited in veins by hydrothermal processes. In these rocks it often occurs as a gangue mineral
associated with metallic ores. Fluorite is also found in the fractures and cavities of
some limestones and dolomites. It is a very common rock-forming mineral found in many parts of the world.
In the mining industry, fluorite is often called "fluorspar."

Physical Properties of Fluorite

Chemical
Halide
Classification

Color Typically purple, green, and yellow. Also colorless, blue, red, and black.

Streak White

Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Four directions of perfect cleavage

Mohs Hardness 4

Specific Gravity 3.2

Diagnostic
Cleavage, hardness, specific gravity, color
Properties

Chemical
CaF2
Composition

Crystal System Isometric

Numerous uses in the metallurgical, ceramics, and chemical industries. A source of fluorine, hydrofluoric acid,
Uses
metallurgical flux. High-clarity pieces are used to make lenses for microscopes, telescopes, and cameras.

Physical Properties of Fluorite

Fluorite is very easy to identify if you consider cleavage, hardness, and specific gravity. It is the only common
mineral that has four directions of perfect cleavage, often breaking into pieces with the shape of an octahedron.
It is also the mineral used for a hardness of four in the Mohs Hardness Scale. Finally, it has a specific gravity
of 3.2, which is detectably higher than most other minerals.
Although color is not a reliable property for mineral identification, the characteristic purple, green, and yellow
translucent-to-transparent appearance of fluorite is an immediate visual clue for the mineral.

Fluorescent fluorite: Tumble-polished specimens of fluorite in normal light (top) and under short-wave ultraviolet light (bottom).
The fluorescence appears to be related to the color and banding structure of the minerals in plain light.

Fluorescence
In 1852, George Gabriel Stokes discovered the ability of specimens of fluorite to produce a blue glow when
illuminated with light, which in his words was "beyond the violet end of the spectrum." He called this
phenomenon "fluorescence" after the mineral fluorite. The name gained wide acceptance in mineralogy,
gemology, biology, optics, commercial lighting, and many other fields. (See photo pair for an example of
fluorite fluorescence in tumbled stones.)

Fluorite typically glows a blue-violet color under short-wave ultraviolet and long-wave ultraviolet light. Some
specimens are known to glow a cream or white color. Many specimens do not fluoresce. Fluorescence in
fluorite is thought to be caused when trace amounts of yttrium, europium, samarium, or other elements
substitute for calcium in the fluorite mineral structure.
Fluorite crystal mass: An impressive cluster of fluorite crystals from the Berbes Mine, Ribadesella, Asturias, Spain. Specimen
and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Fluorite Occurrence
Most fluorite occurs as vein fillings in rocks that have been subjected to hydrothermal activity. These veins
often contain metallic ores which can include sulfides of tin, silver, lead, zinc, copper, and other metals.

Fluorite is also found in the fractures and vugs of some limestones and dolomites. Fluorite can be massive,
granular, or euhedral as octahedral or cubic crystals. Fluorite is a common mineral in hydrothermal and
carbonate rocks worldwide.

Fluorite unit cell: Illustration showing the relative size and position of fluorine and calcium ions in the isometric unit cell of
fluorite. Public domain image by Benjah-bmm27.
Fluoride products: Most people are familiar with fluoride products used in the prevention of tooth decay. Fluoride is added to
drinking water as a systemic fluoride therapy and added to toothpastes, mouthwashes and dental rinse as a topical fluoride
therapy. These uses of fluoride have been controversial.

Fluorite gemstone: Fluorite can be a beautiful gemstone when faceted. It is mainly a gemstone for collectors because it has a
hardness of 4 on the Mohs scale and because it cleaves easily in four directions.

Uses of Fluorite
Fluorite has a wide variety of uses. The primary uses are in the metallurgical, ceramics, and chemical
industries; however, optical, lapidary, and other uses are also important.

Fluorspar, the name used for fluorite when it is sold as a bulk material or in processed form, is sold in three
different grades (acid, ceramic, and metallurgical).

Acid Grade Fluorspar

Acid grade fluorspar is a high-purity material used by the chemical industry. It contains over 97% CaF2. Most
of the fluorspar consumed in the United States is acid grade even if it is used in lower grade applications. It is
used mainly in the chemical industry to manufacture hydrofluoric acid (HF). The HF is then used to
manufacture a variety of products which include: fluorocarbon chemicals, foam blowing agents, refrigerants,
and a variety of fluoride chemicals.
Ceramic Grade Fluorspar

Ceramic grade fluorspar contains between 85% and 96% CaF2. Much of this material is used in the
manufacture of specialty glass, ceramics, and enamelware. Fluorspar is used to make glazes and surface
treatments that produce hard glossy surfaces, opalescent surfaces, and a number of other appearances that
make consumer glass objects more attractive or more durable. The non-stick cooking surface known as Teflon
is made using fluorine derived from fluorite.

Metallurgical Grade Fluorspar

Metallurgical grade fluorspar contains between 60 and 85% CaF2. Much of this material is used in the
production of iron, steel, and other metals. Fluorspar can serve as a flux that removes impurities such
as sulfur and phosphorous from molten metal and improves the fluidity of slag. Between 20 and 60 pounds
of fluorspar is used for every ton of metal produced. In the United States many metal producers use fluorspar
that exceeds metallurgical grade.

Optical Grade Fluorite

Specimens of fluorite with exceptional optical clarity have been used as lenses. Fluorite has a very low
refractive index and a very low dispersion. These two characteristics enable the lens to produce extremely
sharp images. Today, instead of using natural fluorite crystals to manufacture these lenses, high-purity fluorite
is melted and combined with other materials to produce synthetic "fluorite" lenses of even higher quality.
These lenses are used in optical equipment such as microscopes, telescopes, and cameras.

Lapidary Grade Fluorite

Specimens of fluorite with exceptional color and clarity are often used by lapidaries to cut gemstones and
make ornamental objects. High-quality specimens of fluorite make beautiful faceted stones; however, the
mineral is so soft and cleaves so easily that these stones are either sold as collector's specimens or used in
jewelry that will not be subjected to impact or abrasion. Fluorite is also cut and carved into ornamental objects
such as small figurines and vases. These are often treated with a coating or impregnation to enhance their
stability and protect them from scratches.

Banded fluorite cabochon: Colorful pieces of fluorite can be cut into beautiful cabochons and other ornamental objects.
However, because of its low hardness and perfect cleavage, it is not suitable for many purposes.

Fluorite Production in the United States

Deposits of minable fluorite exist in the United States; however, nearly all of the fluorite consumed in the
United States is imported. The primary countries that supplied fluorite to the United States in 2011 were China,
Mexico, Mongolia, and South Africa. All of this fluorite is imported because production costs in the United
States are so high that the material can be produced in these other countries and shipped directly to customers
in the United States at a lower cost.

In 2011 several companies were producing and selling synthetic fluorite as a byproduct of their phosphoric
acid production, petroleum processing, or uranium processing activities. A limestone producer in Illinois was
also recovering and selling small amounts of fluorite from their quarry. That company is developing an
underground mine to exploit a large vein of fluorite which they hope will be in production in 2013.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Fuchsite and Ruby in Fuchsite
Many people use the word “fuschite” for this material. That is a misspelling.

Fuchsite: Photograph of a verdite specimen consisting almost exclusively of fuchsite platelets with a foliated texture. Specimen is
approximately 2 inches across.

Mineral Composition

Muscovite KAl2(Si3AlO10)(OH)2

Fuchsite K(Al,Cr)2(Si3AlO10)(OH)2

What is Fuchsite?
Fuchsite is a green variety of muscovite mica. It differs from most other muscovite by having a variable
amount of trivalent chromium substituting for aluminum within the mineral. Chromium is the source of
fuchsite’s green color. Muscovite begins to take on a very light green color with the substitution of a small
amount of chromium for aluminum. As the amount of chromium increases, the green color becomes
stronger and ranges to a rich emerald green when abundant chromium is present. The chemical formulae of
muscovite and fuchsite are shown in the table.

Fuchsite is found in phyllites and schists in metamorphic rocks of the greenschist facies. In most instances
it occurs as tiny grains scattered through the rock mass, but occasionally rocks composed almost entirely of
fuchsite are found. These green fuchsite-rich rocks are known as “verdite.”

Physical Properties of Fuchsite

Chemical
Silicate
Classification

Color Light green to emerald green depending upon chromium content

Streak White, often sheds tiny green flakes

Luster Pearly to vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Perfect

Mohs Hardness 2 to 3

Specific Gravity 2.8 to 2.9

Diagnostic
Cleavage, color, transparency
Properties

Chemical
K(Al,Cr)2(Si3AlO10)(OH)2
Composition

Crystal System Monoclinic

Fuchsite of good purity is not abundant enough to support manufactured products. The primary use is as a gem material,
Uses
especially ruby in fuchsite for cabochons, spheres, and small utility objects that will not be subjected to impact or wear.

Spelling and Pronunciation Problems

Fuchsite is one of the most commonly misspelled minerals - especially in the lapidary market. It is often
spelled (and pronounced) “fuschite” with a long “u” and a long “i”. The material is named after Johann
Nepomuk von Fuchs, a German chemist and mineralogist. His name is pronounced “fooks” - similar to the
way you pronounce “books” and “looks.” You can hear a pronunciation here.

Ruby in Fuchsite: Photo of a ruby-in-fuchsite cabochon with a rim of blue kyanite around the red ruby crystal. This blue kyanite
rim is diagnostic of ruby in fuchsite and can be used to avoid misidentification as ruby in zoisite. Cabochon is about 1 inch in
height.

Fuchsite and Verdite as Gem Materials

Verdite is usually soft and fragile; however, some competent specimens can be cut into cabochons and
polished to a very high luster. Some people who cut verdite stabilize it for cutting by gluing it to a backing.
Thin slices of black obsidian, basalt, or another black material are often used as backing.
Verdite is typically a foliated rock, with the mica grains oriented with their flat faces perpendicular to the
direction of compression. The most attractive orientation of verdite when cutting cabochons is with the mica
flakes aligned parallel to the bottom of the cab. Then, when the dome on the cabochon is cut and polished,
the mica flakes reflect light and produce a green aventurescence.

Green Aventurine: Photo of green aventurine as a tumble-polished stone. In this photo you can see the green mica flakes
suspended in the quartz.

Green Aventurine
Sometimes small platelets of fuchsite are suspended in quartz to produce the gem known as
green aventurine. It has become a very popular and typically inexpensive gem material that is cut
into cabochons, beads, and small sculptures. It is also very popular as tumbled stones. Green aventurine is
much more frequently seen as a gem material than verdite, fuchsite, and ruby in fuchsite combined. See
tumbled stone photo.

Carved Ruby in Fuchsite: A pendant carved from ruby in fuchsite in which the artist took advantage of the red rubies to produce
flowers. Blue kyanite alteration rims can be seen around the rubies.

What is “Ruby in Fuchsite”?

Occasionally, corundum crystals are found in fuchsite. When these corundum crystals are of a bright red
color, the material is known as ruby in fuchsite. This material attracts a lot of attention at rock, mineral, gem,
and lapidary shows because of the contrasting colors of the fuchsite and ruby, and because the corundum
crystals often exhibit spectacular hexagonal shapes when cut in slabs, cabochons, spheres, and other objects.

Ruby-in-Zoisite Cabochons: Two ruby-in-zoisite cabochons. Note that they do not show blue kyanite alteration rims around the
ruby. The material also has the characteristic scatter of black hornblende crystals.

Identification Problems?
If spelling and pronunciation problems were not enough, ruby in fuchsite is one of the most commonly
misidentified gem materials. If you visit lapidary shows and online auctions, you will probably see ruby in
fuchsite more often presented incorrectly as “ruby in zoisite” than as "ruby in fuchsite." This identification
problem can easily be solved if a person learns the three facts below and uses them for identification.

1) Fuchsite has a hardness of 2 to 3, while zoisite has a hardness of at least 6.

2) Rubies have blue kyanite alteration rims in fuchsite but no alteration rims in zoisite. See the cabochon
photos.

3) Ruby in zoisite is usually marked with a scattering of black hornblende crystals.

The next time you are at a rock, gem, or mineral show, watch for green and red cabochons or carvings. If
you see blue alteration rims, it is ruby in fuchsite.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Galena
The primary ore of lead that is sometimes mined for its silver content

Galena: Photograph of a nice cubic galena crystal with adjacent calcite crystals. The galena crystal is about two inches on a side.
Collected from the Sweetwater Mine, Reynolds County, Missouri. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

What is Galena?
Galena is a lead sulfide mineral with a chemical composition of PbS. It is the world's primary ore of leadand
is mined from a large number of deposits in many countries. It is found
in igneous and metamorphic rocksin medium- to low-temperature hydrothermal veins.
In sedimentary rocks it occurs as veins, breccia cements, isolated grains, and as replacements
of limestone and dolostone.

Galena is very easy to identify. Freshly broken pieces exhibit perfect cleavage in three directions that
intersect at 90 degrees. It has a distinct silver color and a bright metallic luster. Galena tarnishes to a dull
gray. Because lead is a primary element in galena, the mineral has a high specific gravity (7.4 to 7.6) that is
immediately noticed when picking up even small pieces. Galena is soft with a Mohs hardness of 2.5+ and
produces a gray to black streak. Crystals are common and they usually are cubes, octahedrons, or
modifications.
Structure of galena: Galena has a chemical composition of PbS. That means it contains an equal number of lead and sulfide ions.
The ions are arranged in a cubic pattern that repeats in all directions. This structure is what causes crystals of galena to have a
cubic habit and causes galena to break in three directions at right angles.

Physical Properties of Galena

Chemical Classification Sulfide

Color Fresh surfaces are bright silver in color with a bright metallic luster, tarnishes to a dull lead gray

Streak Lead gray to black

Luster Metallic on fresh surfaces, tarnishes dull

Diaphaneity Opaque

Cleavage Perfect, cubic, three directions at right angles

Mohs Hardness 2.5+

Specific Gravity 7.4 to 7.6

Diagnostic Properties Color, luster, specific gravity, streak, cleavage, cubic or octahedral crystals.

Chemical Composition Lead sulfide, PbS

Crystal System Isometric

Uses An ore of lead

Argentiferous galena: Argentiferous galena from Coeur d'Alene, Idaho. Specimen is approximately 2-1/2 inches (6.4
centimeters) across. Argentiferous galena has a silver content that is often high enough for the galena to be mined as an ore of
silver. Some galena mines receive more revenue from their silver than from their lead production.

Argentiferous Galena - The Silver Ore

The typical specimen of galena is about 86.6% lead and 13.4% sulfur by weight. However, some specimens
of galena contain up to a few percent silver by weight. They are called "argentiferous galena" because of
their silver content. In these specimens, silver can substitute for lead in the atomic structure of the galena, or
it can occur in tiny grains of silver minerals included in the galena.

Silver within the galena disrupts the crystal structure, which often causes the galena to have curved cleavage
faces. This tiny bit of knowledge can be a powerful prospecting tool. In addition to silver, galena can contain
minor amounts of antimony, arsenic, bismuth, cadmium, copper, and zinc. Sometimes selenium substitutes
for sulfur in galena.

Cleavage fragments of galena: One of the most diagnostic properties of galena is its ability to break by cleavage in three
directions that intersect at right angles. This forms cleavage fragments that are cubic and rectangular in shape. This photo shows
pieces of crushed galena that clearly exhibit the right angle cleavage. This characteristic cleavage is caused by the mineral's cubic
internal structure as shown above. Photo © iStockphoto / Tyler Boyes.
Galena value: Some mines produce more revenue from the silver content of their galena than from the lead content. Assume that
we have a mine that produces argentiferous galena with an average composition of 86% lead, 13% sulfur and just 1% silver (as
shown in the diagram on the left).

If the silver price is $25 per troy ounce and the lead price is $1 per avoirdupois pound, the value of the lead in one ton of ore will
be $1720, while the value of the silver in that same ton of ore will be $7292 (as shown in the diagram on the right).

The small amount of silver has a huge impact on revenue because at the prices assumed, silver is 364 times more valuable than an
equal weight of lead. It is easy to understand why mining companies get excited by argentiferous galena! Even though galena is
the ore being removed and lead makes up the bulk of the product, these mines are often called "silver mines."

Smelting metals: Galena is one of the easiest ores to smelt. It can simply be placed in a fire and then lead can be recovered from
under the ashes when the fire goes out. Archaeologists have found evidence that lead was smelted as early as 6500 BC in what is
now Turkey [1]. Small amounts of silver were refined from lead by the Romans about 2000 years ago [2]. Public domain image
by Georgius Agricola.

Smelting Galena
Galena is very easy to smelt. If rocks that contain galena are placed in a fire, lead can be collected from
below the ashes after the fire burns out. People have taken advantage of this simple smelting for thousands
of years. Archaeologists have found lead beads and statues in Turkey that date back to about 6500 BC [1].
Lead is probably the first metal to have been processed from an ore. The ancient Romans made lead pipe
and used it as indoor plumbing. (Plumbum is the Latin word for lead. The word "plumbing" and our use of
"Pb" as the chemical symbol for lead come from the ancient Romans.)

The ancient Greeks and Romans were able to separate silver from lead about 2000 years ago [2]. Many of
the Roman lead ingots were inscribed "Ex Arg" or "Ex Argent" to signify that the silver had been removed
from the lead. The Greeks were able to desilver lead to a 0.02 percent silver content and the Romans to a
0.01 percent silver content [3]. It is surprising that they were able to realize that the lead contained silver and
amazing that they were able to develop such an efficient method of refining!

Galena Information

[1] Lead Fact Sheet: General Information and History, Stanford University, General Health and Safety Program, last accessed July 2016.

[2] On the Nature of Metals (De Re Metallica): Georgius Agricola, 1556. Translated by Herbert Clark Hoover and Lou Henry Hoover,
republished by Farlang.com.

[3] Pliny the Elder on Science and Technology: John F. Healy, Oxford University Press, page 324, 1999.

[4] 'Heavy Metal' Snow: Carolyn Jones Otten, press release of Washington University of St. Louis, February 2004.

Alteration of Galena
Galena weathers easily. Fresh surfaces of galena tarnish rapidly from a silver metallic luster to a dull gray to
dull black color. When exposed to the elements or buried in soil, galena quickly weathers to anglesite,
cerussite, pyromorphite, or another lead mineral. These minerals are often used in prospecting. When they
are found at the surface, they often reveal that galena is present below.

Does It Really "Snow" Galena on Venus?

The planet Venus has an inhospitable environment where volcanoes vent superheated gases into the
atmosphere. Sulfur and lead are among the gases erupted from the volcanoes on Venus. They remain in the
gaseous phase until they are high enough in the atmosphere to condense.

In 2004, researchers at Washington University in St. Louis provided plausible evidence that "heavy metal
snow" - which is most likely a combination of lead sulfide (galena) and bismuth sulfide - falls on the higher
elevations of Venus [4].
Galena crystal radio: One of the most interesting uses of galena was in early crystal radios. The operation of these radios
required alternating current to be converted into a pulsing direct current. For that to occur, a semiconductor material was used to
limit the flow of electricity to one direction. The alternating current flowed through a wire, known as a cat's whisker, into a
semiconductor crystal, which was usually a crystal of galena, which only allowed flow in a single direction. Image © iStockphoto
/ Greg_H.

Uses of Galena
Galena is a very important mineral because it serves as an ore for most of the world's lead production. It is
also a significant ore of silver. Galena has very few uses beyond its service as an ore, but that should not
diminish its importance to society.

The number one use of lead today is in the lead-acid batteries that are used to start automobiles. The typical
auto battery contains about twenty pounds of lead and must be replaced every four or five years. There are
billions of these batteries in the United States alone. Lead-acid batteries are also used as standby power
supplies for computer networks, communication facilities, and other critical systems. Lead is also one of the
metals used in energy storage systems associated with power generation and hybrid vehicles.

Related: The Many Uses of Lead

Lead Safety
Many uses of lead and lead compounds have been discontinued or significantly reduced over the past few
decades in response to health concerns. Some of these uses include lead in residential paints, motor vehicle
fuels, solder, ammunition, fishing weights, ceramic glazes, pesticides, cosmetics, glass, plastics, alloys and
many other products. For this reason, many schools have removed galena from student mineral kits and have
replaced it with a mineral with a lower level of concern.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Uses of Lead
Lead has been used by humans for a variety of purposes for more than 5,000 years.

Republished from a 2011 Fact Sheet by S.J. Kropschot and Jeff L. Doebrich of the United States Geological Survey.

The Changing Uses of Lead

Scientific research demonstrating how accumulated

ingested lead is toxic to human health and how
accumulations of lead in the soil, air, and water are toxic
to ecosystems is changing both how lead is used and how
it is disposed of after use.

What is Lead?

Lead is a corrosion-resistant dense metal that is easily molded and shaped. The chemical symbol for lead, Pb, is an
abbreviation of the Latin word plumbum, meaning soft metal. Archeological research indicates that lead has been
used by humans for a variety of purposes for more than 5,000 years.

Lead is rarely found in native form in nature but it combines with other elements to form a variety of interesting and
beautiful minerals. Galena, which is the dominant lead ore mineral, is blue-white in color when first uncovered but
tarnishes to dull gray when exposed to air.

Typical lead-acid ignition batteries in automobiles contain

about 10 kilograms of lead and need to be replaced every 4
to 5 years. Lead-acid batteries also supply standby power for
computer networks and telecommunications systems and
energy storage for wind and solar energy systems and
hybrid-electric vehicles. Image © iStockphoto and Hywit
Dimyadi.
Ancient Uses of Lead

Did You Know? The English words plumbing, plumber, plumb,

Water pipes that date back to the Roman Empire, glazes on and plumb-bob derive from the Latin word for lead.
prehistoric ceramics, and the cosmetic kohl, used by ancient
Egyptians to darken their eyelids, are a few examples of ancient
uses of lead. Today, lead, which has been mined on all
continents except Antarctica, is one of the most
important metalsto industrialized economies.

Modern Uses of Lead

Prior to the early 1900s, lead was used in the United States
primarily in ammunition, burial vault liners, ceramic glazes,
leaded glass and crystal, paints or other protective coatings,
pewter, and water lines and pipes. Following World War I, the
demand for lead increased because of growth in the production
of motorized vehicles, many of which use lead-acid batteries to
start their engines. The use of lead as radiation shielding in
medical analysis and video display equipment and as an
additive in gasoline also contributed to an increase in the
demand for lead.

Galena, a lead sulfide mineral (PbS), is the primary ore of lead. It is mined at
By the mid-1980s, a significant shift in the uses of lead had
many locations worldwide.
taken place in the United States as a result of compliance with
environmental regulations and the substitution of other materials
for lead in nonbattery products, such as gasoline, paints,
solders, and water systems. By the early 2000s, 88 percent of
apparent U.S. lead consumption was in lead-acid batteries, Did You Know? Lead levels in ambient air are currently 92
which was a substantial increase from 1960 when only 30 percent lower than they were in 1980 owing to changes
percent of global lead consumption was in lead-acid batteries. resulting from the Clean Air Act of 1970.
Today, the other significant uses of lead are in ammunition,
oxides in glass and ceramics, casting metals, and sheet lead.

Lead in the Environment

According to the U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease

Registry, environmental levels of lead have increased more than
1,000-fold over the past three centuries as a result of human
activity. The greatest increase took place between 1950 and
2000 and reflected the increased use of leaded gasoline
worldwide. During this period, the U.S. Government established
Federal regulations and made recommendations to limit lead
emissions to protect public health in the United States.

Types of Lead Deposits The Viburnum Trend in southeastern Missouri contains the largest
concentration of lead in North America. The Buick mine is one of six
underground mines that currently produce lead in the Viburnum Trend ore
Research to better understand the geologic processes that form district. Image by USGS.
mineral deposits, including those containing lead, is an
important component of the USGS Mineral Resources Program.
Lead commonly occurs in mineral deposits along with other
base metals, such as copper and zinc. Lead deposits are
broadly classified on the basis of how they are formed. Lead is
produced mainly from three types of deposits: sedimentary
exhalative (Sedex), Mississippi Valley type (MVT), and
volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS).

Sedimentary Exhalative Deposits

Sedex deposits account for more than 50 percent of the world's

lead resources. They are formed when metal-rich hot liquids are
released into a water-filled basin (usually an ocean) or in basin
sediments, which results in the precipitation of ore-bearing
material within basin-floor sediments.

Mississippi Valley Deposits

MVT deposits are found throughout the world and get their
name from deposits that occur in the Mississippi Valley region of
the United States. The deposits are characterized by ore mineral
replacement of the carbonate host rock; they are often confined
to a single stratigraphic layer and extend over hundreds of
square kilometers. MVT deposits were a major source of lead in
Lead pipes, such as these discovered in Bath, England, were used for plumbing
the United States from the 19th century through the mid-20th by ancient Romans. Image by USGS.
century.

Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide Deposits Lead Information

In contrast to Sedex and MVT deposits, VMS deposits have a

clear association with submarine volcanic processes. They also
can contain significant amounts of copper, gold, and silver, in
addition to lead and zinc. The "black smoker" sea vents
discovered during deep ocean expeditions are examples of VMS
deposits being formed on the sea floor today.
-- On production and consumption of lead:
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lead/
-- On the assessment of undiscovered deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead,
and zinc in the United States:
http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2002/of02-198/

-- On Mississippi Valley-type lead-zinc deposit model:

Worldwide Supply of and Demand for Lead http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5070/a/

-- On sedimentary exhalative zinc-lead-gold deposit model:

Currently, approximately 240 mines in more than 40 countries http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2009/1209/
produce lead. World mine production was estimated to be 4.1
million metric tons in 2010, and the leading producers were -- On volcanogenic massive sulfide deposit model:
China, Australia, the United States, and Peru, in descending http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2009/1235/
order of output. In recent years, lead was mined domestically in
Alaska, Idaho, Missouri, Montana, and Washington. In addition,
secondary (recycled) lead is a significant portion of the global
lead supply.

World consumption of refined lead was 9.35 million metric tons

in 2010. The leading refined lead consuming countries were
China, the United States, and Germany. Demand for lead
worldwide is expected to grow largely because of increased
consumption in China, which is being driven by growth in the
automobile and electric bicycle markets.

Ensuring Future Supplies of Lead

To help predict where future lead supplies might be located,
USGS scientists study how and where identified lead resources
are concentrated in the Earth's crust and use that knowledge to
assess the likelihood that undiscovered lead resources exist.
Techniques to assess mineral resource potentials have been
developed and refined by the USGS to support the stewardship
of Federal lands and to better evaluate mineral resource
availability in a global context.

United States Lead Resources

Lead Production and Reserves

Country Production Reserves

USA 400 7,000

Australia 620 27,000

Bolivia 90 1,600

Canada 65 650

China 1,600 13,000

India 95 2,600

Ireland 45 600

Mexico 185 5,600

Peru 280 6,000

Poland 35 1,500

Russia 90 9,200

South
50 300
Africa

Sweden 65 1,100

Other 330 4,000

Total 4,100 80,000

Data is in thousand metric tons.

Data from USGS Mineral
Commodity Summary, January
2011.

In the 1990s, the USGS conducted an assessment of U.S. lead

resources and concluded that about as much lead remained to
be found as had already been discovered. Specifically, the
USGS found that 92 million metric tons of lead had been
discovered and estimated that about 85 million metric tons of
lead remained undiscovered in the United States.
Mineral resource assessments are dynamic. Because they
provide a snapshot that reflects our best understanding of how
and where resources are located, the assessments must be
updated from time to time as better data become available and
new concepts are developed. Current research by the USGS
involves updating mineral deposit models and mineral
environmental models for lead and other important nonfuel
commodities and improving the techniques used to assess for
concealed mineral resource potential. The results of this
research will provide new information and decrease the amount
of uncertainty in future mineral resource assessments.

Did You Know? In 2009, with a 96 percent recycling rate, the

standard lead-acid car battery was the most recycled product
in the United States.
 Garnet
Best known as a red gemstone. It occurs in many colors and has numerous industrial uses.

Gem garnets: Most people think that garnet is a red gemstone. However, garnet occurs in a wide variety of colors. Clockwise
from the top left: red almandine (Madagascar), green tsavorite (Tanzania), yellow mali (Mali), orange spessartite (Mozambique),
pink malaya (Tanzania), green merelani mint (Tanzania), red pyrope (Ivory Coast), green demantoid (Namibia), purple rhodolite
(Mozambique), and orange hessonite (Sri Lanka). Seven out of eight of the garnets above are from Africa, the relatively new
source of spectacular garnets.
What is Garnet?
Garnet is the name used for a large group of rock-forming minerals. These minerals share a common crystal
structure and a generalized chemical composition of X3Y2(SiO4)3. In that composition, "X" can be Ca, Mg,
Fe2+or Mn2+, and "Y" can be Al, Fe3+, Mn3+, V3+ or Cr3+.

These minerals are found throughout the world in metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks. Most
garnet found near Earth's surface forms when a sedimentary rock with a high aluminum content, such
as shale, is subjected to heat and pressure intense enough to produce schist or gneiss. Garnet is also found in
the rocks of contact metamorphism, subsurface magma chambers, lava flows, deep-source volcanic
eruptions, and the soils and sediments formed when garnet-bearing rocks are weathered and eroded.

Most people associate the word "garnet" with a red gemstone; however, they are often surprised to learn that
garnet occurs in many other colors and has many other uses. In the United States, the major industrial uses
of garnet in 2012 were waterjet cutting (35%), abrasive blasting media (30%), water filtration granules
(20%), and abrasive powders (10%).

The Garnet Group: This chart summarizes the members of the garnet group that are most important as gemstones. The
aluminum garnets are normally red in color with a higher specific gravity and hardness. The calcium members are usually green in
color and have a lower hardness.

Physical Properties of Garnet

Chemical Classification Silicate

Color Typically red, but can be orange, green, yellow, purple, black, or brown. Blue garnets are extremely rare.

Streak Colorless

Luster Vitreous
Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage None

Mohs Hardness 6.5 to 7.5

Specific Gravity 3.5 to 4.3

Diagnostic Properties Hardness, specific gravity, isometric crystal habit, lack of cleavage

Chemical Composition General formula: X3Y2(SiO4)3

Crystal System Isometric

Uses Waterjet cutting granules, abrasive blasting granules, filtration granules, abrasive grits and powders, gemstones

Garnet Physical and Chemical Properties

The most commonly encountered minerals in the garnet group include almandine, pyrope, spessartine,
andradite, grossular, and uvarovite. They all have a vitreous luster, a transparent-to-translucent diaphaneity,
a brittle tenacity, and a lack of cleavage. They can be found as individual crystals, stream-worn pebbles,
granular aggregates, and massive occurrences. Their chemical composition, specific gravity, hardness, and
colors are listed below.

Garnet Minerals
Mineral Composition Specific Gravity Hardness Colors

Almandine Fe3Al2(SiO4)3 4.20 7 - 7.5 red, brown

Pyrope Mg3Al2(SiO4)3 3.56 7 - 7.5 red to purple

Spessartine Mn3Al2(SiO4)3 4.18 6.5 - 7.5 orange to red to brown

Andradite Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3 3.90 6.5 - 7 green, yellow, black

Grossular Ca3Al2(SiO4)3 3.57 6.5 - 7.5 green, yellow, red, pink, clear

Uvarovite Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3 3.85 6.5 - 7 green

The compositions listed above are for end members of several solid solution series. There are a number of other garnet minerals that are less
frequently encountered and not as important in industrial use. They include goldmanite, kimzeyite, morimotoite, schorlomite, hydrogrossular,
hibschite, katoite, knorringite, majorite, and calderite.

As seen above, there are a variety of different types of garnet, and each has a different chemical
composition. There are also solid solution series between most of the garnet minerals. This wide variation in
chemistry determines many of their physical properties. As an example, the calcium garnets generally have a
lower specific gravity, a lower hardness and are typically green in color. In contrast, the iron and
manganese garnets have a higher specific gravity, a greater hardness and are typically red in color.
Almandine garnet: Excellent cubic crystals of almandine garnet in a fine-grained mica schist from Granatenkogel Mountain,
Austria. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Andradite garnet: Green andradite garnet of the demantoid variety on a matrix of marble. This specimen is about 8.9 x 6.5 x 4.8
centimeters in size and was collected in Antsiranana Province, Madagascar. Garnets formed within marble often have excellent
crystal form and are of very high quality. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.
Garnet gneiss: A coarse-grained gneiss composed mainly of hornblende (black), plagioclase (white) and garnet (red) from
Norway. Public domain photo by Woudloper.

Alluvial garnet crystals: These almandine-spessartine garnets are from an alluvial deposit in Idaho. They have been transported a
short distance from their source rock, and some still retain evidence of their dodecahedral crystal form. They are about four to five
millimeters in size and weigh about 0.6 to 0.8 carats each.

How Does Garnet Form?

Garnet in Metamorphic Rocks

Most garnet forms at convergent plate boundaries where shale is being acted upon by
regional metamorphism. The heat and pressure of metamorphism breaks chemical bonds and
causes minerals to recrystallize into structures that are stable under the new temperature-pressure
environment. The aluminum garnet, almandine, generally forms in this environment.

As these rocks are metamorphosed, the garnets start as tiny grains and enlarge slowly over time as
metamorphism progresses. As they grow, they displace, replace, and include the surrounding rock materials.
The photo below shows a microscopic view of a garnet grain that has grown within a schist matrix. It
included a number of the host rock's mineral grains as it grew. This explains why so many garnets formed
by regional metamorphism are highly included.
Garnet mica schist in thin section: This is a microscopic view of a garnet grain that has grown in schist. The large black grain is
the garnet, the red elongate grains are mica flakes. The black, gray, and white grains are mostly silt or smaller size grains of quartz
and feldspar. The garnet has grown by replacing, displacing, and including the mineral grains of the surrounding rock. You can
see many of these grains as inclusions within the garnet. From this photo it is easy to understand why clean, gem-quality garnets
with no inclusions are very hard to find. It is also hard to understand how garnet can grow into nice euhedral crystals under these
conditions. Photo by Jackdann88, used here under a Creative Commons license.

The calcium garnets typically form when argillaceous limestone is altered into marble by contact
metamorphism along the edges of igneous intrusions. These are andradite, grossular, and uvarovite, the
slightly softer, typically green garnets with a lower specific gravity. Two calcium garnets are highly
regarded in the gem trade; they are tsavorite (a bright green grossular) and demantoid (a golden-green
andradite).

Garnet in Igneous Rocks

Garnet often occurs as an accessory mineral in igneous rocks such as granite. Many people are familiar
with almandine garnet because it is sometimes seen as dark red crystals in the igneous rocks used as granite
countertops. Spessartine is an orange garnet found as crystals in granite pegmatites. Pyrope is a red garnet
that is brought to Earth's surface in pieces of peridotite that were torn from the mantle during deep-source
volcanic eruptions. Garnet is also found in basaltic lava flows.

Garnet in Sedimentary Rocks and Sediments

Garnets are relatively durable minerals. They are often found concentrated in the soils and sediments that
form when garnet-bearing rocks are weathered and eroded. These alluvial garnets are often the target of
mining operations because they are easy to mine and remove from the sediment/soil by mechanical
processing.

Uses of Garnet
Garnet has been used as a gemstone for thousands of years. In the past 150 years, it has seen many
additional uses as an industrial mineral. The chart below shows recent industrial uses of garnet in the United
States. Garnet is also used as an indicator mineral during mineral exploration and geologic assessments.
Uses of Garnet: This chart shows the most common industrial uses of garnet minerals. Almandine is the variety of garnet that is
most often used in industry.

Garnet abrasive: This photo shows garnet granules that have been crushed and size-graded for use as abrasive, cutting, and filter
media. They are used in waterjet cutting, "sand" blasting, sandpaper, water filtration, and a number of other uses. Almandine is the
hardest garnet and also the most abundant. It is the garnet of choice for most abrasive applications. Photo by the United States
Geological Survey.
Garnet crystal: Almandine, a variety of garnet from River Valley, Ontario, Canada. This specimen is a nice euhedral crystal
approximately 2 inches (5 centimeters) across. These types of crystals are often weathered out of a garnet-bearing mica schist and
are transported by streams.

Almandine garnet: Almandine, a variety of garnet from Lount Township, Ontario, Canada. This is a granular specimen
approximately 11.4 centimeters across.

Garnet as an Industrial Mineral

Garnet Abrasives

The first industrial use of garnet was as an abrasive. Garnet is a relatively hard mineral with a hardness that
ranges between 6.5 and 7.5 on the Mohs Scale. That allows it to be used as an effective abrasive in many
types of manufacturing. When crushed, it breaks into angular pieces that provide sharp edges for cutting and
sanding. Small granules of uniform size are bonded to paper to produce a reddish color sandpaper that is
widely used in woodworking shops. Garnet is also crushed, screened to specific sizes, and sold as abrasive
granules and powders. In the United States, New York and Idaho have been important sources of industrial
garnet for abrasives.
Waterjet Cutting

The largest industrial use of garnet in the United States is in waterjet cutting. A machine known as a waterjet
cutter produces a high-pressure jet of water with entrained abrasive granules. When these are directed at a
piece of metal, ceramic, or stone, a cutting action can occur that produces very little dust and cuts at a low
temperature. Waterjet cutters are used in manufacturing and mining.

Abrasive Blasting

Garnet granules are also used in abrasive blasting (commonly known as "sand blasting"). In these processes,
a tool propels a stream of abrasive granules (also known as "media") against a surface using a highly
pressurized fluid (usually air or water) as a propellant. Abrasive blasting is done in order to smooth, clean,
or remove oxidation products from metals, brick, stone, and other materials. It is usually much faster than
sanding by hand or with a sanding machine. It can clean small and intricate surfaces that other cleaning
methods would miss. Abrasives of various hardnesses can be used to clean a surface of greater hardness,
without damaging the surface.

Filtration

Garnet granules are often used as a filter media. Small garnet particles are used to fill a container through
which a liquid flows. The pore spaces of the garnet are small enough to allow passage of the liquid but are
too small to allow passage of some contaminant particles, which are filtered from the flow. Garnet is suited
for this use because it is relatively inert and has a relatively high specific gravity. Garnet granules, crushed
and graded to about 0.3 millimeters in size, can be used to filter out contaminant particles as small as a few
microns in diameter. Garnet's high specific gravity and high hardness reduce bed expansion and particle
abrasion during backflushing.

Garnet peridotite: Garnet peridotite from Alpe Arami, near Bellinzona, Switzerland. The material in this rock originated within
Earth's mantle and was delivered to the surface through a volcanic pipe during a deep-source volcanic eruption. The garnets are
the reddish purple grains within the rock. Garnets weathered from such pipes often serve as indicator minerals when exploring for
volcanic pipes that might contain diamond.Public domain photo by Woudloper.
Garnet as a Geological Indicator Mineral
Although most of the garnets found at Earth's surface have formed within the crust, some garnets are
brought up from the mantle during deep-source volcanic eruptions. These eruptions entrain pieces of mantle
rock known as "xenoliths" and deliver them to the surface in a structure known as a "pipe." These xenoliths
are the source of most diamonds found at or near Earth's surface.

Diamond pipe: Simplified cross-section of a diamond pipe and residual soil deposit showing the relationships of xenoliths and
diamonds with the pipe and residual soil.

Although xenoliths contain diamonds, they often contain a tremendous number of garnets for every
diamond, and those garnets are generally larger in size. These deep-source garnets are very different from
the garnets that form in the crust at shallow depth. So, a good way to prospect for diamonds is to look for
these unique garnets. The garnets serve as "indicator minerals" for geologists exploring for diamond
deposits. As the xenoliths weather, their garnets are liberated in large numbers. These unusual garnets then
move downslope in soils and streams. Geologists who find them can follow the garnet trail to the source
deposit. Some of the diamond pipes in Canadawere found by following a garnet trail produced by moving
ice.

African garnets: African garnets of various colors: orange spessartine (Mozambique), yellow mali (Mali), red almandine
(Madagascar), green tsavorite (Tanzania), and purple rhodolite (Mozambique). In the past two decades, Africa has become a
major source of excellent beautiful garnets with great color and clarity.
Melanite garnet: Melanite is an opaque black garnet that is unusual to find in jewelry today. Along with jet, black chalcedony,
and other black gems, melanite was often used in jewelry during the Victorian Era. These two rose-cut melanite rounds are about
9 millimeters across.

Garnets as Gemstones
Garnet has been used as a gemstone for over 5000 years. It has been found in the jewelry of many Egyptian
burials and was the most popular gemstone of Ancient Rome. It is a beautiful gem that is usually sold
without treatment of any kind. It is also durable and common enough that it can be used in jewelry at a
relatively low cost.

Garnet continues as a popular gemstone today. It serves as a birthstone for the month of January and is a
traditional gem given on a second anniversary. Most people will think of a red gemstone when they hear the
name "garnet" because they are not aware that garnet occurs in a variety of colors. However, gem-quality
garnets occur in every color - with red being the most common and blue garnets being especially rare.

Red almandine is the red garnet most often found in jewelry because it is abundant and inexpensive. Pyrope
and spessartine are reddish garnets that are commonly encountered in jewelry for the same reason. In recent
decades, green demantoid garnet has become popular. It has a dispersion of 0.057 that gives it a "fire" which
exceeds that of diamond's at 0.044. Green tsavorite has a bright, rich color that is very much like emerald. It
is commonly used as an alternative stone to emerald. Both of these green garnets are becoming more
popular, but their price is much higher than almandine.
Rhodolite garnet: Rhodolite, a variety of garnet, in mica schist from Jackson County, North Carolina. Specimen is approximately
8.9 centimeters across.

Andradite Garnet: Andradite, a variety of garnet, massive with wollastonite from Willsboro, New York. Specimen is
approximately 6.4 centimeters across.
 Glauconite
Mineral Properties and Uses

Physical Properties of Glauconite

Chemical
silicate
Classification

Color green, blue green

Streak dull green

Luster earthy to dull

Diaphaneity transparent to translucent

Cleavage perfect

Mohs Hardness 2

Specific Gravity 2.4 to 3.0

Glauconite, or greensand, from Birmingham, New Jersey. These
specimens are small particles 1 to 2 millimeters across.
Diagnostic Properties color

Chemical Composition (K,Na)(Fe3+,Al,Mg)2((Si,Al)4O10)(OH)2

Crystal System monoclinic

Uses fertilizer, soil amendment

This is glauconite in sandstone from Afton, Minnesota. Specimen is approximately

3-1/2 inches (8.9 centimeters) across.
 Gold
Mineral Properties and Uses

Gold nuggets from Colorado. These specimens range between three and eight millimeters across.

What is Gold?
Native gold is an element and a mineral. It is highly prized by people because of its attractive color,
resistance to tarnish, and its many special properties - some of which are unique to gold. Its rarity,
usefulness, and desirability make it command a high price.

Trace amounts of gold are found almost everywhere, but large deposits are found in only a few locations.
Although there are about twenty different gold minerals, all of them are quite rare. Therefore, most gold
found in nature is in the form of the native metal.

Gold occurs in hydrothermal veins deposited by ascending solutions, as disseminated particles through some
sulfide deposits, and in placer deposits.

Physical Properties of Gold

Chemical
Native element
Classification

Color Gold yellow

Streak Gold yellow

Luster Metallic

Diaphaneity Opaque

Cleavage None

Mohs Hardness 2.5 to 3

Specific Gravity 19.3

Diagnostic
Color, hardness, streak, specific gravity
Properties

Chemical
Gold, Au
Composition

Crystal System Isometric

Numerous uses in jewelry; coinage; bullion; currency backing; an electrical conductor used in computers, circuits,
Uses
appliances, cell phones, etc.; dental work; gilding.

Vein gold: White "vein quartz" with gold from Colorado. This specimen is approximately one inch (2.5 centimeters) across.

Uses of Gold
Most of the gold that is newly consumed or recycled each year is used in the production of jewelry. About
10% is used in coinage or in the financial stores of governments. The remaining 12% is consumed in a wide
range of other uses which include electronics, medicine, dentistry, computers, awards, pigments, gilding,
and optics. More information on the uses of gold.
Vein gold: Vein quartz with gold attached to basalt from California. This specimen is approximately 1 inch (2.4 centimeters)
across.
 Graphite
Graphite and diamond have the same composition but completely different properties.

Graphite: Graphite crystals in a piece of marble from the Saint-Jovite Skarn Zone, Mont-Tremblant, Les Laurentides RCM,
Quebec, Canada. This specimen is approximately three inches (7.6 cm) in length.

What is Graphite?
Graphite is a naturally-occurring form of crystalline carbon. It is a native element mineral found
in metamorphic and igneous rocks. Graphite is a mineral of extremes. It is extremely soft, cleaves with
very light pressure, and has a very low specific gravity. In contrast, it is extremely resistant to heat and
nearly inert in contact with almost any other material. These extreme properties give it a wide range of uses
in metallurgy and manufacturing.
Flake graphite: Flake graphite produced in Madagascar.

Graphite chunk: Lump graphite from Kropfmuhl, Austria. Specimen is about one and one half inches (3.8 cm) across.

Graphite with garnet: A specimen of graphite-mica schist with two red almandine / pyrope garnets from the Red Embers Mine,
Erving, Massachusetts. This specimen is about two inches (5.08 cm) across.

Geologic Occurrence
Graphite is a mineral that forms when carbon is subjected to heat and pressure in Earth's crust and in the
upper mantle. Pressures in the range of 75,000 pounds per square inch and temperatures in the range of 750
degrees Celsius are needed to produce graphite. These correspond to the granulite metamorphic facies.

Graphite From Regional Metamorphism (Flake Graphite)

Most of the graphite seen at Earth's surface today was formed at convergent plate boundaries where organic-
rich shales and limestones were subjected to the heat and pressure of regional metamorphism. This
produces marble, schist, and gneiss that contain tiny crystals and flakes of graphite.

When graphite is in high enough concentrations, these rocks can be mined, crushed to a particle size that
liberates the graphite flakes, and processed by specific gravity separation or froth flotation to remove the
low-density graphite. The product produced is known as "flake graphite."
Graphite From Coal Seam Metamorphism ("Amorphous" Graphite)

Some graphite forms from the metamorphism of coalseams. The organic material in coal is composed
mainly of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur. The heat of metamorphism destroys the organic
molecules of coal, volatilizing the oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur. What remains is a nearly pure
carbon material that crystallizes into mineral graphite.

This graphite occurs in "seams" that correspond to the original layer of coal. When mined, the material is
known as "amorphous graphite." The word "amorphous" is actually incorrect in this usage, as it does have a
crystalline structure. From the mine, this material has an appearance similar to lumps of coal without the
bright and dull banding.

Graphite from Hydrothermal Metamorphism

A small amount of graphite forms by the reaction of carbon compounds in the rock during hydrothermal
metamorphism. This carbon can be mobilized and deposited in veins in association with hydrothermal
minerals. Because it is precipitated, it has a high degree of crystallinity, and that makes it a preferred
material for many electrical uses.

Graphite in Igneous Rocks and Meteorites

Small amounts of graphite are known to occur as a primary mineral in igneous rocks. It is known as tiny
particles in basalt flows and syenite. It is also known to form in pegmatite. Some iron meteorites contain
small amounts of graphite. These forms of graphite are occurrences without economic importance.

Physical Properties of Graphite

Chemical
Native element
Classification

Color Steel gray to black

Streak Black

Luster Metallic, sometimes earthy

Diaphaneity Opaque

Cleavage Perfect in one direction

Mohs Hardness 1 to 2

Specific Gravity 2.1 to 2.3

Diagnostic Properties Color, streak, slippery feel, specific gravity

Chemical
C
Composition

Crystal System Hexagonal

Used to manufacture heat and chemical resistant containers and other objects. Battery anodes. A dry lubricant. The
Uses
"lead" in pencils.

Graphite and Diamond

Graphite and diamond are the two mineral forms of carbon. Diamond forms in the mantle under extreme
heat and pressure. Most graphite found near Earth's surface was formed within the crust at lower
temperatures and pressures. Graphite and diamond share the same composition but have very different
structures.

The carbon atoms in graphite are linked in a hexagonal network which forms sheets that are one atom thick.
These sheets are poorly connected and easily cleave or slide over one another if subjected to a small amount
of force. This gives graphite its very low hardness, its perfect cleavage, and its slippery feel.

In contrast, the carbon atoms in diamond are linked into a frameworks structure. Every carbon atom is
linked into a three-dimensional network with four other carbon atoms with strong covalent bonds. This
arrangement holds the atoms firmly in place and makes diamond an exceptionally hard material.

Graphite consumption: United States graphite consumption by use during 2012. Data from the USGS Mineral Commodity
Summary.

Synthetic Graphite
"Synthetic graphite" is made by heating high-carbon materials like petroleum coke and coal-tar pitch to
temperatures in the range of 2500 to 3000 degrees Celsius. At these high temperatures, all volatile materials
and many metals in the feedstock are destroyed or driven off. The graphite that remains links into a sheet-
like crystalline structure. Synthetic graphite can have a purity of over 99% carbon, and it is used in
manufactured products where an extremely pure material is required.

Graphite in schist from Essex County, New York. Specimen is approximately 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) across.
Graphite in schist from Essex County, New York. Specimen is approximately 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) across.
 Gypsum
An important construction material that has been used for thousands of years

Gypsum: Satin spar, a fibrous variety of gypsum from Derbyshire, England. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters)
across.

What is Gypsum?
Gypsum is an evaporite mineral most commonly found in layered sedimentary deposits in association with
halite, anhydrite, sulfur, calcite, and dolomite. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is very similar to Anhydrite (CaSO4).
The chemical difference is that gypsum contains two waters and anhydrite is without water. Gypsum is the
most common sulfate mineral.

Gypsum wallboard and plaster: Wallboard and construction plaster are the primary industrial uses of gypsum in the United
States. Photo © iStockphoto / George Peters.

Uses of Gypsum
Gypsum uses include: manufacture of wallboard, cement, plaster of Paris, soil conditioning, a hardening
retarder in portland cement. Varieties of gypsum known as "satin spar" and "alabaster" are used for a variety
of ornamental purposes; however, their low hardness limits their durability.
 Physical Properties of Gypsum
Chemical Classification Sulfate

Color Clear, colorless, white, gray, yellow, red, brown

Streak White

Luster Vitreous, silky, sugary

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Perfect

Mohs Hardness 2

Specific Gravity 2.3

Diagnostic Properties Cleavage, specific gravity, low hardness

Chemical Composition Hydrous calcium sulfate, CaSO4.2H2O

Crystal System Monoclinic

Uses Used to manufacture dry wall, plaster, joint compound. An agricultural soil treatment.

Gypsum from Michigan: Gypsum from Grand Rapids, Michigan. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.
Alabaster Gypsum: Alabaster, a variety of gypsum, from Pomaia, Italy. Specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters)
across.

Alabaster gypsum jar: Jar made of beautiful translucent alabaster gypsum by David MacFarlane, photo © iStockphoto / David
MacFarlane.

Gypsum translucency: The translucent characteristic of alabaster, a variety of gypsum, from Pomaia, Italy. Specimen is
approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) across.
Selenite Gypsum: Selenite, a variety of gypsum from Penfield, New York. Specimen is approximately 2-1/2 inches (6.4
centimeters) across.

Gypsum from Virginia: Gypsum from North Holston, Virginia. Specimen is approximately 1-1/2 inches (3.8 centimeters)
across.

Satin spar Gypsum: Satin spar, a fibrous variety of gypsum from Derbyshire, England. Specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6
centimeters) across.
Gypsum from New York: Selenite, a variety of gypsum from Penfield, New York. Specimen is approximately 2-1/2 inches (6.4
centimeters) across.
 Halite
The mineral that everyone knows as "salt"

Halite: Halite from Retsof, New York. Specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) across.

What is Halite?
Halite is the mineral name for the substance that everyone knows as "salt." Its chemical name is sodium
chloride, and a rock composed primarily of halite is known as "rock salt."

Salton Sea Halite: Halite from the Salton Sea, California. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

How Does Halite Form?

Halite is mainly a sedimentary mineral that usually forms in arid climates where ocean water evaporates.
However, many inland lakes such as the Great Salt Lake of North America and the Dead Sea between
Jordan and Israel are also locations where halite is forming today. Over geologic time, several enormous salt
deposits have been formed when repeated episodes of seawater evaporation occurred in restricted basins.
Some of these deposits are thousands of feet thick. When buried deeply they can erupt to form salt domes.

How is Halite Used?

Salt has many uses. Most of the salt produced is crushed and used in the winter on roads to control the
accumulation of snow and ice. Significant amounts of salt are also used by the chemical industry. Salt is an
essential nutrient for humans and most animals, and it is also a favorite seasoning for many types of food.
Salt is a mineral that everyone knows.

Physical Properties of Halite

Chemical
Halide
Classification

Color Colorless or white when pure; impurities produce any color but usually yellow, gray, black, brown, red

Streak White

Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Perfect, cubic, three directions at right angles

Mohs Hardness 2.5

Specific Gravity 2

Cleavage, solubility, salty taste (The taste test is discouraged. Some minerals are toxic or contaminated by other
Diagnostic Properties
people tasting them.)

Chemical
NaCl
Composition

Crystal System Isometric

Uses Winter road treatment, a source of sodium and chlorine for chemical processes, food preservation, seasoning

Halite structure: This diagram shows the arrangement of sodium and chloride ions in a crystal of halite.
 Hematite
Properties, uses, and occurrence of the most important ore of iron.

Oolitic Hematite: A specimen of oolitic hematite iron ore. Oolites are tiny round spheres of chemically precipitated hematite. The
specimen in the photo is about four inches (ten centimeters) across, and the largest oolites are a few millimeters in diameter.

What is Hematite?
Hematite is one of the most abundant minerals on Earth's surface and in the shallow crust. It is an iron oxide
with a chemical composition of Fe2O3. It is a common rock-forming mineral found
in sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks at locations throughout the world.

Hematite is the most important ore of iron. Although it was once mined at thousands of locations around the
world, today almost all of the production comes from a few dozen large deposits where significant
equipment investments allow companies to efficiently mine and process the ore. Most ore is now produced
in China, Australia, Brazil, India, Russia, Ukraine, South Africa, Canada, Venezuela, and the United States.

Hematite has a wide variety of other uses, but their economic significance is very small compared to the
importance of iron ore. The mineral is used to produce pigments, preparations for heavy media separation,
radiation shielding, ballast, and many other products.
Hematite's Streak: All specimens of hematite will produce a reddish streak. The streak of a mineral is its color in powdered form
when scraped across a streak plate (a small piece of unglazed porcelain used to produce a small amount of mineral powder).
Some specimens of hematite will produce a brilliant red streak, others will produce a reddish brown streak. Care is needed when
testing a specimen of hematite with a metallic luster. These specimens are often brittle and leave a trail of debris along with the
streak. That debris is not a powder - it is a trail of fragments. So, to assess the streak, the loose particles must be gently shaken free
from the streak plate or very lightly brushed off. This leaves behind the powder that is embedded within the textured surface of the
streak plate. In the photo above, the streak on the left has been cleaned of fragments, and you can see that it is a reddish brown.
The streak on the right still has a trail of glittery fragments that must be gently removed for proper evaluation.

Physical Properties of Hematite

Chemical
Oxide
Classification

Color Black to steel-gray to silver; red to reddish brown to black

Streak Red to reddish brown

Luster Metallic, submetallic, earthy

Diaphaneity Opaque

Cleavage None

Mohs Hardness 5 to 6.5

Specific Gravity 5.0 to 5.3

Diagnostic Properties Red streak, specific gravity

Chemical
Fe2O3
Composition

Crystal System Trigonal

The most important ore of iron. Pigment, heavy media separation, radiation shielding, ballast, polishing compounds, a
Uses
minor gemstone
Physical Properties of Hematite
Hematite has an extremely variable appearance. Its luster can range from earthy to submetallic to metallic.
Its color ranges include red to brown and black to gray to silver. It occurs in many forms that include
micaceous, massive, crystalline, botryoidal, fibrous, oolitic, and others.

Even though hematite has a highly variable appearance, it always produces a reddish streak. Students in
introductory geology courses are usually surprised to see a silver-colored mineral produce a reddish streak.
They quickly learn that the reddish streak is the most important clue for identifying hematite.

Hematite is not magnetic and should not respond to a common magnet. However, many specimens of
hematite contain enough magnetite that they are attracted to a common magnet. This can lead to an
incorrect assumption that the specimen is magnetite or the weakly magnetic pyrrhotite. The investigator
must check other properties to make a proper identification.

If the investigator checks the streak, a reddish streak will rule out identification as magnetite or pyrrhotite.
Instead, if the specimen is magnetic and has a reddish streak, it is most likely a combination of hematite and
magnetite.

Specular Hematite: Specular hematite, sometimes called "micaceous hematite," has a metallic luster and appears to be a rock
composed of shiny mica flakes. Instead those flakes are hematite. Even though this hematite has a silver color, it still produces a
reddish streak - which is a key to hematite's identification. Hardness testing on specular hematite is difficult because the
specimens tend to crumble. This specimen is about four inches across (ten centimeters) and was collected near Republic,
Michigan.
Banded Iron Formation: Close-up of a banded iron formation. In this specimen, bands of hematite (silver) alternate with bands
of jasper (red). The rock produced where these formations are mined is often called "taconite." This photo spans an area of rock
about one foot (30 centimeters) wide. Photo taken by André Karwath, GNU Free Documentation License.

Composition of Hematite
Pure hematite has a composition of about 70% iron and 30% oxygen by weight. Like most natural materials,
it is rarely found with that pure composition. This is particularly true of the sedimentary deposits where
hematite forms by inorganic or biological precipitation in a body of water.

Minor clastic sedimentation can add clay minerals to the iron oxide. Episodic sedimentation can cause the
deposit to have alternating bands of iron oxide and shale. Silica in the form of jasper, chert, or chalcedony
can be added by chemical, clastic, or biological processes in small amounts or in significant episodes. These
layered deposits of hematite and shale or hematite and silica have become known as the "banded iron
formations" (see image).

Massive Hematite: A specimen of massive hematite about four inches across (ten centimeters) collected near Antwerp, New
York.
Kidney Ore Hematite: Some hematite precipitates in cavities and has the opportunity to form an unrestricted habit. A habit
known as "kidney ore" often develops in cavities and is named for its similar visual appearance to an internal organ. This type of
chemically precipitated hematite is often relatively uncontaminated with sedimentary clay or host rock inclusions and has a higher
purity. The high purity makes this the hematite of choice for making pigments. This specimen is about four inches across (ten
centimeters) and was collected near Cumberland, England.

Geologic Occurrence
Hematite is found as a primary mineral and as an alteration product in igneous, metamorphic, and
sedimentary rocks. It can crystallize during the differentiation of a magma or precipitate from hydrothermal
fluids moving through a rock mass. It can also form during contact metamorphism when hot magmas react
with adjacent rocks.

The most important hematite deposits formed in sedimentary environments. About 2.4 billion years ago,
Earth’s oceans were rich in dissolved iron, but very little free oxygen was present in the water. Then a group
of cyanobacteria became capable of photosynthesis. The bacteria used sunlight as an energy source to
convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates, oxygen, and water. This reaction released the first free
oxygen into the ocean environment. The new oxygen immediately combined with the iron to form hematite,
which sank to the bottom of the seafloor and became the rock units that we know today as the banded iron
formations.

Soon, photosynthesis was occurring in many parts of Earth’s oceans, and extensive hematite deposits were
accumulating on the seafloor. This deposition continued for hundreds of millions of years - from about 2.4
to 1.8 million years ago. This allowed the formation of iron deposits hundreds to several thousand feet thick
that are laterally persistent over hundreds to thousands of square miles. They comprise some of the largest
rock formations in Earth’s rock record.

Many of the sedimentary iron deposits contain both hematite and magnetite as well as other iron minerals.
These are often in intimate association, and the ore is mined, crushed, and processed to recover both
minerals. Historically, much of the hematite was not recovered and was sent to tailings piles. More efficient
processing today allows more hematite to be recovered from the ore. The tailings can also be reprocessed to
recover additional iron and reduce tailings volume.
Martian "Blueberries": In 2004, NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity discovered that soil near its landing site
contained millions of tiny spheres that researchers nicknamed "blueberries." Upon analysis, they were determined to be composed
of iron oxide, mostly in the form of hematite. The iron content of Martian rocks and soil contribute to its red appearance from
Earth and helped it earn the name "The Red Planet." Image by NASA.

Hematite on Mars?
NASA has discovered that hematite is one of the most abundant minerals in the rocks and soils on the
surface of Mars. An abundance of hematite in Martian rocks and surface materials gives the landscape a
reddish brown color and is why the planet appears red in the night sky. It is the origin of Mars' "Red Planet"
nickname.

Taconite Pellets: These taconite pellets consist of finely crushed taconite rock that has been processed to improve the iron content
and mixed with a small amount of clay to improve pelletization. This is one of the standard ways of shipping iron ore from a mine
to a steel mill. The round particles are about 1/2 inch in diameter (1 1/4 centimeter) and are very easy to handle during shipping
and at the mill. Image by Harvey Henkelmann. GNU Free Documentation License.

Uses of Hematite (Iron Ore)

Hematite is the world’s most important ore of iron. Although magnetite contains a higher percentage of iron
and is easier to process, hematite is the leading ore because it is more abundant and present in deposits in
many parts of the world.

Hematite is mined in some of the largest mines in the world. These mines require investments of billions of
dollars, and some will remove over 100 million tons of ore per year. These open-pit mines can be hundreds
to thousands of feet deep and several miles across by the time they have been worked to completion.

China, Australia, Brazil, India, Russia, Ukraine, South Africa, and the United States are the world’s leading
producers of iron ore (includes hematite, magnetite, and other ores). Iron ore production in the United States
occurs in Michigan and Minnesota.

Hematite Pigment: Hematite was one of the first pigment minerals used by people. At least 40,000 years ago, people obtained
hematite, crushed it into a fine powder, and used it to make paints. Shown above are commercial hematite pigments that are
available today. From top left, going clockwise, they are: Blue Ridge Hematite, Blue Ridge Violet Hematite, Venetian Red, and
Pozzuoli Red. Since the Renaissance, pigments have often been named after the locations where they were produced. The color
variations are a result of the type of hematite used and the impurities, such as clay and other iron oxides, that are commingled with
it.
Hematite gems: Hematite and taconite are often made into tumbled stones or cut into cabochons and beads. These are popular as
inexpensive jewelry items. Tumble-polished hematite is also popular as a "healing stone." Some people believe that carrying it
will help relieve certain medical problems. This use has no scientific merit and can actually be harmful because it diverts people
who need medical attention from seeing a doctor.

Uses of Hematite (Pigment)

The name hematite is from the Greek word "haimatitis" which means "blood-red." That name stems from
the color of hematite when it has been crushed to a fine powder. Primitive people discovered that hematite
could be crushed and mixed with a liquid for use as a paint or cosmetic. Cave paintings, known as
"pictographs," dating back to 40,000 years ago were created with hematite pigments.

Hematite continues to be one of the most important pigment minerals. It has been mined at many locations
around the world and has been traded extensively as a red pigment. During the Renaissance when many
painters began using oils and canvas, hematite was one of the most important pigments. Hematite color was
opaque and permanent. It could be mixed with a white pigment to produce a variety of pink colors that were
used to paint flesh.

Uses of Hematite (Gem Material)

Hematite is a minor gem material used to produce cabochons, beads, small sculptures, tumbled stones, and
other items. The material used to manufacture these products is a silver-colored hematite with a solid,
uniform texture. The bright silver color of hematite and its "weighty feel" make it a very popular tumbled
stone.
Hematite Novelties: Products called "magnetic hematite" and "iridescent hematite" are often offered for sale in gift, tourist,
novelty, and science shops and their websites. Most of the time these materials are not hematite but are man-made materials that
do not even have the same chemical composition as hematite. Buy them if you like them but not because you think that you are
getting a unique mineral specimen.

Uses of Hematite (Healing Stone)

Some people believe that carrying pieces of tumble-polished hematite, known as "healing stones," will bring
relief from certain medical problems. There is no scientific proof that this use of hematite has any positive
effect beyond being a placebo. Using hematite as a "healing stone" or a "healing crystal" can actually be
harmful because it diverts people from seeing a doctor who can provide proper care. Then when the person
with the problem finally decides to see a doctor, their situation is more severe.

Iron Furnace: In the 1700s and 1800s, small mines in the eastern United States produced hematite which served as the primary
iron ore of the region. The ore was processed by heating it by burning charcoal in simple stone furnaces. The iron ore deposits
were small and difficult to exploit. When the large iron ore deposits of the Great Lakes region were discovered, iron ore was no
longer mined in the eastern United States. Shown is the Vesuvius Iron Furnace of southern Ohio. USGS photo.
Other Uses of Hematite
Hematite is used for a number of other purposes. It is a very dense and inexpensive material that is effective
at stopping x-rays. For that reason it is used for radiation shielding around medical and scientific equipment.
The low cost and high density of hematite and other iron ores also makes them useful as ballast for ships.

Hematite can also be ground to a fine powder that when mixed with water will make a liquid with a very
high specific gravity. These liquids are used in the "float-sink" processing of coal and other mineral
material. The crushed coal, which has a very low specific gravity, is placed on the heavy liquid and the light
clean coal floats, while high-specific-gravity impurities such as pyrite sink.

Finally, hematite is the material used to make polishing compounds known as "red rouge" and "jeweler's
rouge." Red rouge is a hematite powder used to polish brass and other soft metals. It can be added to crushed
corn cob media or crushed walnut shell media for tumble-polishing brass shell casings. Jeweler's rouge is a
paste used on a soft cloth to polish gold and silver jewelry.
 Hornblende
A common rock-forming mineral found in igneous and metamorphic rocks

Hornblende: Hornblende with a typical black granular to fibrous appearance from Faraday Township, Ontario, Canada. This
specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) across.

What is Hornblende?
Hornblende is a field and classroom name used for a group of dark-colored amphibole minerals found in
many types of igneous and metamorphic rocks. These minerals vary in chemical composition but are all
double-chain inosilicates with very similar physical properties. A generalized composition for the
hornblende group is shown below.

(Ca,Na)2-3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH,F)2

Note that calcium, sodium, magnesium, iron, aluminum, silicon, fluorine and hydroxyl can all vary in
abundance. This creates a huge number of compositional variants. Chromium, titanium, nickel, manganese,
and potassium can also be part of the complex composition and further indicates the generalization of the
formula given above.
Biotite hornblende granite: Hornblende is an important constituent in many igneous rocks. This piece of biotite hornblende
granite is an example. Image by NASA.

Hornblende Minerals
As noted above, hornblende is a name used for a number of dark-colored amphibole minerals that are
compositional variants with similar physical properties. These minerals cannot be distinguished from one
another without laboratory analysis. A small list of the hornblende minerals is given below with their
chemical compositions.

Mineral Chemical Composition

Edenite Ca2NaMg5(AlSi7)O22(OH)2

Ferro-actinolite Ca2(Fe,Mg5)(Si8O22(OH)2

Ferro-edenite Ca2NaFe5(AlSi7)O22(OH)2

Ferro-pargasite Ca2NaFe4Al(Al2Si6)O22(OH)2

Ferro-tschermakite Ca2Fe3Al2(Al2Si6)O22(OH)2

Glaucophane Na2Mg3Al2Si8O22(OH)2

Kaersutite Ca2Na(Fe,Mg)4Ti(Al2Si6O22(OH)2

Pargasite Ca2NaMg4Al(Al2Si6)O22(OH)2

Tremolite Ca2(Mg,Fe5)(Si8O22(OH)2

Tschermakite Ca2Mg3Al2(Al2Si6)O22(OH)2
Hornblende andesite: Hornblende is an important constituent in many igneous rocks. In extrusive rocks, hornblende sometimes
crystallizes below the ground, in the magma, before eruption. That can produce large phenocrysts of hornblende in a fine-grained
rock. This piece of hornblende andesite is an example. Image by NASA.

Hornblende as a Rock-Forming Mineral

Hornblende is an important constituent in acidic and intermediate igneous rocks such as granite, diorite,
syenite, andesite, and rhyolite. It is also found in metamorphic rocks such as gneiss and schist. A few rocks
consist almost entirely of hornblende. Amphiboliteis the name given to metamorphic rocks that are mainly
composed of amphibole minerals. Lamprophyre is an igneous rock that is mainly composed of amphibole
and biotite with a feldspar ground mass.

Identification of Hornblende
Hornblende minerals as a group are relatively easy to identify. The diagnostic properties are their dark color
(usually black) and two directions of excellent cleavage that intersect at 124 and 56 degrees. The angle
between the cleavage planes and hornblende's elongate habit can be used to distinguish it from augite and
other pyroxene minerals that have a short blocky habit and cleavage angles intersecting at about 90 degrees.
The presence of cleavage can be used to distinguish it from black tourmaline that often occurs in the same
rocks.

Identifying the individual members of the hornblende group is difficult to impossible unless a person has the
skills and equipment to do optical mineralogy, x-ray diffraction, or elemental analysis. The introductory
student or the beginning mineral collector can be satisfied to assign the name of "hornblende" to a specimen.

Physical Properties of Hornblende

Chemical Classification Silicate

Color Usually black, dark green, dark brown

Streak White, colorless - (brittle, often leaves cleavage debris behind instead of a streak)

Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Translucent to nearly opaque

Cleavage Two directions intersecting at 124 and 56 degrees

 Mohs Hardness 5 to 6

Specific Gravity 2.9 to 3.5 (varies depending upon composition)

Diagnostic Properties Cleavage, color, elongate habit

Chemical Composition (Ca,Na)2–3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22(OH,F)2

Crystal System Monoclinic

Uses Very little industrial use

Uses of Hornblende
The mineral hornblende has very few uses. Its primary use might be as a mineral specimen. However,
hornblende is the most abundant mineral in a rock known as amphibolitewhich has a large number of uses.
It is crushed and used for highway construction and as railroad ballast. It is cut for use as dimension stone.
The highest quality pieces are cut, polished, and sold under the name "black granite" for use as building
facing, floor tiles, countertops, and other architectural uses.

Hornblende has been used to estimate the depth of crystallization of plutonic rocks. Those with low
aluminum content are associated with shallow depths of crystallization, while those with higher aluminum
content are associated with greater depths of crystallization. This information is useful in understanding the
crystallization of magma and also useful for mineral exploration.
 Ilmenite
A black iron titanium oxide mineral. The primary ore of titanium, source of titanium dioxide.

Ilmenite: A specimen of massive ilmenite from Saint-Urbain, Quebec, Canada. Massive ilmenite can be formed as a vein-filling
material or during magmatic segregation. This specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

What is Ilmenite?
Ilmenite is a common accessory mineral in igneous rocks, sediments, and sedimentary rocks in many
parts of the world. Apollo astronauts found abundant ilmenite in lunar rocks and the lunar regolith. Ilmenite
is a black iron-titanium oxide with a chemical composition of FeTiO3.

Ilmenite is the primary ore of titanium, a metal needed to make a variety of high-performance alloys. Most
of the ilmenite mined worldwide is used to manufacture titanium dioxide, TiO2, an important pigment,
whiting, and polishing abrasive.
Heavy Mineral Sand: Shallow digging at Folly Beach, South Carolina, exposes thin layers of heavy-mineral sands. Most of the
ilmenite mined today is from sands with a heavy mineral concentration. Photograph by Carleton Bern, United States Geological
Survey.

Mining Heavy Minerals: Excavators remove heavy mineral sands at the Concord Mine in south-central Virginia. Weakly
consolidated sands containing about 4% heavy minerals are excavated and processed to remove ilmenite, leucoxene, rutile, and
zircon. The sands were weathered and eroded from an anorthocite exposure a short distance away. Photo by the United States
Geological Survey.

Geologic Occurrence
Most ilmenite forms during the slow cooling of magma chambers and is concentrated through the process of
magmatic segregation. A large underground magma chamber can take centuries to cool. As it cools, crystals
of ilmenite will begin forming at a specific temperature. These crystals are heavier than the surrounding melt
and sink to the bottom of the magma chamber.

This causes ilmenite and similar-temperature minerals, such as magnetite, to accumulate in a layer at the
bottom of the magma chamber. These ilmenite-bearing rocks are often gabbro, norite, or anorthosite.
Ilmenite also crystallizes in veins and cavities and sometimes occurs as well-formed crystals in pegmatites.

Ilmenite has a high resistance to weathering. When rocks containing ilmenite weather, grains of ilmenite
disperse with the sediment. The high specific gravity of these grains causes them to segregate during stream
transport and accumulate as "heavy mineral sands." These sands are black in color and easily recognized by
geologists. "Black sand prospecting" has long been a method of finding heavy mineral placer deposits. Most
commercially produced ilmenite is recovered by excavating or dredging these sands, which are then
processed to remove the heavy mineral grains such as ilmenite, leucoxene, rutile, and zircon.
Ilmenite: A specimen of massive ilmenite from Normanville, South Australia. Specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6
centimeters) across.

Chemical Composition of Ilmenite

Ilmenite's ideal chemical composition is FeTiO3. However, it often departs from that composition by
containing variable amounts of magnesium or manganese. These elements substitute for iron in complete
solid solution. A solid solution series exists between ilmenite (FeTiO3) and geikielite (MgTiO3). In this
series, variable amounts of magnesium substitutes for iron in the mineral's crystal structure. A second solid
solution series exists between ilmenite and pyrophanite (MnTiO3), with manganese substituting for iron. At
high temperatures, a third solid solution series exists between ilmenite and hematite (Fe2O3).

Ilmenite: A specimen of massive ilmenite from Kragero, Norway. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.
Black Sand Ilmenite: Ilmenite sand from Melbourne, Florida. Specimens are sand-size grains.

Physical Properties of Ilmenite

Ilmenite is a black mineral with a submetallic to metallic luster. With just a glance it can easily be confused
with hematite and magnetite. The differentiation is easy. Hematite has a red streak, while ilmenite has a
black streak. Magnetite is strongly magnetic, while ilmenite is not magnetic. Occasionally ilmenite is
weakly magnetic, possibly from small amounts of included magnetite.

Physical Properties of Ilmenite

Chemical
Oxide
Classification

Color Black

Streak Black

Luster Metallic, submetallic

Diaphaneity Opaque

Cleavage None

Mohs Hardness 5.5 to 6

Specific Gravity 4.7 to 4.8

Diagnostic Properties Streak; sometimes weakly magnetic.

Iron titanium oxide - FeTiO3.

Chemical
Sometimes has significant amounts of magnesium and manganese in solid solution with the iron to yield a composition
Composition
of (Fe,Mg,Mn)TiO3

Crystal System Hexagonal

Uses The primary ore of titanium. A minor source of iron. Used to make titanium dioxide.

Ilmenite is usually more durable than the other minerals in the igneous rocks in which it is abundant. For
that reason, the weathering debris produced during the weathering of these rocks is especially rich in
ilmenite. Its relatively high specific gravity causes it to become concentrated in placer deposits like gold,
gems, and other heavy minerals.

Pigments and Polishing Compounds: Titanium dioxide powder is carefully processed to remove impurities and classified by
particle size. It is then sold for use as whiting, pigments, and polishing compounds. The image is a rock tumbler barrel just
opened with a thick white froth of metal oxide polish.

Lunar Ilmenite Basalt: Apollo astronauts found ilmenite-rich basalts at multiple locations on the Moon. The reference block at
lower right is one cubic centimeter. Image by NASA.

Uses of Ilmenite
Ilmenite is the primary ore of titanium metal. Small amounts of titanium combined with certain metals will
produce durable, high-strength, lightweight alloys. These alloys are used to manufacture a wide variety
high-performance parts and tools. Examples include: aircraft parts, artificial joints for humans, and sporting
equipment such as bicycle frames. About 5% of the ilmenite mined is used to produce titanium metal. Some
ilmenite is also used to produce synthetic rutile, a form of titanium dioxide used to produce white, highly
reflective pigments.

Most of the remaining ilmenite is used to make titanium dioxide, an inert, white, highly reflective material.
The most important use of titanium dioxide is as a whiting. Whitings are white, highly reflective materials
that are ground to a powder and used as pigments. These pigments produce a white color and brightness in
paint, paper, adhesives, plastics, toothpaste, and even food.

Titanium dioxide is also used to make powders with a tightly controlled particle size range. These powders
are used as inexpensive polishing abrasives in a variety of lapidary work that includes rock tumbling,
lapping, cabbing, sphere making, and faceting. Titanium oxide abrasives are used in many other industries.

Lunar Ilmenite Regolith: Apollo astronauts found deposits of lunar regolith composed mostly of silt- to sand-size ilmenite
(black) and mafic volcanic glass (orange). Image by NASA.

Ilmenite on the Moon

Apollo astronauts found ilmenite-rich basalts at multiple locations on the Moon. Most of these basalts were
extremely old, forming at least 3 billion years ago. These rocks often contained over 10% titanium dioxide
(TiO2). Minerals present in these rocks were mostly feldspars and pyroxenes, with ilmenite next in
abundance.

Some samples of lunar regolith contained significant amounts of ilmenite. It occurred in particles ranging
from fine silt to coarse sand. The ilmenite was thought to have been liberated from lunar basalts during
impact events.

Samples of lunar regolith collected at Shorty Crater contained a mix of volcanic glass spheres and ilmenite
grains. The deposit was stratified with a bottom layer composed mostly of ilmenite and other black opaque
materials. This graded upwards to an upper layer, known as "orange soil," that was composed mostly of
spherical-shaped beads of orange volcanic glass with minor amounts of ilmenite. The grains were mostly
less than 1/2 millimeter in size. This regolith was thought to have been produced by fountaining volcanic
eruptions during the early lunar history
 What is Jade?
Jadeite and nephrite are materials that have both been called "jade" for thousands of years.

Green Jadeite Buttons: Hand-made, antique Chinese jadeite buttons showing the typical color of quality green jadeite. The
jadeite in these buttons was most likely mined in Burma (the Union of Myanmar today). This photo was taken by Gregory Phillips
and is distributed under a GNU Free Documentation License.

What is Jade?
"Jade" is a cultural term used for a very durable, and often beautiful, material that has been fashioned into
tools, sculptures, jewelry, gemstones, and other objects for over 5,000 years. It was first used to
manufacture ax heads, weapons, and tools for scraping and hammering because of its toughness.

Then, because some specimens had a beautiful color and could be polished to a brilliant luster, people
started to use jade for gemstones, talismans, and ornamental objects. Although most people who think of
jade imagine a beautiful green gemstone, the material occurs in a wide variety of colors that include green,
white, lavender, yellow, blue, black, red, orange, and gray.

Jade Ax: A reproduction of a Mayan or Aztec ax head. Photo © iStockphoto and Stacy Brogan.
Are All Jades the Same?
Originally, all jade objects were thought to be made from the same material. However, in 1863 a
Frenchman, Alexis Damour, discovered that the material known as "jade" could be divided into two
different minerals: jadeite and nephrite.

Because these two materials can be difficult to distinguish, and because the word "jade" is so entrenched in
common language, the name "jade" is still widely used across many societies, industries, and academic
disciplines.

In this article, the word "jade" will be used for undifferentiated materials. "Jadeite" or "nephrite" will be
used when the identity of the material is known. The word "nephrite" is also an imprecise term. It is used for
materials composed of the minerals actinolite and tremolite.

Physical Properties: Jadeite and Nephrite

Jadeite Nephrite

Chemistry Silicate - pyroxene. Silicate - amphibole.

Usually various shades of white to dark green, sometimes gray, pink, Usually ranges in color between white, cream, and
Color
lilac, red, blue, yellow, orange, black, colored by impurities. dark green.

Streak Colorless. Colorless.

Luster Vitreous to sugary. Vitreous to silky, waxy.

Diaphaneity Translucent to opaque. Translucent to opaque.

Prismatic but usually not seen because of a small

Cleavage Usually not seen because of a small grain size and splintery fracture.
grain size and splintery fracture.

Mohs Hardness 6.5 to 7 5 to 6

Specific Gravity 3.3 to 3.5 3.0 to 3.3

Diagnostic Color, toughness, hardness, specific gravity, grain

Color, toughness, hardness, specific gravity, grain size and habit.
Properties size and habit.

Chemical
NaAlSi2O6 or Na(Al,Fe3+)Si2O6 Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2
Formula

Crystal System Monoclinic. Monoclinic.

Uses Jewelry, ornaments, tools, weapons, gemstones. Jewelry, ornaments, tools, weapons, gemstones.

Jadeite, Nephrite, and Science

Jadeite and nephrite have distinctly different mineral compositions. Jadeite is an aluminum-rich pyroxene,
while nephrite is a magnesium-rich amphibole. However, the two minerals have very similar physical
properties in the eye of the average person. Only trained observers with significant experience are able to
reliably differentiate them without mineral testing equipment. This is why jadeite and nephrite were not
properly distinguished by scientists until 1863.
Jade Dragon: Hand-made jade dragon from the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC - 9 AD). This photo was taken by Snowyowls and
is distributed under a Creative Commons license.

Mayan jadeite: Hand-made Mayan jadeite pectoral from the Mayan Classic period. This photo was taken by John Hill and is
distributed under a GNU Free Documentation License.

Jadeite, Nephrite, and Artisans

China has been the leading producer of jade objects for over 5,000 years. A few hundred years ago, master
Chinese craftsmen who worked with jade daily recognized that some of the jade obtained from Burma (now
the Union of Myanmar) was different. It was harder, denser, worked easier, and produced a higher luster
upon polishing. It gradually became the form of jade preferred by Chinese artisans and the jade most highly
prized by the Chinese people. They realized this long before scientists differentiated jadeite and nephrite in
1863.

Unknowingly, Chinese craftsmen had distinguished jadeite from nephrite and appreciated it enough to pay
premium prices for jadeite. However, they didn't have the knowledge and equipment of chemistry and
crystallography to distinguish them in a formal way.

Rarely, the Chinese craftsmen encountered fine-grained jadeite with a bright translucence and a rich,
uniform green color. This beautiful material was given the name "Imperial Jade" and regarded as the stone
of highest quality. At that time in China, ownership of Imperial Jade was reserved only for the Emperor.
Now, anyone who can afford it can own Imperial Jade. The best specimens can cost more per carat than
high-quality diamonds.
Pendant of Green Nephrite: A pendant made from a green nephrite known in New Zealand as "Maori Green Stone" or "Maori
Jade." Photo © iStockphoto and Steve Patterson.

Jade Treatments
Waxes, dyes, bleaches, polymer impregnation, heat treatments, and other procedures are sometimes used to
improve the color and luster of jadeite and nephrite to give them the appearance of the finest jade. These
treatments can usually be detected in a careful examination by an experienced person using a microscope,
hand lens, and ultraviolet light. An untrained person is unable to recognize most of these treatments. Sellers
have an ethical obligation to accurately identify the material that they are selling and reveal any treatment
that has been applied.

The caution to buyers is this: If you are spending serious money for a jade object, be sure that you are
buying from a knowledgeable and trusted dealer. If you don't know what you are buying, then you should
pay no more for jade than you would pay for the same object made from a material with no intrinsic value.

New Zealand Greenstone: These boulders, harvested from glacial outwash on the South Island of New Zealand, were originally
called "Pounamu" by the local Maori people, then "greenstone" (a literal translation) by European explorers. They are actually
nephrite jade. They were used by the Maori for making tools and weapons. Pieces with an attractive color or pattern were used to
make ornaments and fashioned into pendants. Public domain image by Sarang.

Early Use of Jade in Tools

People have used jade for at least 100,000 years. The earliest objects made from jade were tools. Jade is a
very hard material and is used as a tool because it is extremely tough and breaks to form sharp edges.

Most jade does not have a color and translucence that is expected in a gemstone. However, when early
people found these special pieces of jade, they were often inspired into crafting them into a special object.

"Toughness" is the ability of a material to resist fracturing when subjected to stress. "Hardness" is the
ability of a material to resist abrasion. Early toolmakers took advantage of these properties of jade and
formed it into cutting tools and weapons. It was used to make axes, projectile points, knives, scrapers, and
other sharp objects for cutting.

Translucent Green Jade: A translucent green jade cabochon with beautiful color, set into a gold ring and surrounded by small
diamonds. Photo © iStockphoto and Biggereye.

Use of Jade as a Gemstone

Jade is a durable, colorful material that can be worked into shapes and given a high polish. These properties
make it a very desirable gemstone. Jade has been used to make a variety of jewelry items such as pendants,
necklaces, rings, bracelets, earrings, beads, cabochons, tumbled stones, and other items.

These jewelry items are often made of solid jade, combined with other gems, or placed in settings made
from gold, silver, or other precious metals. In addition to jewelry, jade is used to make small sculptures,
ornaments, religious art, and small functional objects.
Commonly Confused With Jade: Pictured here are four gems commonly confused with jade. From top left and going clockwise
they are chrysoprase, maw sit sit, serpentine, and hydrogrossular garnet. They have a color, luster, and translucence that is known
to occur in jade.

Maw Sit Sit is a rock composed of jadeite, albite, and kosmochlor (a mineral related to jadeite). It has a bright chrome-green color
and accepts a bright polish. For those reasons it is used as a gemstone. Maw sit sit was first properly identified in 1963 near the
village of Maw Sit Sit in northwestern Burma in the foothills of the Himalayas. This is the only location where it has been
discovered to date. It is used to cut cabochons and produce small sculptures. Because of its scarcity and low production, it is rarely
seen in jewelry.

Other Materials Confused With Jade

A number of other minerals and materials that are commonly cut and polished are easily confused with jade.
All of these materials can have a color, luster, and translucence that is very similar to jade - so similar that
the average person is unable to recognize them. These materials are often used to manufacture cabochons,
beads, and other objects in the same style as jade. They sometimes enter the jade market without distinction.

Chalcedony is a translucent variety of microcrystalline quartz that occurs in a range of colors similar to
jade.Chrysoprase is a bright green chalcedony colored by chromium that, when cut into cabochons, beads,
and small sculptures, will look very similar to jade. Chalcedony occurs in a variety of other translucent
colors such as black, lavender, yellow, and orange that can look like the color varieties of jade. Chalcedony
can be a very close gemstone look-alike with jade. It can be differentiated from jade using is lower specific
gravity and by a variety of instrumental methods.

Serpentine occurs in a variety of wonderful translucent to nearly transparent green and yellowish green
colors that look very much like jade. It is a metamorphic mineral that is often found in the same geographic
areas and same types of rocks as jade. Serpentine is significantly softer than jade and also has a much lower
specific gravity.

Vesuvianite, also known as idocrase, is another jade look-alike that is very difficult to distinguish from jade
without laboratory testing. It has similar hardness, specific gravity, and physical appearance. It is not nearly
as tough as jade and will break easier - but that requires destruction of the specimen.

Maw Sit Sit is a rock with a bright chrome-green color mined in Myanmar. It has a very similar appearance
to jade. Maw sit sit is composed of jadeite, albite, and kosmochlor (a mineral related to jadeite). It is used to
cut cabochons, beads, and make small sculptures, and is easily confused with jade.

Hydrogrossular Garnet is a green massive variety of garnet that is usually green in color with black
markings. It looks so much like jade that in South Africa, where it is common, it is known as "Transvaal
Jade." It is frequently cut into beads, cabochons, and small sculptures.

Aventurine is a trade name used for a green quartz that is often colored by fuchsite inclusions. These
typically color the quartz a light to dark green color and produce some aventurescent sparkle. Aventurine is
sometimes confused with jade.

All of the above natural minerals and rocks can be confused with jade. Many people like them, enjoy them,
and knowingly purchase them for that reason. It is important to know that these jade look-alikes, along with
plastic and glass made into objects in the same style as jade, are abundant in the market place. Know what
you are buying or purchase from a dealer you can trust if you are shopping for these items and desire jade
instead of an alternative. Errors and deception are common.

British Columbia jade cabochons: A pair of translucent cabochons cut from bright green British Columbia nephrite.
Approximately 10 x 12 millimeters in size. Today, tons of jade are mined in British Columbia and shipped to China, where both
demand and prices are higher than in western Canada.

Geography of Jade
Most people immediately think of China as the source of jade and jade objects. China has always been an
important producer of jade, a leading jade cutting center, jade consumer, and jade market. The only time
dominance in any of these activities moved outside of China was between World War II and the early 1980s.
At that time the Chinese government suppressed jade commerce, and Hong Kong temporarily became the
center of jade commerce.

Jade jewelry and jade artwork are extremely important in China. Jade is more important in China than the
importance of diamonds in the United States. Per-carat prices for the best imperial jade in China rival the
per-carat price paid for diamonds in the United States.

Since prehistoric times, jade has been used to make tools, weapons, and important ornamental objects in
Asia, Europe, Australia, the Americas, and numerous Pacific islands. The toughness of jade made it an
excellent material for making tools and weapons.

Because of its beauty, people held jade in highest esteem and used it to make religious art and ornaments for
their rulers. None of these ancient cultures had contact with one another, yet they all independently used
jade for many of their most sacred and important objects. Such is the appeal of jade.

Green Jadeite Boulder: An alluvial boulder of green jadeite with a brown weathering rind from northern Burma. This boulder is
about 6 centimeters across. Photo by James St. John, used here under a Creative Commons license.
Lavender Jadeite Boulder: An alluvial boulder of lavender jadeite with a brown weathering rind from northern Burma. This
boulder is about 18 centimeters across. Photo by James St. John, used here under a Creative Commons license.

Geologic Occurrence and Jade Prospecting

Jadeite and nephrite are minerals that form through metamorphism. They are mostly found in metamorphic
rocks associated with subduction zones. This places most jadeite and nephrite deposits along the margins of
current or geologically ancient convergent plate boundaries involving oceanic lithosphere.

Jadeite is typically found in rocks that have a higher pressure origin than nephrite. This normally causes a
geographic separation of jadeite and nephrite deposits.

From ancient times, much of the prospecting for jade has been done in the steeper parts of drainage basins,
where pebble- to boulder-size pieces of rocks are found in stream valleys. Boulders and pebbles of jade
normally have a brown weathering rind that hides their inner beauty and potential value.

Prospectors search these valleys looking for jade boulders. Small windows are often cut into the boulders in
the field to assess the material's quality and to determine if it is worth the labor of transport.

Jade boulders can be very difficult to transport without damage. Human and animal labor was the only way
to transport them historically. Today in some areas that is still the only way to move the boulders to market.
Where economics allow, a helicopter with a basket or sling on a cable will fly in to difficult areas. Workers
on the ground will load jade boulders, and the helicopter will lift them out. Although helicopters are very
expensive to use for this type of work, one nice boulder can be worth many thousands of dollars or more in
rough form.

Some jade is also mined from hard rock deposits. Boulders are sometimes mined from ancient
conglomerates, but ophiolite exposures are the most important type of hard rock deposit. Ophiolites are the
metamorphosed rocks of ancient subduction zones, now exposed at the surface by faulting or uplift,
followed by exhumation by weathering. Jade is mined from ophiolites by both surface and underground
methods.

Geographically, much of the world's jade is found around the rim of the Pacific Ocean, where subduction
transports large slabs of oceanic lithosphere beneath continents and volcanic island arcs. This accounts for
much of the jade found in South America, Central America, the United States, Canada, eastern Asia, and
New Zealand.

Perhaps the most attractive and valuable jade found in the United States is from the area around Jeffrey City
and Crooks Gap in Wyoming. There, nephrite jade is found by prospecting alluvial sediments, looking for
jade in stream-rounded pebble- to boulder-size pieces.
Wyoming Jade: A nice oval cabochon cut from Wyoming jade. This cabochon was cut from a thin slab of jade only a few
millimeters thick to conserve material and produce a translucent stone.

Social Importance of Jade

In the United States and Europe, diamonds, rubies, sapphires, emeralds, opals, garnets, and a few other
gems are much more popular than jade. Jade is not thought to be as precious in these regions as it is in
China.

The Chinese have a much higher regard for jade than any other people. For thousands of years, jade has
been the most popular gemstone in China. Chinese emperors desired excellent specimens of jade, and they
traded or waged war with distant people to acquire them.

In China, gifts made from jade are given at almost every important station in life, such as birthdays,
anniversaries, marriages, and other celebrations. It is also a commonly used material for producing religious
art. China is the country where the importance of jade is the highest.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Kyanite
A mineral used to make porcelain, as an abrasive, and occasionally as a gemstone

Blue kyanite crystals: A very common habit of kyanite is blue bladed crystals. Image by Aelwyn, Creative Commons license.

What is Kyanite?
Kyanite is a mineral found mainly in metamorphic rocks. It most often forms from the high-pressure
alteration of clay minerals during the metamorphism of sedimentary rocks. It is found in
the schists and gneisses of regionally metamorphosed areas and less often in quartzite or eclogite.

Kyanite's typical habit is a bladed crystal, although it sometimes occurs as radiating masses of crystals.
Kyanite is often associated with other metamorphic minerals such as garnet, staurolite, and corundum.

Radiating kyanite: Sometimes kyanite occurs as radiating masses of crystals such as this specimen from Petaca, New Mexico.
Specimen is about 4 inches (ten centimeters) across.
Kyanite's Unusual Hardness
Kyanite specimens have a variable hardness. The long crystals have a Mohs hardness of about 4.5 to 5 if
tested parallel to the length of a crystal, and a hardness of 6.5 to 7 if tested across the short dimension of a
crystal. The mineral was once commonly called "disthene" which means "two strengths."

Physical Properties of Kyanite

Chemical
Silicate
Classification

Color Blue, white, gray, green, colorless

Streak White, colorless

Luster Vitreous, pearly

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Perfect in two directions, faces sometimes striated

Kyanite often occurs in long, bladed crystals. These have a hardness of 4.5 to 5 along the length of the crystals and 6.5
Mohs Hardness
to 7 across the width of the crystals.

Specific Gravity 3.5 to 3.7

Diagnostic
Color, cleavage, bladed crystals
Properties

Chemical
Al2SiO5
Composition

Crystal System Triclinic

Uses Ceramics, gemstones

Polymorphs of Al2SiO5
Three minerals have a chemical composition of Al2SiO5. These are kyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite.
Kyanite is the high-pressure polymorph, sillimanite forms at high temperature, and andalusite is the low-
pressure polymorph.
Kyanite porcelain sink: Kyanite is used in the porcelain of sanitary fixtures. © iStockphoto / Carl Kelliher.

Many Industrial Uses of Kyanite

Kyanite is used to manufacture a wide range of products. An important use is in the manufacture of
refractory products such as the bricks, mortars, and kiln furniture used in high-temperature furnaces. For
foundries, the molds that are used for casting high-temperature metals are often made with kyanite.

Kyanite is also in products used in the automotive and railroad industries where heat resistance is important.
Mullite, a form of calcined kyanite, is used to make brake shoes and clutch facings.

Kyanite spark plug: The porcelain insulator on this spark plug was made with kyanite. © iStockphoto / Juergen Barry.

Use in High-Refractory-Strength Porcelain

Kyanite has properties that make it exceptionally well suited for the manufacture of a high-refractory-
strength porcelain - a porcelain that holds its strength at very high temperatures. A familiar use of this type
of porcelain is the white porcelain insulator on a spark plug.

Kyanite is also used in some of the more common forms of porcelain, such as those used to make dentures,
sinks, and bathroom fixtures.
Kyanite cutting wheel: Kyanite is used as a heat-resistant binding medium in cutting tools and grinding wheels. © iStockphoto /
Ron Sumners.

Use in Abrasive Products

Kyanite's heat resistance and hardness make it an excellent material for use in the manufacture of grinding
wheels and cutting wheels. It is not used as the primary abrasive; instead, it is used as part of the binding
agent that holds the abrasive particles together in the shape of a wheel.

Expansion of Kyanite When Heated

Kyanite, unlike most other minerals, can expand significantly when heated. Depending upon particle size,
temperatures, and heating conditions, kyanite can expand to up to twice its original volume when heated.
This expansion is predictable. In the manufacture of certain refractory products, specific amounts of kyanite
are added to the raw material (which shrinks during heating) to maintain volume in the finished product.

Kyanite cabochons: Kyanite is often cut "en cabochon" or as a faceted gemstone. Shown above are kyanite cabochons ranging in
color from clear to blue to green and black.
Kyanite Use as a Gemstone
Kyanite is a gemstone that you will rarely encounter in the typical jewelry store. Most people have not
heard of kyanite, as it is infrequently used in jewelry. It is an "exotic" gem. Perhaps that is what makes it so
interesting?

If you are interested in kyanite as a gemstone or in jewelry, the best place to find it is in artisan jewelry
stores or in jewelry stores that are associated with a mineral dealer. The people who own these businesses
are likely to be interested in kyanite and incorporate it into their product line.

High-quality and nicely colored kyanite can be cut into attractive and desirable cabochons and faceted
stones. These are often used in rings, earrings, pendants, and other jewelry. Kyanite is also used to make
beads. These beads often have a flat geometry because the mineral typically occurs in thin blades.

Faceted kyanite: A faceted kyanite gemstone with a beautiful deep blue color.

Kyanite Gemstones are Challenging to Cut

Kyanite is a challenging mineral to cut because it has two distinctly different hardnesses. Kyanite crystals
are typically long, narrow blades. They have a hardness of about 4.5 parallel to their length but a hardness of
6.5 to 7.0 across the width of the blade. Skilled cutters are needed to work these stones.
Green kyanite crystals: Green kyanite blades in quartzite from Avery County, North Carolina. Specimen is about four inches
(ten centimeters) across.

Blue Kyanite - Green Kyanite

Most gemstone-quality kyanite is blue in color. However, kyanite can be clear, green, black, and rarely
purple. Some kyanite gemstones are pleochroic (appear to be different colors when viewed from different
directions).

Blue kyanite stones can be found in a continuous color range between clear and dark blue. The most popular
kyanite gemstones are transparent with a deep sapphire-blue color. Some deep blue stones are shown in the
photos on this page. Transparent blue kyanite with a lower color intensity might look like blue topaz or blue
aquamarine.

Contributor: Hobart King

Green kyanite crystals: Green bladed kyanite (same specimen as above) - looking down the long axis of the blades. Specimen is
about 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.
 Limonite
An amorphous iron oxide used as an ore of iron and as a pigment for thousands of years.

Limonite: A specimen of iridescent, botryoidal limonite from Guangxi, China. Specimen is approximately 15 x 9 x 5 centimeters.
Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Limonite pseudomorph: A pseudomorph of limonite after pyrite that preserves the original cubic habit of the pyrite with its
striations. Limonite often replaces pyrite crystals and other materials. This specimen is approximately 4.2 x 3.5 x 3.3 centimeters.
Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

What is Limonite?
Before modern mineral analysis, the name "limonite" was given to many of the yellowish to yellowish
brown iron oxides produced during the weathering of iron-bearing rocks or deposited as bog, lake, and
shallow marine sediments.
Researchers who studied "limonite" discovered that it is amorphous and has a variable composition. It often
contains significant amounts of iron oxide minerals such as goethite and hematite. This research revealed
that the material called "limonite" does not meet the definition of a mineral. Instead, limonite is
a mineraloid composed mainly of hydrous iron oxides that are often found in intimate associations with iron
minerals.

Today the word "limonite" is used as a field and classroom term for these materials because they cannot be
identified in hand specimens and their identity is unknown without laboratory testing. The time and expense
required to do this testing is generally not needed, unless the material is going to be used in industry or it is
the subject of a detailed study. Thus the name "limonite" is not obsolete; it is still meaningful and useful.

Geologic Occurrence
Limonite usually occurs as a secondary material, formed from the weathering
of hematite, magnetite, pyrite, and other iron-bearing materials. Limonite is often stalactitic, reniform,
botryoidal, or mammillary in habit rather than crystalline. It also occurs as pseudomorphs and coatings on
the walls of fractures and cavities.

Some limonite is found in stratified deposits where hydrous iron oxides form as precipitated sediment on the
floor of shallow swamps, lakes, and marine environments. These can be of inorganic or biogenic origin.

Limonite often forms as a precipitate at springs and mine openings where acidic, iron-laden waters emerge
from the subsurface. Most subsurface waters contain very little oxygen, and when they discharge to the
surface, they often encounter oxygenated waters. Dissolved metals in the groundwater rapidly combine with
the dissolved oxygen of the surface water to form a precipitate that falls onto the bed of the stream. This
precipitate is a characteristic sign of acid mine drainage.

Limonite is very resistant to weathering and often accumulates as a residual deposit. It is often the main
form of iron and colorant in lateritic soils.

Limonite staining laterite soil: A profile of laterite soil heavily stained by limonite from Parque Nacional la Mensura, Cuba.
USGS photo by Paul Golightly.

Physical Properties of Limonite

Chemical Classification Amorphous, mineraloid

Color Yellowish brown to brown to black

 Streak Yellowish brown

Luster Dull to earthy

Diaphaneity Opaque

Cleavage Does not cleave because it has an amorphous structure.

Mohs Hardness 1 to 5 (weathered material can be deceptively soft)

Specific Gravity 2.7 to 4.3 (varies due to impurities)

Diagnostic Properties Variable - can be yellow-brown, brown, reddish brown

Chemical Composition A hydrated iron oxide of variable composition

Crystal System Amorphous to cryptocrystalline

Uses Ocher pigments, a minor ore of iron

Limonite: Limonite from Newport, New York. This specimen is approximately 6.4 centimeters across.
Limonite with goethite: Massive limonite with goethite from Ironton, Minnesota. This specimen is approximately 6.4
centimeters across.

Uses of Limonite
Limonite has been used by people since prehistoric times. Their first use of limonite was probably as a
pigment. It is found in many Neolithic pictographs, and throughout history it has been one of the most
important pigments for creating paints in the yellow to brown color range known as ocher. Its use as a
pigment continues today. It can sometimes be used directly from the deposit with minimal processing, but it
is often heat treated to drive off water, simplify the production of a powder, and improve color.

Limonite pigment: Several colors of limonite pigment. They are clockwise from top left: lemon ocher, yellow ocher, orange
ocher, and brown ocher. These pigments were prepared by grinding limonite to a fine powder. They are mixed with oil to produce
a pigment of the desired consistency and mixed with one another, or other pigments, to produce an infinite number of other hues.

Limonite has been used as a low-quality iron ore for thousands of years. Commercial mining of limonite as a
source of iron is no longer done in areas where reasonable deposits of hematite and magnetite are present or
readily imported. Limonite deposits are usually too small and too impure for use in modern metallurgy.

Names such as "brown iron," "brown hematite," "bog iron," and "brown ocher" have been used by miners to
relate limonite with its potential uses. Their use has declined significantly, and the name "limonite" is now
used for these various materials.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Magnesite
Mineral Properties and Uses
Physical Properties of Magnesite
Chemical
carbonate
Classification

white, grayish, yellowish, brownish,

Color
colorless

Streak white

Luster vitreous

Diaphaneity transparent to translucent

Cleavage perfect Magnesite from Chewelah, Washington. Specimen is approximately 3-1/2

inches (8.9 centimeters) across.
Mohs Hardness 3.5 to 5.0

Specific Gravity 3.0 to 3.2

Diagnostic dissolves with warm HCl in the

Properties powdered form

Chemical
MgCO3
Composition

Crystal System hexagonal

Uses refractory bricks, cement

Magnesite from Chewelah, Washington. Specimen is approximately 2-

1/2 inches (6.4 centimeters) across.

Magnesite from Riverside County, California. Specimen is

approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.
 Magnetite and Lodestone
The primary ore of iron, a mineral used in heavy media separation, and a recorder of Earth magnetism

Magnetite: A typical magnetite specimen exhibiting a gray metallic luster. This specimen is approximately 10 centimeters across.

What is Magnetite?
Magnetite is a very common iron oxide (Fe3O4) mineralthat is found in igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentaryrocks. It is the most commonly mined ore of iron. It is also the mineral with the highest
iron content (72.4%).

Identification of Magnetite
Magnetite is very easy to identify. It is one of just a few minerals that are attracted to a common magnet. It
is a black, opaque, submetallic to metallic mineral with a Mohs hardness between 5 and 6.5. It is often
found in the form of isometric crystals. It is the most strongly magnetic mineral found in nature.
Lodestone: A specimen of lodestone that has attracted numerous tiny particles of iron. This specimen is approximately 10
centimeters across.

Magnetite Crystals: Octahedral crystals are a common habit of magnetite. They are often seen in igneous and metamorphic rocks
and sometimes seen in sediments near the magnetite source area. The magnetite crystals in this photo are about eight to twelve
millimeters in maximum dimension.

Magnetite as "Lodestone"
Normal magnetite is attracted to a magnet, but some specimens are automagnetized and have the ability to
attract small pieces of iron, small pieces of magnetite, and other magnetic objects. This form of magnetite,
known as "lodestone," was man's first encounter with the property of magnetism. Lodestone is easily
identified because it is usually covered with small particles of magnetite and other magnetic minerals (see
photo).

Pieces of lodestone suspended on a string served as the first magnetic compasses and were used in China as
early as 300 BC. When freely suspended on a string, a small piece of lodestone will align itself with Earth's
magnetic field.

Physical Properties of Magnetite

Chemical Classification Oxide

Color Black to silvery gray

Streak Black

Luster Metallic to submetallic

Diaphaneity Opaque

Cleavage None

Mohs Hardness 5 to 6.5

Specific Gravity 5.2

Diagnostic Properties Strongly magnetic, color, streak, octahedral crystal habit.

 Chemical Composition Fe3O4

Crystal System Isometric

Uses The most important ore of iron. Heavy media separation. Studies of Earth's magnetic field.

Taconite pellets: These red spheres are taconite pellets that are ready to ship to a steel mill. The pellets are approximately 10
millimeters in diameter. Creative Commons photo by Harvey Henkelmann.

Use of Magnetite as an Ore of Iron

Most of the iron ore mined today is a banded sedimentary rock known as taconite that contains a mixture of
magnetite, hematite, and chert. Once considered a waste material, taconite became an important ore after
higher grade deposits were depleted. Today's commercial taconites contain 25 to 30% iron by weight.

At the mine site, the taconite ore is ground to a fine powder, and strong magnets are used to separate
magnetically susceptible particles containing magnetite and hematite from the chert. The concentrate is then
mixed with small amounts of limestone and clay, then rolled into small round pellets. These pellets are easy
to handle and transport by ship, rail, or truck. They can be directly loaded into a blast furnace at a mill and
be used to produce iron or steel.

Use of Magnetite as a Heavy Media

Powdered magnetite is often mixed with a liquid to produce a thick, high-density slurry that is used for
specific gravity separations. Much of the high-sulfur coal that is mined in the eastern United States is floated
across a slurry of magnetite. Clean coal particles have a low specific gravity and float on the slurry. Particles
contaminated with pyrite (a sulfide mineral with a high specific gravity) sink into the high-density slurry.
Magnetite sand: Some beach and river sands contain high concentrations of magnetite. Magnetite-rich "black sands" are
commonly encountered by people panning for gold. Although magnetite sands and other heavy mineral accumulations are
common, they are infrequently developed as mineral deposits because their size or grade is inadequate. The pile in the photo is
approximately four inches (10 centimeters) across.

Use of Magnetite as an Abrasive

The abrasive known as "emery" is a natural mixture of magnetite and corundum. Some synthetic emery is
produced by mixing magnetite with aluminum oxide particles. The production of synthetic emery gives the
manufacturer control over the particle size and the relative abundance of aluminum oxide and magnetite in
the product. Some finely ground magnetite is also used as an abrasive in waterjet cutting. In the past few
decades, synthetic abrasives have filled many of the applications where magnetite was previously used.

Other Uses of Magnetite

Small amounts of magnetite are also used as a toner in electrophotography, as a micronutrient in fertilizers,
as a pigment in paints, and as an aggregate in high-density concrete.

Magnetite and Earth's Magnetic Field

Tiny crystals of magnetite are present in many rocks. In the crystallization of an igneous rock, tiny crystals
of magnetite form in the melt, and because they are magnetic, they orient themselves with the direction and
polarity of Earth's magnetic field. This preserves the orientation of Earth's magnetic field within the rock at
the moment of crystallization.

Today, geologists can study the magnetic properties of rocks of various age and reconstruct the history of
change in Earth's magnetic field. This information is available for multiple locations on multiple continents.
It can also be used to learn about the movement of continents over time.

A similar orientation of tiny magnetite grains occurs in the settling of sediment particles, locking clues to
Earth's magnetic history into some sedimentary rocks.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Malachite
Used as an ore of copper, a pigment, a gemstone, and a sculptural material for thousands of years.

Malachite Gemstones: A malachite cabochon (30x40 millimeter) and a malachite puffed heart, both cut from rough mined in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo. This oval cabochon shows the agate-like banding in various shades of green that is typical of
malachite. The puffed heart shows concentric structures.

What is Malachite?
Malachite is a green copper carbonate hydroxide mineralwith a chemical composition of Cu2(CO3)(OH)2. It
was one of the first ores used to produce copper metal. It is of minor importance today as an ore of copper
because it is usually found in small quantities and can be sold for higher prices for other types of use.

Malachite has been used as a gemstone and sculptural material for thousands of years and is still popular
today. Today it is most often cut into cabochons or beads for jewelry use.

Malachite has a green color that does not fade over time or when exposed to light. Those properties, along
with its ability to be easily ground to a powder, made malachite a preferred pigment and coloring agent for
thousands of years.
Botryoidal Malachite: Close-up of botryoidal malachite in a seafoam green color from Bisbee, Arizona. This view spans an area
of the specimen about 5 millimeters wide and high. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Where Does Malachite Form?

Malachite is a mineral that forms at shallow depths within the Earth, in the oxidizing zone above copper
deposits. It precipitates from descending solutions in fractures, caverns, cavities, and the intergranular
spaces of porous rock. It often forms within limestone where a subsurface chemical environment favorable
for the formation of carbonate minerals can occur. Associated minerals
include azurite, bornite, calcite, chalcopyrite, copper, cuprite, and a variety of iron oxides.

Some of the first malachite deposits to be exploited were located in Egypt and Israel. Over 4000 years ago,
they were mined and used to produce copper. Material from these deposits was also used to produce
gemstones, sculptures, and pigments. Several large deposits in the Ural Mountains of Russia were
aggressively mined, and they supplied abundant gem and sculptural material in the 1800s. Very little is
produced from these deposits today. Much of the malachite entering the lapidary market today is from
deposits in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Smaller amounts are produced in Australia, France, and
Arizona.
Stalactitic malachite: A specimen of stalactitic malachite from the Kasompi Mine, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The
specimen is approximately 21 x 16 x 12 centimeters in size. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Physical Properties of Malachite

Chemical
Carbonate
Classification

Color Green

Streak Green

Rare crystals are vitreous to adamantine. Fibrous specimens are silky. Massive specimens are dull to earthy. Polishes
Luster
to a very bright luster.

Diaphaneity Most specimens are opaque. Crystals are translucent.

Cleavage Perfect in one direction. Fair in a second direction.

Mohs Hardness 3.5 to 4.0

Specific Gravity 3.6 to 4.0

Diagnostic
Green color, soft, effervesces with dilute HCl to produce a green liquid.
Properties

Chemical
Cu2(CO3)(OH)2
Composition

Crystal System Monoclinic

Uses A minor ore of copper. Gemstones, small sculptures, pigment.

Physical Properties of Malachite

Malachite's most striking physical property is its green color. All specimens of the mineral are green and
range from a pastel green, to a bright green, to an extremely dark green that is almost black. It is typically
found as stalactites and botryoidal coatings on the surfaces of underground cavities - similar to the deposits
of calcite found in caves. When these materials are cut into slabs and pieces, the sawn surfaces often exhibit
banding and eyes that are similar to agate.

Malachite is rarely found as a crystal, but when found, the crystals are usually acicular to tabular in shape.
The crystals are bright green in color, translucent, with a vitreous to adamantine luster. Non-crystalline
specimens are opaque, usually with a dull to earthy luster.

Malachite is a copper mineral, and that gives malachite a high specific gravity that ranges from 3.6 to 4.0.
This property is so striking for a green mineral that malachite is easy to identify. Malachite is one of a small
number of green minerals that produces effervescence in contact with cold, dilute hydrochloric acid. It is
also a soft mineral with a Mohs hardness of 3.5 to 4.0.

Painting with Malachite: Pietro Perugino (c. 1446-1523) used malachite pigment when painting the green garment colors in his
Nativity (c. 1503). He used "Verona green earth" pigment for the grass. The deeper green color of malachite gave the garments a
contrasting and more vivid appearance.

Malachite Pigment: A photograph looking down into a jar of malachite pigment. This pigment was produced from malachite
mined near the city of Nizhniy Tagil, in the Ural Mountains of Russia. It has a particle size of 20 microns. We obtained this
pigment from NaturalPigments.com.
Malachite as a Pigment
Malachite has been used as a pigment for thousands of years. It was one of the oldest known green pigments
to be used in paintings. The mineral malachite is an excellent material for producing a powdered pigment
because it can easily be ground into a fine powder, it mixes easily with vehicles, and it retains its color well
when exposed to light over time.

Alternative names for malachite pigment include copper green, Bremen green, Olympian green, green
verditer, green bice, Hungarian green, mountain green, and iris green. Malachite pigment is found in the
paintings of Egyptian tombs and in paintings produced throughout Europe during the 15th and 16th
centuries. Its use declined significantly in the 17th century as alternative green colors were developed.
Today, malachite pigment is sold by a few manufacturers who specialize in providing materials to painters
who practice historically accurate techniques.

Azurmalachite: Cabochons of azurmalachite showing nice patterns of azurite (blue) and malachite (green). They were cut from
material produced at the Morenci Mine in Arizona. These cabs were cut from thin vein material and have a natural wall-rock
backing. Both cabs are about 25 millimeters tall.

Banded Malachite: Two views of a specimen of botryoidal malachite - one external and one internal polished surface. This photo
pair shows how agate-like bands and eyes of malachite occur beneath a botryoidal structure. This specimen was collected near
Katanga, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Photograph by Didier Descouens. Used here under a Creative Commons License.
Malachite as a Gem Material
The vivid green color, bright polished luster, banding and eyes of malachite make it very popular as a
gemstone. It is cut into cabochons, used to produce beads, sliced into inlay material, sculpted into
ornamental objects, and used to manufacture tumbled stones. Small boxes made from slices of malachite
are attractive and popular.

Some of the most spectacular gem-quality malachite involves intergrowths, inclusions, and admixtures of
malachite with other copper minerals such as azurite(azurmalachite), chrysocolla, turquoise, and
pseudomalachite (eilat stone).

Malachite's use as gem and ornamental stone is limited by its properties. It has perfect cleavage and a Mohs
hardness of 3.5 to 4. These limit its use to items that will not suffer abrasion and impact. It is also sensitive
to heat and reacts with weak acids. These properties further limit its use and require care during cleaning,
repair, and maintenance. Malachite is sometimes treated with wax to fill small voids and improve its luster.

Synthetic malachite has been produced and used to make jewelry and small sculptures. Poorly done
synthetics are often recognized by their unnatural color. The better synthetics can usually be recognized
because their banding and eyes do not have a natural geometry. An experienced person can identify most of
the synthetic and imitation materials on sight.
 Molybdenite
Mineral Properties and Uses
What is Molybdenite?

Molybdenite is a molybdenum sulfide mineral and the leading

ore of molybdenum. It occurs as an accessory mineral in some
granites and pegmatites. It is also found in some copper
porphyry deposits, contact metamorphic rocks and high
temperature vein deposits. It is a soft gray mineral that is easily
confused with graphite.

Physical Properties of Molybdenite

Chemical
sulfide
Classification

Color lead gray

Molybdenite from Whitehall, Montana. Specimens are approximately 1/2 inch
to 1 inch (1.3 centimeters to 2.5 centimeters) across.
Streak bluish gray grayish black

Luster metallic

Diaphaneity opaque

Cleavage perfect

Mohs Hardness 1 to 2

Specific Gravity 4.6 to 4.8

Diagnostic greasy feel, color, streak, specific

Properties gravity

Chemical
molybdenum sulfide, MoS2
Composition

Crystal System hexagonal

primary ore of molybdenum, specialty

Uses
libricant

Molybdenite in quartz from Climax, Colorado. Specimen is approximately 4

inches (10 centimeters) across.
Molybdenite in quartz from Calaveras County, California. Specimen is
approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across
 Monazite
A rare phosphate mineral mined from placer deposits for its rare earth and thorium content.

Monazite sand: Monazite sand with a resinous luster from Malaysia. Monazite is produced from heavy-mineral concentrates and
then separated out by specific gravity, magnetic processes, and other processes. Specimens are sand-grain size particles.

What is Monazite?
Monazite is a rare phosphate mineral with a chemical composition of (Ce,La,Nd,Th)(PO4,SiO4). It usually
occurs in small isolated grains, as an accessory mineral in igneous and metamorphic rocks such
as granite,pegmatite, schist, and gneiss. These grains are resistant to weathering and become concentrated
in soils and sediments downslope from the host rock. When in high enough concentrations, they are mined
for their rare earthand thorium content.
Monazite crystal: An exceptionally large monazite crystal, approximately two inches across, collected in Brazil. Specimen and
photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Physical Properties of Monazite

Chemical
Phosphate
Classification

Color Yellowish to reddish brown, greenish

Streak White

Luster Resinous, waxy, vitreous

Diaphaneity Translucent

Cleavage Good to poor

Mohs Hardness 5 to 5.5

Specific Gravity 4.6 to 5.4 (varies greatly depending upon rare earth type and concentration)

Diagnostic Properties Specific gravity

Chemical
(Ce,La,Nd,Th)PO4
Composition

Crystal System Monoclinic

An important source of thorium, cerium, and other rare elements. Often mined as a byproduct from heavy mineral
Uses
deposits.

A Mineral or a Mineral Group?

The generic chemical formula for monazite, (Ce,La,Nd,Th)(PO4,SiO4), reveals that cerium, lanthanum,
neodymium, and thorium can substitute for one another in the mineral's structure; and, substitution of silica
for phosphate also occurs. Monazite is part of several solid-solution series with other minerals.

"Monazite" is also the name of a group of monoclinic phosphate and arsenate minerals that share traits of
composition and crystal structure. A list of minerals in the monazite group is provided below. Note that
several varieties of monazite are included.

Monazite Mineral Group

Mineral Chemical Composition

Brabantite CaTh(PO4)2

Cheralite (Ca,Ce,Th)(P,Si)O4

Gasparite-(Ce) (Ce,La,Nd)AsO4
 Monazite-(Ce) CePO4

Monazite-(La) LaPO4

Monazite-(Nd) NdPO4

Monazite-(Sm) SmPO4

Rooseveltite BiAsO4

Physical Properties of Monazite

Monazite is a yellowish brown to reddish brown or greenish brown mineral with a resinous to vitreous
luster. It is translucent and rarely seen in large grains or as well-formed crystals. Granular masses are
sometimes seen where monazite is locally abundant. It breaks with good to distinct cleavage.
Its hardness ranges from 5 to 5.5. It has an unusually high specific gravity that ranges from 4.6 to 5.4
depending upon its composition.

Monazite and quartz crystals: Orange-pink twinned crystals of monazite-(Ce), about 5 millimeters in length, with quartz from
Bolivia. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Geologic Occurrence of Monazite

Monazite is known more for where it accumulates instead of where it forms. It forms during the
crystallization of igneous rocks and during the metamorphism of clastic sedimentary rocks. When these
rocks weather, monazite is one of the more resistant minerals and becomes concentrated in the weathering
debris. The soils and sediments found near a weathering outcrop can have a higher concentration of
monazite than the source rock.

The liberated grains of monazite then begin a journey downslope. Eventually they are brought to a stream or
a dry wash. There, the actions of gravity and running water help the heavy grains of monazite and other
heavy minerals segregate from lighter minerals. They accumulate behind boulders, on the inside bends of
stream channels and work their way down into the lower portions of the sediment deposit. Some are washed
to the sea where they accumulate in deltaic, beach, or shallow water sediments.
Monazite sands at Frasier Island, Australia: Australia was once the world's largest producer of monazite and is thought to have
the world's largest monazite resource. However, Australia has not produced significant quantities of monazite since public
objection shut down mining at Frasier Island, Queensland.

Monazite Mining
All monazite mining is focused on placer deposits because they are easier to mine and the monazite is often
present in higher concentrations than in hard rock deposits. Other heavy minerals that accumulate with
monazite include gold, platinum, magnetite, ilmenite, rutile, zircon, and a variety of gemstones. The
heavy sands recovered are processed to separate these heavy minerals, and the light fraction is returned to
the deposit. Stream sediments, alluvial terraces, beach sediments, beach terraces, and shallow water
sediments have all been dredged for heavy minerals.

Today, most of the world's monazite is produced in the offshore waters of India, Malaysia, Vietnam, and
Brazil. Southern India and Sri Lanka have the most extensive offshore monazite resources known. Australia
was once the world's largest producer of monazite and is thought to have the world's largest monazite
resource. It has not been a significant producer since the 1990s, after public objection shut down mining on
Frasier Island.

Monazite is not currently mined in the United States. In the past it was mined from stream placer deposits in
Idaho. These deposits formed from weathering of the Idaho batholith. Monazite has also been mined as a
byproduct from offshore deposits along the southeast coast of the United States, from North Carolina to
Florida. Inland and offshore deposits are known to exist in many states, but they are small, low-grade
deposits when compared to what is currently mined in other countries.
 Muscovite
The most abundant mica is used in a variety of construction materials and manufactured products.

Muscovite: Bladed muscovite from the Nuristan Province of Afghanistan with a crystal of pink morganite beryl. Specimen is
approximately 2 1/4 x 2 x 1 1/2 inches (5.9 x 4.8 x 3.4 centimeters). Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

What is Muscovite?
Muscovite is the most common mineral of the mica family. It is an important rock-forming mineral present
in igneous,metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Like other micas it readily cleaves into thin transparent
sheets. Muscovite sheets have a pearly to vitreous luster on their surface. If they are held up to the light, they
are transparent and nearly colorless, but most have a slight brown, yellow, green, or rose-color tint.

The ability of muscovite to split into thin transparent sheets - sometimes up to several feet across - gave it an
early use as window panes. In the 1700s it was mined for this use from pegmatites in the area around
Moscow, Russia. These panes were called "muscovy glass" and that term is thought to have inspired the
mineral name "muscovite."

Sheet muscovite is an excellent insulator, and that makes it suitable for manufacturing specialized parts for
electrical equipment. Scrap, flake, and ground muscovite are used as fillers and extenders in a variety of
paints, surface treatments, and manufactured products. The pearlescent luster of muscovite makes it an
important ingredient that adds "glitter" to paints, ceramic glazes, and cosmetics.

Physical Properties of Muscovite

Chemical
Silicate
Classification

Thick specimens often appear to be black, brown, or silver in color; however, when split into thin sheets muscovite is
Color
colorless, sometimes with a tint of brown, yellow, green, or rose

Streak White, often sheds tiny flakes

Luster Pearly to vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Perfect

Mohs Hardness 2.5 to 3

Specific Gravity 2.8 to 2.9

Diagnostic
Cleavage, color, transparency
Properties

Chemical
KAl2(Si3AlO10)(OH)2
Composition

Crystal System Monoclinic

Uses Used in the manufacturing of paint, joint compound, plastics rubber, asphalt roofing, cosmetics, drilling mud.

Physical Properties
Muscovite is easily identified because its perfect cleavage allows it to be split into thin, flexible, elastic,
colorless, transparent sheets with a pearly to vitreous luster. It is the only common mineral with these
properties.

Muscovite: Muscovite from Stoneham, Maine. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across. Hand specimens of
this size and thickness often appear to have a black, brown, or silver color; however, when they are split into thin sheets, the clear
transparent nature of muscovite is revealed. Thin sheets often have a slight tint of brown, green, yellow, or rose.

An Important Rock-Forming Mineral

Muscovite is found in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. In igneous rocks, it is a primary
mineral that is especially common in granitic rocks. In granite pegmatites, muscovite is often found in large
crystals with a pseudohexagonal outline. These crystals are called "books" because they can be split into
paper-thin sheets. Muscovite rarely occurs in igneous rocks of intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic
composition.

Muscovite can form during the regional metamorphism of argillaceous rocks. The heat and pressure of
metamorphism transforms clay minerals into tiny grains of mica which enlarge as metamorphism
progresses. Muscovite can occur as isolated grains in schist and gneiss, or it can be abundant enough that
the rocks are called "mica schist" or "micaceous gneiss."

Muscovite is not especially resistant to chemical weathering. It is quickly transformed into clay minerals.
Tiny flakes of muscovite sometimes survive long enough to be incorporated into sediments and immature
sedimentary rocks. It is evidence that these sediments and rocks have not been subjected to severe
weathering.

Muscovite schist: A specimen of muscovite schist. Muscovite is formed during the metamorphism of argillaceous rocks.
Specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Chemical Composition
Muscovite is a potassium-rich mica with the following generalized composition...

KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2

In this formula potassium is sometimes replaced by other ions with a single positive charge such as sodium,
rubidium, or cesium. Aluminum is sometimes replaced by magnesium, iron, lithium, chromium, or
vanadium.

When chromium substitutes for aluminum in muscovite the material takes on a green color and is known as
"fuchsite." Fuchsite is often found disseminated through metamorphic rocks of the greenschist facies.
Occasionally it will be abundant enough to give the rock a distinct green color, and for those rocks the name
"verdite" is used.
Ground muscovite: Photograph of ground muscovite from Mt. Turner, Australia. USGS image.

Muscovite: Muscovite from Mitchell County, North Carolina. Specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) across.

Muscovite: Muscovite from Mitchell County, North Carolina. Specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) across. The
transparent nature of muscovite is clearly seen in this photo.
Uses of Ground Mica
Ground mica, mostly muscovite, is used in the United States to manufacture a variety of products [1].

JOINT COMPOUND

The primary use of ground mica is in joint compound used to finish seams and blemishes in gypsum
wallboard. The mica serves as a filler, improves the workability of the compound, and reduces cracking in
the finished product. In 2011 about 69% of the dry-ground mica consumed in the United States was used in
joint compound.

PAINT

Ground mica is used as a pigment extender in paint. It helps keep pigment in suspension; reduces chalking,
shrinking, and shearing of the finished surface; reduces water penetration and weathering, and brightens the
tone of colored pigments. In some automotive paints tiny flakes of mica are used to produce a pearlescent
luster.

DRILLING MUD

Ground mica is an additive to drilling mud that helps to seal porous sections of the drill hole to reduce
circulation loss. In 2011, about 17% of the dry-ground mica consumed in the United States was used in
drilling muds.

PLASTICS

The auto industry in the United States uses ground mica to improve the performance of plastic parts. In
plastics, particles of ground mica serve as an agent to absorb sound and vibration. It can also improve
mechanical properties by increasing stability, stiffness, and strength.

RUBBER

Ground mica is used as an inert filler and mold release agent in the manufacture of molded rubber products
such as tires and roofing. The platy grains of mica act as an antisticking agent.

ASPHALT ROOFING

Dry-ground mica is used as a surface coating on asphalt shingles and rolled roofing. The flat mica particles
coat the surface and act as an antistick agent. The mica does not absorb the asphalt and stands up well to
weathering.

COSMETICS

Some of the highest quality ground mica is used in the cosmetics industry. The pearly luster of ground mica
makes it an important ingredient in blushes, eyeliner, eye shadow, foundation, hair and body glitter, lipstick,
lip gloss, mascara, and nail polish.
Mica windows: Mica is heat resistant and is often used as a "window" for wood stoves, ovens, and furnaces. These mica windows
are for a wood stove and are about the same thickness as a piece of paper. Sheet size is 3 inches x 4 inches. They can be trimmed
with scissors to fit the size of the window.

Mica with inclusions: Sheets of mica with inclusions are often sold as low-quality windows for woodstoves, ovens, and furnaces
at a reduced price. Common inclusions are magnetite, rutile, and hematite. Sheet size is 6 inches x 6 inches.

Uses of Sheet Mica

While ground mica might sell for $300 per metric ton, sheet mica for specialty uses can sell for prices up to
$2000 per kilogram. Mica has several properties that make it suitable for very special uses:

1) it can be split into thin sheets

2) the sheets are chemically inert, dielectric, elastic, flexible, hydrophilic, insulating, lightweight, reflective,
refractive and resilient

3) it is stable when exposed to electricity, light, moisture and extreme temperatures

Most sheet mica is used to make electronic devices. In these uses the sheets are cut, punched, stamped and
machined to precision dimensions. Uses include: diaphragms for oxygen breathing equipment, marker dials
for navigation compasses, optical filters, pyrometers, retardation plates in helium-neon lasers, missile
systems components, medical electronics, optical instrumentation, radar systems, radiation detector
windows, and calibrated capacitors.

The quality of sheet mica is influenced by the presence of inclusions. These can impair splitting, decrease
transparency, and reduce dielectric strength. Tiny crystals
of staurolite, zircon, garnet, tourmaline, magnetite, hematite and other minerals can form between the
sheets and orient parallel to the mica's crystal structure. Inclusions decrease the mica's value and its ability to
be used in most applications. (See image.)

Mica Outlook
Information Sources

[1] Mica: Jason Christopher Willett, 2011 Minerals Yearbook, United States Geological Survey, September 2012.

[2] Mica (Natural): Jason Christopher Willett, 2013 Mineral Commodity Summary, United States Geological Survey, January 2013.

The use of ground mica is mainly determined by activity levels of the construction and auto industries. An
increase in domestic oil and gas drilling should sustain the demand for mica additives for drilling mud.
Producers in the United States should be able to supply domestic demand, with some mica being imported
for specialty use or where transportation from domestic producers to the consumer is more costly than
imported mica. About 50,000 tons were produced in the United States in 2011, with about 25,000 tons being
imported. China at 700,000 tons, is the largest producer and largest consumer.

Although the demand for sheet mica is growing with the advance of technology, the prices are so high that
the invention of substitute materials is growing. Some of these involve making mica sheets from ground
mica composites or the creation of synthetic micas in laboratories. Acrylic, fiberglass, nylatron, nylon,
polyester, styrene, vinyl-PVC, and vulcanized fibers are all finding use as sheet mica substitutes [2].

Contributor: Hobart King

 Nepheline
Mineral Properties and Uses

Physical Properties of Nepheline

Chemical
silicate
Classification

colorless, white, yellowish, brownish

Color
red, greenish

Streak white
Nepheline from Dungannon Township, Ontario, Canada. Specimen
Luster greasy to vitreous is approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) across.

Diaphaneity transparent to translucent

Cleavage poor

Mohs Hardness 5.5 to 6

Specific Gravity 2.6 to 2.7

Diagnostic Properties greasy luster, poor cleavage

Chemical Composition (Na,K)AlSiO4

Crystal System hexagonal Nepheline from Dungannon Township, Ontario, Canada. Specimen
is approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) across.
Uses industrial use, glass industry.

Nepheline cancrinite syenite from Litchfield, Maine. Specimen is approximately 4

inches (10 centimeters) across.
Nepheline from Bancroft, Ontario, Canada. Specimen is approximately 4 inches
(10 centimeters) across.
 Olivine
A group of rock-forming minerals found in Earth's crust. An abundant mineral in Earth's mantle.
A constituent of many meteorites.

Olivine in basalt: Lherzolite (a variety of peridotite) nodules in a xenolith collected from a basalt flow at Peridot Mesa, Arizona.
These xenoliths often contain crystals of olivine with a color and clarity that is suitable for use as a peridot gemstone. This
specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) across.

What is Olivine?
Olivine is the name of a group of rock-forming mineralsthat are typically found in mafic and
ultramafic igneous rocks such as basalt, gabbro, dunite, diabase, and peridotite. They are usually green in
color and have compositions that typically range between Mg2SiO4 and Fe2SiO4. Many people are familiar
with olivine because it is the mineral of a very popular green gemstone known as peridot.

Olivine gemstone: The gemstone known as peridot is a variety of olivine. These two faceted stones are nice specimens of
yellowish green peridot. The gem on the left is a 1.83 carat cushion cut peridot of about 8 x 6 millimeters from Myanmar. The
gem on the right is a 1.96 carat cushion checkerboard cut peridot of about 10 x 8 millimeters from China. Photo © geology.com.
Geological Occurrence of Olivine
Most olivine found at Earth's surface is in dark-colored igneous rocks. It usually crystallizes in the presence
of plagioclase and pyroxene to form gabbro or basalt. These types of rocks are most common at divergent
plate boundaries and at hot spots within the centers of tectonic plates.

Olivine has a very high crystallization temperature compared to other minerals. That makes it one of the first
minerals to crystallize from a magma. During the slow cooling of a magma, crystals of olivine may form and
then settle to the bottom of the magma chamber because of their relatively high density. This concentrated
accumulation of olivine can result in the formation of olivine-rich rocks such as dunite in the lower parts of
a magma chamber.

Crystals of olivine are sometimes formed during the metamorphism of a dolomitic limestone or dolomite.
The dolomite contributes magnesium, and silica is obtained from quartz and other impurities in the
limestone. When olivine is metamorphosed, it is transformed into serpentine.

Olivine is one of the first minerals to be altered by weathering. Because it is so easily altered by weathering,
olivine is not a common mineral in sedimentary rocks and is only an abundant constituent of sand or
sediment when the deposit is very close to the source.

Olivine sand: Green olivine sand from Papakolea Beach, Hawaii. The white grains are coral fragments, and the gray-black grains
are pieces of basalt. If you think the grains have a "gemmy" appearance, olivine is the mineral name of a gemstone known as
"peridot." The width of this view is about 10 millimeters. Photograph by Siim Sepp, used here under a Creative Commons
License.

Composition of Olivine
Olivine is the name given to a group of silicate mineralsthat have a generalized chemical composition of
A2SiO4. In that generalized composition, "A" is usually Mg or Fe, but in unusual situations can be Ca, Mn,
or Ni.

The chemical composition of most olivine falls somewhere between pure forsterite (Mg2SiO4) and pure
fayalite (Fe2SiO4). In that series, Mg and Fe can substitute freely for one another in the mineral's atomic
structure - in any ratio. This type of continuous compositional variation is known as a "solid solution" and is
represented in a chemical formula as (Mg,Fe)2SiO4.

The name "olivine" is used instead of "forsterite" or "fayalite" because a chemical analysis or other detailed
testing is needed to determine which one is dominant - if either is dominant. The name "olivine" serves as a
quick, convenient, and inexpensive way to put a name on the material. A list of the more common olivine
minerals and their composition is given in the table below.

Olivine Minerals
Mineral Chemical Composition

Forsterite Mg2SiO4

Fayalite Fe2SiO4

Monticellite CaMgSiO4

Kirschsteinite CaFeSiO4

Tephroite Mn2SiO4

Olivine receives its name from its usual olive-green color. Many geology students remember the color of
olivine by using a rhyme: "olivine is green." That rhyme is true with most classroom specimens; however,
there are rare iron-rich olivines (fayalites) that are brownish in color.

Olivine: Olivine from Mitchell County, North Carolina. Specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) across.

Olivine in Earth's Mantle

Olivine is thought to be an important mineral in Earth's mantle. Its presence as a mantle mineral has been
inferred by a change in the behavior of seismic waves as they cross the Moho - the boundary between
Earth's crust and mantle.

The presence of olivine in Earth's interior is also confirmed by the presence of olivine in xenoliths, which
are thought to be pieces of the upper mantle delivered to Earth's surface in the magmas of deep-
source volcanic eruptions. Olivine is also an abundant mineral in the lower portion of many ophiolites.
These are slabs of oceanic crust (with part of the upper mantle attached) that have been thrust up onto an
island or a continent.
 Physical Properties of Olivine
Chemical Classification Silicate

Color Usually olive green, but can be yellow-green to bright green; iron-rich specimens are brownish green to brown

Streak Colorless

Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Poor cleavage, brittle with conchoidal fracture

Mohs Hardness 6.5 to 7

Specific Gravity 3.2 to 4.4

Diagnostic Properties Green color, vitreous luster, conchoidal fracture, granular texture

Chemical Composition Typically (Mg, Fe)2SiO4. Ca, Mn, and Ni rarely occupy the Mg and Fe positions.

Crystal System Orthorhombic

Uses Gemstones, a declining use in bricks and refractory sand

Olivine in pallasite: A part slice of the Esquel pallasite from Chubut, Argentina. The large, colorful, oblong olivine crystals are
typical of this meteorite. Note the way in which crystals near the rough (natural) edge have turned orange and yellow due to
terrestrial weathering, while the crystals nearer to the center of the original mass have retained their true olive green color.
Photograph by Geoffrey Notkin © Aerolite Meteorites, used with permission.

Physical Properties of Olivine

Olivine is usually green in color but can also be yellow-green, greenish yellow, or brown. It is transparent to
translucent with a glassy luster and a hardness between 6.5 and 7.0. It is the only common igneous mineral
with these properties. The properties of olivine are summarized in the table.
Pallasite peridot: This is one of the most incredible gemstones. It is a piece of gem-quality olivine (peridot) from a pallasite
meteorite, and it has been faceted into a wonderful little gemstone. This may be the most scarce gem material on Earth - but it
actually originated in space. This stone is 2.85 millimeters in diameter and weighs about ten points. Photo
by TheGemTrader.com.

Extraterrestrial Olivine
Olivine has been identified in a large number of stony and stony-iron meteorites. These meteorites are
thought to have originated from the mantle of a rocky planet that used to occupy an orbit between Mars and
Jupiter - or they might be from an asteroid that was large enough to have developed a differentiated internal
structure consisting of a rock mantle and a metallic core.

Pallasites are thought to represent the part of an asteroid or planet that was near the mantle-core boundary
where rocky materials of the mantle were mixed with the metallic materials of the core. Pallasites typically
have distinct crystals of olivine (usually fayalite) surrounded by a nickel-iron matrix. A photograph of a
slice from a pallasite meteorite is shown on this page.

Olivine rain: An artist's concept of crystalline olivine rain on a developing star, inspired by the Spitzer Space Telescope. Image
by NASA/JPL Caltech/University of Toledo.
Olivine Rain on a Developing Star
In 2011, NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope observed what is believed to have been tiny crystals of olivine
falling like rain through the dusty cloud of gas of a developing star. This "olivine rain" was thought to have
occurred as strong air currents lifted newly crystallized particles of olivine from the surface of the forming
star, high into its atmosphere, and then dropped them when the currents lost their momentum. The result was
a rain of glittering green olivine crystals.

Uses of Olivine
Olivine is a mineral that is not often used in industry. Most olivine is used in metallurgical processes as a
slag conditioner. High-magnesium olivine (forsterite) is added to blast furnaces to remove impurities from
steel and to form a slag.

Olivine has also been used as a refractory material. It is used to make refractory brick and used as a casting
sand. Both of these uses are in decline as alternative materials are less expensive and easier to obtain.

Olivine peridot rough: These three specimens are peridot, a gem variety of olivine, from a deposit in Arizona. At this deposit the
olivine occurs in xenoliths that were erupted with a basalt flow. These specimens are approximately 12 millimeters across.

Olivine and the Gemstone Peridot

Olivine is also the mineral of the gemstone known as "peridot." It is a yellow-green to green gemstone that
is very popular in jewelry. Peridot serves as a birthstone for the month of August. The most valued colors
are dark olive green and a bright lime green. These specimens are of the mineral forsterite because the iron-
rich fayalite is usually a brownish, less desirable color.

Much of the world's peridot used in mass-production jewelry is mined at the San Carlos Reservation in
Arizona. There, a few basalt flows containing nodules of granular olivine are the source of the peridot. Most
of the stones produced there are a few carats or less in size and often contain visible crystals of chromite or
other minerals. They are cut in Asia and returned to the United States in commercial jewelry.

Higher quality and larger peridot crystals are mined in Pakistan and Myanmar. There, crystals of olivine are
found in metamorphic rocks. These are usually found in association with serpentine or dolomitic marble.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Realgar and Orpiment
Arsenic Sulfide Minerals

Realgar: Realgar crystals from the Royal Reward Mine in King County, Washington. Specimen measures about 2.2 x 1.1 x 0.8
centimeters. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Toxic Arsenic Sulfide Minerals

Realgar and orpiment are very similar minerals. They are both arsenic sulfides and members of the
monoclinic crystal system. They form in the same geological environments and can be closely associated in
the same deposits. They have similar physical properties and similar histories of use by man. Because of
these similarities, we decided to describe realgar and orpiment in a single article.

Realgar and orpiment are both toxic minerals, and contact with them should be avoided. They are not
suitable for classroom specimens.

Physical Properties: Realgar / Orpiment

Realgar Orpiment

Chemical
Sulfide Sulfide
Classification

Color Red to orange, gray Yellow, golden, yellow-brown

Streak Red-orange to red Light yellow

Luster Resinous to pearly on cleavage Resinous to pearly on cleavage

Diaphaneity Translucent to transparent Translucent to transparent

Cleavage Good Perfect

Mohs Hardness 1.5 to 2 1.5 to 2

Specific Gravity 3.56 3.49

Diagnostic Color, streak, resinous luster. Association with

Color, streak, luster, foliated appearance. Association with realgar.
Properties orpiment.

Chemical
As4S4 As2S3
Composition

Crystal System Monoclinic Monoclinic

An ore of arsenic. Historically used as a pigment, An ore of arsenic. Used in the production of oil cloth,
Uses depilatory, poison, ingredient in explosives and semiconductors, photoconductors. Historically used as a pigment,
fireworks, ritualistic "medicine," cosmetic. poison, ingredient in fireworks and explosives.

What is Realgar?
Realgar is a monoclinic arsenic sulfide mineral with a brilliant red color and a chemical composition of
As4S4. Well-formed realgar crystals can look so much like red gemstones that the mineral was often called
"ruby sulfur" and "ruby arsenic."

However, realgar is not used as a gemstone because it is very soft, with a Mohs hardness of just 1-1/2 to 2.
It is easily ground into a fine, bright red powder. Those properties caused it to become a favorite pigment in
many parts of the ancient world. It was traded over great distances to make paints, inks, and dyes - until
people realized that it was toxic.

The arsenic in realgar was the source of its toxicity. After its toxicity was realized in the Middle Ages, the
mineral was used as a poison to kill rodents, insects, and weeds. Realgar was also used in leather processing
to remove the hair from hides. Today it is rarely used for any of these purposes because more effective and
less toxic substitutes have been developed. However, some use of realgar in ritualistic cosmetics and
"medicines" continues in a few parts of the world. Today the main use of realgar is as an ore of arsenic
metal.

The chemical formula of realgar is often written as As4S4instead of the simpler AsS. This is done because
As4S4represents a structural unit of the mineral. A compound of As+3 and S-2 would be out of electrical
balance. In realgar, three of the arsenics are joined in a chain by covalent bonds. This gives the arsenics an
effective electrical charge of +8. That combines with four S-2 ions to produce an electrically neutral molecule.
This is why realgar's chemical composition is often presented as As4S4 instead of AsS.
Orpiment: Bright orange orpiment from the Jiepaiyu Mine in Hunan Province, China. This specimen shows the botryoidal habit
of orpiment. It measures 12.7 centimeters in length. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

What is Orpiment?
Orpiment is a monoclinic arsenic sulfide with a yellow-orange color and a chemical composition of As2S3. It
has a Mohs hardness of 1-1/2 to 2 and is easily ground into a yellow to yellow-orange powder. Like realgar,
its earliest widespread use was as a pigment for paints, inks, and dyes, and it was traded over great distances.

After its toxicity was discovered, its use as a pigment declined. People took advantage of its toxicity to use it
as a poison for insects and rodents. Some people continued to use it as a ritualistic cosmetic and "medicine"
even after its toxicity was known, and that practice continues today in some parts of the world.

Today the primary use of orpiment is as an ore of arsenic. It is also used in manufacturing oil cloth,
semiconductors, and photoconductors.

Realgar on calcite: Red realgar crystals on white calcite, from the Jiepaiyu Mine in Hunan Province, China. Specimen and photo
by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Geologic Occurrence
Realgar and orpiment are mainly found associated with hydrothermal and volcanic activities. They are
sublimation products at volcanic vents and crystallization products at hot springs. These are among the
earliest deposits exploited in the middle ages. Underground deposits of realgar and orpiment are in veins and
fractures. There they are associated with lead, silver, gold, and other arsenic minerals.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Orthoclase

Mineral Properties and Uses

Physical Properties of Orthoclase

Chemical Classification silicate

white, gray, flesh pink, reddish,

Color
yellow, green

Streak white

Luster vitreous

Diaphaneity translucent to subtranslucent

Cleavage perfect

Mohs Hardness 6 to 6.5

Specific Gravity 2.5 to 2.6

Diagnostic Properties cleavage, color

Chemical Composition KAlSi3O8

Crystal System monoclinic

Uses gemstones, ceramics

 Plagioclase
A group of common rock-forming minerals. It is sometimes used as a gem material.

Albite: An igneous rock composed almost entirely of albite. This specimen is from the Petaca District of New Mexico and
measures about 4 inches (10 cm) across.

Feldspar classification: This diagram shows how feldspar minerals are classified on the basis of their chemical composition. The
sequence of minerals along the base of the triangle represents the solid solution series of plagioclase between albite and anorthite.

What is Plagioclase?
“Plagioclase” is the name of a group of feldspar minerals that form a solid solution series ranging from pure
albite, Na(AlSi3O8), to pure anorthite, Ca(Al2Si2O8). Minerals in this series are a homogenous mixture of
albite and anorthite. The names of the minerals in the series are arbitrarily given based upon their relative
abundance of albite and anorthite. The minerals of the plagioclase series are listed in the table below along
with their relative abundance of albite (Ab) and anorthite (An).

Plagioclase Group Minerals

Mineral % Albite % Anorthite

Albite 100-90% Ab 0-10% An

Oligoclase 90-70% Ab 10-30% An

Andesine 70-50% Ab 30-50% An

Labradorite 50-30% Ab 50-70% An

Bytownite 30-10% Ab 70-90% An

Anorthite 10-0% Ab 90-100% An

The name “plagioclase” is frequently used instead of one of the more specific names in the table above. This
is because the minerals of the plagioclase series are very similar and difficult to tell apart without laboratory
testing. Thus the name “plagioclase” is commonly used in many field and classroom situations.

Geologic Occurrence of Plagioclase

Members of the plagioclase group are the most common rock-forming minerals. They are important to
dominant minerals in most igneous rocks of the Earth’s crust. They are major constituents in a wide range
of intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks including granite, diorite, gabbro, rhyolite, andesite, and basalt.
Plagioclase minerals are important constituents of many metamorphic rocks, such as gneiss, where they
can be inherited from an igneous protolith or formed during the regional metamorphism of sedimentary
rocks.

Plagioclase is a common clast produced during the weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks. It can be
the most abundant clast in sediments located close to their source area and decreases in abundance
downstream. This decrease is partly because quartz is more physically and chemically durable than feldspar
and persists in greater relative quantities downstream in eroded sediments.
Bytownite: An igneous rock composed almost entirely of bytownite. This specimen is from Crystal Bay, Minnesota, and
measures about 4 inches (10 cm) across.

Oligoclase: A cleavage fragment of oligoclase. This specimen is from Mitchell County, North Carolina. It measures about 4
inches (10 cm) across.

Physical Properties of Plagioclase Minerals

All feldspar minerals have two directions of perfect cleavage. It is usually easy to distinguish plagioclase
feldspars because their two planes of cleavage intersect at 90-degree angles, and their cleavage faces often
display striations. These properties make plagioclase feldspars relatively easy to identify with a hand lens in
coarse-grained igneous and metamorphic rocks. Plagioclase in granitic rocks is normally white, pink, or red
in color. In basaltic rocks it is normally gray to black.

Physical Properties of Plagioclase

Chemical
Silicate
Classification

Color Usually white or gray. Also colorless, yellow, orange, pink, red, brown, black, blue, green.

Streak White

Luster Vitreous. Pearly on some cleavage faces.

Diaphaneity Translucent to transparent

Cleavage Perfect in two directions that intersect at approximately 90 degrees.

Mohs Hardness 6 to 6.5

Specific Gravity 2.6 to 2.8

Diagnostic Perfect cleavage, with cleavage faces intersecting at right angles and striations often present on cleavage faces. Well-
Properties defined crystals are extremely rare.

Chemical
NaAlSi3O8 - CaAl2Si2O8
Composition
Crystal System Triclinic

Plagioclase feldspars are important components of many building stones. Labradorite, spectrolite, sunstone, and
Uses moonstone are gem-quality plagioclase feldspars that are popular because of their optical phenomena. Transparent
plagioclase of high clarity is sometimes faceted as a collector gem but lacks the durability needed for use in jewelry.

Labradorite: An igneous rock composed almost entirely of iridescent plagioclase. This specimen was found near the town of
Nain in Labrador, Canada. It measures about 4 inches (10 cm) across.

Oregon Sunstone as a faceted stone and a cabochon. The stone on the left is a beautiful orange 7x5 mm oval faceted stone
weighing 1.01 carats. The stone on the right is a 7 mm round cabochon with abundant copper platelets weighing 2.29 carats. Both
stones are from the Spectrum Sunstone Mine near Plush, Oregon.
Spectrolite: Translucent labradorite with the best exhibit of spectral color is known in the gemstone trade as "spectrolite." This
spectrolite free-form cabochon is about 38 millimeters across.

Uses of Plagioclase
Construction, Decorative and Architectural Stone

Plagioclase minerals are important constituents of some building stone and crushed stone such
as granite and trap rock. These rocks are also cut and polished for use as countertops, stair treads, wall
panels, building facing, monuments, and many other types of decorative and architectural stone.

Plagioclase as a Gemstone

Some rare specimens of plagioclase exhibit optical phenomena that make them highly desirable gem
materials. Many people enjoy the adularescence of moonstone, the aventurescence of sunstone, and the
labradorescence of labradorite.

Moonstone

Moonstone is a name given to a gem material that consists of very thin, alternating layers of orthoclase (an
alkali feldspar) and albite (a plagioclase feldspar). When light enters the stone, it interacts with these thin
layers to produce a phenomenon known as "adularescence" (a white-to-bluish light that floats under the
surface of the stone when it is turned under a source of light).

Sunstone

The name sunstone has traditionally been given to a transparent labradorite feldspar that contains plate-
shaped copper inclusions which share a common alignment within the mineral. When cabochons or faceted
stones cut from this material are moved under a source of incident light, bright flashes of reflected light are
produced as the incident rays strike platelets being moved to the angle at which they reflect the incident
rays. These flashes from reflective particles are known as “aventurescence.” In Oregon, transparent gem-
quality labradorite with a yellow, orange, red, blue, or green color is also called “sunstone” when it is mined
from the same deposit as the aventurescent material.

Labradorite

Some specimens of labradorite exhibit a schiller effect, which is a strong play of iridescent blue, green, red,
orange, and yellow colors when moved under a source of incident light. Labradorite is so well known for
these spectacular displays of color that the phenomenon is known as "labradorescence." Pieces of labradorite
with exceptional play-of-color are known as “spectrolite.” These specimens sell for premium prices.

Collector Gems

Plagioclase minerals are rarely found in transparent crystals of exceptional clarity. Well-formed crystals are
prized by mineral specimen collectors because of their beauty and rarity. They can sell for thousands of
dollars. Transparent material of high quality is also cut into faceted gemstones which are often sold as
“collector gems.” With a Mohs hardness of 6 and perfect cleavage, these stones are usually considered to be
too fragile for use in jewelry.

Lunar plagioclase: This rock was collected from the surface of the Moon and brought back to Earth by Apollo 11 astronauts in
July, 1969. It is a vesicular basalt made up of approximately 50% pyroxene, 30% plagioclase, and 20% other minerals. The rock
has many vesicles, some of which contain well-defined crystals. The specimen is approximately 6.2 x 5.9 x 4.0 centimeters in size
and weighs 173 grams. NASA image.

Extraterrestrial Plagioclase
As with many minerals, plagioclase occurs in other parts of the solar system. Many of the rocks brought
back to Earth from the Moon by Apollo 11 astronauts are lunar basalts rich in plagioclase. Basalt is one of
the most common rock types present on the surface of the Moon, and much of that basalt is thought to
contain plagioclase.

Large areas of Mars are covered with basalt flows and ejecta produced by asteroid impacts. Plagioclase has
been identified in many of these basalts. Data from the thermal emission spectrometer onboard the Mars
Global Surveyor suggests that plagioclase is the most abundant mineral in the crust of Mars.

Several meteorites have been found on Earth that are thought to be pieces of Mars. They are thought to be
pieces of Martian bedrock, ejected beyond the influence of the planet's gravity by a large asteroid impact.
Some of these meteorites contain abundant plagioclase.
 Prehnite
Mineral Properties and Uses

Beads of prehnite. Each bead is approximately 6 millimeter across.

Physical Properties of Prehnite

Chemical
silicate
Classification
Color white, green, gray, yellow
Streak white
Luster vitreous
Diaphaneity transparent to translucent
Cleavage basal
Mohs
6 to 6.5
Hardness
Specific
2.8 to 3.0
Gravity

Diagnostic
Properties color, cleavage
Chemical
Ca2Al(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
Composition
Crystal
orthorhombic
System
Uses ornamental material, semiprecious gem
 Pyrite
With a nickname of "Fool's Gold," it is surprising that pyrite often contains significant amounts of gold

Pyrite crystals: Cubic crystals of pyrite on a marlstone from Navajún, Rioja, Spain. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (9.5
centimeters) across. Image by Carles Millan and used under a Creative Commons license.

What is Pyrite?
Pyrite is a brass-yellow mineral with a bright metallic luster. It has a chemical composition of iron disulfide
(FeS2) and is the most common sulfide mineral. It forms at high and low temperatures and occurs, usually in
small quantities, in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks worldwide.

The name "pyrite" is after the Greek "pyr" meaning "fire." This name was given because pyrite can be used
to create the sparks needed for starting a fire if it is struck against metal or another hard material. Pieces of
pyrite have also been used as a spark-producing material in flintlock firearms.

Pyrite has a nickname that has become famous - "Fool's Gold." The mineral's gold color, metallic luster, and
high specific gravity often cause it to be mistaken for gold by inexperienced prospectors. However, pyrite is
often associated with gold. The two minerals often form together, and in some deposits pyrite contains
enough included gold to warrant mining.

Physical Properties of Pyrite

Chemical Classification Sulfide

Color Brass yellow - often tarnished to dull brass

Streak Greenish black to brownish black

 Luster Metallic

Diaphaneity Opaque

Cleavage Breaks with a conchoidal fracture

Mohs Hardness 6 to 6.5

Specific Gravity 4.9 to 5.2

Diagnostic Properties Color, hardness, brittle, greenish black streak

Chemical Composition Iron sulfide, FeS2

Crystal System Isometric

Uses Ore of gold

Pyrite with hematite: Pyrite with hematite from Rio Marina, Isle of Elba, Italy. Specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6
centimeters) across.

Identifying Pyrite
Hand-specimens of pyrite are usually easy to identify. The mineral always has a brass-yellow color, a
metallic luster and a high specific gravity. It is harder than other yellow metallic minerals, and its streak is
black, usually with a tinge of green. It often occurs in well-formed crystals in the shape of cubes,
octahedrons, or pyritohedrons, which often have striated faces.

The only common mineral that has properties similar to pyrite is marcasite, a dimorph of pyrite with the
same chemical composition but an orthorhombic crystal structure. Marcasite does not have the same brassy
yellow color of pyrite. Instead it is a pale brass color, sometimes with a slight tint of green. Marcasite is
more brittle than pyrite and also has a slightly lower specific gravity at 4.8.

Pyrite and gold can easily be distinguished. Gold is very soft and will bend or dent with pin pressure. Pyrite
is brittle, and thin pieces will break with pin pressure. Gold leaves a yellow streak, while pyrite's streak is
greenish black. Gold also has a much higher specific gravity. A little careful testing will help you avoid the
"Fool's Gold" problem.
Massive pyrite: Massive pyrite from Rico, Colorado. Specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) across.

Pyrite: Pyrite with hematite from Rio Marina, Isle of Elba, Italy. Specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) across.

Uses of Pyrite
Pyrite is composed of iron and sulfur; however, the mineral does not serve as an important source of either
of these elements. Iron is typically obtained from oxide ores such as hematite and magnetite. These ores
occur in much larger accumulations, the iron is easier to extract and the metal is not contaminated
with sulfur, which reduces its strength.

Pyrite used to be an important ore for the production of sulfur and sulfuric acid. Today most sulfur is
obtained as a byproduct of natural gas and crude oil processing. Some sulfur continues to be produced from
pyrite as a byproduct of gold production.

The most important use of pyrite is as an ore of gold. Gold and pyrite form under similar conditions and
occur together in the same rocks. In some deposits small amounts of gold occur as inclusions and
substitutions within pyrite.

Some pyrites can contain 0.25% gold by weight or more. Although this is a tiny fraction of the ore, the value
of gold is so high that the pyrite might be a worthwhile mining target. If pyrite contains 0.25% gold and the
gold price is $1500 per troy ounce, then one ton of pyrite will contain about 73 troy ounces of gold worth
over $109,000. That is not a guaranteed money-maker. It depends upon how efficiently the gold can be
recovered and the cost of the recovery process.

Pyrite is occasionally used as a gemstone. It is fashioned into beads, cut into cabochons, faceted, and
carved into shapes. This type of jewelry was popular in the United States and Europe in the mid- to late-
1800s. Most of the jewelry stones were called "marcasite," but they are actually pyrite. (Marcasite would be
a poor choice for jewelry because it quickly oxidizes, and the oxidation products cause damage to anything
that they contact. Pyrite is not an excellent jewelry stone because it easily tarnishes.)

Pyrite framboid: One of the most interesting forms of pyrite is the "framboid." These tiny spheres of euhedral pyrite crystals are
often found in organic muds, coal, shale, and other types of rocks. This is a framboid from the Waynesburg coal of northern West
Virginia. It is a sphere about 15 microns in diameter that is composed of cubic crystals of pyrite about one micron on a side.

Pyrite and Coal Mining

Sulfur occurs in coal in three different forms: 1) organic sulfur, 2) sulfate minerals, and 3) sulfide minerals
(mostly pyrite with minor amounts of marcasite). When the coal is burned, these forms of sulfur are
converted into sulfur dioxide gas and contribute to air pollution and acid rain unless they are removed from
the emissions. The sulfide mineral content of the coal can be reduced by heavy mineral separation, but this
removal is expensive, results in a loss of coal, and cannot be done with 100% efficiency.

The sulfide minerals in coal and its surrounding rocks can produce acid mine drainage. Before mining, these
minerals are deep within the ground and below the water table where they are not subject to oxidation.
During and after mining the level of the water table often falls, exposing the sulfides to oxidation. This
oxidation produces acid mine drainage which contaminates groundwater and streams. Mining also breaks
the rocks above and below the coal. This creates more pathways for the movement of oxygenated waters and
exposes more surface area to oxidation.
Pyrite crystals: Pyrite, cubic crystals in schist from Chester, Vermont. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters)
across.

Pyrite and Construction Projects

Aggregates used to make concrete, concrete block, and asphalt paving materials must be free of pyrite.
Pyrite will oxidize when it is exposed to air and moisture. That oxidation will result in the production of
acids and a volume change that will damage the concrete and reduce its strength. This damage can result in
failure or maintenance problems.

Pyrite should not be present in the base material, subsoil or bedrock under roads, parking lots, or buildings.
Oxidation of pyrite can result in damage to pavement, foundations, and floors. In parts of the country where
pyrite is commonly found, construction sites should be tested to detect the presence of pyritic materials. If
pyrite is detected, the site can be rejected or the problem materials can be excavated and replaced with
quality fill.

Pyrite fossils: Fossil ammonite in which the shell was replaced by pyrite. External view on left and cross-sectional view on right.
External view by asterix0597 and cross-sectional view by Henry Chaplin. Both images © iStockphoto.

Pyrite and Organic Material

The conditions of pyrite formation in the sedimentary environment include a supply of iron, a supply of
sulfur, and an oxygen-poor environment. This often occurs in association with decaying organic materials.
Organic decay consumes oxygen and releases sulfur. For this reason, pyrite commonly and preferentially
occurs in dark-colored organic-rich sediments such as coal and black shale. The pyrite often replaces
organic materials such as plant debris and shells to create interesting fossils composed of pyrite.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Pyrophyllite
Mineral Properties and Uses

Pyrophyllite from Moore County, North Carolina. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

Physical Properties of Pyrophyllite

Chemical Classification silicate

white, pale blue, yellow, grayish

Color
green, brownish green

Streak white

Luster pearly to greasy

Diaphaneity translucent

Cleavage perfect

Mohs Hardness 1 to 2

Specific Gravity 2.7 to 2.9

Diagnostic Properties cleavage, greasy feel

Chemical Composition Al2Si4O10(OH)2

Crystal System monoclinic

Uses ceramics, refractory materials

Layering of pyrophyllite from Moore County, North Carolina. Specimen is approximately 3/4 inch (1.9 centimeters) thick.
 Pyrrhotite
Mineral Properties and Uses

Pyrrhotite from Falconbridge, Ontario, Canada. Specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) across.

Nickeliferous pyrrhotite from Falconbridge, Ontario, Canada. Specimen is approximately 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) across.
What is Pyrrhotite?

Pyrrhotite is an iron sulfide mineral found in basic igneous rocks,

pegmatites, vein deposits, and contact metamorphic deposits. It
is slighly magnetic.

Physical Properties of Pyrrhotite

Chemical Classification sulfide

bronze yellow, brownish bronze,

Color
reddish bronze

Streak dark grayish black

Luster metallic

Diaphaneity opaque

Cleavage none

Mohs Hardness 3.5 to 4.5

Specific Gravity 4.6 to 4.7

Diagnostic Properties color, magnetism

Chemical Composition iron sulfide, Fe1-xS

Crystal System monoclinic

Uses a very minor ore of iron

Uses of Pyrrhotite?

Pyrrhotite is mined primarily because it is associated with

pentlandite, sulfide mineral that can contain significant amounts
of nickel and cobalt.
Pyrrhotite from Falconbridge, Ontario, Canada. Specimen is approximately 2-
1/2 inches (6.4 centimeters) across.
 Quartz
A ubiquitous mineral with an enormous number of uses

Quartz crystals: Herkimer "Diamond" quartz crystals. A clear, "rock crystal" variety of quartz.

What is Quartz?
Quartz is a chemical compound consisting of one part silicon and two parts oxygen. It is silicon dioxide
(SiO2). It is the most abundant mineral found at Earth's surface, and its unique properties make it one of the
most useful natural substances.

Rock crystal quartz: Transparent "rock crystal" quartz. This specimen shows the conchoidal fracture (fracture that produces
curved surfaces) that is characteristic of the mineral. Specimen is about four inches (ten centimeters) across and is from Minas
Gerais, Brazil.

Where is Quartz Found?

Quartz is the most abundant and widely distributed mineral found at Earth's surface. It is present and
plentiful in all parts of the world. It forms at all temperatures. It is abundant in igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentary rocks. It is highly resistant to both mechanical and chemical weathering. This durability
makes it the dominant mineral of mountaintops and the primary constituent of beach, river, and desert sand.
Quartz is ubiquitous, plentiful and durable. Minable deposits are found throughout the world.

Amethyst quartz: Purple crystalline quartz is known as "amethyst." When transparent and of high quality, it is often cut as a
gemstone. This specimen is about four inches (ten centimeters) across and is from Guanajuato, Mexico.

Physical Properties of Quartz

Chemical
Silicate
Classification

Quartz occurs in virtually every color. Common colors are clear, white, gray, purple, yellow, brown, black, pink, green,
Color
red.

Streak Colorless (harder than the streak plate)

Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage None - typically breaks with a conchoidal fracture

Mohs Hardness 7

Specific Gravity 2.6 to 2.7

Diagnostic Properties Conchoidal fracture, glassy luster, hardness

Chemical Composition SiO2

Crystal System Hexagonal

Uses Glass making, abrasive, foundry sand, hydraulic fracturing proppant, gemstones
Flint: Flint is a variety of microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline quartz. It occurs as nodules and concretionary masses and less
frequently as a layered deposit. It breaks consistently with a conchoidal fracture and was one of the first materials used to make
tools by early people. They used it to make cutting tools. After thousands of years, people continue to use it. It is presently used as
the cutting edge in some of the finest surgical tools. This specimen is about four inches (ten centimeters) across and is from Dover
Cliffs, England.

Quartz flint arrowheads: One of the first uses of quartz, in the form of flint, was the production of sharp objects such as knife
blades, scrapers, and projectile points such as the arrowheads shown above. © iStockphoto / Leslie Banks.

What are the Uses for Quartz?

Quartz is one of the most useful natural materials. Its usefulness can be linked to its physical and chemical
properties. It has a hardness of seven on the Mohs Scalewhich makes it very durable. It is chemically inert
in contact with most substances. It has electrical properties and heat resistance that make it valuable in
electronic products. Its luster, color, and diaphaneity make it useful as a gemstone and also in the making of
glass.

Uses of Quartz in Glass Making

Geological processes have occasionally deposited sandsthat are composed of almost 100% quartz grains.
These deposits have been identified and produced as sources of high purity silica sand. These sands are used
in the glassmaking industry. Quartz sand is used in the production of container glass, flat plate glass,
specialty glass, and fiberglass.
Quartz glass windows: Glassmaking is one of the primary uses of quartz. © iStockphoto / Chinaface.

Jasper beads: Quartz is often used in jewelry or as a gemstone. These jasper beads are an example of quartz used as a gemstone.

Quartz glass sand: High-purity quartz sandstone suitable for the manufacture of high-quality glass. "Glass sand" is a sandstone
that is composed almost entirely of quartz grains. Pictured here is a specimen of the Oriskany Sandstone from Hancock, West
Virginia. In a few locations, the Oriskany is over 99% pure quartz. Much of it has been used for container glass, but some of it has
been selected for use in making lenses for the largest telescopes. Specimen is about four inches (ten centimeters across).
Blue aventurine quartz: Aventurine is colorful variety of quartz that contains abundant shiny inclusions of minerals such as mica
or hematite. It is often cut and polished for use as an ornamental stone. Common colors for aventurine are green, orange, and blue.
This specimen is about four inches (ten centimeters) across and is from India.

Uses of Quartz as an Abrasive

The high hardness of quartz, seven on the Mohs Scale, makes it harder than most other natural substances.
As such it is an excellent abrasive material. Quartz sands and finely ground silica sand are used for sand
blasting, scouring cleansers, grinding media, and grit for sanding and sawing.

Uses of Quartz as a Foundry Sand

Quartz is very resistant to both chemicals and heat. It is therefore often used as a foundry sand. With a
melting temperature higher than most metals, it can be used for the molds and cores of common foundry
work. Refractory bricks are often made of quartz sand because of its high heat resistance. Quartz sand is also
used as a flux in the smelting of metals.

Silicified wood: Silicified "petrified" wood is formed when buried plant debris is infiltrated with mineral-bearing waters which
precipitate quartz. This quartz infills the cavities within the wood and often replaces the woody tissues. This specimen is about
four inches (ten centimeters) across and is from Yuma County, Arizona.
Uses in the Petroleum Industry
Quartz sand has a high resistance to being crushed. In the petroleum industry, sand slurries are forced down
oil and gas wells under very high pressures in a process known as hydraulic fracturing. This high pressure
fractures the reservoir rocks, and the sandy slurry injects into the fractures. The durable sand grains hold the
fractures open after the pressure is released. These open fractures facilitate the flow of natural gas into the
well bore.

Chert: Chert is a microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline quartz. It occurs as nodules and concretionary masses and less frequently as
a layered deposit. This specimen is about four inches (ten centimeters) across and is from Joplin, Missouri.

Many Other Quartz Sand Uses

Quartz sand is used as a filler in the manufacture of rubber, paint, and putty. Screened and washed, carefully
sized quartz grains are used as filter media and roofing granules. Quartz sands are used for traction in the
railroad and mining industries. These sands are also used in recreation on golf courses, volleyball courts,
baseball fields, children's sand boxes and beaches.

Quartz crystal: A Herkimer "Diamond" quartz crystal in dolostone. This specimen is about six inches (fifteen centimeters)
across and is from Middleville, New York.
Uses of Quartz Crystals
High-quality quartz crystals are single-crystal silica with optical or electronic properties that make them
useful for specialty purposes. USGS estimates that about ten billion quartz crystals are used every year.

Electronics-grade crystals can be used in filters, frequency controls, timers, electronic circuits that become
important components in cell phones, watches, clocks, games, television receivers, computers, navigational
instruments, and other products. Optical-grade crystals can be used as lenses and windows in lasers and
other specialized devices. Although some natural quartz crystals are used in these applications, most of these
special crystals are now manufactured.

Ametrine: A bicolor stone combining golden citrine and purple amethyst. This gem measures about 8x10 mm.

Quartz as a Gemstone
Quartz makes an excellent gemstone. It is hard, durable, and usually accepts a brilliant polish. Popular
varieties of quartz that are widely used as gems include: amethyst, citrine, rose quartz, and aventurine.
Agate and jasper are also varieties of quartz with a microcrystalline structure.

Rose quartz: Translucent rose quartz in the rough.

Rose quartz beads: Translucent rose quartz - cut and polished beads. Each bead is about ten millimeters in diameter.

Novaculite is a dense, cryptocrystalline variety of quartz with a fine-grained and very uniform texture. As quartz, it has a hardness
of 7 (harder than steel) and is used as a "whetstone" for sharpening knives.

Special Silica Stone Uses

"Silica stone" is an industrial term for materials such as quartzite, novaculite, and other microcrystalline
quartz rocks. These are used to produce abrasive tools, deburring media, grinding stones, hones, oilstones,
stone files, tube-mill liners, and whetstones.

Tripoli
Tripoli is crystalline silica of an extremely fine grain size (less than ten micrometers). Commercial tripoli is
a nearly pure silica material that is used for a variety of mild abrasive purposes which include: soaps,
toothpastes, metal-polishing compounds, jewelry-polishing compounds, and buffing compounds. It can be
used as a polish when making tumbled stones in a rock tumbler. Tripoli is also used in brake friction
products, fillers in enamel, caulking compounds, plastic, paint, rubber, and refractories.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Realgar and Orpiment
Arsenic Sulfide Minerals

Realgar: Realgar crystals from the Royal Reward Mine in King County, Washington. Specimen measures about 2.2 x 1.1 x 0.8
centimeters. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Toxic Arsenic Sulfide Minerals

Realgar and orpiment are very similar minerals. They are both arsenic sulfides and members of the
monoclinic crystal system. They form in the same geological environments and can be closely associated in
the same deposits. They have similar physical properties and similar histories of use by man. Because of
these similarities, we decided to describe realgar and orpiment in a single article.

Realgar and orpiment are both toxic minerals, and contact with them should be avoided. They are not
suitable for classroom specimens.

Physical Properties: Realgar / Orpiment

Realgar Orpiment

Chemical
Sulfide Sulfide
Classification

Color Red to orange, gray Yellow, golden, yellow-brown

Streak Red-orange to red Light yellow

Luster Resinous to pearly on cleavage Resinous to pearly on cleavage

Diaphaneity Translucent to transparent Translucent to transparent

Cleavage Good Perfect

Mohs Hardness 1.5 to 2 1.5 to 2

Specific Gravity 3.56 3.49

Diagnostic Color, streak, resinous luster. Association with

Color, streak, luster, foliated appearance. Association with realgar.
Properties orpiment.

Chemical
As4S4 As2S3
Composition

Crystal System Monoclinic Monoclinic

An ore of arsenic. Historically used as a pigment, An ore of arsenic. Used in the production of oil cloth,
Uses depilatory, poison, ingredient in explosives and semiconductors, photoconductors. Historically used as a pigment,
fireworks, ritualistic "medicine," cosmetic. poison, ingredient in fireworks and explosives.

What is Realgar?
Realgar is a monoclinic arsenic sulfide mineral with a brilliant red color and a chemical composition of
As4S4. Well-formed realgar crystals can look so much like red gemstones that the mineral was often called
"ruby sulfur" and "ruby arsenic."

However, realgar is not used as a gemstone because it is very soft, with a Mohs hardness of just 1-1/2 to 2.
It is easily ground into a fine, bright red powder. Those properties caused it to become a favorite pigment in
many parts of the ancient world. It was traded over great distances to make paints, inks, and dyes - until
people realized that it was toxic.

The arsenic in realgar was the source of its toxicity. After its toxicity was realized in the Middle Ages, the
mineral was used as a poison to kill rodents, insects, and weeds. Realgar was also used in leather processing
to remove the hair from hides. Today it is rarely used for any of these purposes because more effective and
less toxic substitutes have been developed. However, some use of realgar in ritualistic cosmetics and
"medicines" continues in a few parts of the world. Today the main use of realgar is as an ore of arsenic
metal.

The chemical formula of realgar is often written as As4S4instead of the simpler AsS. This is done because
As4S4represents a structural unit of the mineral. A compound of As+3 and S-2 would be out of electrical
balance. In realgar, three of the arsenics are joined in a chain by covalent bonds. This gives the arsenics an
effective electrical charge of +8. That combines with four S-2 ions to produce an electrically neutral molecule.
This is why realgar's chemical composition is often presented as As4S4 instead of AsS.
Orpiment: Bright orange orpiment from the Jiepaiyu Mine in Hunan Province, China. This specimen shows the botryoidal habit
of orpiment. It measures 12.7 centimeters in length. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

What is Orpiment?
Orpiment is a monoclinic arsenic sulfide with a yellow-orange color and a chemical composition of As2S3. It
has a Mohs hardness of 1-1/2 to 2 and is easily ground into a yellow to yellow-orange powder. Like realgar,
its earliest widespread use was as a pigment for paints, inks, and dyes, and it was traded over great distances.

After its toxicity was discovered, its use as a pigment declined. People took advantage of its toxicity to use it
as a poison for insects and rodents. Some people continued to use it as a ritualistic cosmetic and "medicine"
even after its toxicity was known, and that practice continues today in some parts of the world.

Today the primary use of orpiment is as an ore of arsenic. It is also used in manufacturing oil cloth,
semiconductors, and photoconductors.

Realgar on calcite: Red realgar crystals on white calcite, from the Jiepaiyu Mine in Hunan Province, China. Specimen and photo
by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Geologic Occurrence
Realgar and orpiment are mainly found associated with hydrothermal and volcanic activities. They are
sublimation products at volcanic vents and crystallization products at hot springs. These are among the
earliest deposits exploited in the middle ages. Underground deposits of realgar and orpiment are in veins and
fractures. There they are associated with lead, silver, gold, and other arsenic minerals.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Rhodochrosite
A pink manganese carbonate mineral used as an ore, a gemstone, and a crystal specimen.

Rhodochrosite: Rhodochrosite cabochons illustrating the banded pink colors that are characteristic of this mineral. The specimen
in the upper right is a slice from a stalactite. All stones cut from material mined in Argentina.

What is Rhodochrosite?
Rhodochrosite is a manganese carbonate mineral that ranges in color from light pink to bright red. It is
found in a small number of locations worldwide where other manganese minerals are usually present.
Rhodochrosite is sometimes used as an ore of manganese but is rarely found in economic quantities.
Specimens with a wonderful pink color are used to produce highly desirable gemstones. Rhodochrosite is
rarely found as well-formed crystals, so crystals can be extremely valuable as mineral specimens.

Physical Properties of Rhodochrosite

Chemical Classification Carbonate

Color Pink, red, yellow, gray, brown

Streak White

Luster Vitreous to pearly

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Perfect, rhombohedral, in three directions

Mohs Hardness 3.5 to 4

Specific Gravity 3.5 to 3.7

Diagnostic Properties Pink color, cleavage, hardness, effervescence in cold dilute hydrochloric acid

Chemical Composition (Mn,Fe,Mg,Ca)CO3

 Crystal System Hexagonal

Uses Ore of manganese, gemstone, ornamental stone

Physical and Chemical Properties

Rhodochrosite has a variable chemical composition. It is a manganese carbonate, but the manganese is
frequently replaced by iron, magnesium and/or calcium as shown in this formula: (Mn,Fe,Mg,Ca)CO3.
These substitutions of other elements for manganese change the composition and alter the specific
gravity, hardness, and color of the mineral. The bright pink color can become grayish, yellowish, or
brownish in response to this chemical variability. A complete solid solution series exists between
rhodochrosite and siderite (FeCO3).

Rhodochrosite is generally easy to identify and is rarely confused with other minerals. Its pink color, perfect
cleavage in three directions, low hardness, and weak effervescence with cold dilute hydrochloric acid are
rarely seen in other minerals. The most common confusion is between the names "rhodochrosite" and
"rhodonite" -- both are pink, manganese-rich minerals with very similar names that people have a hard time
remembering.

Colorado Rhodochrosite: Rhodochrosite is the official state mineral of Colorado. Sometimes, nice transparent specimens can be
found that are suitable for cutting faceted stones. This faceted cushion was cut from material obtained from the famous Sweet
Home Mine near Alma, Colorado. It has a nice orangish pink color, measures 6.7 x 6.2 millimeters and weighs 1.52 carats. Photo
by Bradley Payne, TheGemTrader.com.

Geologic Occurrence
The formation of rhodochrosite usually occurs in fractures and cavities of metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks. It is often associated with silver deposits, and a few silver mines produce rhodochrosite as a
byproduct. Some of the common modes of occurrence and their lapidary uses are described below.

In metamorphic rocks, rhodochrosite is found as a vein and fracture-filling mineral where it precipitates
from ascending hydrothermal solutions. Repeated episodes of crystallization allow it to build up in layers on
the walls of the fracture. Each layer can be a unique precipitation event and produce material with a slightly
different pink color. This gives character to the material for lapidary use. Miners usually remove the
rhodochrosite from the wall rock of these veins and cut it into thin slabs with a diamond saw. The slabs can
then be used to make cabochons, small boxes, or other lapidary projects.
Some rhodochrosite forms in cavities in sedimentary and metamorphic rocks when descending solutions
deliver a supply of dissolved materials. In these deposits, the rhodochrosite accumulates in layers on the
walls of the cavity and may form stalactites and stalagmites on the roof and floor of the cavity - just like
speleothems in a cavern. These formations are often removed and slabbed to produce material with
concentric pink banding. Some of the best examples of this form of rhodochrosite are found at the Capillitas
and Catamarca deposits in Argentina.

Rhodochrosite is extremely rare as well-formed crystals. One of the few locations in the world where they
are found is the Sweet Home Mine, near Alma, Colorado. Originally opened as a silver mine in 1873, the
rhodochrosite was disregarded at that time. Then, as the popularity of mineral collecting increased, the well-
formed crystals found at the Sweet Home Mine became many times more valuable than the lapidary
material. Excellent, small, hand-size specimens currently sell for five-digit numbers. Broken or damaged
crystals are sometimes used as faceting rough.

Rhodochrosite for lapidary and mineral specimen use is only found in a few locations worldwide. These
include Argentina, South Africa, Peru, Montana, Colorado, Russia, Romania, Gabon, Mexico, and Japan.

Superb Rhodochrosite Crystals: Crystals of transparent red rhodochrosite on tetrahedrite with a few clear quartz crystals. This
specimen is about 5 x 4 x 2 centimeters in size and was taken from the Sweet Home Mine. Crystals this transparent and of such
wonderful color would make beautiful faceted stones, but because this is such a fine crystal specimen, there would be a huge
financial loss if that were done. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Rhodochrosite as a Gemstone
Rhodochrosite is a favorite gemstone of many people. It is often slabbed to show off its banded or
concentric patterns. Most of the slabs are used to cut cabochons. Cutting rhodochrosite is a difficult job
because the material has perfect cleavage, and it is so soft that it is hard to polish. Nice, stable, slabbed
material is sometimes used to make small boxes and other ornaments. The rare transparent material that is
not suitable as a mineral specimen is sometimes faceted into attractive pink and red gems. The beautiful
stones produced are mainly for collectors because faceted rhodochrosite is too fragile for most jewelry use.

Rhodochrosite has a hardness of only 3.5 to 4 and has perfect cleavage in three directions. This eliminates it
as a good choice as a ring or bracelet stone which might be subject to abrasion or impact. It does well in
earrings, pins, and pendants, which are generally not subject to as much abuse as a ring.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Rhodonite
A pink to red manganese silicate used as a gemstone and minor ore of manganese.

Rhodonite from Nevada: Rhodonite with its characteristic matrix and fracture-filling of manganese oxide. This specimen from
Humboldt County, Nevada was photographed by Chris Ralph of Nevada-Outback-Gems.com and is used here as a public
domain image.

What is Rhodonite?
Rhodonite is a pink manganese silicate of variable composition that often contains significant amounts of
iron, magnesium, and calcium. It has a generalized chemical composition of (Mn,Fe,Mg,Ca)SiO3. Rhodonite
is often associated with black manganese oxides which may occur as dendrites, fracture-fillings, or matrix
within the specimen. Other names for rhodonite include "manganese spar" and "manganolite."

Rhodonite cabochon: A cabochon cut from pink rhodonite in a matrix of black manganese oxide. The pink color of this
specimen is especially nice, and the manganese oxide is typical. This cabochon is about 28 millimeters in diameter.

Geologic Occurrence
Rhodonite is usually found in metamorphic rocks associated with other manganese minerals. It is also
found in rocks that have been altered by contact metamorphism, hydrothermal and metasomatic processes.
It is usually massive to granular in occurrence. Rarely, it is found as red triclinic crystals.

Rhodonite is an uncommon mineral. It is found in a few small deposits across the world. Sources of
rhodonite include: Russia, Canada, Australia, Brazil, Sweden, Peru, and England. In the United States it has
been found in North Carolina, Colorado, New Jersey, and has been named as the state gem of
Massachusetts.

Physical Properties of Rhodonite

Chemical Classification Silicate

Color Pink, red, reddish brown to brown when weathered

Streak White

Luster Pearly to vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Perfect, two directions, 90 degrees

Mohs Hardness 5.5 to 6.5

Specific Gravity 3.5 to 3.7

Diagnostic Properties Pink color, cleavage, specific gravity, frequent association with black manganese oxide

Chemical Composition (Mn2+,Fe2+,Mg,Ca)SiO3

Crystal System Triclinic

Uses Decorative stone, gemstones

Physical Properties
Rhodonite's diagnostic properties are its pink to red color, hardness, high specific gravity, perfect cleavage,
and its close association with black manganese oxides. It is sometimes confused with rhodochrosite, which
is softer and effervescent in hydrochloric acid, or thulite, which is usually not associated with black
manganese oxides. The physical properties of rhodonite are summarized in the table on this page.
Faceted rhodonite: Rhodonite is rarely seen as a faceted stone. Excellent crystals of rhodonite are very rare and usually sell for
such high prices to mineral collectors that very few are faceted. Occasionally, broken or second-quality crystals are faceted.
Because of their cleavage and low hardness, faceted specimens of rhodonite are more in demand as "collector gems" than for use
in jewelry.

Uses of Rhodonite
Rhodonite was once used as ore of manganese in India. Today its only uses are as lapidary materials and as
mineral specimens. High-quality crystals of rhodonite can sell for very high prices. Good massive pink- to
red-colored material is used as an ornamental stone or gem rough. It is typically used to make cabochons,
beads, small sculptures, tumbled stones, and other lapidary projects.

Rare, well-formed, transparent crystals are highly sought after by mineral collectors. Damaged crystals of
good quality are sometimes cut into faceted stones. Most of these are acquired by collectors because their
cleavage and low hardness make them too fragile for use in jewelry.
Rhodonite crystals: A nice cluster of rhodonite crystals from Minas Gerais, Brazil. Specimen is about 2.5 centimeters in height.
Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Tumbled rhodonite: Rhodonite is sometimes used to make tumbled stones in a rock tumbler. Many people enjoy the raspberry
color of rhodonite against the black manganese oxide. Rhodonite is a good tumbling rough for experienced tumblers. The material
most often offered as a tumbling rough is inexpensive and with significant amounts of black manganese oxide. It can be
challenging to polish because the manganese oxide often has a hardness that is different from the rhodonite. This results in
overcutting of one material and undercutting of the other.

Compositional and Structural Variations

Specimens of rhodonite that contain up to 20% calcium oxide are usually grayish brown in color and are
known as "bustamite." "Fowlerite" is the name given to specimens that contain up to 7% zinc oxide.
Specimens with a brown color have usually been altered by weathering.

Rhodonite is one of two minerals with a chemical composition of manganese silicate. The other is a high-
temperature, low-pressure polymorph known as "pyroxmangite."

Contributor: Hobart King

 Rutile
Mineral Properties and Uses
What is Rutile?

Rutile is a titanium oxide mineral that is most commonly found in granites, pegmatites and metamorphic rocks. It is
also found in sands derived from the weathering of these rocks. Rutile also forms as slender crystals within quartz and
micas. It is a common mineral in the alluvial sands that are dredged for magnetite and ilmenite.

Physical Properties of Rutile

Chemical
oxide
Classification

Color red, reddish brown, reddish black

Streak pale brown

Luster adamantine to submetallic

Diaphaneity transparent to subtranslucent

Cleavage good Rutile from Oaxaca, Mexico. Specimen is approximately 1 inch (2.5
centimeters) across.

Mohs Hardness 6 to 6.5

Specific Gravity 4.2 to 4.4

Diagnostic
luster, color
Properties

Chemical
titanium oxide, TiO2
Composition

Crystal System tetragonal

an ore of titanium, pigments, inert

Uses
coating on welding rods

Uses of Rutile?

Rutile is used as a coating on welding rods. It is also used as an Ilmenorutile, a variety of rutile from Iveland, Norway. Specimen is
ore of titanium, a metal used where light weight and high approximately 2 inches (5 centimeters) across.
strength are needed. Some rutile used in the production of
pigments for paints.
Sand made of rutile ilmenite zircon from Georgia. Specimens are sand size
particles. Nigrine, a variety of rutile from Magnet Cove, Arkansas. Specimens are
approximately 1/2 inch to 1 inch (1.3 centimeters to 2.5 centimeters) across.

Cabochons of rutilated quartz - an example of how long thin crystals of rutile

can form in quartz. Each gem is approximately 12 millimeters by 10
millimeters.
 Scapolite
A name used for the solid-solution mineral pair of marialite and meionite.

Cat's-eye scapolite: Some scapolite has an internal silk that causes it to form a cat's-eye or a chatoyance. The stone on the left is
a 10 x 7 millimeter oval with a very coarse silk. The silk can be seen in the stone as linear bands of black inclusions that cross the
stone from left to right. The cat's-eye forms at right angles to the silk. In the stone on the right, the silk has just the right spacing to
serve as a diffraction grating and produce a beautiful display of iridescent color. Both gems were cut from material produced in
India.

What is Scapolite?
Scapolite is a name used for a group of aluminosilicate minerals that includes meionite, marialite, and
silvialite. Meionite and marialite are end members of a solid solution series. Silvialite is a mineral that is
very similar to meionite.

These minerals have very similar compositions, crystal structures, and physical properties. They cannot be
easily distinguished from one another in the field or during hand specimen examination in a laboratory. The
name "scapolite" is a term used for convenient communication. These minerals are found in small quantities
in some metamorphic and igneous rocks. Their compositions are compared in the table below.

Mineral Chemical Composition

Meionite Ca4(Al2Si2O8)3(CO3,SO4)

Marialite Na4(AlSi3O8)3Cl

Silvialite (Ca,Na)4(Al2Si2O8)3(CO3,SO4)
Scapolite crystals: Scapolite crystals of about 1 inch in length on matrix. Scapolite is one of a small number of minerals that have
crystals with a square cross-section. These light purple crystals were found in Pakistan. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone
/ www.iRocks.com.

Physical Properties of Scapolite

Scapolite has an appearance that is very similar to many feldspars. As a result, it can easily be overlooked in
the field and during hand specimen examination in a laboratory.

Massive scapolite is found in regionally metamorphosed rocks such as marble, gneiss, and schist. These
massive specimens often exhibit a wood-grain or fibrous texture which facilitates their identification. Well-
formed, gem-quality, prismatic crystals with a square cross-section are sometimes found in marbles.

In metamorphosed igneous rocks, especially gabbro andbasalt, scapolite often occurs as complete or partial
replacements of the feldspar grains. Crystals of scapolite are sometimes found in pegmatites and rocks
altered by contact metamorphism.

Scapolite minerals are easily attacked by weathering. They are some of the first minerals attacked in their
host rocks and easily alter to micas and clay minerals. As weathering begins, the mineral grains lose their
transparency, become opaque, and have a reduced hardness.

Physical Properties of Scapolite

Chemical
Silicate
Classification

Color Colorless, white, gray, yellow, orange, pink, purple

Streak White

Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Good

Mohs Hardness 5 to 6

Specific Gravity 2.5 to 2.7

Diagnostic Luster, specific gravity, massive specimens often have a wood-grain or fibrous appearance, prismatic crystals have a
Properties square cross-section

Chemical
A solid solution between marialite (Na4(AlSi3O8)3Cl) and meionite (Ca4(Al2Si2O8)3(CO3,SO4))
Composition

Crystal System Tetragonal

Uses Faceted gemstones and cat's-eye cabochons

Faceted scapolite: Transparent scapolite can be cut into beautiful faceted gems that are often clear, yellow, pink, or purple in
color. It is rarely seen in jewelry because it is not commonly available, and the public is unfamiliar with the gem. It has a hardness
of only 5 to 6, which is soft for a ring stone. This stone is a 13 x 10 millimeter oval cut from material produced in India.

Uses of Scapolite
Scapolite does not have a role as an industrial mineral. It is rarely found in minable quantities and does not
have a composition or physical properties that make it of industrial use.

The only use of scapolite is as a minor gemstone; however, in that use it can be beautiful and interesting.
Yellow and pink transparent scapolite can be cut into very attractive gems like the yellow scapolite shown
on this page. Some specimens contain tiny fibrous inclusions that produce a "silk" within the stone that
reflects light to form a cat's-eye. A specimen with a coarse silk that forms both a cat's-eye and a diffraction
grating is shown in the photo at the top of this page.

Scapolite has a Mohs hardness of between 5 and 6, which is too soft to serve as a ring stone. Its use is
therefore limited to being a collector's stone and being mounted in jewelry such as earrings and pendants
that have a low risk of impact or abrasion.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Serpentine
A group of minerals used as architectural, ornamental, and gem materials. A source of asbestos.

Lizardite: This is a specimen of lizardite, a serpentine-group mineral. This specimen has a gemmy green color and a very smooth
texture. This specimen is suitable for cutting into a few gemstones. This specimen is about four centimeters across. From Warren
County, New York.

What is Serpentine?
Serpentine is not the name of a single mineral. Instead it is a name used for a large group of minerals that fit
this generalized formula: (X)2-3(Y)2O5(OH)4

In this formula, X will be one of the following metals: magnesium, iron, nickel, aluminum, zinc,
or manganese; and, Y will be silicon, aluminum, or iron. The appropriate generalized formula is thus
(Mg,Fe,Ni, Mn,Zn)2-3(Si,Al,Fe)2O5(OH)4.

Chrysotile, antigorite, and lizardite are three of the primary serpentine minerals. There are many other
serpentine minerals, most of which are rare.

Serpentine group minerals have similar physical properties and form by similar processes. They often occur
as fine-grained admixtures and can be difficult to distinguish within a rock. Geologists usually call these
materials "serpentine" rather than more specific names to simplify communication.
Ophiolite: Surface exposure of an Ordovician ophiolite in Gros Morne National Park, Newfoundland. Ophiolites are occurrences
of oceanic plate and/or mantle rock exposed at the surface. They usually consist of serpentinite and associated rocks. (GNU Free
Documentation License Image).

Serpentinites and Serpentine Formation

Serpentine minerals form where peridotite, dunite, and other ultramafic rocks undergo hydrothermal
metamorphism. Ultramafic rocks are rare at Earth's surface but are abundant at the oceanic moho, the
boundary between the base of the oceanic crust and the upper mantle.

They are metamorphosed at convergent plate boundaries where an oceanic plate is pushed down into the
mantle. This is where they are subjected to hydrothermal metamorphism. The source of water for this
process is seawater entrained in the rocks and sediments of the oceanic slab.

During hydrothermal metamorphism, olivine and pyroxene minerals are transformed into or are replaced by
serpentine minerals. Some of the metamorphic rocks produced here are composed almost entirely of
serpentine minerals. These serpentine-rich rocks are known as "serpentinites."

Extensive areas of Earth's surface are underlain by serpentinites. These areas occur near present or ancient
convergent plate boundaries. They are locations where remnants of an oceanic plate is exposed at the
surface. The remnant portion of the plate was either thrusted up onto land, accreted onto the edge of a land
mass, or exposed by uplift and deep weathering.

These areas of exposed oceanic plate are known as ophiolites. They are often the source of valuable minerals
that might include magnetite, chromite, chrysoprase, jade, and serpentine.

Physical Properties of Serpentine

Chemical Classification Silicate

Color Usually various shades of green, but can be yellow, black, white, and other colors.

Streak White

Luster Greasy or waxy

Diaphaneity Translucent to opaque, rarely transparent

 Cleavage Poor to perfect

Mohs Hardness Variable between 3 and 6

Specific Gravity 2.5 to 2.6

Diagnostic Properties Color, luster, fibrous habit, hardness, slippery feel

Chemical Composition (Mg,Fe,Ni,Al,Zn,Mn)2-3(Si,Al,Fe)2O5(OH)4

Crystal System Most serpentine minerals are monoclinic.

Uses A source of asbestos, architectural stone, ornamental stone, gem material.

Physical Properties of Serpentine

The most obvious physical properties of serpentine are its green color, patterned appearance, and slippery
feel. These remind the observer of a snake and that is where the name "serpentine" was derived.

Serpentine is also known for its translucent diaphaneity, waxy luster, ease of being cut into shapes, and its
ability to accept a polish. These properties make it a popular gemstone, architectural material, and
ornamental stone.

Last is serpentine's ability to resist the transfer of heat. That makes it a valuable insulator. Fibrous varieties
of serpentine, such as chrysotile, have been used to make asbestos, which has many industrial uses. Its use
today is limited because the fibers have been associated with respiratory disease.

Architectural Serpentine: Serpentine has a long history of use as an architectural stone. It is usually green in color, cuts easily,
polishes well, and has an attractive appearance. It was popular in the first half of the 20th century but is used less today, partly out
of concern that it might contain asbestos. Enlarge image. Images copyright by iStockphoto and, clockwise from top left, Vladvg,
Violetastock, AlexanderCher, and AlexanderCher.

Use of Serpentine: Architectural Material

Serpentine has been used as an architectural stone for thousands of years. It is available in a wide variety of
green and greenish colors, often has an attractive pattern, works easily, and polishes to a nice luster. It has
a Mohs hardness of 3 to 6 which is softer than granite, and usually harder than most marble. This low
hardness limits its appropriate use to surfaces that will not receive abrasion or wear, such as facing stone,
wall tiles, mantles, and window sills.
Serpentine was popular in the United States during the first half of the 20th century and is less popular
today. The decline in popularity is partly related to concerns about worker safety and the possible asbestos
content of the stone.

In the dimension stone trade, serpentine is often sold as "marble." It might also be described as "serpentine
marble" or given a trade name that does not include the word "serpentine." This is a tradition of the industry
and is usually not a misidentification of the material. This practice severely irritates some geologists. :-)

Chrysotile: A rock containing chrysotile, a serpentine group mineral, with a fibrous habit in fractures. Specimen is approximately
five centimeters across. From Easton, Pennsylvania.

Use of Serpentine: Asbestos

Some varieties of serpentine have a fibrous habit. These fibers resist the transfer of heat, do not burn, and
serve as excellent insulators. The serpentine mineral chrysotile is common, found in many parts of the
world, is easily mined, and can be processed to recover the heat-resistant fibers.

The use of chrysotile and other serpentine minerals with an asbestiform habit as insulators has been
widespread. They were widely available, effective in their applications and inexpensive to produce. By the
middle of the 20th century, they could be found in most buildings and vehicles. They were used to make
wall and ceiling tiles, flooring, shingles, facing material, pipe insulation, stoves, paints, and many other
common construction materials and appliances.

After they were discovered to be connected to lung and other cancers, their use was mostly discontinued,
and a campaign to remove them from many of their uses began. Removal programs have been ongoing for
decades and are still being done today. It has been one of the most costly removal programs in history.
Serpentine Cabochons: Three interesting cabochons cut from various types of serpentine. This is only a small example of the
infinite diversity of serpentine gem materials.

Lime Green Serpentine: Rare specimens of serpentine have a wonderful green color, clarity, and translucence. These specimens
have the appearance of nice jade and are sometimes confused with it in retail products.

Use of Serpentine: Gemstones

Attractive serpentine can be cut into a wide variety of gemstones. It is most often cut into cabochons and
beads. They usually display a range of green, yellow, and black colors and often have magnetite, chromite,
or other minerals as interesting inclusions. The lower left side of the green and black cabochon in the center
of the photo on this page contains enough included magnetite that the cab can be moved with a small hand
magnet.

Gemstone-quality serpentine is easy to polish, and beautiful finishes are possible. However, it usually
polishes to a waxy luster rather than the brilliant glassy luster of much harder materials such as agate, jasper,
and faceted stones. Rockhounds who polish their first piece of serpentine and know this have their
expectations calibrated in advance. The waxy luster is a beautiful and common characteristic of the material.
It does not reflect the skill of the operator. Extra polishing time and effort will still produce a waxy luster.

Serpentine has some durability concerns. It has a hardness that ranges from 3 to 6 on the Mohs scale. Three
is far too soft for anything but the most gently-worn jewelry such as earrings, brooches, or pendants. A
Mohs hardness of six is not hard enough for confident use in a ring or bracelet. Beads can be made from the
more durable serpentine.

Some specimens of serpentine have a wonderful green color, clarity, and translucence. They are easily
mistaken for fine jade by inexperienced buyers. The experienced buyer knows that serpentine polishes to a
soft waxy luster rather than a bright glassy luster. Cabochons or beads with a waxy luster are not jade -- or
they are jade with a poor polishing job.

Serpentine Sculpture: A small lion sculpture made of beautiful green serpentine by the House of Fabergé. This image by
Shakko/Photos is displayed here under a Creative Commons License.

Use of Serpentine: Sculptures

Some varieties of serpentine can be carved into beautiful stone sculptures. Fine-grained, translucent material
with a uniform texture and without voids and fractures is preferred. Serpentine is relatively soft and carves
easily. It also accepts a nice polish.

Serpentine sculptures range in size from under one centimeter to several meters in height. Bowls, vases,
desk sets, clock bases, animals, fruit, flowers, legendary figures, deities, busts, and statues are all common
objects made by artists working with serpentine.
Use of Serpentine: CO2Sequestration
Serpentinite rock units have been considered as repositories for the disposal of waste carbon dioxide
produced when fossil fuels are burned. Injecting carbon dioxide into subsurface rock units in the presence of
water can produce magnesium carbonate and quartz in an exothermic reaction similar to the one shown
below.

Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 + 3CO2 + H2O --> 3MgCO3 + 2SiO2 + 3H2O

Numerous studies and small scale tests of geological sequestration of CO2 have produced promising
results, but the procedure has not been placed into commercial practice.
 Siderite
Mineral Properties and Uses
Physical Properties of Siderite
Chemical
carbonate
Classification

Color yellowish, reddish, grayish, brown

Streak white

Luster vitreous

Diaphaneity transparent to translucent

Cleavage perfect

Mohs Hardness 3.5 to 4.5

Specific Gravity 3.8 to 4

Diagnostic Properties color, specific gravity, dissolves in HCl

Chemical Composition FeCO3

Crystal System hexagonal

Uses iron ore, pigments

Siderite from Roxbury, Connecticut. Specimen is approximately 3 inches (7.6

Siderite from Roxbury, Connecticut. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.
centimeters) across.
 Sillimanite
Mineral Properties and Uses

Physical Properties of Sillimanite

Chemical Classification silicate

colorless, white, yellow, brown, blue,

Color
green

Streak colorless

Luster vitreous

Diaphaneity transparent to translucent

Cleavage perfect

Mohs Hardness 6.5 to 7.5

Specific Gravity 3.2 to 3.3

Diagnostic Properties slender crystals, fibrous habit

Chemical Composition Al2SiO5

Crystal System orthorhombic

Uses no significant commercial use

Sillimanite with magnetite from Benson Mines, New York. Specimen is

approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

Sillimanite with magnetite from Benson Mines, New York. Specimen is

approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.
Sillimanite from Williamstown, South Australia. Specimen is approximately 4 Sillimanite from Dillon, Montana. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10
inches (10 centimeters) across. centimeters) across.
 Silver
The soft, white, native metallic element with a diversity of uses.

Silver crystals: Crystals of native silver on calcite from the New Nevada Mine, Batopilas, Chihuahua, Mexico. Specimen is
approximately 11 x 7 x 6 centimeters in size. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

What is Silver?
Silver is a soft, white metal that usually occurs in nature in one of four forms: 1) as a native element; 2) as a
primary constituent in silver minerals; 3) as a natural alloy with other metals; and, 4) as a trace to minor
constituent in the ores of other metals. Most of the silver produced today is a product of the fourth type of
occurrence.

Silver is known as a "precious metal" because it is rare and because it has a high economic value. It is
valuable because it has a number of physical properties that make it the best possible metal for many
different uses.

Silver has an electrical and thermal conductance that is higher than any other metal. It has a higher
reflectivity at most temperatures than any other metal. It has an attractive color and luster that resist tarnish
and make the metal desirable in jewelry, coins, tableware, and many other objects.

These are just a few of silver's important properties. When performance is more important than price, silver
is often the material of choice.
Silver wire: A specimen of wire silver with a heavy tarnish of acanthite on a calcite matrix. Specimen is approximately 6 x 4 x 3
centimeters in size. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Physical Properties of Silver

Chemical Classification Native element

Color Silvery white

Streak Silvery white

Luster Metallic

Diaphaneity Opaque

Cleavage None

Mohs Hardness 2.5 to 3

Specific Gravity 10.0 to 11.0

Diagnostic Properties Color, specific gravity

Chemical Composition Ag

Crystal System Isometric

Uses Jewelry, tableware, coins, electronics, photographic films, ornaments

Related: The Many Uses of Silver

The Many Uses of Silver

Uses of silver: Historically, silver has been used in coins, silverware, and jewelry, but today, these uses account for less than half
of all silver consumption. Silver has become a material of innovation that appears in many unexpected places. Images copyright
iStockphoto / Jorge Farres Sanchez, Tatiana Buzuleac, Nigel Spooner, and Stephanie Frey.

The White Metal

Silver, the white metal, has an illustrious reputation for its use in jewelry and coins, but today, silver's
primary use is industrial. Whether in cell phones or solar panels, new innovations are constantly emerging to
take advantage of silver's unique properties.

Silver is a precious metal because it is rare and valuable, and it is a noble metal because it resists corrosion
and oxidation, though not as well as gold. Because it is the best thermal and electrical conductor of all
the metals, silver is ideal for electrical applications. Its antimicrobial, non-toxic qualities make it useful in
medicine and consumer products. Its high luster and reflectivity make it perfect for jewelry, silverware, and
mirrors. Its malleability, which allows it to be flattened into sheets, and ductility, which allows it to be
drawn into thin, flexible wire, make it the best choice for numerous industrial applications. Meanwhile, its
photosensitivity has given it a place in film photography.

Because it is more abundant, silver is much less expensive than gold. Silver can be ground into powder,
turned into paste, shaved into flakes, converted into a salt, alloyed with other metals, flattened into printable
sheets, drawn into wires, suspended as a colloid, or even employed as a catalyst. These qualities ensure that
silver will continue to shine in the industrial arena, while its long history in coinage and jewelry will sustain
its status as a symbol of wealth and prestige.
Silver paste in electronics: Printed electronics like RFID tags rely on silver paste. Image copyright iStockphoto / JacobH.

Uses of silver in the U.S.: The United States Geological Survey has tabulated the amount of silver used in the United States by
category of use. This data is shown in the graphic above. The "Other" category accounts for almost a quarter of the silver used and
is fragmented into hundreds of different uses. Many of these are described below.

Uses of Silver in Electronics

The number one use of silver in industry is in electronics. Silver's unsurpassed thermal and electrical
conductivity among metals means it cannot easily be replaced by less expensive materials.

For example, small quantities of silver are used as contacts in electrical switches: join the contacts, and the
switch is on; separate them and the switch is off. Whether turning on a bedroom light using a conventional
switch or turning on a microwave using a membrane switch, the result is the same: the current can pass
through only when the contacts are joined. Automobiles are full of contacts that control electronic features,
and so are consumer appliances. Industrial strength switches use silver, too.

How does silver get from the earth to these electronic devices? Silver comes from silver mines or from lead
and zinc mines from which silver is a by-product. Smelting and refining removes silver from the ore. Then,
the silver is usually shaped into bars or grains. Electronics demand silver of the highest purity: 99.99%
pure, also known as having a fineness of 999.9.
Dissolving pure silver in nitric acid produces silver nitrate, which can be formed into powder or flakes. This
material, in turn, can be fabricated into contacts or silver pastes, like conductive paste made with a silver-
palladium alloy.

Related: The Geology of Silver

Silver paste has many uses, such as the membrane switch already mentioned and the rear defrost in many
cars. In electronics, circuit paths, as well as passive components called multilayer ceramic capacitors
(MLCCs), rely on silver paste. One of the fastest growing uses of silver paste is in photovoltaic cells for the
production of solar energy.

Nanosilver, silver with an extremely small particle size (1-100 nanometers, that is 1-100 billionths of a
meter), provides a new frontier for technological innovation, requiring much smaller amounts of silver to get
the job done. Printed electronics work by using nanosilver conductive inks. One example of a printed
electronic is the electrode in a supercapacitor, which can charge and discharge repeatedly and quickly.
Regenerative breaking is an automotive innovation that allows the kinetic energy of a slowing vehicle to be
stored in a supercapacitor for reuse. Radio frequency identification (RFID) tags offer another powerful
application of printed electronics. These tags are better than bar codes for tracking inventory because they
store more information and can be read from a greater distance, even without a direct line of sight.

Silver has its place in consumer electronics, too. Your plasma television set may rely on silver for more than
just the on-off switch if it contains a silver electrode aimed at giving a higher quality image. Light emitting
diodes (LED) also use silver electrodes to produce low-level, energy efficient light. Meanwhile the DVDs
and CDs you play probably have a thin silver recording layer.

Another electronic application of silver is in batteries that employ silver oxide or silver zinc alloys. These
light-weight, high-capacity batteries perform better at high temperature than other batteries. Silver-oxide is
used in button batteries that power cameras and watches, as well as in aerospace and defense applications.
Silver-zinc batteries offer an alternative to lithium batteries for laptop computers and electric cars.

On the cutting edge of technology are superconductors. Silver is not a superconductor, but when paired with
one, the two together can transmit electricity even faster than the superconductor alone. At very low
temperatures, superconductors carry electricity with little or no electrical resistance. They can be used to
generate magnetic energy for turning motors or propelling magnetic levitation trains.

The myriad applications of silver in electronics offer an eye-opening view into how one of the most famous
metals in history has become a cutting edge material of the future. Due in part to its unique property of
having the highest thermal and electrical conductivity of all metals, silver is often a must-have over other,
less expensive materials.
Silver in solar panels: Silver paste contacts form bus bars and grid lines that draw electrical current from the semiconducting
surface of a photovoltaic cell. Image copyright iStockphoto / Gyuszko.

Uses of Silver in Energy

As mentioned previously, silver paste is used to make solar panels. Silver paste contacts printed onto
photovoltaic cells capture and carry electrical current. This current is produced when energy from the sun
impacts the semiconducting layer of the cell. Photovoltaic cells are one of the fastest growing uses of silver.

Silver's reflectivity gives it another role in solar energy. It reflects solar energy into collectors that use salts
to generate electricity.

Nuclear energy also uses silver. The white metal is often employed in control rods to capture neutrons and
slow the rate of fission in nuclear reactors. Inserting the control rods into the nuclear core slows the reaction,
while removing them speeds it up.

Silver brazing and soldering: Silver brazing and soldering ensures a tight joint between metal pipes. Image copyright
iStockphoto / bypicart.

Uses of Silver in Brazing and Soldering

Brazing and soldering make use of silver's high tensile strength and ductility to create joints between two
metal pieces. Brazing takes place at temperatures above 600°C, while soldering takes place at temperatures
below 600°C. Silver scrap can be used in brazing and soldering because these processes do not require very
pure silver. Brazing and soldering produce tight joints for everything from heating and air conditioning vents
to plumbing. Silver's antibacterial properties and non-toxicity to humans make it a great replacement for
lead-based bonds between water pipes.

Silver wire: Silver wire can be woven into a metal mesh and used as a catalyst. Granular silver also makes a good catalyst. Image
copyright iStockphoto / Greg801.

Uses of Silver in Chemical Production

Silver acts as a catalyst to produce two important chemicals: ethylene oxide and formaldehyde. Ethylene
oxide is used to produce molded plastics, such as plastic handles, and flexible plastics, such as polyester. It
is also a major ingredient in antifreeze. Formaldehyde is used to make solid plastics and resins and as a
protective coating. It is also used as a disinfectant and embalming agent. As a catalyst, silver increases the
speed of reactions without getting used up.

Silver coins and bullion: Silver coins have been minted for thousands of years. Silver bullion is still a popular investment choice
today. Image copyright iStockphoto / shakzu.

Related: The Many Uses of Gold

Uses of Silver in Coins and Investments

Silver has traditionally served, with gold, as the metal used in coins. As a precious metal, silver is rare and
valuable, making it a convenient store of wealth. In the past, people accumulated their wealth in the form of
silver coins; today, they invest in investment-grade silver bullion. The fact that silver does not corrode and
only melts at a relatively high temperature, means that it can last, and the fact that it has high luster makes it
attractive. Its malleability makes silver a good choice for designing and minting local currency.

In greater abundance, and therefore less expensive, than gold, silver has been used more prevalently as
currency. Silver was mined and used in trading several thousands of years BC and was first minted into
silver coins in the Mediterranean region many hundreds of years BC. Until the 20th century, many countries
used a silver or gold standard, backing up the value of currency with the presence of gold or silver in the
treasury. Today, countries use less expensive metals, such as copper and nickel, to produce coins, and they
use fiat currency, in which government regulation controls the value, instead of a gold or silver standard.

Still, silver retains its value as a commodity. Many individuals choose to invest in silver through financial
instruments, like stocks and mutual funds, or by actually buying and storing 99.9% pure silver bullion bars,
coins, or medallions. Countries sometime produce silver collector's edition coins, which they sell to buyers
at a price exceeding the value of the silver used to make the coin.

Silver rings: Silver, precious and lustrous, makes beautiful, long-lasting jewelry. Image copyright iStockphoto / pixeljuice.

Uses of Silver in Jewelry and Silverware

Jewelry and silverware are two other traditional uses of silver. Malleability, reflectivity, and luster make
silver a beautiful choice. Because it is so soft, silver must be alloyed with base metals, like copper, as in the
case of sterling silver (92.5% silver, 7.5% copper). Even though it resists oxidation and corrosion, silver can
tarnish, but with a little polish, it can shine for a lifetime. Because it is less expensive than gold, silver is a
popular choice for jewelry and a standard for fine dining. Silver-plated base metals offer a less costly
alternative to silver. Silver dishes and plates may accompany silverware, and these can often be ornately
crafted works of art. For example, Paul Revere (1734-1818), known to most for his midnight ride at the start
of the American Revolution, was a silversmith by trade, and some of his artwork is still on display at the
Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
Silver in photography film: Silver halide in photographic film responds to light, leaving a latent image behind. Image copyright
iStockphoto / Njari.

Uses of Silver in Photography

Photography had been one of the primary industrial uses of silver until the recent rise of digital media.
Traditional film photography relies on the light sensitivity of silver halide crystals present in film. When the
film is exposed to light, the silver halide crystals change to record a latent image that can be developed into
a photograph. The accuracy of this process makes it useful for non-digital consumer photography, film, and
X-rays.

The silver used in film photography should not be confused with the "silver screen" of cinema. This phrase
refers not to the silver in the film itself, but to the silver lenticular screen onto which early films were
projected.

Silver is used in ointments: Some ointments take advantage of silver's antibacterial qualities to protect wounds against infection.
Image copyright iStockphoto / cglade.

Uses of Silver in Medicine

Silver ions act as a catalyst by absorbing oxygen, which kills bacteria by interfering with their respiration.
This antibiotic property, along with its non-toxicity, has given silver an essential role in medicine for
thousands of years. Before widespread use of antibiotics, silver foil was wrapped around wounds to help
them heal, and colloidal silver and silver-protein complexes were ingested or applied topically to fight
illness. Silver has also been used in eye drops and in dental hygiene to cure and prevent infection.

While silver is not toxic, repeat intake of small amounts of silver over time can result in argyria. In people
with this condition, silver builds up in body tissue, giving it a gray-blue appearance when exposed to the
sun. In addition, the ingestion of large amounts of silver can have negative effects on the body. For these
reasons, medical doctors discourage the use of colloidal silver, discounting claims by some that colloidal
silver is a cure-all dietary supplement.

Today, the presence of antibiotic-resistant superbugs increases the demand for silver in hospitals. Small
amounts of silver can coat hospital surfaces and medical equipment to prevent the spread of pathogens.
Silver in surgical equipment, wound dressings, and ointments protects wounds from infection. Silver
sulfadiazine is especially useful for burn victims because it kills bacteria while also allowing the skin to
regrow. Silver ion treatments can heal bone infections and allow regeneration of damaged tissue.

Silver in windows of skyscrapers: Many modern skyscrapers have window glass that is coated with silver to reflect sunlight and
reduce air conditioning costs. Image copyright iStockphoto / sankai.

Uses of Silver in Mirrors and Glass

Silver is almost completely reflective when polished. Since the 19th century, mirrors have been made by
coating a transparent glass surface with a thin layer of silver, though modern mirrors also use other metals
like aluminum. Many windows of modern buildings are coated with a transparent layer of silver that reflects
sunlight, keeping the interior cool in the summer. In aerospace, silver-coated tiles protect spacecraft from the
sun.
Silver-coated ball bearings: Silver-coated ball bearings reduce friction in engines. Image copyright iStockphoto / felixR.

Uses of Silver in Engines

Engine bearings rely on silver. The strongest bearing is made from steel that has been electroplated with
silver. Silver's high melting point allows it to withstand the high temperature of engines. Silver also acts like
a lubricant to reduce friction between a ball bearing and its housing. Due to its ability to absorb oxygen,
silver is being researched as a possible substitute for platinum to catalyze oxidation of matter collected in
diesel engine filters.

Silver awards: Silver often signifies second place and is used in medals and other awards. Image copyright iStockphoto /
Vonkara1.

Uses of Silver in Awards

Due to its status as a precious metal, ranked second only to gold, silver is often used to award second place.
The most famous silver award is the second-place Olympic Silver Medal. Silver also symbolizes honor,
valor, and accomplishment, which is why many military organizations, employers, clubs, and associations
use silver or silver-colored awards to honor individuals for their contributions.

Silver in water filters: A silver coating prevents bacterial build-up in carbon-based water filtration systems. Image copyright
iStockphoto / RaginaQ.

Uses of Silver for Water, Food, Hygiene

Silver's antibacterial properties have been applied for thousands of years, long before the discovery of
microbial organisms, because silver containers and coins were known to prevent spoilage of liquids. Today,
a silver coating prevents bacterial build-up in carbon-based water filters, while silver ions in water
purification systems carry oxygen that oxidizes and kills microbes. Silver-copper ions can even replace
corrosive chlorine to sanitize pools and tanks.

The antimicrobial properties of silver that make it useful to medicine and water purification are now being
applied in food and hygiene. Nanosilver coatings are applied to food packages and refrigerators. And many
new consumer products, such as washing machines, clothing, and personal hygiene products tout the
benefits of antibacterial silver.

Did You Know? Most of the world's silver is produced as a by-product of lead mining. The mineral galena (shown above) is a
combination of lead and sulfur. However, a small amount of silver usually substitutes for lead in the mineral's crystal structure. At
many galena mines, enough silver can be present in the galena that the value of the silver greatly exceeds the value of the lead that
is mined. The financial reality of this is that the supply of silver is more dependent upon the amount of lead that is being mined
than the price of silver. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Silver References

[1] Silver The Indispensable Metal: The Silver Institute, www.silverinstitute.org.

[2] Silver: Mineral Commodity Summaries: United States Geological Survey, www.usgs.gov.

[3] Silver: Minerals Yearbook: United States Geological Survey, www.usgs.gov.

Other Uses of Silver

Other traditional uses of silver exist. For example, silver is one ingredient in the amalgam used to fill dental
cavities, though this approach has been largely replaced by other materials due to the presence of toxic
mercury in the amalgam. Silver has also been used to plate instruments, such as flutes.

Today, silver is being applied to many new uses. Silver is one of many options for replacing toxic chromated
copper arsenate as a wood preservative. Nanosilver inks and coatings on paper tout their ability to prevent
the spread of bacterial infection. Silver metal glass, produced by cooling silver quickly, offers durable
strength that resists deformation. Silver-based ionic liquids, which are in a liquid state at room temperature,
can be used to clean up petroleum waste products. Silver in fabric allows touch screen users to keep their
gloves on during cold weather.

Silver seems to have as many uses as the human imagination can develop. Traditional works of silver, like
jewelry and silverware, rely on the creativity of artists. Modern uses depend on the creative exploits of
scientists and engineers to meet the changing demands of consumers and industries. While some uses rise
and fall, such as the use of silver in photographic film, other uses may continue to grow, such as the
burgeoning production of photovoltaic cells for solar energy. Silver's unique properties, especially its high
thermal and electrical conductivity, its reflectivity, and its antibacterial qualities, make it difficult to replace,
like a one-of-a-kind silver ring

Silver as a Native Element Mineral

Silver is rarely found as a native element mineral. When found, it is often associated
with quartz, gold, copper, sulfides of other metals, arsenides of other metals, and other silver minerals.
Unlike gold, it is rarely found in significant amounts in placer deposits.

Native silver is sometimes found in the oxidized zones above the ores of other metals. It persists there
because silver does not readily react with oxygen or water. It does react with hydrogen sulfide to produce a
tarnished surface that is composed of the silver sulfide mineral known as acanthite. Many specimens of
native silver that have been exposed to the atmosphere or to hydrothermal activity have an acanthite coating.

Most native silver is found associated with hydrothermal activity. In these areas it often occurs in abundance
as vein and cavity fillings. A few of these deposits are large enough and rich enough in native silver to
support mining. In most cases, the economic viability of the deposit depends upon the presence of other
valuable minerals. The mines are usually underground operations that follow the veins and cavities where
the native silver occurs.

Native silver is usually without a characteristic crystal habit. When it forms in the open spaces of pockets
and fractures, some interesting crystal habits sometimes develop. The crystals are rarely the cubes,
octahedrons, and dodecahedrons expected of an isometric mineral. Instead the silver's habit is usually thin
flakes, plates, and dendritic crystal clusters formed in the narrow spaces of joints and fractures. Filiform and
wire-like habits are also seen.

Minerals that Contain Silver

Acanthite Ag2S

Aguilarite Ag4SeS

Allargentum Ag1-xSbx

Andorite PbAgSb3S6

Arcubisite Ag6CuBiS4

Argentite Ag2S (when above 177°C)

Argyrodite Ag8GeS6

Arquerite (Ag,Hg)
 Berryite Pb3(Ag,Cu)5Bi7Si6

Boleite KPb26Ag9Cu24(OH)48Cl62

Bromargyrite AgBr

Canfieldite Ag8SnS6

Chlorargyrite AgCl

Chrisstanleyite Ag2Pd3Se4

Crookesite Cu7(Tl,Ag)Se4

Dyscrasite Ag3Sb

Empressite AgTe

Fettelite Ag16HgAs4S15

Freibergite (Ag,Cu,Fe)12(Sb,As)4S13

Freieslebenite AgPbSbS3

Gabrielite Tl6Ag3Cu6(As,Sb)9S21

Hessite Ag2Te

Iodargyrite AgI

Jalpaite Ag3CuS2

Krennerite (Au0.8,Ag0.2)Te2

Marrite PbAgAsS3

Miargyrite AgSbS2

Moschellandsbergite Ag2Hg3

Pearceite Cu(Ag,Cu)6Ag9As2S11

Petzite Ag3AuTe2

Polybasite [(Ag,Cu)6(Sb,As)2S7][Ag9CuS4]

Proustite Ag3AsS3

Pyrargyrite Ag3SbS3

Samsonite Ag4MnSb2S6

Stephanite Ag5SbS4

Stromeyerite AgCuS

Stützite Ag5-xTe3 (with x = 0.24 to 0.36) or Ag7Te4-

Sylvanite (Ag,Au)Te2
 Uytenbogaardtite Ag3AuS2

Minerals that Contain Silver

The number of minerals that contain silver as an essential constituent is surprising. The green table on this
page contains a partial list of silver minerals that includes 39 different species. Each of these is a distinct
silver mineral. All of them are rare, but a few (such as acanthite, proustite, and pyrargyrite) can be found in
sufficient quantities to warrant mining. Silver minerals can be sulfides, tellurides, halides, sulfates,
sulfosalts, silicates, borates, chlorates, iodates, bromates, carbonates, nitrates, oxides, and hydroxides.

Silver copper nugget: A stream-rounded nugget of silver and copper found in Keweenaw County, Michigan. Specimen is
approximately 2.7 x 2.1 x 1.3 centimeters in size. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Natural Silver Alloys and Amalgams

Most gold found in placer deposits is alloyed with small amounts of silver. If the ratio between gold and
silver reaches at least 20% silver, the material is called "electrum." Electrum is the name for an alloy of gold
and silver. A significant amount of today's silver production is a refining byproduct of gold mining.

Silver also forms a natural alloy with mercury. This silver amalgam is sometimes found in the oxidation
zones of silver deposits and is occasionally associated with cinnabar.

Silver as a Constituent in Other Metals and Ores

Most of the silver produced today is a byproduct of mining copper, lead, and zinc. The silver occurs within
the ores of these metals in one of two ways: 1) substituting for one of the metal ions within the ore mineral's
atomic structure; or, 2) occurring as an inclusion of native silver or a silver mineral within the ore mineral.
The value of this minor silver within the ore mineral can exceed the value of the primary metal within the
ore.

The diagram below considers the situation of argentiferous galena (galena that contains up to a few percent
by weight of silver substituting for lead in the galena mineral structure).
Galena value: Some mines producing galena produce more revenue from the silver content of their ore than from the lead
content. Assume that we have a mine that produces argentiferous galena with an average composition of 86% lead, 13% sulfur,
and just 1% silver (as shown in the diagram on the left).

If the silver price is $25 per troy ounce and the lead price is $1 per avoirdupois pound, the value of the lead in one ton of ore will
be $1720, while the value of the silver in that same ton of ore will be $7292 (as shown in the diagram on the right).

The small amount of silver has a huge impact on revenue because at the prices assumed, silver is 364 times more valuable than an
equal weight of lead. It is easy to understand why mining companies get excited by argentiferous galena! Even though galena is
the ore being removed and lead makes up the bulk of the product, these mines are often called "silver mines."

Map of silver-producing countries: The map above shows the top ten silver-producing countries in the world for calendar year
2013. Data from the USGS Mineral Commodity Summary.

Geographic Distribution of Silver Production

2013 Silver Production
Metric
Country
Tons

Mexico 5,360

China 3,900

Peru 3,480

Australia 1,730
Russia 1,500

Bolivia 1,210

Chile 1,190

Poland 1,150

United States 1,060

Canada 663

Other
4,230
Countries

The values above are

estimated silver mine
production in metric tons
from USGS Mineral
Commodity Summaries.

Silver and silver-bearing minerals tend to be closely associated with magmatic activity, as that is where
hydrothermal activity also occurs.

This association holds especially well along western North, Central, and South America, where silver
production follows the trend of the Andes Mountain Range. Argentina, Bolivia, Canada, Guatemala,
Honduras, Mexico, Peru, and the United States are all significant producers of silver today and in the past. In
other parts of the world, silver production is associated with igneous activity of any geologic age.

In Europe there is a band of current and geologically ancient volcanic activity that passes from Spain in the
west into Turkey in the east. Much of the European silver production has been from this trend.

The table and map above show the top ten silver-producing countries in the world during calendar year
2013.
 Sodalite
The blue gem material, ornamental and architectural stone.

Sodalite: Pieces of polished sodalite. Image by Adam Ognisty, used here under a GNU Free Documentation License. Click to
enlarge.

What Is Sodalite?
Sodalite is a rare rock-forming mineral best known for its blue to blue-violet color. It has a chemical
composition of Na4Al3Si3O12Cl and is a member of the feldspathoid mineral group. High-quality sodalite is
used as a gemstone, a sculptural material, and an architectural stone.

Sodalite occurs in igneous rocks that crystallized from sodium-rich magmas. This is the origin of the name
"sodalite." These magmas also contained so little silicon and aluminum that quartz and feldspar minerals
are often absent. Sodalite-bearing rocks include: nepheline syenite, trachyte, and phonolite. These types of
rocks are so rare that most geologists never see them in the field.

Well-known sources of sodalite include: Litchfield, Maine; Magnet Cove, Arkansas; northern Namibia;
Golden, British Columbia; Bancroft, Ontario; Kola Peninsula of Russia; and the Ilimaussaq intrusive
complex of Greenland.
Nepheline syenite with sodalite: Nepheline syenite rich in light blue sodalite. This rare material is sold as a dimension stone for
interior use under the trade name of "sodalite granite." Found near Ice River, British Columbia, Canada. Specimen is
approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) across.

What Are Feldspathoids?

Sodalite is a member of a mineral group known as "feldspathoids." They are rare aluminosilicate minerals
that contain abundant calcium, potassium, or sodium. Examples are sodalite, nepheline, leucite, nosean,
hauyne, lazurite, cancrinite, and melilite. These minerals often occur in igneous rocks, the veins and
fractures that cut them. They also occur in contact metamorphic rocks.

Sodalite granite: A close-up of the "sodalite granite" from Ice River, British Columbia, Canada.

Physical Properties of Sodalite

Sodalite is usually blue to blue-violet in color and found with nepheline and other feldspathoid minerals. It is
usually translucent, with a vitreous luster, and has a Mohs hardness of 5.5 to 6.

Sodalite often has white veining, and it can be confused with lapis lazuli. Small amounts of sodalite are
present in many specimens of lapis lazuli. If significant pyrite is present, the specimen is not sodalite.
Sodalite is a member of the cubic crystal system, but well-formed crystals are rarely found. It is usually
massive in habit and breaks with a conchoidal fracture rather than exhibiting its poor cleavage.

Physical Properties of Sodalite

Chemical
Silicate
Classification

Color Often bright blue to violet-blue with white veining. Also gray, white, green, colorless, yellow, red.

Streak White, bluish

Luster Vitreous to greasy

Diaphaneity Translucent to transparent

Cleavage Poor cleavage in six directions that is usually unnoticed. Breaks by conchoidal fracture.

Mohs Hardness 5.5 to 6

Specific Gravity 2.2 to 2.4

Diagnostic Blue color, associated with feldspathoid minerals, especially nepheline. Differentiated from lapis by its darker blue color
Properties and an absence of pyrite. Often produces a weak orange fluorescence under shortwave or longwave ultraviolet light.

Chemical
Na8(Al6Si6O24)Cl2
Composition

Crystal System Cubic

A semiprecious gemstone often used to produce cabochons, beads, and tumbled stones. An ornamental stone often used
Uses to make small sculptures. "Sodalite granite" is a rare nepheline syenite with minor to abundant sodalite that is cut as a
dimension stone for interior use. A less costly alternative to lapis lazuli.

Sodalite tumbled stones: Tumbled stones of sodalite. Pieces shown are about 5/8" to 1" in diameter.
Sodalite as a Gemstone

Blue is a rare color for rocks and minerals. When was the last time you found a rock with a vivid blue color? Have you
ever found one in nature? When a blue rock - especially one capable of serving as a gem material - is found it
immediately has a market. Sodalite is one of the only vivid blue materials that is still sold at a reasonable price.

But, sodalite can be hard to find in finished jewelry. It is rarely seen in mall jewelry stores, and it is seen less often in
high-profile jewelry stores. Most jewelry customers are not familiar with sodalite, and very few of them are asking
for it in stores. Stores stock what customers want to buy.

The place to find sodalite in jewelry is at craft and lapidary stores and shows. Part of the reason that sodalite is not
widely used in commercial jewelry is that cut cabochons vary so much in appearance that it is difficult to impossible
to produce a standardized product line.

Sodalite is sometimes confused with lapis lazuli. Some specimens have a similar color and the presense of white
veining is found in both materials. This gives sodalite the opportunity to be used as a less expensive alternative gem
for people who like lapis lazuli but don't want to pay the high price.

However, sodalite cabochons, beads and tumbled stones are beautiful and many people enjoy them. They are
available at prices that fit almost anyone's budget. A limitation on sodalite's use in jewelry is its hardness of 5.5 to 6
on the Mohs scale. It will be quickly scratched if used in a ring or bracelet. It therefore is best used in earrings, pins,
pendants, and other items that will not subject the sodalite to impact or abrasion.
 Sphalerite
The primary ore of zinc and a gemstone with a "fire" that exceeds diamond.

Sphalerite with galena and chalcopyrite: A typical mineral association of sphalerite with galena and chalcopyrite. From the
Huaron Mine of Peru. Specimen is about 4.3 x 3.2 x 1.8 centimeters in size. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone
/ www.iRocks.com.

What is Sphalerite?
Sphalerite is a zinc sulfide mineral with a chemical composition of (Zn,Fe)S. It is found
in metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks in many parts of the world. Sphalerite is the most
commonly encountered zinc mineral and the world's most important ore of zinc.

Dozens of countries have mines that produce sphalerite. Recent top producers include Australia, Bolivia,
Canada, China, India, Ireland, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Peru, and the United States. In the United States,
sphalerite is produced in Alaska, Idaho, Missouri, and Tennessee. [1]

The name sphalerite is from the Greek word "sphaleros" which means deceiving or treacherous. This name
is in response to the many different appearances of sphalerite and because it can be challenging to identify in
hand specimens. Names for sphalerite used in the past or by miners include "zinc blende," "blackjack,"
"steel jack," and "rosin jack."

Geologic Occurrence
Many minable deposits of sphalerite are found where hydrothermal activity or contact metamorphism has
brought hot, acidic, zinc-bearing fluids in contact with carbonate rocks. There, sphalerite can be deposited in
veins, fractures, and cavities, or it can form as mineralizations or replacements of its host rocks.

In these deposits, sphalerite is frequently associated

with galena, dolomite, calcite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, marcasite, and pyrrhotite. When weathered, the zinc
often forms nearby occurrences of smithsonite or hemimorphite.
Sphalerite on dolomite: Crystals of sphalerite on dolomite with minor amounts of chalcopyrite. Specimen from the Joplin Field,
Tri-State District of Missouri, USA. Specimen is about 6.5 x 4.5 x 3.5 centimeters. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone
/ www.iRocks.com.

Chemical Composition
The chemical formula of sphalerite is (Zn,Fe)S. It is a zinc sulfide containing variable amounts of iron that
substitutes for zinc in the mineral lattice. The iron content is normally less than 25% by weight. The amount
of iron substitution that occurs depends upon iron availability and temperature, with higher temperatures
favoring higher iron content.

Sphalerite often contains trace to minor amounts of cadmium, indium, germanium, or gallium. These rare
elements are valuable and when abundant enough can be recovered as profitable byproducts. Minor amounts
of manganese and arsenic can also be present in sphalerite.

Sphalerite crystals: Gem-quality crystals of yellow sphalerite from the Balmat-Edwards Zinc District of New York. Specimen is
about 2.75 x 1.75 x 1.5 centimeters in size. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.
Sphalerite: Sphalerite with dolomite from Gilman, Colorado. Specimen is approximately 5 centimeters across.

Physical Properties
The appearance and properties of sphalerite are variable. It occurs in a variety of colors, and its luster ranges
from nonmetallic to submetallic and resinous to adamantine. Occasionally it will be transparent with a
vitreous luster. Sphalerite's streak is white to yellowish brown and sometimes is accompanied by a distinct
odor of sulfur. Occasionally it streaks reddish brown.

One of the most distinctive properties of sphalerite is its cleavage. It has six directions of perfect cleavage
with faces that exhibit a resinous to adamantine luster. Specimens that display this distinctive cleavage are
easy to identify. Unfortunately, many specimens have such a fine grain size that the cleavage is difficult to
observe.

Because sphalerite often forms in veins and cavities, excellent crystals are relatively common. Sphalerite is a
member of the isometric crystal system, and cubes, octahedrons, tetrahedrons, and dodecahedrons are all
encountered.

Physical Properties of Sphalerite

Chemical
Sulfide
Classification

Color Yellow, brown, black, red, green, white, colorless

Streak White to yellowish brown, often with an odor of sulfur

Luster Nonmetallic, submetallic, resinous or adamantine

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Perfect, dodecahedral, in six directions!

Mohs Hardness 3.5 to 4

Specific Gravity 3.9 to 4.1

Diagnostic
Luster, cleavage, streak
Properties
Chemical
Zinc sulfide with variable amounts of iron, (Zn,Fe)S
Composition

Crystal System Isometric

The primary ore of zinc. Often mined for minor amounts of indium, cadmium, germanium, or gallium as profitable
Uses
byproducts. Mineral specimens. Faceted stones for collectors.

Sphalerite gemstones: Sphalerite is occasionally cut as a faceted stone. It is a popular stone with collectors because it has a
dispersion that is three times higher than the dispersion of diamond. The stones occur in a spectrum of colors ranging from
yellowish green, to yellow, to orange, to red. To exhibit the excellent dispersion the stones must have a very high clarity.
Sphalerite's very low hardness (3.5 to 4 on the Mohs scale) and perfect cleavage make the mineral a very poor choice for any
jewelry except pieces such as earrings and brooches that will receive very little abrasion or impact. It is considered to be a
"collector's stone."

Information Sources

[1] Zinc: Amy C. Tolcin, U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, February 2014.

[2] Zinc: Amy C. Tolcin, U.S. Geological Survey, 2011 Minerals Yearbook, February 2012.

Sphalerite as a Gemstone?
Although sphalerite has a hardness of just 3.5 to 4 on the Mohs scale and is not suitable for most jewelry
use, specimens with excellent clarity are sometimes cut into gemstones for collectors. Why? Sphalerite has
a dispersion that exceeds that of all of the popular gems and is three times higher than the dispersion
of diamond.

Dispersion is the ability of a material to separate white light into the colors of the spectrum as it passes
through the material. Diamond is well known for its exceptional "fire" - flashes of color as the gem is moved
under a source of light. These are caused by its high dispersion of 0.044. Common natural gems that have a
dispersion higher than diamond are sphene at 0.051 and demantoid garnet at 0.057. Sphalerite has an
incredible dispersion of 0.156. The only things that hold specimens of sphalerite back from an incredible
display of brilliant "fire" are their less-than-excellent clarity and their obvious body color.
Sphalerite is a difficult stone to cut and polish. It is soft and it has cleavage. Weaknesses in the stone or
minor accidents during the cutting or polishing process can easily ruin a stone. Before deciding to cut a
transparent specimen of sphalerite into a gemstone, its value as a mineral specimen should be determined. If
this is not done, the owner could make a costly mistake.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Spinel
A gemstone that was confused with ruby and sapphire for over 1000 years.

Red and blue spinel: Spinel occurs in a wide variety of colors. The bright reds and deep blues are spectacular
specimens. It is easy to understand how early gem traders confused spinel with ruby and sapphire for over 1000
years. Specimens and photos by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Faceted spinel: Several pretty facet-cut spinels. It is easy to see how spinel can be confused with ruby and sapphire or used as an
alternative stone. These spinels are about 4 1/2 millimeters in size and weigh a little less than 1/2 carat each. The top three red and
pink stones were cut from material mined in Myanmar. Deep red spinel is rarer than ruby but sells at a fraction of the price. The
blue stones below them were cut from material mined in Tanzania.

The Ruby and Sapphire Impostor

Spinel is a gemstone mineral that has been confused with ruby and sapphire for over 1000 years. Several of
the most spectacular spinels ever discovered have been mounted in "crown jewels" and other "jewelry of
significance" under the assumption that they were rubies or sapphires.

Spinel occurs in the same bright red and blue colors as rubies and sapphires. Spinel forms in the same rock
units, under the same geological conditions and is found in the same gravels. It is not surprising that ancient
gem traders thought that these colorful spinels were rubies and sapphires.

Physical Properties of Spinel

Chemical Classification Oxide

Color Colorless, pink, red, orange, blue, purple, brown, black

Streak Colorless (harder than the streak plate)

Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage None

Mohs Hardness 7.5 to 8

Specific Gravity 3.5 to 4.1

Diagnostic Properties Hardness, octahedral crystals, vitreous luster

Chemical Composition MgAl2O4

Crystal System Isometric

Uses The only significant use is as a gemstone.

Why the Confusion?

Two thousand years ago, gemstone traders did not know that spinel and corundum (the mineral of ruby
and sapphire) have different chemical compositions and different crystal structures. Instead, gem traders
thought that every bright red gemstone was a "ruby" and every deep blue gemstone was a "sapphire." As a
result, lots of spinels are now in very important jewelry collections based on their incorrect identification as
a ruby.

The Black Prince's Ruby

The most famous example of a spinel being identified as a ruby is a 170-carat bright red spinel named "The
Black Prince's Ruby." The first known owner of this beautiful stone was Abu Sa'id, the Moorish Prince of
Granada, in the 14th century. The stone passed through several owners and eventually made its way into the
Imperial State Crown of the United Kingdom, where it is mounted immediately above the famous Cullinan
II diamond. [1, photo]
The Timur Ruby

The "Timur Ruby" is a 352.5-carat bright red spinel that is currently in a necklace of The Royal Collection
that was made for Queen Victoria in 1853. The stone was found in Afghanistan and is inscribed with the
names and dates of its owners back to 1612. It was part of a group of spinels from the Lahore Treasure
presented to Queen Victoria by the East India Company in 1849. [2]

Diagnostic Properties: Spinel / Corundum

Property Spinel Corundum

Composition MgAl2O4 Al2O3

Crystal System Isometric Hexagonal

Typical Crystal Form Octahedrons, dodecahedrons Hexagonal prisms

Hardness 7.5 to 8 9

Diagnostic Differences (Spinel, Ruby, Sapphire)

Today gemologists understand that there are significant differences between spinel and corundum (the
mineral of ruby and sapphire). The diagnostic differences are summarized in the chart on this page. Optical
properties can also be used to distinguish spinel from corundum.

Gem traders in Myanmar were the first to recognize spinel as being distinctly different from ruby in the late
1500s. [3] In Europe, spinel continued to be misidentified as ruby until the mid-1800s.

Alluvial spinel: Much of the spinel used to produce gemstones is obtained from alluvial deposits. These deposits are worked with
minimal mechanization in many parts of the world. Workers wash stream sediment and visually search through the coarse sand to
fine gravel fraction, looking for colorful mineral grains that might be of value. The photo above shows some alluvial spinel
produced in Vietnam. Some of the particles are thoroughly worn into rounded pebbles. Others have experienced so little transport
that they still have sharp crystal edges and unworn faces.

What is Spinel?
Spinel is an oxide mineral with a composition of MgAl2O4. It is very hard (7.5 to 8 on the Mohs Hardness
Scale) and is often found in octahedral crystals. It is typically found in three geologic situations: 1) as
crystals in limestones and dolomites that have been subjected to contact metamorphism; 2) irregularly-
shaped grains in basic igneous rocks; and, 3) as water-worn pebbles in alluvial deposits.

Spinel is very resistant to chemical and physical weathering. It often occurs in marble, which is much less
resistant to weathering. Spinel easily weathers out of the marble and is transported by streams. This places
spinel in alluvial deposits which are often worked for gemstones. Most of the spinels of a "ruby-red color"
are produced from alluvial deposits in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Myanmar, and other
countries. Other countries where spinel is mined
include: Afghanistan, Nepal, Tajikistan, Australia, Madagascar, Nigeria, and Tanzania.

Crown of Catherine the Great: The Great Imperial Crown was made for Empress Catherine II the Great's Coronation in 1762.
The large red stone at the crest of the crown is the second-largest known spinel, weighing 398 carats. It has been titled: "Catherine
the Great's Ruby." [5] Creative Commons image by Hugo Gerard Ströhl.

Samarian Spinel: Photo of the Samarian Spinel, the largest known spinel in the world and part of the Iranian Crown Jewels. It
weighs approximately 500 carats. It bears an inscription dating to the mid-1600s attributing its ownership to Jehangir, the Mogul
Emperor of India. It was taken from India in the early 1700s, during the Afsharid Conquest. [4] Public domain image.
Uses of Spinel
The only significant use of spinel is as a gemstone. It occurs in a variety of colors (colorless, pink, red,
orange, blue, purple, brown, black). The colors that imitate ruby and sapphire are the most popular, along
with an orange-red color known as "flame spinel."

Gem-quality red and blue spinels are very rare. They are much less abundant than rubies and sapphires of
similar quality and color. Even with equivalent beauty and greater rarity, their prices are much lower than
ruby and sapphire. This is an example of how rarity has not determined the price. Spinel is not as valuable
because it is not as popular. Spinel has not been strongly promoted by the gem and jewelry trade because its
supply is limited and unreliable.

Occasionally an exceptional spinel or a jewelry item of historical significance is sold at auction for a very
high price. One necklace containing eleven bright red spinels, totaling 1,132 carats and inscribed by Mughal
emperors, sold for over $5 million. [6, photo]

United States Birthstones

Month Stone

January garnet

February amethyst

March aquamarine, bloodstone

April diamond

May emerald

June pearl, moonstone, alexandrite

July ruby

August peridot, spinel

September sapphire

October opal, tourmaline

November topaz, citrine

December turquoise, zircon, tanzanite

Spinel: A New Birthstone for August

Many authors link the tradition of associating a birthstone with each month of the year to Aaron's breastplate
of the Bible's Book of Exodus. Others link it to customs from 16th century Germany [9] and 18th century
Poland [10].

In 1912, the National Association of Jewelers, now the Jewelers of America, adopted and began promoting a
modern list of birthstones. Spinel was not used as a birthstone in this list. The Jewelry Council of America,
the American Gem Trade Association, and the National Association of Goldsmiths of Britain are all
involved in promoting lists of birthstones.
In July 2016, spinel was named a new birthstone for the month of August by the American Gem Trade
Association and the Jewelers of America. Before then, peridot served as the August birthstone. Now both
spinel and peridot will share the designation. This event and continued promotion of monthly birthstones
will bring significant attention to spinel, which occurs in a variety of colors. Consumers will now have a
choice beyond the yellow-green color of peridot.

Synthetic Spinel
The first synthetic spinel was produced in 1847 by Jacques-Joseph Ebelmen, a French Chemist. [7]
Commercial production of synthetic spinels was very limited in the 1800s. However, in the 1930s synthetic
spinels in a wide variety of colors were produced to imitate popular gemstones such
as aquamarine, zircon, tourmaline, emerald, chrysoberyl, and ruby. The colors were produced by
introducing metals in trace amounts into the stone by the addition of: cobalt oxide (blue), manganese
(yellow), chromium oxide (green), and iron (pink). Careful chemical procedures allowed the manufacturers
to control the color of the stones. [8]

These colored synthetic spinels were given trade names such as "Tourmaline Green," mounted in
inexpensive settings and sold as "birthstone" jewelry. [8] These synthetic stones were the first encounter
with spinel for most of the consumers who purchased them.

In addition to its use as a gemstone, synthetic spinel is also used as a refractory. It is used to produce heat-
resistant coatings on metal tools and as an additive in making refractory bricks and ceramics.

Information Sources

[1] The Black Prince's Ruby, featured in an article titled: The Imperial State Crown on The Royal Collection Trust website, last accessed July
2016.

[2] The 'Timur Ruby' Necklace, an article on The Royal Collection Trust website, last accessed January 2013.

[3] Spinel: Collector's Favourite, an article on the International Colored Gemstone Association website, last accessed July 2016.

[4] The Samarian Spinel, article on the Wikipedia.com website, last accessed July 2016.

[5] The Russian Crown Jewels, article on the "Famous Diamonds" website showing a photo of the Great Imperial Crown of Russia, last
accessed July 2016.

[6] An Imperial Mughal Spinel Necklace, Christie's auction in Geneva from May 18, 2011, webpage last accessed July 2016.

[7] Restoring the Luster to a Once-Loved Gem, article by Victoria Gomelsky on The New York Times website, May 12, 2011.

[8] Synthetic Gemstones: Spinel, Gems: Their Sources, Descriptions and Identification, edited by Michael O'Donoghue, Chapter 24, pages 495-
502.

[9] Gems in Myth, Legend and Lore by Bruce G. Knuth, Parachute: Jewelers Press, 2007.

[10] The Curious Lore of Precious Stones by George Kunz, Lippincott, 1913.

The Spinel Mineral Group

The name "spinel" is also used for a broad group of minerals with a general chemical composition of
XY2O4. In this formula "X" could be filled by: Mg, Fe+2, Zn, Mn+2, Ni, Co, or Cu. "Y" could be filled by:
Al, Fe+3, Cr, V+3, Ti+4, Ge, or Sb.

Examples of spinel group minerals include gahnite, magnetite, franklinite, chromite, chrysoberyl, and
Columbite-Tantalite, as shown in the chart below.

Spinel Group Minerals

Mineral Composition

Spinel MgAl2O4

Gahnite ZnAl2O4

Magnetite Fe3O4

Franklinite (Zn,Fe,Mn)(Fe,Mn)2O4

Chromite FeCr2O4

Chrysoberyl BeAl2O4

Columbite-Tantalite (Fe,Mn)Nb2O6--(Fe,Mn)Ta2O6

Contributor: Hobart King

 Spodumene
An important source of high-purity lithium and a gemstone with collector appeal

Spodumene: Translucent to transparent spodumene with an attractive pink, yellow, or green color is sometimes faceted, cut en
cabochon or used to make tumbled stones. Its perfect cleavage limits its use to jewelry that will not be subject to rough wear or
handling. Spodumene is primarily a "collector's gemstone." The larger pieces of spodumene in this image are about one inch long.

What is Spodumene?
Spodumene is a pyroxene mineral that is found, almost exclusively, in granite pegmatites. It has a
chemical composition of LiAlSi2O6 but small amounts of sodium sometimes substitute for lithium.
Spodumene is typically found in lithium-rich pegmatites in association with other lithium minerals such as
lepidolite, eucryptite, and petalite. In the historical literature, the mineral is often referred to as "triphane."

Physical Properties of Spodumene

Chemical Classification Silicate

Color White, gray, yellow, green, blue, lilac, pink, brown. Sometimes pleochroic

Streak White, colorless

Luster Vitreous, pearly

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage Perfect in two directions with parting

Mohs Hardness 6.5 to 7

Specific Gravity 3.1 to 3.3

Diagnostic Properties Prismatic crystals with strong striations parallel to their principal axis. Perfect cleavage.

Chemical Composition LiAl(SiO3)2

 Crystal System Monoclinic (low temperature), tetragonal (high temperature)

Uses An ore of lithium. Gemstones (kunzite, hiddenite)

Enormous Crystals
Spodumene often occurs in extremely large crystals. One of the earliest accounts of large spodumene
crystals is from the Etta Mines, Black Hills, Pennington County, South Dakota. The United States
Geological Survey, Bulletin 610 reports:

"The crystals are often of enormous size. In the Etta Mine, where they are best exposed both in the open cut and
tunnel, they frequently attain a diameter of 3 to 4 feet and a length of 30 feet. The largest "log" so far found was 42
feet long and 5 feet 4 inches in maximum diameter. This one log alone would yield 90 tons of spodumene." [1]

Giant spodumene crystals: Molds of giant spodumene crystals at the Etta Mines, Black Hills, Pennington County, South Dakota.
Note miner at right center for scale. USGS photo. [1]

Uses of Spodumene
Spodumene once served as the most important ore of lithium metal. Although it remains an important source
of lithium, today most of the world's lithium is produced from subsurface brines in Chile, Argentina, and
China. These sources of lithium have lower production costs and are suitable for most uses. However, when
lithium of highest purity is needed, spodumene is the source that is used.
Kunzite spodumene: Pink gem-quality spodumene (kunzite) from the Konar Valley, Afghanistan. Creative Commons image
by Didier Descouens.

Spodumene: An ore-grade spodumene crystal section showing cleavage and typical striations. Photograph by Andrew Silver,
USGS, BYU Collection.
Lithium battery: One of the primary uses of spodumene is in the production of high-purity lithium for use in lithium-ion
batteries. The popularity of small electronic devices such as cell phones, portable computers, and cameras is driving the demand
for spodumene. Photo © iStockphoto / Anton Snarikov.

Spodumene as a Gemstone
Spodumene sometimes occurs in transparent crystals in pastel shades of pink, green, and yellow. These have
been cut into gemstones that are prized by collectors. However, their use in jewelry is limited to pieces that
will be subject to limited abuse because of spodumene's perfect cleavage.

Kunzite

Pink to lilac specimens of gem-quality spodumene are highly prized and known as "kunzite". The color of
these specimens is attributed to the presence of manganese as a chromophore. Kunzite is the most
commonly encountered spodumene gem.

Many specimens of kunzite are strongly pleochroic, with the deepest color observed when the gem is viewed
down the principal axis. To take full advantage of its phenomenon, gemstones are cut with the table
perpendicular to the principal axis to yield stones of the deepest color.

Some kunzite will develop a richer color when heated or irradiated. These procedures have been applied to
some stones that enter the marketplace. Some specimens of kunzite will fade over time when exposed to
direct sunlight. Valuable stones should be stored away from direct light and, to be conservative, in a closed
container.

Hiddenite

Emerald-green spodumene is known as "Hiddenite." Its vivid green color is very similar to emerald and is
attributed to the presence of chromium as a chromophore. It is the rarest gem variety of spodumene. It was
first found near the town of Stony Point, North Carolina, which changed its name to "Hiddenite" after the
popular gemstone that attracted people to the area.

Other Colors

Yellow and clear specimens of spodumene have also been cut into gems; however, variety names for
spodumene gems have only been given to Kunzite and Hiddenite.
Uses of lithium: Lithium has many diverse uses. This chart shows estimated global uses of lithium by end product. It is mainly
used in manufacturing ceramics, specialty glass, rechargeable batteries, high-temperature grease, continuous castings, polymers,
aluminum alloys, and pharmaceuticals. USGS data. [2]

Did You Know? Lithium is an active ingredient in some medications. Salts of

lithium are used in medication for bipolar disorder. The lithium contributes to
a "mood-stabilizing" effect. One product has been named "Lithium." Image ©
iStockphoto / Paige Foster.

Demand for Spodumene

The demand for spodumene is dependent upon the use of lithium in manufacturing. In the past, most lithium
compounds and minerals were used to produce ceramics, glass, aluminum alloys, and high-temperature
grease. However, an exploding demand for rechargeable batteries to power cell phones, tablet computers,
cameras, music players, GPS units, and other portable electronic devices is driving the demand for high-
purity lithium - and that drives the demand for spodumene.

Lithium batteries have a much higher charge-to-weight ratio and power-to-weight ratio than lead/acid and
zinc carbon cells. This makes lithium the battery material of choice.

Lithium produced from spodumene has fewer contaminants than lithium produced from brines. These
contaminants can interfere with battery performance and make spodumene the preferred choice for battery
lithium. A new battery technology could displace the use of lithium; however, most new battery
technologies have been lithium-based.

Contributor: Hobart King

Spodumene Information

[1] Mineralogic Notes, Series 3: Waldemar Schaller, Gigantic Crystals of Spodumene, United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 610, 1916.

[2] Lithium: Brian Jaskula, United States Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2012.

[3] Lithium: Brian Jaskula, United States Geological Survey, Minerals Yearbook, December 2011.
 Staurolite
The metamorphic mineral that has become famous for its twinned crystals

Staurolite: Staurolite crystals forming the typical 60-degree penetration twin from Rubelita, Minas Gerais, Brazil. The specimen
is about 1.5 inches tall. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

What is Staurolite?
Staurolite is a mineral that is commonly found in metamorphic rocks such as schist and gneiss. It forms
when shale is strongly altered by regional metamorphism. It is often found in association with
almandine garnet, muscovite, and kyanite - minerals that form under similar temperature and pressure
conditions.

Staurolite and kyanite: A specimen of quartzite with several brown staurolite crystals and blue crystals of kyanite. This
specimen is about three inches wide and was collected in the Bernina Pass area, near Grischun, Switzerland. Specimen and photo
by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.
Properties of Staurolite
Staurolite is a silicate mineral with a generalized chemical composition of (Fe,Mg)2Al9Si4O23(OH). It is
usually brown or black in color with a resinous to vitreous luster. It ranges from transparent to opaque in
diaphaneity.

Staurolite is usually easy to identify when it occurs as visible grains in a metamorphic rock. Grains of
staurolite are typically larger than the grains of other minerals in the rock, and they often exhibit an obvious
crystal structure. They occur as six-sided crystals, often with penetration twins.

Staurolite: Staurolite in schist from Little Falls, Minnesota. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.

Physical Properties of Staurolite

Chemical
Silicate
Classification

Color Usually brown, reddish brown, yellowish brown, brownish black, black, dark gray

Streak Colorless (harder than the streak plate)

Luster Vitreous, sometimes resinous

Diaphaneity Translucent to opaque, rarely transparent

Cleavage Poor

Mohs Hardness 7 to 7.5

Specific Gravity 3.7 to 3.8

Color, six-sided crystals that are frequently twinned, usually found in schist and gneiss with muscovite mica and
Diagnostic Properties
almandine garnet

Chemical
(Fe,Mg)2Al9Si4O23(OH)
Composition

Crystal System Monoclinic

Uses Little industrial use

Twinned staurolite crystals: Twinned staurolite crystals in muscovite schist from Pestsovye Keivy, Keivy Mountains, Russia.
This specimen of schist has one pair of staurolite crystals forming a 90-degree penetration twin (lower right) and another pair
forming the more typical 60-degree penetration twin (upper left, partially embedded). Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10
centimeters) across. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Twinning in Staurolite
The name "staurolite" is from the Greek word "stauros," which means "cross." The mineral commonly
occurs as twinned, six-sided crystals that sometimes intersect at 90 degrees to form a cross. (An intersection
angle of 60 degrees is more common.) In some localities these twinned crystals are collected, made into
jewelry, and sold under the name "fairy crosses."

Staurolite "fairy crosses": Staurolite crystals are often collected, made into jewelry, and sold as souvenirs or "good luck"
charms. Some of these items are genuine twinned staurolite crystals. Others are cross-shaped models manufactured for the tourist
trade. If you see a selection of staurolite crosses offered for sale that are all the same size, same shape, and have air bubbles on
close examination, they might be manufactured.
Uses of Staurolite
There are very few uses for staurolite. It has been used as an abrasive, but that use has been replaced by
other minerals and man-made materials. It is used in geologic field work to assess the temperature-pressure
conditions of a rock's metamorphic history.

In locations where staurolite is found as well-formed cruciform twinned crystals, it is sometimes collected,
sold as a souvenir, made into jewelry, and used as an ornament. The cruciform crystals have often stirred
religious beliefs and superstitions. Some of these objects are not staurolite; instead they are manufactured. If
you see a selection of these for sale that are all the same size, the same shape and containing gas bubbles,
they might be manufactured.

Staurolite is the official state mineral of the state of Georgia. It is especially abundant in a few localities in
Patrick County, Virginia. One of them is now Virginia's "Fairy Stone State Park," named after the stone and
the legends that surround it.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Sulfur
Chemical element. Native mineral. Essential to all living things.

Sulfur terminal: Piles of yellow sulfur at a terminal near Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The sulfur is brought
by rail from oil and natural gas processing facilities in the Province of Alberta. At this terminal it is loaded onto barges
and ships for bulk transport. Photo © iStockphoto / teekaygee.

Sulfur fumarole: As hot volcanic gases, rich in sulfur, escape from a volcanic vent, the gases cool and sulfur is deposited as
yellow crystals around the vent. This fumarole on the island of Kunashir (in the Kuril Islands, northeast of the Japanese island of
Hokkaido) has a significant accumulation of bright yellow sulfur. Photo © iStockphoto / Sergey Dubrovskiy.
 Did You Know? Many strong odors are produced by sulfur compounds. The
smell of skunks, matches, garlic, grapefruit, and rotten eggs are caused by
sulfur. Image © iStockphoto / Florintt, Gio_banfi, Abomb Industries Design,
ivelly, and Big_Ryan.

What is Sulfur?
Sulfur is a chemical element with an atomic number of 16 and an atomic symbol of S. At room temperature
it is a yellow crystalline solid. Even though it is insoluble in water, it is one of the most versatile elements at
forming compounds. Sulfur reacts and forms compounds with all elements except gold, iodine, iridium,
nitrogen, platinum, tellurium, and the inert gases.

Sulfur is abundant and occurs throughout the Universe, but it is rarely found in a pure, uncombined form at
Earth's surface. As an element, sulfur is an important constituent of sulfate and sulfide minerals. It occurs in
the dissolved ions of many waters. It is an important constituent of many atmospheric, subsurface, and
dissolved gases. It is an essential element in all living things and is in the organic molecules of all fossil
fuels.

Did You Know? The Chinese discovered sulfur in about 2000 BC, used it to
make gunpowder in the 7th century, and used gunpowder to launch rockets,
shoot projectiles, and make hand grenades in the 10th century.

Physical Properties of Sulfur

Chemical
Native element
Classification

Yellow. Brownish yellow to greenish yellow. Red when molten at over 200 degrees Celsius. Burns with a flame that can be
Color
difficult to see in daylight but is blue in the dark.

Streak Yellow

Luster Crystals are resinous to greasy. Powdered sulfur is dull or earthy.

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Cleavage None
Mohs Hardness 1.5 to 2.5

Specific Gravity 2.0 to 2.1

Diagnostic
Yellow color, low hardness, low specific gravity, extremely flammable burning with a blue flame, low melting temperature
Properties

Chemical
S
Composition

Crystal System Orthorhombic

About 90% is used to manufacture sulfuric acid. The remainder is used in a variety of products that include hydrogen
Uses sulfide, insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, pharmaceuticals, soaps, textiles, papers, processed rubber, gunpowder,
leather, paint, dyes, food preservatives.

World Sulfur Production: During 2015, an estimated 70 million metric tons of sulfur was produced worldwide. The production
was widely divided among a large number of countries. The top 12 producing countries were China, the United States, Russia,
Canada, Germany, Japan, Saudi Arabia, India, Kazakhstan, Iran, United Arab Emirates, and Mexico. These countries are where
the sulfur was separated from its geologic source material rather than the original source of the sulfur, since most sulfur is
separated when fossil fuels are processed or sulfide ores are smelted. Data from the United States Geological Survey. [7]

Sulfur is Abundant and Everywhere!

The information below should convince you that sulfur is extremely abundant and present everywhere.

 11th most abundant element in the human body [1]

 6th most abundant element in seawater [2]
 14th most abundant element in Earth’s crust [3]
 9th most abundant element in the entire Earth [4]
 10th most abundant element in the solar system [5]
 10th most abundant element in the Universe [6]
Sulfur Crystals: Bright yellow sulfur crystal group showing the mineral's characteristic orthorhombic crystal habit and resinous
luster. Specimen measures approximately 7.3 x 6.6 x 5.3 centimeters in size and was collected from the Agrigento Province,
Sicily, Italy. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Burning sulfur: Pieces of sulfur burning in daylight and in the dark. Photo by Johannes 'volty' Hemmerlein, used here under
a GNU Free Documentation License.
 Did You Know? Jupiter's moon, Io, has over 400 active volcanoes that emit
enormous amounts of sulfur - so much sulfur that the moon has a yellowish
color.

“Sulfur” or "Sulphur"?
The name "sulphur" has been used in the United Kingdom and throughout the British Empire for hundreds
of years. "Sulfur" is the spelling used in common and scientific communication in the United States. In 1990
the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry designated "sulfur" as the preferred spelling. How
the word is spelled can often reveal the age and origin of publications and authors.

Information Sources

[1] What Elements Are Found in the Human Body? Article in the Building Blocks of Life section of the Arizona School of Life Sciences website,
accessed November 2016.

[2] Periodic Table of Elements in the Ocean, article on the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute website, accessed November 2016.

[3] List of Periodic Table Elements Sorted by Abundance in Earth's Crust, article on the Israel Science and Technology website, accessed
November 2016.

[4] The Composition of the Earth, by William F. McDonough, Chapter 1 in Earthquake Thermodynamics and Phase Transformations in the
Earth’s Interior, manuscript on the Massachusetts Institute of Technology website, accessed November 2016.

[5] Solar System Abundances and Condensation Temperatures of the Elements by Katharina Lodders, article published on The Astrophysical
Journal website, accessed November 2016.

[6] Abundance in the Universe of the Elements, article on the PeriodicTable.com website, accessed November 2016.

[7] Sulfur, by Lori E. Apodaca, United States Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2016.

[8] The International Mineralogical Association Database of Mineral Properties, an online database of minerals along with their chemical
and physical properties that can be queried and sorted by anyone with internet access.

Sulfur as a Native Element Mineral

As a mineral, sulfur is a bright yellow crystalline material. It forms near volcanic vents and fumaroles,
where it sublimates from a stream of hot gases. Small amounts of native sulfur also form during the
weathering of sulfate and sulfide minerals.

The largest accumulations of mineral sulfur are found in the subsurface. Many of these are in fractures and
cavities associated with sulfide ore mineralization. The largest are associated with evaporite minerals, where
gypsum and anhydrite yield native sulfur as a product of bacterial action. Significant amounts of sulfur have
been produced from the cap rock of salt domes but this type of production is rarely done today.

Minerals That Contain Sulfur

According to the International Mineralogical Association's database, over 1000 minerals contain sulfur as an
essential part of their composition. [8] This is a result of sulfur's ability to form compounds with all but a
few other elements. The tables below list a small number of sulfide, sulfarsenide, sulfosalt and sulfate
minerals. Many of the most common sulfur minerals are included in the list, but the list is not intended to be
complete.

Sulfide Minerals:
Mineral Composition

Acanthite Ag2S

Chalcocite Cu2S

Bornite Cu5FeS4

Galena PbS

Sphalerite ZnS

Chalcopyrite CuFeS2

Pyrrhotite Fe1-xS

Millerite NiS

Pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9S8

Covellite CuS

Cinnabar HgS

Realgar AsS

Orpiment As2S3

Stibnite Sb2S3

Pyrite FeS2

Marcasite FeS2

Molybdenite MoS2

Sulfarsenide Minerals:
Mineral Composition

Cobaltite (Co,Fe)AsS
Arsenopyrite FeAsS

Gersdorffite NiAsS

Sulfosalt Minerals:
Mineral Composition

Pyrargyrite Ag3SbS3

Proustite Ag3AsS3

Tetrahedrite Cu12Sb4S13

Tennantite Cu12As4S13

Enargite Cu3AsS4

Bournonite PbCuSbS3

Jamesonite Pb4FeSb6S14

Cylindrite Pb3Sn4FeSb2S14

Anhydrous Sulfate Minerals:

Mineral Composition

Barite BaSO4

Celestite SrSO4

Anglesite PbSO4

Anhydrite CaSO4

Hanksite Na22K(SO4)9(CO3)2Cl

Hydroxide and Hydrous Sulfate Minerals:

Mineral Composition

Gypsum CaSO4·2H2O

Chalcanthite CuSO4·5H2O

Kieserite MgSO4·H2O

Starkeyite MgSO4·4H2O

Hexahydrite MgSO4·6H2O

Epsomite MgSO4·7H2O
Meridianiite MgSO4·11H2O

Melanterite FeSO4·7H2O

Antlerite Cu3SO4(OH)4

Brochantite Cu4SO4(OH)6

Alunite KAl3(SO4)2(OH)6

Jarosite KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6
 Sylvite

Mineral Properties and Uses

Physical Properties of Sylvite

Chemical Classification halide

colorless, white, blue, yellow, red,

Color
gray

Streak white

Luster vitreous

Diaphaneity transparent to translucent

Cleavage perfect, cubic

Mohs Hardness 2

Specific Gravity 2

Diagnostic Properties taste

Chemical Composition KCl

Crystal System isometric

Uses salt substitute, fertilizer

 Talc: The Softest Mineral
What is Talc? How Does it Form? How is Talc Used?

Uses of talc: Talc is used in a wide variety of products that we see every day. It is an important ingredient in rubber, a filler and
whitener in paint, a filler and brightening agent in high-quality papers, and a primary ingredient in many types of cosmetics.
Images © iStockphoto and (clockwise) MorePixels, Mark Wragg, Franz-W. Franzelin and High Impact Photography.

Talc: A Mineral in Your Daily Life

Most people are familiar with the mineral talc. It can be crushed into a white powder that is widely known as
"talcum powder." This powder has the ability to absorb moisture, absorb oils, absorb odor, serve as a
lubricant, and produce an astringent effect with human skin. These properties make talcum powder an
important ingredient in many baby powders, foot powders, first aid powders, and a variety of cosmetics.

A form of talc known as "soapstone" is also widely known. This soft rock is easily carved and has been
used to make ornamental and practical objects for thousands of years. It has been used to make sculptures,
bowls, countertops, sinks, hearths, pipe bowls, and many other objects.

Although talcum powder and soapstone are two of the more visible uses of talc, they account for a very
small fraction of talc consumption. Its hidden uses are far more common. Talc's unique properties make it an
important ingredient for making ceramics, paint, paper, roofing materials, plastics, rubber, insecticides, and
many other products.
Talc: Talc is a phyllosilicate mineral that cleaves into thin sheets. These sheets are held together only by van der Waals bonds,
which allows them to easily slip past one another. This characteristic is responsible for talc's extreme softness, its greasy to soapy
feel, and its value as a high-temperature lubricant.

What is Talc?
Talc is a hydrous magnesium silicate mineral with a chemical composition of Mg3Si4O10(OH)2. Although
the composition of talc usually stays close to this generalized formula, some substitution occurs. Small
amounts of Al or Ti can substitute for Si; small amounts of Fe, Mn, and Al can substitute for Mg; and, very
small amounts of Ca can substitute for Mg. When large amounts of Fe substitute for Mg, the mineral is
known as minnesotaite. When large amounts of Al substitute for Mg, the mineral is known as pyrophyllite.

Talc is usually green, white, gray, brown, or colorless. It is a translucent mineral with a pearly luster. It is the
softest known mineral and is assigned a hardness of 1 on the Mohs Hardness scale.

Talc is a monoclinic mineral with a sheet structure similar to the micas. Talc has perfect cleavage that
follows planes between the weakly bonded sheets. These sheets are held together only by van der Waals
bonds, which allows them to slip past one another easily. This characteristic is responsible for talc's extreme
softness, its greasy, soapy feel, and its value as a high-temperature lubricant.

Where is Talc Produced?

2011 Mine Production
of Talc
Thousand
Country
Metric Tons

United
615
States

Brazil 420

China 2,000

Finland 500

France 420
India 650

Japan 360

South
700
Korea

Other
1,570
Countries

The values above are

estimates of mine
productions in
thousands of metric
tons from the USGS
Mineral Commodity
Summaries.

In 2011 talc production was still down in response to the world-wide economic downturn. For most
countries, 2011 production was about the same as production in 2010. China, South Korea, India, United
States, Finland, Brazil, France, and Japan are the leading producers.

The United States is self-sufficient for most types of talc used in manufacturing. Estimated 2011 production
was 615,000 metric tons with a value of about $20 million. Three companies in the United States account for
nearly 100% of the country's production.

Soapstone: A rock known as "soapstone" is a massive variety of talc with varying amounts of other minerals such as micas,
chlorite, amphiboles, and pyroxenes. It is a soft rock that is easy to work, and that has caused it to be used in a wide variety of
dimension stone and sculpture applications. It is used for counter tops, electrical panels, hearthstones, figurines, statuary, and
many other projects.

How Does Talc Form?

Talc is a mineral that is most often found in the metamorphic rocks of convergent plate boundaries. It
forms from at least two processes. Most large talc deposits in the United States formed when heated waters
carrying dissolved magnesium and silica reacted with dolomitic marbles. A second process of talc formation
occurred when heat and chemically active fluids altered rocks such as dunite and serpentinite into talc.

Most of the talc deposits in the United States are in metamorphic rocks on the eastern side of the
Appalachian Mountains and in rocks metamorphosed in convergent terranes of Washington, Idaho,
Montana, California, Nevada, and New Mexico. Deposits of talc are also found in Texas.

Foliated talc: Talc is a metamorphic mineral that frequently exhibits distinct foliation.

Talc Mining and Processing

Most talc in the United States is produced from an open pit mine where the rock is drilled, blasted, and
partially crushed in the mining operation. The highest grade ores are produced by selective mining and
sorting operations.

Great care is taken during the mining process to avoid contaminating the talc with other rock materials.
These other materials can have an adverse effect on the color of the product. Contamination can introduce
hard particles that cause problems in applications where talc is being used because of its softness or
lubricating properties.

Partially crushed rock is taken from the mine to a mill, where it is further reduced in particle size. Impurities
are sometimes removed by froth flotation or mechanical processing. The mills produce crushed or finely
ground talc that meets customer requirements for particle size, brightness, composition, and other properties.

Uses of Talc: Talc is used as a filler, coating, pigment, dusting agent and extender in plastics, ceramics, paint, paper, cosmetics,
roofing, rubber and many other products. Data from the United States Geological Survey.
Talc: Foliated talc that has a black color in massive form but cleaves into thin, flexible, inelastic and colorless sheets.

Physical Properties of Talc

Chemical Classification Silicate

Color Green, white, gray, brown, colorless

Streak White to pale green

Luster Pearly

Diaphaneity Translucent

Cleavage Perfect

Mohs Hardness 1

Specific Gravity 2.7 to 2.8

Diagnostic Properties Feel, color, softness, cleavage

Chemical Composition Mg3Si4O10(OH)2

Crystal System Monoclinic

Uses Used as a filler and anti-stick coating in plastics, ceramics, paint, paper, roofing, rubber, cosmetics

Talc Information

[1] Talc and Pyrophyllite: Robert L. Virta, U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2012.

[2] Talc and Pyrophyllite: Robert L. Virta, U.S. Geological Survey, 2010 Minerals Yearbook, November 2011.

[3] U.S. Talc -- Baby Powder and Much More: U.S. Geological Survey, Fact Sheet FS-065-00, September 2000.

[4] Talc resources of the conterminous United States: Robert C. Greene, United States Geological Survey, Open-File Report OF 95-586, 1995.
[5] Talc in Cosmetics: United States Food and Drug Administration, website article, last accessed August 2016.

Uses of Talc
Most people use products made from talc every day; however, they don't realize that talc is in the product or
the special role that it plays.

Talc in Plastics

In 2011, about 26% of the talc consumed in the United States was used in the manufacturing of plastics. It is
mainly used as a filler. The platy shape of talc particles can increase the stiffness of products such as
polypropylene, vinyl, polyethylene, nylon, and polyester. It can also increase the heat resistance of these
products and reduce shrinkage. Where the plastic is extruded in the manufacturing process, talc's very low
hardness produces less abrasion on equipment than harder mineral fillers.

Talc in Ceramics

In the United States in 2011, about 17% of the talc consumed was used in the manufacturing of ceramics
products such as bathroom fixtures, ceramic tile, pottery, and dinnerware. When used as a filler in ceramics,
talc can improve the firing characteristics of the greenware and the strength of the finished product.

Talc in Paint

Most paints are suspensions of mineral particles in a liquid. The liquid portion of the paint facilitates
application, but after the liquid evaporates, the mineral particles remain on the wall. Talc is used as an
extender and filler in paints. The platy shape of talc particles improves the suspension of solids in the can
and helps the liquid paint adhere to a wall without sagging.

Powdered talc is a very bright white color. This makes talc an excellent filler in paint because it
simultaneously serves to whiten and brighten the paint. Talc's low hardness is valued because it causes less
abrasion damage on spray nozzles and other equipment when paint is applied. In 2011, about 16% of the talc
consumed in the United States was used to make paint.

Talc in Paper

Most papers are made from a pulp of organic fibers. This pulp is made from wood, rags, and other organic
materials. Finely ground mineral matter is added to the pulp to serve as a filler. When the pulp is rolled into
thin sheets, the mineral matter fills spaces between the pulp fibers, resulting in a paper with a much
smoother writing surface. Talc as a mineral filler can improve the opacity, brightness, and whiteness of the
paper. Talc also can also improve the paper's ability to absorb ink. In 2011, the paper industry consumed
about 16% of the talc used in the United States.

Talc in Cosmetics and Antiperspirants

Finely ground talc is used as the powder base of many cosmetic products. The tiny platelets of a talc powder
readily adhere to the skin but can be washed off easily. Talc's softness allows it to be applied and removed
without causing skin abrasion.

Talc also has the ability to absorb oils and perspiration produced by human skin. The ability of talc to absorb
moisture, absorb odor, adhere to the skin, serve as a lubricant, and produce an astringent effect in contact
with human skin make it an important ingredient in many antiperspirants. In 2011, about 7% of the talc
consumed in the United States was used to make cosmetics and antiperspirant.

Talc and asbestos occur naturally and may occur in close proximity in some metamorphic rocks. Studies
published in the 1960s and 1970s identified health concerns about the use of talc that contains asbestos in
some cosmetic products.

According to the FDA, "These studies have not conclusively demonstrated such a link, or if such a link
existed, what risk factors might be involved." To address these concerns, talc mining sites are now carefully
selected and ores are carefully processed to avoid the presence of asbestos in talc destined for use in the
cosmetics industry.

Talc in Roofing Materials

Talc is added to the asphaltic materials used to make roofing materials to improve their weather resistance. It
is also dusted onto the surface of roll roofing and shingles to prevent sticking. In 2011, about 6% of the talc
consumed in the United States was used to manufacture roofing materials.

Dimension Stone

A rock known as "soapstone" is a massive variety of talc with varying amounts of other minerals such as
micas, chlorite, amphiboles, and pyroxenes. It is a soft rock that is easy to work, and that has caused it to be
used in a wide variety of dimension stone and sculpture applications. It is used for counter tops, electrical
panels, hearthstones, figurines, statuary, and many other projects.

Other Uses of Talc

Ground talc is used as a lubricant in applications where high temperatures are involved. It is able to survive
at temperatures where oil-based lubricants would be destroyed.

Talc powder is used as a carrier for insecticides and fungicides. It can easily be blown through a nozzle and
readily sticks to the leaves and stems of plants. Its softness reduces wear on application equipment.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Titanite - Also Known as Sphene
Titanite is a minor ore of titanium and a minor gemstone known as "sphene."

Titanite: A twinned crystal of titanite with adularia and clinochlore on matrix. The crystal is about one inch (2.5 centimeters) in
height. From Tormiq Valley, Haramosh Mountains, Skardu District, Baltistan, Northern Areas, Pakistan. Specimen and photo by
Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

What is Titanite?
Titanite is a rare titanium mineral that occurs as an accessory mineral in granitic and calcium-
rich metamorphic rocks. It is a minor ore of titanium and a minor gemstone known as "sphene."

Physical Properties of Titanite

Chemical Classification Calcium titanium silicate.

Commonly yellow, green, brown, black or

Color
gray. Rarely pink, red, or orange.

Streak White.

Luster Resinous to adamantine.

Diaphaneity Translucent to transparent.

Cleavage Fair to good.

Mohs Hardness 5 to 5.5

Specific Gravity 3.4 to 3.6

Diagnostic Properties Luster, hardness, color, dispersion.

 Chemical Composition CaTiSiO5

Crystal System Monoclinic.

Uses Minor ore of titanium. Minor gemstone.

Physical Properties of Titanite

Titanite's diagnostic properties are its crystal habit, color, and luster. Its monoclinic crystals are often
wedge-shaped or tabular-shaped. Its typical color range is yellow, green, brown, and black. Pink, orange,
and red specimens are rare.

Titanite has a resinous to adamantine luster that is rarely seen in other minerals. It has one of the highest
dispersions of any mineral - significantly higher than diamond. Titanite is also pleochroic. Transparent
specimens might show its three trichroic colors.

Titanite is sometimes confused with sphalerite, especially when observing an adamantine to resinous luster.
Sphalerite is softer than titanite, and often produces an odor of sulfur immediately after a streak test.

Titanite: Numerous titanite crystals on a specimen of schist. The large crystal is about 22 millimeters (one inch) in length. From
Tormiq Valley, Haramosh Mountains, Skardu District, Baltistan, Northern Areas, Pakistan. Photo by Parent Gery, used here under
a creative commons license.

"Titanite" or "Sphene"
Before 1982, the name "sphene" was common usage for this mineral. Then the International Mineralogical
Association adopted the name "titanite" and discredited "sphene." Geologists and mineralogists worldwide
quickly switched to the name "titanite" and it is now in common use. The name "sphene" is rarely seen in
current publications.

The name "sphene" is still the dominant usage in the gem, jewelry, and lapidary industries. There, a name
change can cause severe disruption in marketing gemstone and jewelry products.
Pink Titanite: Massive pink titanite from Westport, Ontario, Canada. Pink is a rare color for this mineral. Specimen is
approximately 10 centimeters across.

Chemical Composition of Titanite

Titanite has a chemical composition of CaTiSiO5 and sometimes contains rare earth elements such as
cerium, niobium, and yttrium. It can contain other elements such as aluminum, chromium, fluorine, iron,
magnesium, manganese, sodium, and zirconium.

Iron has a strong influence on the color of titanite. Small amounts of iron darken the color. Yellow and green
specimens have a low iron content, while brown and black specimens have a higher iron content.

Geologic Occurrence of Titanite

Titanite is a rare mineral. It occurs as an accessory mineral in a few igneous rocks that include granite,
granodiorite, diorite, syenite, and nepheline syenite. It is sometimes present in marble or calcium-
rich gneiss and schist. Its habit is often as individual grains. When abundant it is usually granular to
massive. The best crystals are usually found in marble.

Unlike other titanium minerals, titanite is rarely found in placer deposits. Its cleavage, parting, and a
low hardness make it vulnerable to the abrasion of stream transport.
Sphene: A greenish yellow faceted sphene, back illuminated to show its very high dispersion. This 8 x 6 millimeter oval was cut
from material mined in Pakistan.

Sphene the Gemstone

Sphene continues to be the name used for titanite in the gem and jewelry industries. It is a minor gemstone
that is popular with collectors because of its high dispersion. Sphene is one of the few minerals with a
dispersion higher than diamond. The dispersion of diamond is 0.044, while the dispersion of sphene is
0.051. Specimens of sphene with high clarity can display a strong, colorful fire when light is passed through
them (see accompanying image).

Sphene is not commonly seen in jewelry. Its hardness of 5 to 5.5 on the Mohs scale, along with its easy
cleavage and parting, make it too fragile as a ring stone. Reliable supplies of cut stones in commercial
quantities have not been developed, and the jewelry-buying public is unfamiliar with the gem. For these
reasons, sphene has not become a mainstream gem that is commonly available in jewelry.
 Topaz
A gemstone that occurs in a wide range of natural and treated colors.

Colored Topaz Crystals: A collection of topaz crystals of various natural colors - sherry, imperial, pink, and purple. Most topaz
crystals are colorless. Most topaz in commercial jewelry has been heated, irradiated, or coated to improve its color. Specimens and
photos by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com

What is Topaz?
Topaz is a rare silicate mineral with a chemical composition of Al2SiO4(F,OH)2. It usually forms in
fractures and cavities of igneous rocks such as pegmatite and rhyolite, late in their cooling history. It is
also found as water-worn pebbles in stream sediments derived from those igneous rocks.

Topaz is a well-known gemstone sold in a wide variety of attractive colors. Some of these colors are natural,
while others are produced by treating pale or colorless topaz with heat, radiation, or metallic coatings.

Physical Properties of Topaz

Chemical
Silicate.
Classification
 Natural colors include: colorless, yellow, orange, red, pink, blue, green. Occurs in a wide range of treated colors, most
Color
often blue.

Streak Colorless - harder than the streak plate.

Luster Vitreous.

Diaphaneity Translucent to transparent.

Cleavage Perfect basal cleavage.

Mohs Hardness 8

Specific Gravity 3.4 to 3.6

Diagnostic Properties Hardness, prismatic crystals, sometimes striated, cleavage, specific gravity.

Chemical
Al2SiO4(F,OH)2
Composition

Crystal System Orthorhombic.

Uses Gemstone, Mohs hardness index mineral.

Physical Properties of Topaz

One of the best-known physical properties of topaz is its hardness. It has a hardness of 8 on the Mohs
hardness scale. It also serves as the Mohs hardness scale index mineral for a hardness of 8. Every student
who takes an introductory geology course learns about the hardness of topaz. Diamond, corundum,
and chrysoberyl are the only commonly-known minerals that are harder.

Most topaz is colorless or milky. Yellowish and brownish colors are also common. Natural pink, orange,
red, purple, and blue topaz are rare and valuable if they are of gem quality.

When allowed to grow unrestricted, topaz forms orthorhombic crystals, often with striations that parallel the
long axis of the crystal. It also has a distinct basal cleavage that breaks perpendicular to the long axis of the
crystal. This cleavage makes topaz a more fragile gemstone than its hardness of 8 would imply. Hardness is
the resistance to being scratched, but the ability to resist breakage is a property known as tenacity.

Topaz has a specific gravity that ranges between 3.4 and 3.6. This is quite high for a mineral composed of
aluminum, silicon, and gaseous elements.
Blue Topaz: Faceted ovals of two colors of blue topaz that are popular today. On the left is a "Swiss Blue" topaz weighing 2.02
carats. On the right is a "London Blue" weighing 2.26 carats. Both stones were colorless topaz mined in Brazil, then irradiated and
heated to produce the blue colors. Topaz with treated blue color is the most common color of topaz in commercial jewelry today.

Topaz Treatment Methods: Colorless topaz, also known as white topaz, (top left) can be irradiated and heated to produce gems
with a blue color (top right). Irradiation alone can produce a pale pink color (bottom right). Coating with certain metallic oxides
can produce a vivid pink color (bottom left). Most topaz in commercial jewelry today is colorless material that has been heated,
irradiated, or coated to improve its color.

Use of Topaz as a Gemstone

The name "topaz" and many language variants have been used for yellowish gemstones for at least two
thousand years. At that time all yellowish gems were called topaz in many parts of the world. People who
traded in gems did not realize that these yellowish stones were of many different kinds.

Then, about two hundred years ago, people who traded in gems began to realize that these yellowish gems
might be topaz, quartz, beryl, olivine, sapphire, or one of many other minerals. They also learned that
topaz occurred in a wide range of colors other than yellow. Today, gemologists know the full range of colors
for natural topaz.
If you visited a jewelry store fifty years ago and asked to see topaz, you would likely be shown gems that
were in the color range of yellow, orange, and brown. Starting in the 1970s and 1980s, the most common
color that you would be shown began to be blue. This blue color was usually produced by treatments that
converted colorless topaz into a more marketable gemstone.

"Mystic" Topaz: Some topaz is heated and then coated with a metallic oxide to change its color or to produce an iridescent
effect. These treatments are sold under the trade name of "mystic topaz." These materials are simply clear topaz with a coating
that might not be very durable.

Topaz Treatments
Today most topaz offered in mall and department store jewelry stores at low to moderate price levels has
been treated in a laboratory. Colorless topaz is heated, irradiated, and coated with thin layers of metallic
oxides to alter its color.

Natural blue topaz is extremely rare and is usually pale blue. Almost all of the blue topaz offered in stores is
colorless topaz that has been irradiated and then heated to produce a blue color. "Swiss blue" and "London
blue" are trade names for two of the most common varieties of treated blue topaz seen in today's market.

Natural pink to purple topaz is also extremely rare. These colors are often produced in a laboratory. The
starting point is a stone cut from colorless topaz. It is first heated and then coated with a layer of metallic
oxide to produce the pink color. If coated stones are worn in jewelry, over time the coating often wears thin
or wears through at points on the stone where abrasion occurs.

Some topaz is coated with a metallic oxide that gives the stone a multicolored iridescent luster. These
stones, known as "mystic topaz," appear to change color if the observer moves the stone under a light or
changes the angle of observation. These coatings are also thin and can be worn through during wear.
Topaz Mountain Rhyolite: Outcrop of stratified tuff of the Topaz Mountain Rhyolite, filling a paleovalley. These valley fills
were once thought to be deposited by water, but now many of them are believed to have been deposited by ground surges of hot
ash. The Topaz Mountain Rhyolite has many vuggy areas, which often contain champagne-colored topaz crystals. Located in
western Utah. USGS image.

Geologic Occurrence of Topaz

Topaz has a chemical composition of Al2SiO4(F,OH)2. The fluorine in its composition is a limiting factor on
its formation. Fluorine gas in concentrations high enough to form minerals only occurs in a few geologic
environments.

Most topaz forms the veins and cavities of igneous rocks such as pegmatite and rhyolite. It forms during the
late stages of magma cooling while hydrothermal activity delivers fluorine. Topaz occurs in pockets within
pegmatites, in fractures that carried hydrothermal fluids, and in gas cavities within rhyolite.

Precipitating in cavities, topaz sometimes develops nicely-formed crystals. These crystals can have excellent
clarity and can be used as a gem material. Especially attractive crystals of topaz are popular with mineral
collectors. They have the value of a mineral specimen and the value of a gem material.

Topaz is also found as water-worn pebbles in stream sediments derived from the weathering of pegmatites
and rhyolites. These are often produced by placer mining.

Topaz is found in many locations worldwide where rocks like pegmatite and rhyolite are formed. It is only a
minor mineral at these locations, and it is considered to be a rare mineral on the basis of its general
abundance.

Brazil is the leading source of gem-quality topaz today. Sri Lanka is another important producer. Topaz is
also produced in Nigeria, Australia, Pakistan, Russia, India, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, and Namibia. In the
United States, Utah named topaz as its state gemstone.
 Tourmaline
Earth's most colorful mineral and gem material.

Tourmaline: Six faceted tourmaline gemstones from Africa. Clockwise from top left: A blue-green oval weighing 5.5 carats;
emerald-cut chrome tourmaline, 1.51 carats; green round, 1.87 carats; pink emerald cut, 1.04 carats; pink-orange emerald cut, 1.88
carats; red cushion cut, 3.34 carats. (Photos are not to scale.) Specimens and images copyright by Lapigems.

What is Tourmaline?
"Tourmaline" is the name of a large group of boron silicate minerals that share a common crystal structure
and similar physical properties - but vary tremendously in chemical composition.

The wide range of compositions, along with trace elements and color centers, causes tourmalines to occur in
more colors and color combinations than any other mineral group. Crystals of good color and clarity are
often cut into beautiful gemstones. Tourmaline is such a popular gemstone that it is easy to find in jewelry
stores. Nice tourmaline crystals are also valued by mineral specimen collectors. Specimens with attractive
colors and habits can sell for thousands of dollars.

Tourmalines commonly occur as accessory minerals in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Large crystals of
tourmaline can form in cavities and fractures during hydrothermal activity. Tourmaline also exists as durable
grains in sediments and sedimentary rocks.
Accessory tourmaline: A specimen of the Crabtree Pegmatite from North Carolina, showing black prismatic tourmaline and
green emerald crystals in a matrix of white feldspar and quartz. The width of this view is about two inches.

Geologic Occurrence of Tourmaline

Accessory Mineral

The most common occurrence of tourmaline is as an accessory mineral in igneous and metamorphic rocks. It
usually occurs as millimeter-size crystals scattered through granite, pegmatite, and gneiss. In this mode of
occurrence, tourmaline rarely makes up more than a few percent of the rock's volume. The mineral most
often found as an accessory mineral is black schorl.

Tourmaline crystals on cleavelandite: A large mineral specimen consisting of prismatic tourmaline crystals on cleavelandite
with quartz and lepidolite. The tourmaline crystals are color zoned with red tourmaline at the base that sharply transitions to blue-
green along their length. From the Pederneira Mine of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Measures 21 x 15 x 14 cm. Specimen and photo by
Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.
Crystals in Fractures Voids and Pockets

The most spectacular tourmaline crystals are formed by hydrothermal activity. They are found in pockets,
voids, or fractures and range in size from tiny millimeter crystals to massive prisms weighing over 100
kilograms. A rich pocket of nice tourmaline crystals can yield mineral specimens and gem materials worth
millions of dollars.

Alluvial tourmaline: About 30 carats of stream-rounded tourmaline rough from Tanzania in yellow, orange, and green colors.

Alluvial Tourmaline

With a hardness of 7 to 7 1/2, tourmaline weathered from igneous or metamorphic rocks can be a durable
sediment grain. Tourmaline gem rough is mined from streams sediments in many parts of the world, often
by artisanal miners. Tourmaline is often one of many minerals produced from a single mining location.

Physical Properties of Tourmaline

Chemical
Boron silicate
Classification

Color Usually black. Blue, green, yellow, pink, red, orange, purple, brown, and colorless. Single crystals are often zoned.

Streak White when softer than the streak plate. Colorless when harder than the streak plate.

Luster Vitreous

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent to nearly opaque

Cleavage Indistinct

Mohs Hardness 7 to 7.5

Specific Gravity 2.8 to 3.3

Lack of visible cleavage, prismatic crystals with rounded triangular cross-sections that are often striated, vibrant
Diagnostic Properties
colors

Chemical Composition (Ca,Na,K,[]) (Li,Mg,Fe+2,Fe+3,Mn+2,Al,Cr+3,V+3)3(Mg,Al,Fe+3,V+3,Cr+3)6 ((Si,Al,B)6O18) (BO3)3(OH,O)3 (OH,F,O)

Crystal System Hexagonal

Uses A popular gemstone and mineral specimen

Physical Properties of Tourmaline

Tourmaline has a few properties that can aid in its identification. If you have a tourmaline crystal,
identification should be easy. Tourmaline crystals are prismatic and often have obvious striations that
parallel their long axis. They often have triangular or six-sided cross-sections with rounded edges. They are
often color zoned through their cross-sections or along their length. And, tourmaline is pleochroic with the
darkest color viewing down the C-axis and lighter color viewing perpendicular to the C-axis.

Don't despair if your suspected tourmaline is an accessory mineral in an igneous or metamorphic rock. It
often occurs in these rocks as tiny prismatic crystals. Get a hand lens and look for striations and rounded
cross-sections.

Tourmaline has indistinct cleavage, so any specimen with obvious cleavage is not tourmaline. Color might
not be helpful. The most common tourmaline color is black, but the mineral occurs in all colors of the
spectrum.

Colorful tourmaline crystals: A couple dozen small tourmaline crystals in pretty colors from Afghanistan, suitable for faceting
very small stones. Some of them are bicolor and a few are oriented to show pleochroism, with the color looking down the long
axis of the crystal being much darker than when looking at the crystal in side view.
Tourmaline crystals: Tourmaline crystals often have many fractures and inclusions, but these crystals exhibit wonderful clarity
and very rich color. They also show the striations along the long axis of the crystals that are characteristic of tourmaline. The blue-
green cluster on the left sits atop cleavelandite with purple lepidolite, and it measures 13 cm tall. The rubellite cluster on the right
measures 6.7 cm tall. Specimens and photos by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Tourmaline Chemistry
Tourmaline is a complex boron silicate mineral with a generalized chemical composition of:

XY3Z6(T6O18)(BO3)3V3W

Letters in the formula above represent positions in the atomic structure of tourmaline that can be occupied
by ions listed below.

 X = Ca, Na, K, [vacancy]

 Y = Li, Mg, Fe+2, Fe+3, Mn+2, Al, Cr+3, V+3
 Z = Mg, Al, Fe+3, V+3, Cr+3
 T = Si, Al, B
 V = OH, O
 W = OH, F, O

The complex formula and many substituting ions produce the large number of minerals in the tourmaline
group. The International Mineralogical Association has recognized 32 different tourmaline minerals based
upon the chemical composition of solid solution series end members. These minerals are listed in the table
below.
 Tourmaline Group Minerals
Mineral Composition

Adachiite CaFe3Al6(Si5AlO18)(BO3)3(OH)3OH

Bosiite NaFe3(Al4Mg2)Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3O

Chromium-dravite NaMg3Cr6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3OH

Chromo-alumino-povondraite NaCr3(Al4Mg2)Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3O

Darrellhenryite NaLiAl2Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3O

Dravite NaMg3Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3OH

Elbaite Na2(Li3,Al3)Al12Si12O36(BO3)6(OH)6(OH)2

Feruvite CaFe3(MgAl5)Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3OH

Fluor-buergerite NaFe3Al6Si6O18(BO3)3O3F

Fluor-dravite NaMg3Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3F

Fluor-elbaite Na2(Li3,Al3)Al12Si12O36(BO3)6(OH)6F2

Fluor-liddicoatite Ca(Li2Al)Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3F

Fluor-schorl NaFe3Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3F

Fluor-tsilaisite NaMn3Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3F

Fluor-uvite CaMg3(Al5Mg)Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3F

Foitite [](Fe2Al)Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3OH

Lucchesiite Ca(Fe)3Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3O

Luinaite-(OH) (Na,[])(Fe,Mg)3Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3OH

Magnesio-foitite [](Mg2Al)Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3OH

Maruyamaite K(MgAl2)(Al5Mg)Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3O

Olenite NaAl3Al6Si6O18(BO3)3O3OH

Oxy-chromium-dravite NaCr3(Mg2Cr4)Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3O

Oxy-dravite Na(Al2Mg)(Al5Mg)Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3O

Oxy-schorl Na(Fe2Al)Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3O

Oxy-vanadium-dravite NaV3(V4Mg2)Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3O

Povondraite NaFe3(Fe4Mg2)Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3O

Rossmanite [](LiAl2)Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3OH
 Schorl NaFe3Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3OH

Tsilaisite NaMn3Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3OH

Uvite CaMg3(Al5Mg)Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3OH

Vanadio-oxy-chromium-dravite NaV3(Cr4Mg2)Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3O

Vanadio-oxy-dravite NaV3(Al4Mg2)Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3O

Faceted tourmaline: A collection of faceted tourmalines of various colors. Some of these stones exhibit multiple colors because
they were cut from color-zoned crystals. Two are pink and green bicolor stones known as "watermelon tourmaline." Bicolor and
pleochroic tourmalines are favorite stones of many jewelry designers because they can be used to make especially interesting
pieces of jewelry. The small round stones weigh about 0.5 carat each. The watermelon in the lower left corner weighs 0.61 carat.

Names Used for Tourmaline Gems

Tourmaline is one of the most popular gemstones because it occurs in every color of the spectrum. Jewelers
and gemologists use trade names for different colors of tourmaline to simplify communications with their
customers. Red tourmaline is sold as "rubellite." Dark blue tourmaline is sold as "indicolite." Dark green
tourmaline is sold as "chrome tourmaline." Black tourmaline is sold as "schorl." These names work much
better in a jewelry store than the mineralogical names in the table above!

For other tourmaline colors, the name of the color is used as an adjective. For example, "pink tourmaline" or
"purple tourmaline." "Yellow tourmaline" is sometimes sold as "canary tourmaline."

Sometimes gem dealers inadvertently introduce trade names that result in confusion. In 1990, spectacular
electric-blue tourmaline, colored by trace amounts of copper, was found in the state of Paraiba, Brazil. The
material was named "paraiba" after its locality. The beautiful gems were soon selling for over $2000 per
carat, and the name "paraiba" rapidly spread through gemstone markets. People loved the gems and their
exotic name.

The name caused two problems in the gem trade. First, the name "paraiba" could be used when selling
copper-bearing gems with the electric-blue color. It could also be used when selling any tourmaline from the
state of Paraiba. "Paraiba Tourmaline" and "tourmaline from Paraiba" have different meanings to
knowledgeable people. People who have heard the name "paraiba" but don't understand could be misled.
The second problem began in 2001 when electric-blue tourmaline was discovered in Nigeria. More was
discovered in Mozambique in 2005. All of these tourmalines were marketed using the popular "paraiba"
name. This confusion persists in the marketplace. It was slightly reduced when some sellers began using
"African Paraiba" for gems mined in Nigeria and Mozambique.

Some geologists use the gemological names for members of the tourmaline group. However, determining
the correct mineralogical name can be impossible in the field or a classroom, so communication is done with
these alternative names.

Watermelon tourmaline: A pair of rough and faceted tourmalines that exhibit a superb example of watermelon color. Both the
faceted stone and the crystal have clarity problems. This is typical for bicolor tourmaline. Perfect specimens near the color
transition are extremely rare. The change in conditions that caused the color change might have also disrupted the crystal growth
to produce the clarity problems. From Minas Gerais, Brazil. The rough crystal measures approximately 4.2 x 1.4 x 1.1 cm, and the
faceted gem measures 27.79 mm x 18.51 mm and weighs nearly 50 carats. Specimens and photos by Arkenstone
/ www.iRocks.com.

Tourmaline crystal cross-section: A "slice" of watermelon tourmaline which shows the pink interior, green outer layer, and
triangular shape of the crystal. This specimen shows where the "watermelon" name comes from. Image © iStockphoto / Sun
Chan.

Color Zoning in Tourmaline

Changing conditions during tourmaline crystal growth often result in single crystals that contain two
different colors of tourmaline. The earlier color is usually overgrown by the later color. These bicolor
crystals are known as "zoned crystals."

In many gems, color zoning is undesirable. Most gem and jewelry buyers prefer stones that have a single,
uniform face-up color. Tourmaline is an exception to this trend. Gems cut from color-zoned crystals with
pleasing colors are a novelty prized by designers and collectors.

Color-zoned crystals are often sawn into thin cross-sections and polished. These thin bicolor gems can be
very attractive. The most popular bicolor tourmaline is "watermelon tourmaline." It has a pink interior and a
green rind - just like a slice of watermelon. The closer the colors match those of a real watermelon, the more
people enjoy them and the higher the price.

Tourmaline crystals are also sawn and faceted to produce bicolor gems. "Watermelon" is again the most
popular, but many other beautiful color combinations are cut.

Zoned tourmaline crystals often have clarity problems in the color-change area. If the color combination is
attractive, minor clarity problems will not kill their desirability or price.

Video: Pleochroism in Tourmaline: This video demonstrates pleochroism in two short sections of tourmaline crystals. The
crystal sections are lightest when viewed perpendicular to the c-axis of the crystal (the side being held by the gem tweezers) and
they are darkest when viewed down the c-axis of the crystal.

Pleochroism in Tourmaline
Tourmaline is a pleochroic mineral. That means its apparent color can change with different directions of
observation. The color is usually darkest looking down the c-axis of the crystal (down the long axis). It is
usually lightest when viewing perpendicular to the long axis of the crystal.

Cutting pleochroic gem materials requires skill and knowledge. Rough must be studied and oriented to
produce a gem with pleasing face-up color. A light piece of rough can be cut with the table of a stone
perpendicular to the c-axis of the rough to maximize color. Dark rough can produce lighter gems if it is cut
with the table plane of the stone parallel to the c-axis of the rough. Some rough can be cut to nicely display
two pleochroic colors in the face-up position.

Color optimization of pleochroic rough is time-consuming, requires special skills, and usually involves
sacrifice. Which will produce a higher profit? A stone of premium color with a lower carat weight, or a
larger stone with a less desirable color?
 Turquoise
Properties of a gemstone mineral that has been held in high regard for thousands of years.

Turquoise and argillite inlay pieces: A collection of Ancestral Puebloan (Anasazi) turquoise and orange argillite inlay pieces
from Chaco Canyon National Historical Park in New Mexico. These pieces date from about 1020-1140 CE and show the typical
materials used in the ancient Chacoan bead and inlay industry. Public domain image from the National Park Service.

What is Turquoise?
Turquoise is an opaque mineral that occurs in beautiful hues of blue, blue-green, and yellow-green. It has
been treasured as a gemstone for thousands of years. Isolated from one another, the ancient people of
Africa, Asia, South America and North America independently made turquoise one of their preferred
materials for producing gemstones, inlay, and small sculptures.

Chemically, turquoise is a hydrous phosphate of copper and aluminum (CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8·5H2). Its only
important use is in the manufacture of jewelry and ornamental objects. However, in that use it is extremely
popular - so popular that the English language uses the word "turquoise" as the name of a blue-green color
that matches the stone. Very few minerals have a color that is so well known, so characteristic and
impressive that the name of the mineral becomes so commonly used. Only three other minerals
- gold, silver, and copper - have a color that is used in common language more than turquoise.
Turquoise cabochons: A diverse collection of turquoise cabochons from various locations. From left to right in the upper row: a
greenish blue turquoise cabochon with black matrix from China; a teardrop-shaped, slightly greenish blue turquoise cabochon
from Arizona's Sleeping Beauty Mine; and, two sky-blue turquoise cabochons with chocolate brown matrix from the Altyn-Tyube
Mine in Kazakhstan. In the center row: a small sky-blue turquoise cabochon from the Kingman Mines in Arizona; and, two small
round sky-blue cabochons from the Sleeping Beauty Mine of Arizona. In the bottom row: two small cabochons with black matrix
from unknown mines in Nevada; a teardrop-shaped cabochon with slightly greenish blue turquoise in black matrix from the
Newlanders Mine in Nevada; and, a rectangular cabochon of slightly greenish blue turquoise in reddish brown matrix from the #8
Mine in Nevada.

Turquoise Colors
Blue minerals are rare, and that is why turquoise captures attention in the gemstone market. The most
desirable color of turquoise is a sky blue or robin's-egg blue. Some people inappropriately describe the color
as "Persian blue" after the famous high-quality material mined in the area that is now known as Iraq. Using a
geographic name with a gem material should only be done when the material was mined in that locality.

After blue, blue-green stones are preferred, with yellowish green material being less desirable. Departure
from a nice blue color is caused by small amounts of iron substituting for aluminum in the turquoise
structure. The iron imparts a green tint to the turquoise in proportion to its abundance. Turquoise, especially
the more porous varieties, can discolor with exposure to prolonged sunlight, heat, cosmetics, perspiration,
and body oil.

Some turquoise contains inclusions of its host rock (known as matrix) that appear as black or brown spider-
webbing or patches within the material. Many cutters try to produce stones that exclude the matrix, but
sometimes it is so uniformly or finely distributed through the stone that it cannot be avoided. Some people
who purchase turquoise jewelry enjoy seeing the matrix within the stone, but as a general rule, turquoise
with heavy matrix is less desirable.

Some turquoise localities produce material with a characteristic color and appearance. For example, the
Sleeping Beauty Mine is known for its light blue turquoise without matrix. Much of the turquoise from the
Kingman Mine is bright blue with a spider web of black matrix. The Morenci Mine produces a lot of dark
blue turquoise with pyrite in the matrix. Much of the Bisbee turquoise has a bright blue color with a
chocolate brown matrix. People who know turquoise can often, but not always, correctly associate a stone
with a specific mine.
Turquoise cabochons: Turquoise cabochons from many parts of the world, showing a diversity of color and matrix. Image ©
iStockphoto, IrisGD.

Turquoise Occurrence
Turquoise is rarely found in well-formed crystals. Instead it is usually an aggregate of microcrystals. When
the microcrystals are packed closely together, the turquoise has a lower porosity, greater durability, and
polishes to a higher luster. This luster falls short of being "vitreous" or "glassy." Instead many people
describe it as "waxy" or "subvitreous." Porous turquoise is sometimes treated by soaking it in melted wax or
impregnating it with polymer plastic to improve its characteristics.

Turquoise forms best in an arid climate, and that determines the geography of turquoise sources. Most of the
world's turquoise rough is currently produced in the southwestern United States, China, Chile, Egypt, Iran,
and Mexico.

In these areas, rainfall infiltrates downward through soil and rock, dissolving small amounts of copper.
When this water is later evaporated, the copper combines with aluminum and phosphorus to deposit tiny
amounts of turquoise on the walls of subsurface fractures.

Turquoise can also replace the rock in contact with these waters. If the replacement is complete, a solid mass
of turquoise will be formed. When the replacement is less complete, the host rock will appear as a "matrix"
within the turquoise. The matrix can form a "spider web," "patchy" design, or other pattern within the stone.

Physical Properties of Turquoise

Chemical
Phosphate
Classification

Sky blue (most desirable as a gemstone), blue, blue-green, yellowish green, often with brown, black or metallic matrix
Color
spider-webbing through the material

Streak White, greenish

Luster Waxy to subvitreous

Diaphaneity Nearly opaque

Cleavage Perfect

Mohs Hardness 5 to 6

Specific Gravity 2.6 to 2.9 (variable because of porosity)

Diagnostic
Color
Properties

Chemical
CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8·4H2O
Composition

Crystal System Triclinic

Uses Decorative stone, gemstone

The Turquoise Group of Minerals

The turquoise group consists of five monoclinic minerals with a similar chemical composition and structure.
Included are turquoise, aheylite, chalcosiderite, faustite, and planerite. Their compositions are listed below.

Turquoise Group Minerals

Mineral Chemical Composition

Turquoise CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8·4H2O

Aheylite (Fe,Zn)Al6(PO4)4(OH)8·4H2O

Chalcosiderite Cu(FeAl)6(PO4)4(OH)8·4H2O

Faustite (Zn,Cu)Al6(PO4)4(OH)8·4H2O

Planerite Al6(PO4)2(OH)8·4H2O

Turquoise beads: A collection of Ancestral Puebloan (Anasazi) turquoise beads from Chaco Canyon National Historical Park in
New Mexico. These pieces date from about 1050-1100 CE and show the typical materials used in the ancient Chacoan bead and
inlay industry. Public domain image from the National Park Service.
Turquoise in the United States
Most of the turquoise production in the United States has been located in the arid southwest, and most of
that production has been in or around deposits of copper.Arizona, New Mexico, and Nevada have all held
the position of the leading turquoise-producing state. New Mexico held that position until the 1920s, Nevada
held the position until the 1980s, and Arizona is currently the leading state. Significant amounts of turquoise
have been produced in California, Colorado, Utah, Texas, and Arkansas.

Most of the turquoise is a byproduct of copper production. The large open-pit copper mines excavate down
through the shallow rock units where the turquoise is formed. When turquoise is encountered, the quantity
and quality of the material is assessed, and if warranted, a temporary effort is made to recover the gem
material. If the value of the turquoise is worth disrupting the mining operation, it will be mined. The mining
could be done by copper company employees, but the job is often given to contract miners who are able to
come in and quickly recover the turquoise.

Turquoise jewelry: Old and new turquoise and silver Navajo bracelets. Image by Silverborders, used here under a Creative
Commons license.

Turquoise Jewelry and Art

The earliest record of turquoise being used in jewelry or in ornaments is from Egypt. There, turquoise has
been found in royal burials over 6000 years old. About 4000 years ago, miners in Persia produced a blue
variety of turquoise with a "sky blue" or "robin's-egg blue" color. This material was very popular and traded
through Asia and into Europe. This is the source of the term "Persian Blue" color.

In North America the earliest known use of turquoise was in the Chaco Canyon area of New Mexico, where
the gem was used over 2000 years ago. Ancient artists produced beads, pendants, inlay work, and small
sculptures.
Rough turquoise and turquoise objects were held in high regard by Native Americans and were traded
widely. This spread North American turquoise across the southwest and into South America. These early
Native American jewelry designs were simple, and the turquoise was not set in metal findings.

In the late 1800s, Native American artists began using coin silver to make jewelry. This work evolved into
the turquoise and sterling silver style of Native American jewelry that is popular today.

The demand for turquoise and turquoise jewelry rises and falls over time. In the United States there was a
surge in demand that began in the 1970s and declined in the 1980s. Demand for turquoise jewelry is always
highest in the southwestern states where turquoise mining and Native American artists make turquoise part
of the local culture.

Synthetic turquoise cabochons: Cabochons made from synthetic turquoise produced in Russia. These stones are 7mm x 5mm
ovals.

Synthetic and Imitation Turquoise

A small amount of synthetic turquoise was produced by the Gilson Company in the 1980s, and some of their
material was used to make jewelry. It was produced in a sky blue color, sometimes with a gray spider
webbing. It was a ceramic product with a composition similar to natural turquoise.

Synthetic turquoise and turquoise simulants have been produced in Russia and China since the 1970s. They
are prolific producers. The material is used to make cabochons, beads, small sculptures, and many other
items. A photo on this page shows some synthetic turquoise cabochons made in Russia.

There are many different glass, plastic, and ceramic materials with an appearance similar to turquoise. Many
of these can easily be distinguished from turquoise by testing their hardness, specific gravity, or other
properties.
Turquoise rough: A specimen of rough sky blue turquoise in host rock from Mohave County, Arizona. Specimen and photo by
Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Look-Alike Materials
Howlite and magnesite are light gray to white minerals that often have markings that resemble the spider
webbing seen in some turquoise. They can be dyed a turquoise blue color that makes them look very similar
to natural turquoise. These dyed stones fooled many people when they first entered the marketplace and still
are mistaken for genuine turquoise by unfamiliar buyers.

Dyed stones have damaged the market for genuine turquoise. They have been purchased with the thought
that they were turquoise by many people and have produced uncertainty in the mind of many jewelry buyers.
This causes some people to avoid turquoise jewelry.

Today dyed howlite and magnesite are still used to make mass-produced beads, cabochons, tumbled stones,
and other turquoise look-alike items. They are almost ubiquitous in the marketplace. The dye generally does
not penetrate deeply into the material. Scratching the back of a stone with a pin will often reveal a white
interior. When heavily dyed, a stone must be scratched deeply or be broken to reveal the light interior.

A few minerals are sometimes confused with turquoise by people who are unfamiliar with turquoise. These
minerals include: variscite, larimar, blue-green chalcedony, lapis lazuli, and chrysocolla. Simple tests will
usually differentiate these materials; however, some of the tests are destructive and are usually not suitable
for use on finished jewelry items.

Contributor: Hobart King

 Witherite
Mineral Properties and Uses

Physical Properties of Witherite

Chemical
carbonate
Classification

white, colorless, light grayish,

Color
yellowish brown

Streak white

Luster vitreous

Diaphaneity transparent to translucent

Cleavage fair, distinct

Witherite from Hexham, England. Specimen is approximately 4 inches (10
Mohs Hardness 3 to 3.5 centimeters) across.

Specific Gravity 4.3 to 4.4

specific gravity, effervesces in dilute

Diagnostic Properties
HCl

Chemical
BaCO3
Composition

Crystal System orthorhombic

Uses barium
 Wollastonite
Mineral Properties and Uses

Physical Properties of Wollastonite

Chemical
silicate
Classification

Color white, gray, pale green, colorless

Streak white

Luster vitreous

Diaphaneity subtransparent to translucent

Cleavage three directions of cleavage, perfect

Mohs Hardness 4.5 to 5.5

Wollastonite with garnet from Willsboro, New York. Specimen is
approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.
Specific Gravity 2.8 to 3.1

Diagnostic Properties color, cleavage

Chemical Composition Calcium silicate, CaSiO3

Crystal System triclinic

Uses asbestos, siding, roofing tile, ceramics

Wollastonite with garnet from Willsboro, New York. Specimen is

approximately 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.
 Zircon
Used as a gemstone for over 2000 years. Today it is the primary ore of zirconium.

Zircon Crystal: A small cluster of nicely-formed zircon crystals which clearly demonstrate that zircon is a member of the
tetragonal crystal system. The four-sided crystals are prismatic with a square cross-section and terminate with a pyramid. The
largest crystal in the cluster is about 1.7 centimeters in length. Specimen from Mt. Malosa, Malawi.

What Is Zircon?
Zircon is a zirconium silicate mineral with a chemical composition of ZrSiO4. It is common throughout the
world as a minor constituent of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.

Zircon is a popular gemstone that has been used for nearly 2000 years. It occurs in a wide range of colors
and has a brightness and fire that rivals those of diamond. Colorless zircon is sometimes used as a lower-
cost alternative for diamond. Zircon should not be confused with cubic zirconia, which is a man-made
material.

Zircon is present in most soils and clastic sediments. Zircon-rich sediments are mined and the recovered
zircon is used to produce zirconium metal and zirconium dioxide. These are used in a wide variety of
manufactured products and industrial processes.
Zircon Gem Rough: Stream-rounded crystals of zircon from an alluvial deposit in Australia. Although brown zircon is not highly
marketable, much of it can be altered to a rich blue color by heating in a reducing atmosphere to between 900 and 1000 degrees
Celsius. These stones range from about 5 to 10 millimeters in size.

Geologic Occurrence Of Zircon

Zircon is a primary accessory mineral in most granitic rocks. It is also present in gneiss and other rocks
derived from the metamorphism of zircon-bearing igneous rocks. Zircon is so common and widely
distributed across the rocks of Earth's surface that it could be considered to be a ubiquitous mineral.
However, zircon is usually not noticed in rocks and sediments because of its very small particle size. Grains
of zircon over a few millimeters in size are rare - they are usually under one millimeter in size. It is one of
Earth's most common but most overlooked minerals.

Zircon is highly resistant to chemical alteration and abrasion. When rock units containing zircon are
weathered and their sediments are eroded, enormous numbers of tiny zircon crystals are dispersed. These
can persist in soils, sediments, and sedimentary rocks for millions - even billions - of years. They can
survive several cycles of uplift, weathering, erosion and deposition.

Some of the largest crystals of zircon are formed in pegmatites, carbonate igneous rocks known as
carbonatites, and in limestones altered by hydrothermal metamorphism. These large zircons are sometimes
of high clarity and suitable for use as gemstones.
Faceted Zircon: Natural and heat-treated zircons in a range of colors that include white, champagne, blue, green, yellow, peach,
rose, cognac, honey, and mocha. These stones are about 5 millimeters in size and weight approximately 7.47 carats total. The
white, blue, green, yellow, peach and rose colors have been produced by heat treatment.

Physical Properties of Zircon

Chemical Classification Silicate

Color Usually yellow, brown, or red. Also colorless, gray, blue, and green.

Streak Colorless. Usually harder than the streak plate.

Luster Vitreous to adamantine, sometimes oily.

Diaphaneity Translucent to transparent

Cleavage Imperfect

Mohs Hardness 7.5

Specific Gravity 4.6 to 4.7

Diagnostic Properties Hardness, luster, specific gravity

Chemical Composition ZrSiO4

Crystal System Tetragonal

Uses Ore of zirconium metal, ore of zirconium dioxide, whitening agents, white pigment, gemstones, radiometric dating.

Zircon as a Gemstone
Zircon has been used as a gemstone for over 2000 years. Its very high dispersion and refractive index give it
a brilliance and fire that rival those of diamond. For that reason, colorless faceted zircon has been used as
both a popular and fraudulent substitute for diamond.

Gemologists and many knowledgeable jewelers are able to distinguish zircon from diamond with a quick
examination. To do this they look into the stone, through the table facet, and focus on the pavilion facet
junctions, with a 10x loupe. The pavilion facet junctions should appear as double-images caused by zircon's
double-refraction. Diamond is singly refractive and will not show doubling of features within the stone. This
same test can be used to distinguish zircon from cubic zirconia.

Zircon is a popular gem because it is available in a variety of pleasing colors. Most natural zircons are
yellow, red, or brown. Heating and irradiation can be used to produce colorless, blue, green, and many other
zircon colors. Blue is the most popular zircon color. About 80% of the zircons sold today are blue.

Although it is not as durable as diamond, zircon has good physical durability as a gem. It has a hardness of
7.5 and imperfect cleavage. That combination makes it suitable for most gemstone uses that include rings,
earrings, pendants, brooches and other jewelry. Some zircon, especially gems that have been heat treated,
can be brittle. The facet edges of these gems are susceptible to nicks and chipping.

Zircon Damage in Tanning and Nail Salons

Most blue zircon sold in jewelry today is produced by heat treating brown zircon in a reducing atmosphere
to 900 to 1000 degrees Celsius. Some people have damaged these blue zircons by exposing them to
ultraviolet radiation in tanning beds or under ultraviolet lamps used to cure acrylic fingernail adhesives. The
blue color can degrade to brown with just minutes of exposure. The color of some of these gems have been
restored by exposure to low wattage incandescent light. To avoid ruining a nice gem, remove jewelry at
tanning and nail salons. [1]

Zircon Concentrate Production: Zircon mineral concentrates are produced by mining heavy mineral sands from land- and
marine-based deposits. Australia, South Africa, China, Indonesia, Mozambique, India, Ukraine, Sri Lanka, Madagascar, Brazil,
Kenya and several other countries were producing zircon concentrates in 2014. [2]
Heavy Mineral Mining: Photo of the Concord heavy-mineral-sands mine in south-central Virginia. Weakly consolicated
Pliocene-age sand and silt deposits here contain about 4% by weight heavy minerals. A separation plant is used to recover
ilmenite, leucoxene, rutile, and zircon. [3]

Zircon Mining
Zircon has been mined from stream gravels for over 2000 years. This early mining of zircon was mainly to
obtain nice crystals for use as gemstones. Today, most zircon is produced by mining or dredging zircon-rich
sediments. These sediments can be in beach, littoral, or alluvial deposits.

Zircon has a specific gravity of 4.6 to 4.7, which is much higher than the typical detrital sediment grain that
is between 2.6 and 2.8. This specific gravity difference allows zircon grains to be recovered from the
sediments by mechanical separation. Specific gravity separation methods make it possible to profitably
recover zircon and other heavy minerals at an ore grade of just a few percent. Zircon is often a coproduct at
mining/processing operations where ilmenite and rutile are being mined for titanium. In the United States,
zircon is mined in Virginia, Georgia, North Carolina and Florida.

Industrial-grade zircon is mined from land- and marine-based deposits of alluvial origin in many parts of the
world. Australia, South Africa, China, Indonesia, Mozambique, India, Ukraine, Sri Lanka, Madagascar,
Brazil, Kenya and several other countries were important producers in 2014. These alluvial deposits contain
mainly sub-millimeter grains of zircon derived from the weathering of granitic rocks.

Gem-grade zircon has been produced from alluvial deposits in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Myanmar, and
Vietnam for hundreds of years. More recent gem-grade deposits are in Australia, Nigeria, and Madagascar.
Deposits mined for gem-grade zircon must contain crystals at least several millimeters in size with good
clarity. They are typically derived from the weathering of carbonate rocks and other rock types associated
with hydrothermal activity. Some of the best gem-grade zircon crystals are mined directly from cavities in
pegmatite.

Zircon, Zirconium, Zirconia and Cubic Zirconia

There is much public confusion between four materials: zircon, zirconium, zirconia and cubic zirconia.
Summary definitions of these terms are provided below.

Zircon is a naturally occurring mineral with a chemical composition of ZrSiO4.

Zirconium is a silvery white metal and a chemical element. It has an atomic number of 40 and an atomic
symbol of Zr.
Zirconia is the white crystalline oxide of zirconium with a chemical composition of ZrO2. A naturally
occurring, but rare, form of ZrO2 is the mineral baddeleyite.

Cubic Zirconia is a synthetic gemstone with an appearance that is very similar to diamond. It sells for a tiny
fraction of the cost of diamond and has historically been the most commonly used diamond simulant.

All of these materials are related. Zirconium, zirconia and cubic zirconia are all produced from industrial-
grade zircon.

Industrial Uses of Zircon

Zircon References

[1] Reversible Color Modification of Blue Zircon by Long-Wave Ultraviolet Radiation, by Nathan D. Renfro, Gems & Gemology, Volume 52,
Number 3, Fall 2016.

[2] Zircon and Hafnium, by George M. Bedinger, 2014 Minerals Yearbook, United States Geological Survey, August 2016.

[3] Deposit Model for Heavy-Mineral Sands in Coastal Environments, by Bradley S. Van Gosen, David L. Fey, Anjana K. Shah, Philip L.
Verplanck, and Todd M. Hoefen, Mineral Deposit Models for Resource Assessment, Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5070–L, United
States Geological Survey, 2014.

[4] Mineville, Eastern Adirondacks – Geophysical and Geologic Studies, by Anjana Shah, article on the Mineral Resources Program website of
the United States Geological Survey, accessed November 2016.

Zircon sand has a low expansion coefficient and is very stable at high temperatures. It is used as a refractory
material in many foundry and casting applications. One of its most common uses is in the production of
ceramics.

Zirconium dioxide (zirconia) is produced by heating zircon sand to a high enough temperature to break
down the zircon molecule. In powdered form, zirconium dioxide is bright white, highly reflective and
thermally stable. It is used as an opacifier, whitening agent, and pigment in glazes and stains used on
ceramics and pottery. Yttria-stabilized zirconia is used to manufacture cubic zirconia, fiber optic
components, refractory coatings, ceramics, dentures and other dental products.

Zircon serves as the primary ore of zirconium metal. Zirconium is used in a variety of metal products that
require a resistance to heat and corrosion. It is used to make high-performance alloys, specialty steel, lamp
filaments, explosive primers, computer equipment and many electronics components.
Billion-year-old zircons: These zircon grains were hand-picked from a quartz-albite rock collected in Essex County, New York.
This petrographic microscope transmitted light image reveals cracks, inclusions, and age “zones” throughout the grains. The cores
and rims of the zircon grain reflect magmatic and tectonic events that occurred within the region about 1-1.15 billion years ago.
[4]

Zircon and Radioactive Decay

Many zircon crystals contains trace amounts of uranium and thorium. These radioactive elements were
incorporated into the zircon at the time of crystallization. They convert into their decay products at a steady
rate. The ratio of parent materials to daughter products can be used to estimate the time of crystallization.
Using this method, the oldest mineral grains in the world are zircon crystals found in Australia. They are
estimated to be about 4.4 billion years old.

When radioactive elements in zircon crystals or nearby materials decay, radiation is emitted. The zircon
crystal can be damaged by this radiation. Some zircon has been so damaged by exposure to this radiation
that it no longer retains the clarity and optical properties of an attractive gem material. This is why some
zircon is not suitable for use as a gem.
 Zoisite and Clinozoisite
Two very similar minerals with the same chemical composition but different crystal structures

Blue zoisite - Tanzanite: Tanzanite is the most widely known zoisite and one of the world's most popular gemstones. This
violetish blue tanzanite is an exceptional faceted oval weighing 8.14 carats and measuring 14.4 x 10.5 x 7.6 millimeters in size.
On the basis of its color and clarity, it would be rated in the top 1% of the tanzanite produced by TanzaniteOne Mining Ltd., the
leading producer of tanzanite. Photo copyright by Richland Gemstones and used here with permission.

What are Zoisite and Clinozoisite?

Zoisite and clinozoisite are minerals that form during the regional metamorphism and hydrothermal
alteration ofigneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. In those environments they are found in
massive form and as prismatic crystals in veins that cut schists and marbles. They are also found as crystals
in pegmatites that form on the margins of igneous bodies.

The two minerals are dimorphs - they share the same chemical composition but have a different crystal
structure. Zoisite is the orthorhombic form of Ca2Al3(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH) and clinozoisite is the monoclinic
form. The minerals have extremely similar physical properties and can be very difficult to tell apart in hand
specimens unless the specimens are well-formed crystals. Clinozoisite forms a solid solution series with the
mineral epidote in which iron can substitute for aluminum.
Zoisite: Shown above are 4 specimens of zoisite in unusual colors. Top row: pink and yellow crystals with orthorhombic crystal
habit. Bottom row: (left) a parti-colored specimen with shades of green and pink in the same crystal; (right) a blue-green crystal
with nice termination. Specimens and images copyright by Lapigems.

Uses of Zoisite and Clinozoisite

Zoisite and clinozoisite are minerals that are usually found in small quantities. They have not been used in
significant amounts by industry. Transparent and colorful specimens of both minerals have been used
as gemstones. Zoisite is the mineral of some very diverse gem materials, one being the extremely
popular tanzanite which was discovered in the 1960s and immediately became one of the world's most
popular gems.
Thulite is a pink, opaque variety of zoisite that is often cut into cabochons or used to produce small sculptures. It can be an
attractive material but is rarely seen in commercial use because the supply is limited and the public is unfamiliar with the gem.

Ruby in Zoisite: Anyolite, also known as "ruby in zoisite," is a rock composed of zoisite, with red corundum crystals (ruby) and
often accented by black crystals of the hornblende, tschermakite. It is a rock that attracts attention and is cut into attractive
cabochons and used to produce small sculptures. Image © iStockphoto / MarcelC.

Tanzanite

Tanzanite is the most famous zoisite. It is a transparent blue zoisite that is colored by the presence of
vanadium. Some blue zoisite is found naturally, but most is produced by heat-treating brown zoisite. The
heat changes the oxidation state of vanadium to produce the blue color. Tanzanite is the second most popular
blue stone, after sapphire. It is a rare gem only found in one small area in northern Tanzania.

Thulite

Thulite is an opaque pink variety of zoisite that is cut into cabochons and used to produce small sculptures.
It is also a rare material, found in Norway, Namibia, Australia, North Carolina, and a few other locations. It
is rarely seen in commercial use.

Anyolite

Anyolite is a very colorful rock composed mainly of zoisite. It is also known as "ruby in zoisite" because it
is composed of green zoisite with bright red ruby crystals, sometimes accompanied by black crystals of
the hornblende tschermakite. It is used to produce cabochons, tumbled stones, small sculptures and
ornamental objects. Nice pieces of rough material are also sold as specimens.

A material with a similar appearance, "ruby in fuchsite" is often misidentified as ruby in zoisite. Careful
testing can easily differentiate these materials because the green fuchsite has a hardness of only 2 to 3, while
the green zoisite has a hardness of at least 6. In addition, most specimens of ruby in fuchsite exhibit blue
kyanite alteration rims around the ruby crystals, and this does not occur around ruby crystals in zoisite.

Clinozoisite

Gem-quality crystals of clinozoisite are sometimes cut into faceted stones. It is considered to be a
"collectors" stone because it is rarely seen in jewelry.
 Physical Properties of Zoisite and Clinozoisite
Zoisite Clinozoisite

Chemical Classification Silicate Silicate

Color Colorless, gray, yellow, brown, pink, green, blue, and violet Usually gray, yellow, green, or pink

Streak White White

Luster Vitreous to granular, sugary Vitreous to granular, sugary

Diaphaneity Translucent to transparent Translucent to transparent

Cleavage Perfect in one direction Perfect in one direction

Mohs Hardness 6.5 6.5

Specific Gravity 3.2 to 3.4 3.2 to 3.4

Diagnostic Properties Hardness, specific gravity, striated crystals Hardness, specific gravity, striated crystals

Chemical Composition Ca2Al3(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH) Ca2Al3(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)

Crystal System Orthorhombic Monoclinic

Uses Gemstones (tanzanite, anyolite, and thulite) and small sculptures Gemstones

Clinozoisite: Two views of the same crystal of clinozoisite from the Haramosh Mountains of Pakistan. The specimen is about 3.2
centimeters tall. Specimen and photo by Arkenstone / www.iRocks.com.

Physical Properties of Zoisite and Clinozoisite

Zoisite and clinozoisite have the same chemical composition. This gives them very similar physical
properties, as shown in the accompanying table. The difference between the two minerals is in their crystal
structure. Zoisite is a member of the orthorhombic crystal system, and clinozoisite is monoclinic. They are
difficult to tell apart in hand specimen unless well-formed crystals are present. Optical tests and x-ray
diffraction are the best ways to make positive identification.