A spectral selective absorbing surface on solar collector elements has a very high solar

absorbing ability, in the range of 96% to 97% and a low thermal emittance, in the order of 10%,
and can be produced with high capacity in industrial scale. A reactive gas in an amount of 1 to
50 cm 3 /min kW, preferably 10 cm 3 /min kW, distributed in the coating zone provides that the
metal layer deposed onto the receiving material partly oxidizes during the deposition, whereby a
layer is obtained that comprises a grain mixture of metallic material and metal oxide, whereby
40% to 80%, preferably about 50%, of metallic material is embedded into the metal oxide
closest to the receiving material. The metallic material is successively decreased to about zero
at the surface of the layer by increasing the addition of oxygen at the end of the coating zone.
The metal is selected from the group consisting of nickel, chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, or the
similar, or a mixture thereof, preferably a nickel-chromium-alloy where the ratio of chromium is 4
to 30%, preferably about 20%, and the grain size is <0.005 mm, preferably 0.001 mm.

Thermomax Evacuated Heat Pipe Technologies

Technology Conventional simple flat-plate solar collectors were developed

Assessment for use in sunny and warm climates. Their benefits are greatly
reduced when conditions become unfavorable during cold,
cloudy and windy days. Furthermore, weathering influences
such as condensation and moisture will cause early
deterioration of internal materials resulting in reduced
performance and system failure.
Thermomax Thermomax Evacuated Heat Pipe Solar Collectors (tubes)
Technology operate differently than the other collectors available on the
market. These solar collectors consist of a heat pipe inside a
vacuum sealed tube, as shown.

Each tube contains a sealed cooper pipe (heat pipe). The pipe is
then attached to a black copper fin that fills the tube (absorber
plate). Protruding from the top of each tube is a metal tip
attached to the sealed pipe (condenser). These tubes are
mounted, the metal tips up, into a heat exchanger (manifold). As
the sun shines on the black surface of the fin, the alcohol is
heated and hot vapor rises to the top of the pipe. Water, or
glycol, flows through the manifold and picks up the heat from the
 tubes. The heated liquid circulates through another heat
exchanger and gives off its heat to water that is stored in a solar
storage tank. A Thermomax system is simple to install and easy
to expand.
Memotron In the newly developed Memotron tube the maximum working
temperature is controlled by means of a memory metal spring
which is positioned inside the heat-pipe's condenser.

The memory metal is programmed to change its shape at a pre-

set temperature. This allows for the condenser fluid to be
retained inside the condenser. When the programmed
temperature has been achieved, the memory metal spring
expands and pushes a plug against the neck of the heat pipe
blocking the return of the condensed fluid and stopping heat
transfer.

At temperatures below the maximum programmed limit, the

spring contracts allowing the condensed fluid to return to the
lower section of the heat pipe. It is than evaporated due to the
heat from from the absorber plate, transferring thermal energy to
the condenser. Thermomax's patented Memotron tube is the
state of the art technology and provides complete safety through
 effective temperature control.
Shock Thermomax system is designed for all weather conditions. While
Absorber the ambient temperature is in sub-zero range, the condenser
can experience super high temperatures (300 F).

A patented flexible neck system absorbs both thermal and

mechanical shocks.
Absorber Thermomax's sputtering selective-coating surface has higher
Coating absorption (> 92 %) and lower emittance (< 6 %) than traditional
selective coating surface. The sputtering selective-coating
absorber is high resistance to long-term vapor condensation,
high corrosive sulfur dioxide and high operating temperature.
The effective resistance measured in the test is equivalent to a
product life span exceeding 30 years.
The sputtering is a physical manufacturing process that involves
coating a substratum with metal particles. The manufacturing
process takes place in a high vacuum chamber and the coating
process involves three stages, stabilizing layer coating, semi-
conductor layer coating (radiation absorbent layer) and anti-
refection layer coating, as shown in the following diagram.

In the vacuum chamber three target plates are installed above

the copper fin. By creating a high-tension field between the
targets and the copper fin and a magnetic field parallel to the
target plates, positive helium ion release titanium atoms from the
target plate. The atoms strike the copper fin and because of high
kinetic energy of the atoms they attach themselves to the top of
the copper fin. During the process this copper fin passes three
targets plates.
 First, a stabilizing layer of pure titanium is laid on the copper fin.
This layer gives the surface of the copper fin long-term stability.
Secondly, the titanium atoms react with oxygen to form an
absorbent layer of titanium oxide (TINOx) on the first layer. In
this semi-conductor layer titanium atoms are orientated in such
a way that 98% of incoming solar radiation can be absorbed.
Finally, an anti-reflection layer is added on the absorbent layer.
The anti-reflection layer has a very low reflection index and can
let 98 to 99 % of incident solar radiation pass through the layer
to be absorbed by the semi-conductor layer.
Today Thermomax's advanced evacuated "heat-pipe" solar collector is
a breakthrough in solar technology. It is an efficient and durable
solar energy system. It is effective throughout the year and
saves its user a considerable amount in expensive fuels.
Performance Thermomax's collector performs not only at noon or on clear
sunny days, but also when the sun is low or the weather is
cloudy. Wind or low temperatures have less effect on its
performance.

Quality The high quality of Thermomax products is the result of ongoing

refinement and optimization of the product process guided by
Dr. Framarz Mahdjuri. The quality and durability of Thermomax
solar products have contributed to an unequaled history of
achievements in the development and implementation of solar
technology. This continues a tradition of innovation begun over
four decades ago when NASA invented the Heat Pipe.
Thermomax brings this superb space technology to the market
place as an economically competitive option for Solar Energy.
Our ISO 9001 & 9002 Quality Management Certifications
ensure that Thermomax quality systems meet the highest
standard.
Heat Transfer of heat from the absorber plate (collector) is via an
Transfer efficient and very fast heat conductor, the "heat-pipe." This has
a very low heat capacity but an exceptionally rapid conductivity.
The "heat-pipe" also provides the system with a diode function.
Due to the physical properties of the "heat-pipe,. the maximum
 working temperature of the system is controlled.
Insulation The vacuum in the glass tube, being the best possible insulation
for a solar collector, suppresses heat losses and also protects
the absorber plate and the "heat-pipe" from external adverse
conditions. This results in exceptional performance far superior
to any other type of solar collector.
Photo A solar collector absorbs solar radiation and converts it into heat
Thermal (photo-thermal conversion). The high efficiency solar collector
Conversion implies maximum absorption of incident solar radiation with a
Technology minimum thermal and optical loss. Selective coating
characteristics of the absorber and the vacuum insulation are
the most important parts of an advanced collector. A selective
surface has high absorption (low reflection) for the solar
spectrum and low emissivity for the infrared heat radiation. The
selective coating used in the collector consists of a very precise
thin layer of an amorphous semiconductor plated on to a metal
substratum having a low emission for long-wave radiation.
Vacuum Due to the atmospheric pressure and the technical problems
Technology related to the sealing of the collector casing, the construction of
an evacuated flat-plate collector is extremely difficult. To
overcome the enormous atmospheric pressure, many internal
supports for the transparent cover pane must be introduced.
However, the problems of an effective high vacuum system with
reasonable production costs remain so far unsolved.
It is more feasible to apply and adapt the mature technology
related to the lamp industries with proven mass production.
Building a tubular evacuated solar collector and the
maintenance of its high vacuum, similar to light bulbs and TV
tubes, is practical. The ideal vacuum insulation of the tubular
evacuated solar collector, obtained by means of a suitable
exhausting process, has to be maintained during the life of the
device to reduce the thermal losses through the internal
gaseous atmosphere (convection losses).
Heat Pipe A heat pipe acts like a high conductance thermal conductor. Due
Technology to its thermal-physical properties, its heat transfer rate is
thousand's times greater than that of the best solid heat
conductor of the same dimensions. The basic heat pipe is a
closed container consisting of a capillary wick structure and a
small amount of vaporizable fluid. The heat pipe employs an
evaporating-condensing cycle, which accepts heat from an
external source, uses this heat to evaporate the liquid (latent
heat) and then releases latent heat by reverse transformation
(condensation) at a heat sink region. This process is repeated
continuously by a return feed mechanism of the condensed fluid
back to the heat zone.
In the solar collector, the condensation zone is at a higher level
than the evaporation zone. The transport medium condensed (in
the condensation zone) returns to the evaporation zone under
the influence of the gravity. Then, there is no need of capillary
wick structure.
The maximum operating temperature of a heat pipe is the critical
temperature of the used heat transfer medium. Since no
evaporation/condensation above the critical temperature is
possible, the thermodynamic cycle interrupts when the
temperature of the evaporator exceeds the critical temperature.
Thermomax's sputtering selective-coating surface has higher absorption (> 95 %) and lower
emittance (< 5 %) than traditional selective coating surface. The sputtering selective-coating
absorber is high resistance to long-term vapor condensation, high corrosive sulfur dioxide and
high operating temperature. The effective resistance measured in the test is equivalent to a
product life span exceeding 30 years. Good absorber material should have excellent heat
transition, good resistance to corrosion and good welding ability.

The sputtering is a physical manufacturing process that involves coating a substratum with
metal particles. The manufacturing process takes place in a high vacuum chamber and the
coating process involves three stages, stabilizing layer coating, semi-conductor layer coating
(radiation absorbent layer) and anti-refection layer coating, as shown in the following diagram.

In the vacuum chamber three target plates are installed above the copper fin. By creating a
high-tension field between the targets and the copper fin and a magnetic field parallel to the
target plates, positive helium ion release titanium atoms from the target plate. The atoms strike
the copper fin and because of high kinetic energy of the atoms they
attach themselves to the top of the copper fin. During the process this
copper fin passes three targets plates.

First, a stabilizing layer of pure titanium is laid on the copper fin. This
layer gives the surface of the copper fin long-term stability. Secondly,
the titanium atoms react with oxygen to form an absorbent layer of
titanium oxide (TINOx) on the first layer.

In this semi-conductor layer titanium atoms are orientated in such a

way that 98% of incoming solar radiation can be absorbed. Finally, an
anti-reflection layer is added on the absorbent layer. The anti-
reflection layer has a very low reflection index and can let 98 to 99 %
of incident solar radiation pass through the layer to be absorbed by the semi-conductor layer.

Principles of Solar Thermal Conversion

Contents

1. Conversion to Work
2. Domestic Water Heating
3. Refrigeration
4. Upgrading by Reversed Absorption
5. Thermodynamics of Solar Radiation
6. Upper Limits to the Conversion of Solar Energy

Conversion to Work

Heat from a solar collector may be used to drive a heat engine operating in a cycle to produce
work. A heat engine may be used for such applications as water pumping and generating
electricity.

The thermal output Qout of a concentrating collector operating at temperature T is given by

Qout = F'[gamma.Ainqin - U.Aabs(T - Ta)],

where Ain is the area of the incident solar radiation and Aabs is the area of the absorber. (The
other symbols are the same as in the other lecture notes.) The quantity Ain/Aabs is called the
concentration ratio. High concentration ratios are obtained by making Ain the area of a system
of mirrors designed to concentrate the solar radiation received onto a small absorber of area
Aabs. Heat losses from the absorber are reduced by the smaller size of the absorber.
Consequently, high concentration ratios give high collector temperatures. The stagnation
temperature Tmax is given by:

gamma.Ainqin = U.Aabs(Tmax - Ta).

For example, if the optical efficiency is gamma = 0.8, the incident solar irradiation is qin =
800W/m2, the ambient temperature is Ta = 30°C, and the heat loss coefficient is U = 10W/m2K,
then a concentration ratio Ain/Aabs = 1 (no concentration) gives T max = 94°C, and a concentration
ratio Ain/Aabs = 10 gives Tmax = 670°C.

The collector efficiency etac at operating temperature T is

etac = Qout/Ainqin = F'[gamma - U.Aabs(T - Ta)/Ainqin] = F'gamma(Tmax - T)/(Tmax - Ta).

The available mechanical power from the thermal power output of the collector that would be
obtained using a Carnot cycle is Qout(1 - Ta/T), where the temperatures are absolute
temperatures.

The second law efficiency eta2 of a heat engine is defined by

eta2 = (mechanical power delivered)/(available mechanical power).

Suppose a heat engine with second law efficiency eta2 uses as input the thermal power Qout
from the solar collector. The first law efficiency of the engine is

eta1 = (mechanical power delivered)/Qout = eta2(1 - Ta/T),

where Tmax depends on the design of the collector and on the solar radiation input q in. Now,
given F', gamma, eta2, Ta, and Tmax, we can find the maximum efficiency obtainable, and the
optimum operating temperature Topt from the condition d(eta)/dT = 0. This occurs at the
optimum temperature

Topt = sqrt[TmaxTa],

and the maximum efficiency is obtained by putting T = T opt in the equation

eta = etac.eta1.

For example, putting F' = 0.9, gamma = 0.8, eta2 = 0.6, Ta = 30°C = 303K, we get the
efficiencies etamax for different degrees of concentration shown in Table 1. Very low overall
efficiencies are obtained unless operating temperatures greater than 500°C are used.
Expensive concentrating systems are needed to reach these high temperatures, so commercial
viability is difficult.

Table 1. Efficiencies for Converting Solar Radiation to Work

Tmax Topt etamax
100°C 63°C 2.2%
200°C 106°C 4.8%
400°C 179°C 8.5%
800°C 297°C 13.2%
1600°C 480°C 18.4%

Domestic Water Heating

Suppose we wish to add heat Qr to a reservoir at temperature Tr from a collector at temperature

T > Tr. If the heating power from the collector is Qout, the first law efficiency of the heat transfer
process is

eta1 = Qr/Qout.

The available mechanical power in the heat extracted from the collector is

Qout(1 - Ta/T).

The mechanical power that would be needed to operate a reversible heat pump delivering heat
Qr to the reservoir at temperature Tr from ambient temperature Ta is

Qr(1 - Ta/Tr).

Therefore, the second law efficiency eta2, defined as the mechanical power needed for heating
divided by the available mechanical power, is given by

eta2 = Qr(1 - Ta/Tr)/Qout(1 - Ta/T) = eta1(1 - Ta/Tr)/(1 - Ta/T).

This has its maximum value eta2 = eta1 when T = Tr.

Collector efficiency increases as T max increases, but acceptable efficiencies at the temperatures
50°C to 60°C needed for domestic hot water systems are obtainable with flat-plate collectors.

Concentrating collectors producing heat at temperatures T considerably greater than T r give low
second law efficiencies, and are uneconomical because of their high cost. The use of gas or oil
burning at high flame temperatures for producing domestic hot water is also an inefficient waste
of available energy.

These considerations show why domestic flat-plate solar water heaters are commercially
successful.

Refrigeration

We can use thermal solar energy to produce refrigeration by converting solar heat into
mechanical power and using this power to drive a compression refrigerator. However, high
collector temperatures are needed to generate the mechanical power with acceptable efficiency.
Consequently, it is better to use an absorption refrigerator.

Fig. 1. An absorption refrigerator.

An absorption refrigerator uses a refrigerant (such as ammonia) and an absorbent (such as

water). The cycle (Fig. 1.) consists of four parts:

1. The use of solar heat to drive off the refrigerant as a vapor from the liquid absorbent at
the collector temperature T.
2. The condensation of the refrigerant, and the rejection of the heat of condensation at
ambient temperature Ta.
3. The evaporation of the refrigerant at the refrigeration temperature Tf with the extraction
of heat from the refrigeration load.
4. The reabsorption of the refrigerant, and the rejection of the heat of adsorption at
ambient temperature Ta.

Let Qout be the solar heating power at temperature T; let Qf be the refrigeration rate at
temperature Tf; and let Qa be the heat rejection rate at temperature T a. By the first law of
thermodynamics, since energy is conserved,

Qout + Qf = Qa.

By the second law of thermodynamics, since the entropy change in the cycle is zero,
(Qout/T) + (Qf/Tf) = Qa/Ta.

Eliminating Qa, we obtain the ideal cooling ratio

Qf/Qout = [1 - Ta/T]/[(Ta/Tf) - 1].

In real systems the actual refrigeration rate Qf' is less than ideal. We define the first law
efficiency

eta1 = Qf'/Qout,

and the second law efficiency

eta2 = Qf'/Qf = eta[(Ta/Tf) - 1]/[1 - Ta/T].

The collector temperature T required for operating an absorption refrigerator is such that T - Ta
is slightly greater than Tc - Tf. For example, if Tf = -10°C and Ta = 30°C, then T must be slightly
greater than 80°C. This temperature can be obtained with flat-plate collectors.

The ideal cooling ratio in this example is 0.93. In practice a first law efficiency of 0.6 might be
obtained. In the latter case the second law efficiency becomes 0.64. If the solar collector
efficiency etac is 0.5, then the overall performance of the collector and absorption refrigerator is
eta = etac.eta1 = 0.3.

The coefficient of performance of a compression refrigerator is defined to be the cooling rate

obtained divided by the mechanical power input. In practice this is about 3. Therefore, to obtain
the same overall performance as an absorption system a solar collector and heat engine would
need a first law efficiency of 0.1. This would require a solar operating temperature over 200°C
and expensive concentrating collectors, which use only direct solar radiation. Therefore,
absorption systems seem to be more promising for solar powered refrigeration, especially large
scale use such as in food stores and air conditioning.

Upgrading by Reversed Absorption

It is possible in principle to collect solar heat and raise the temperature of the thermal output by
means of an absorption system working in reverse. Some of the heat collected must be
sacrificed, but it is possible to reach temperatures beyond the collector stagnation temperature
Tmax. It is interesting to study the method, even though the absorption system may be expensive
compared with the cost of high temperature collectors.

The cycle (Fig. 2.) is similar to that of a solar absorption refrigeration system, except that the
working temperatures are higher.
 Fig. 2. A reversed absorption heat upgrader.

The solar heating power Qout at temperature T is used partly to provide the heat of generation
Qout,1 and partly to provide the heat of evaporation Qout,2. Thus Qout = Qout,1 + Qout,2. The
condensation of the refrigerant occurs at ambient temperature T a accompanied by the rejection
of latent heat Qa. The reabsorption of the refrigerant vapor produces heat Q r rejected to a
reservoir at temperature Tr.

By the first law we have Qout = Qr + Qa, and by the second law we have Qout/T = (Qr/Tr) +
(Qa/Ta). Eliminating Qa, we obtain the ideal heating ratio

Qr/Qout = (1 - Ta/T)/(1 - Ta/Tr).

As an example, suppose that Ta = 30°C, T = 80°C, and Tr = 140°C. Then the ideal heating ratio
is 0.53. The actual heating ratio would be less than this.

Thermodynamics of Solar Radiation

It can be shown that the thermodynamics of blackbody radiation in an enclosure in thermal

equilibrium with the walls of the enclosure is completely described by the following equations,
where alpha = 4.sigma/c, sigma is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, c is the velocity of light, and
the other symbols have their usual meanings in thermodynamics.

P = (1/3)alpha.T4,
U/V = alpha.T4,
S/V =(4/3)alpha.T3.

The pressure P, the internal energy per unit volume U/V, and the entropy per unit volume S/V
are functions of temperature T only.

We are interested in the available mechanical power extractable from solar radiation. This is
given by the availability potential A defined by

A = U + PaV - TaS,

where Pa and Ta are the pressure and temperature of the environment. The difference A f - Ai
between a final and an initial state is the maximum available work from a closed thermodynamic
system. For radiation we have

A/V = alpha.T4[1 - (4/3)(Ta/T) + (1/3)(Ta/T)4].

Solar radiation differs from blackbody radiation in two ways:

1. Bright sunlight is highly directional.

2. The intensity of the light is much less than that of blackbody radiation having the same
spectrum.

The nature of solar radiation can be understood as follows:

Imagine the reversible expansion of blackbody radiation from a volume V1 to a volume V2 in an

adiabatic enclosure whose walls are perfectly reflecting mirrors. The spectrum of the radiation
can be kept the same as that of a blackbody by a black particle of matter inside the enclosure.

Since the entropy remains unchanged we have S2 = S1, so that (T2/T1)3 = V1/V2, and the
temperature decreases. The total energy alpha.T4V also decreases because work is done by
the radiation pressure during the expansion.

Isolated radiation can (in theory) be expanded irreversibly into a second radiation-free volume
whose walls are perfect mirrors without doing work by removing a partition separating the two
volumes. If there is no black particle of matter present, the spectrum remains the same, but the
radiation occupies a larger volume. Consequently, it is no longer blackbody radiation because
its spectrum and energy density do not correspond. As a result we cannot define a temperature
for it.

However, if a black particle of matter is introduced to produce thermodynamic equilibrium within

the expanded volume, then the spectrum changes to a blackbody spectrum. Since no energy
has been exchanged with the environment, U2 = U1, and the temperature falls in accordance
with the equation

(T2/T1)4 = V1/V2.

Also the entropy is increased in accordance with the equation

S2/S1 = T2/T1.

Now imagine blackbody radiation escaping from a radiation enclosure through a pinhole into
empty space. Its energy and entropy per unit solid angle do not change with distance because
the rays can be reflected back to their source by an ideal spherical mirror. Since the ratio S/U
per unit solid angle does not change, the temperature of the radiation does not change.

Extraterrestrial solar radiation is similar to radial blackbody radiation from a source at 5800K
after traveling a distance 150 million kilometers. Taking the temperature of the terrestrial
environment as 300K we obtain the availability potential per unit volume A/V = 0.93U/V. This
explains why focusing direct solar radiation gives high temperatures and high first law
thermodynamic efficiencies. Corrections are needed for the apparent size of the sun's disk, and
for the attenuation of the radiation by the atmosphere.

If solar radiation is made diffuse by reflection at an ideally white surface, the spectrum remains
unchanged but the radiation can no longer be focused. A pencil of solar radiation let into a
hollow cavity with white diffusely reflecting walls still has the same energy and spectrum, but the
energy density per unit solid angle has decreased and the entropy has increased. The effect is
the same as if the radiation had been expanded without doing work. After the establishment of
thermodynamic equilibrium with the help of a black particle of matter, the temperature is
lowered and the entropy is further increased. It has been shown that the temperature of solar
radiation after complete diffuse reflection is 1350K. In this case the availability potential is given
by A/V = 0.70U/V. This is of interest as the theoretical upper limit to the energy available for
photosynthesis in plants.

Upper Limits to the Conversion of Solar Energy

Suppose it is possible to trap solar radiation in an enclosed volume with perfectly reflecting
walls at the temperature of the sun Ts = 5800K. We can imagine this radiation to be cooled by
transferring heat from it to a reversible heat engine operating between the temperature of the
trapped radiation and the ambient temperature T a. The work W obtained is then

As - Aa = sigma.T4[1 - (4/3)Ta/Ts + (1/3)(Ta/Ts)4].

If Ta = 300K, then the efficiency is W/sigma.T4 = 0.93.

Fig. 3. An ideal solar thermal converter.

This is of academic interest only; but we may bear it in mind when considering the imaginary
device shown in Fig. 3, which is potentially capable of achieving a high efficiency. It consists of
an ideal compound parabolic concentrator that focuses direct solar radiation into a cavity whose
walls are reflecting except for a blackbody receiver at a temperature Tout. The black receiver
transfers heat to a reversible engine to produce work and reject heat at ambient temperature.
The ideal efficiency of the heat engine is (1 - Ta/T). The cavity is designed so that it exchanges
radiation only with the disk of the sun, which is at a temperature T s. The efficiency of collection
is therefore 1 - (T/Ts)4. Accordingly, the overall efficiency of the system is

eta = [1 - (T/Ts)4].[1 - Ta/T].

If Ts = 5800K and Ta = 300K, then the efficiency has a maximum eta = 0.85 at an operating
temperature T = 2480K. This is the theoretical limit for the conversion of extraterrestrial solar
radiation into mechanical work.

It is arguable that, because solar energy is theoretically a very high temperature resource, we
should try to harness it at this very high temperature for efficient conversion. We should then
use the waste heat for low temperature purposes instead of downgrading the solar energy with
low temperature collectors at the start. Such considerations might be important if solar energy
were to be used for many purposes on a large scale.

G SERIES SOLAR COLLECTORS

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

Directory

A. General Information
1. Product description
2. Product Use
3. Manufacturer's Experience
B. Glazing System
1. General Description
2. Optical Performance
3. Structural Performance
4. Thermal Performance
 5. Fire Behavior
6. Durability
C. Absorber System
1. General Description
2. Optical Performance
3. Thermal Performance
4. Mechanical Integrity
5. Durability
D. Insulation
1. General Description
2. Thermal Performance
3. Fire Behavior
4. Durability
E. Collector Assembly
1. General Description
2. Collector Container
3. Moisture Control
4. System Sealant and Gaskets
F. Installation
1. Handling and Transportation
2. Mounting Procedure
3. Collector Interconnection
4. System Connection
5. Start-up Tests
G. Operation
1. Method of Operation and Control
2. Pressure Drop vs Collector Flow
3. Recommended Flow Rate
4. Maximum Operating Pressure
5. Recommended Operating Pressure
6. Maximum Operating Temperature
7. Stagnation Temperature
8. Recommended Heat Transfer Fluids
H. Maintenance and Warranty
1. Cleaning and Maintenance
2. Manufacturer Servicing
3. Availability of Parts
4. Replacement of Parts
5. Warranty
I. Durability
1. Operating Experience
2. Accelerated Aging Tests
J. Collector Efficiency
1. General Description
2. Test Conditions
3. Time Constant
4. Efficiency
5. Incident Angle Modifier
6. FSEC Standard Day Tests

|Directory|

A. General Information

1.0 Product Description:

 Thermo Dynamics G Series flat plate liquid collectors are single glazed with
low-iron tempered glass. The absorber is an arrangement of parallel riser
fins connected to top and bottom headers. The fins are aluminum with
integral copper riser tubes, which are completely surrounded by the
aluminum and are metallurgically bonded together. The copper riser tubes
are soldered to internal manifolds (headers), which are available in either
3/4" or 1" diameter copper pipe. The back and sides are insulated with a 25
mm (1") layer of compressed fiberglass. The collector frame is extruded
aluminum with a baked-enamel finish, (dark brown). Collector mounting is by
way of a sliding bolt-track. Flush and racked collector mounting formats are
easily accommodated.

1.1 Options

Factory installed temperature sensors; 3/4" and 1" headers; 12 mm (1/2")

riser tubes; absorber coatings: selective Anodic-Cobalt surface, or selective
paint surface.

1.2 Dimensions and Volumes

1.20 m x 2.47 m x 0.086 m

(47-3/8 in x 97-3/8 in x 3-3/8 in)

Gross area: 2.96 m2 (31.9 ft2)
Aperture area: 2.78 m2 (30.0 ft2)
Absorber area: 2.87 m2 (30.9 ft2)
Volume (19 mm (3/4") header): 1.84 liter (0.40 IG) Volume (25 mm (1") header): 2.40
liter (0.53 IG)

1.3 Weight:

Net: 45 kg (99 lb)

Shipping: 64 kg (140 lb)
(includes wooden crate)

2.0 Product Use

2.1 Product Applications:

Residential and commercial domestic hot water, process hot water, space heating, pool
heating

2.2 Geographic and Climatic Limitations:

None.

3.0 Manufacturer's Experience

3.1 Background

Thermo Dynamics Ltd. (TDL) is a Canadian company engaged in the research,

development, production, distribution and installation of solar thermal equipment. The
company has been involved in the solar thermal industry since 1981 and operates from
its head office and factory in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada, the sister city of Halifax
situated on the Atlantic coast. The company's specialization is the glazed liquid-flat-
plate (LFP) collectors with metal absorbers. TDL is a fully integrated solar thermal
company with the ability to convert raw aluminum and copper into a high technology
solar water heating system.

Thermo Dynamics Ltd., as a world leader in solar technology, manufactures and

markets solar heating equipment from complete systems to basic selective surface
components for O.E.M.'s licensees, dealers and distributors through out North America,
Europe, Africa, New Zealand, as well as 10 other countries around the world.

3.2 Production:

3000 m2 per year for G32 collectors.

3.3 Projects:

Mount Saint Vincent Motherhouse, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Largest SDHW
system in Canada. Collector type and number: 224 - G32 Collector area: 675 m2 (7,265
ft2) 1.75 GJ/m2 /year (154 MBtus/ft2 /year)
Top of the Mountain Apartments, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Collector type and
number: 49 - G32; 49 - G40 Collector area: 328 m2 (3,531 ft2) 1.78 GJ/m2 /year (156
MBtus/ft2 /year)

Somerset Place Apartments, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada Collector type and number:
120 - G32 Collector area: 356 m2 (3,332 ft2) 2.10 GJ/m2 /year (185 MBtus/ft2 /year)

Thermo Dynamics Ltd. has installed thousands of solar residential domestic hot water
and pool heating systems.

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B. Glazing System

1.0 General Description:

 Glazing is a 3.2 mm (1/8") single sheet of low-iron tempered glass with an EPDM
rubber seal around the edges. Glazing is secured by an aluminum capping fastened by
stainless steel screws around the perimeter.

1.1 Trade Names:

Solite

1.2 Chemical Composition:

Iron oxide content of 0.03%

1.3 Physical Treatment:

All glazing is tempered with swiped edges and has a shallow stipple pattern to reduce
specular reflectance.

1.4 Thickness:

3.18 mm (1/8")

1.5 Spacing:

Glazing to absorber: 20 to 25 mm (3/4" to 1")

1.6 Weight:

7.8 kg/m2 (1.6 lb/ft2)

1.7 Appearance:

Translucent; the inner surface is embossed with a stipple pattern which produces a
frosted effect.

2.0 Optical Performance

2.1 Spectral Transmittance:

Visible light 89.8% ASTM E424-71A Ultra violet light 51% ISO 9050 Solar light/energy
89.5% ASTM E424-71A
2.2 Energy Transmission:

Solar spectrum (0-3 micrometres) 89.5% Infrared spectrum (>3 micrometres) No data
available

2.3 Refractive Index:

1.525

3.0 Structural Performance

3.1 Tensile Strength:

Design Pressure is 2.87 kPa (.416 psi) for 1/8 inch glass with a design factor of 2.5.
Tensile strength is 152 MPa (22,000 psi) with a 2.5 safety factor.

3.2 Impact Resistance:

Glazing can withstand 542 J (400 ft-lb) soft-body impact, 3 to 5 times stronger than
annealed glass.

3.3 Uniform Load Resistance:

Uniform load testing was conducted at the National Solar Test Facility in May1986 as
part of CSA-378. Positive load: 1.5 kPa (0.22 psi) Negative load: 1.9 kPa (0.28 psi)

4.0 Thermal Performance

4.1 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:

89.9 x 10-7 1/°C (49.9 x 10-7 1/°F)

4.2 Operating Temperature Range:

Min: below -46°C (-51°F); max: 260°C (500°F)

4.3 Thermal Conductivity:

No data available

5.0 Fire Behavior:

Non-combustible. Does not produce toxic fumes in a fire situation.

6.0 Durability:

Glass is chemically inert to most chemical solvents and staining agents, and is resistant
to surface weathering, ultraviolet and thermal degradation, and moisture damage.

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C. Absorber System
1.0 General Description:

The absorber consists of eight parallel aluminum fins with integral copper riser tubes,
which are bonded to and completely surrounded by the aluminum by means of high-
pressure cold-rolling process. The absorber coating is Anodic-Cobalt selective surface
or black paint selective surface. The riser/header connection has two parts, a short
copper nipple brazed to the header with the absorber fin soldered to the copper nipple.

1.1 Generic/Trade Names:

Absorber fins: "Sunstrip"

Tubes: copper
Headers: Type M copper
Coating: selective Anodic-Cobalt or paint
Solder/Brazing: 95/5 tin antimony/Silfos

1.2 Chemical Composition:

Absorber fins: aluminum (AA 1350/0 alloy)

Tubes: copper (CDA 1220/0 alloy)
Headers: copper
Coating: anodized-cobalt pigmented, or semi-selective paint
Solder/Brazing: no data available

1.3 Physical Treatment:

None.

1.4 Dimensions:
 Tube diameter: rhombic shape with an open area of about 120 mm2 (0.19 in2 )
Tube spacing: 143 mm (5.63")
Header diameter: 22.2 or 28.6 mm (3/4" or 1") nominal
Absorber thickness: 0.5 mm (0.02")
Coating thickness: no data available.

2.0 Optical Performance

2.1 Absorptivity of Solar Radiation:

Painted surface: a = 95%

Anodic-Cobalt surface: a = 92%

2.2 Emissivity of Infrared Radiation:

Painted surface: e = 25%

Anodic-Cobalt surface: e = 15%

3.0 Thermal Performance

3.1 Thermal Transfer:

Good thermal transfer due to the high conductivity of aluminum and the bond between
the aluminum fins and copper tubes.

3.2 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:

Absorber: no data available

Tubes: no data available

To allow for thermal expansion, the absorber is free to float within the collector
container. EPDM gaskets prevent contact between the copper headers and the
aluminum container.

3.3 Thermal Capacity of Absorber System:

No data available.

3.4 Operating Temperature Range:

Absorber: max. 300°C (572°F)

Tubes: max. 300°C (572°F)
Solder/Brazing: min. -50°C (-58°F); max. 400°C (752°F) Coating: max. 300°C (572°F)

4.0 Mechanical Integrity:

The collector has completed 30-day stagnation testing at The National Solar Test
Facility (NSTF), Mississauga, Canada, with no sign of degradation or loss in
performance.

5.0 Durability:

The absorber and the selective surface are not affected by normal aqueous solutions.
Stagnation testing has shown no thermal degradation.
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D. Insulation

1.0 General Description:

Collectors are insulated around the sides and back with fiberglass board. Complies with
ASTM-C-612 Classes 1 and 2.

1.1 Trade Names:

Sides: Fiberglas AF530

Back: Fiberglas AF530

1.2 Chemical Composition:

Fibrous glass bonded by a thermosetting resin. Inorganic, will not rot.

1.3 Density:

48 kg/m3 (3.0 lb/ft3)

1.4 Thickness:

Side: 25 mm (1")
Back: 25 mm (1")

2.0 Thermal Performance

2.1 Thermal Conductivity:

0.036 W/m·°C (0.25 Btu ·in/hr·ft2·°F) at 24°C (75°F)

2.2 Thermal Resistance:

RSI 0.7 °C·m2/W (R 4 °F·ft2·hr/Btu) at 24°C (75°F)

2.3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:

No data available

2.4 Operating Temperature Range:

Maximum continuous operating temperature is 232°C (450°F).

3.0 Fire Behavior

3.1 Surface Burning Characteristics:

Fiberglas AF530 is inherently fire safe. ULC Flame Spread rating of 15. (compared to
untreated Red Oak as 100 - test method ULC S-102)

4.0 Durability:
 No changes should occur to the insulation when subjected to chemicals normally
encountered in use conditions. No thermal degradation has been found after prolonged
stagnation testing. Moisture adsorption is less than 0.2% by volume, 96 hours at 49°C
(120°F) and 95% R.H. Inorganic therefore does not breed or promote bacteria and
fungus. Essentially odorless.

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E. Collector Assembly

1.0 General Description:

The collector is assembled in four stages. First, the collector frame and backing sheet
are assembled. Second, the back and side insulation are installed. Third, the tested
absorber assembly is inserted, and finally, the glazing, seal and cap are installed.

1.1 Container:

The container consists of sections of aluminum extrusion assembled into a rectangular

frame, with an aluminum backing sheet fitted into slots and pop-riveted in place.

1.2 Insulation:

Insulation is placed on the aluminum back and along the sides.

1.3 Absorber Assembly:

The pre-assembled absorber is fitted into the insulated container with the inlet and
outlet connection pipes protruding through the sides. A high-temperature EPDM gasket
is then fitted onto the pipes and locked into the aluminum frame. The absorber is free to
expand or contract inside the container.

1.4 Glazing Assembly:

The pre-cut glass is cleaned and fitted onto the retainer ledge in the collector container
with a high-temperature continuous EPDM gasket. A removable aluminum cap stripping
is then secured to the container with black oxide coated stainless steel screws.

2.0 Collector Container:

Collector container sides are fabricated from aluminum extrusions with an integral
mounting channel. The bottom is an aluminum sheet which fits into a slot in the frame
and is pop-riveted to the sides.

2.1 Materials:

Extruded framework is aluminum 6061-T6 alloy. The back sheet is aluminum utility
grade sheet with a thickness of 0.51 mm (.020")

2.2 Finish:

Aluminum frame comes in a standard dark brown baked enamel finish.

3.0 Moisture Control System:

 Four holes in the back sheet allow sufficient air flow through the collector to remove any
condensation or moisture.

4.0 Sealant and Gaskets

4.1 General Description:

Inlet and outlet pipes are sealed with high-temperature round EPDM gaskets. The
continuous glazing gasket is a U-shaped EPDM neoprene. Silicone caulking is used for
the container corner sealant.

4.2 Chemical Composition:

Header and glazing gasket: ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber (EPDM)
Caulking: silicone rubber

4.3 Physical Properties:

EPDM gasket has a tensile strength of 13800 kPa (2000 psi). Sealants and gaskets do
not corrode other collector materials.

4.4 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:

no data available.

4.5 Operating Ranges:

no data available.

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F. Installation

1.0 Handling and Transportation

1.1 Packaging:

Collectors are shipped individually in double-strength cardboard boxes.

1.2 Labour and Equipment:

Two people can move and mount collectors.

2.0 Mounting Procedure:

Collector mounting channel allows precise spacing between collectors. Two adjacent
collectors can be fastened to the sub-structure using bolts positioned anywhere along
the bolt track in the collector frame.
3.0 Collector Interconnection:

Connection of up to four collectors in a single array. Collectors use standard copper

couplings sweat-soldered with 95/5 solder to connect the internal manifolds of adjacent
collectors.

4.0 System Connection:

Piping connections are sweat-soldered to the ends of the collector arrays using
standard plumbing fittings.

5.0 Start-up Tests:

i) Air or water pressure test at 690 kPa.

ii) Visual check for leaks.
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G. Operation

1.0 Method of operation and Control:

Collectors can be used in closed or open loop systems with water or antifreeze.

2.0 Pressure Drop vs. Collector Flow:

2.1 Testing Information: Agency:

National Solar Test Facility Date: September 14, 1990 Fluid: water

3.0 Recommended Flow Rate:

0.8 to 2.5 L/min (0.18 to 0.55 IGPM)

4.0 Maximum Operating Pressure:

Factory tested to 1724 kPa (250 psi).

5.0 Recommended Operating Pressure:

Below 200 kPa (30 psi) for drainback systems and 135-270 kPa (20-40 psi) for closed
loop systems.

6.0 Maximum Operating Temperature:

300°C (570°F)

7.0 Stagnation Temperature:

Stagnation temperature of the collector is approximately 170°C (338°F).

8.0 Recommended Heat Transfer Fluids:

Propylene glycol USP, food grade antifreeze solution for closed loop systems, and
water for drainback and seasonal pool systems. The use of inhibited glycols is not
recommended. DO NOT use ethylene glycol.
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H. Maintenance and Warranty

1.0 Cleaning and Maintenance:

Glazing should be self-cleaning, depending on local conditions. Dirt accumulation on

the glass cover will be washed away by the rain. If cleaning is required, use a standard
window cleaning agent. The glycol antifreeze solution should be checked annually and
renewed if necessary. No other maintenance is normally required.

2.0 Manufacturer Servicing:

A trouble-shooting guide to help the home-owner maintain and service the equipment is
included in the installation manual. All service and repair is readily available from the
manufacturer or distributor.

3.0 Availability of Parts:

All parts are available from the manufacturer and distributors.

4.0 Replacement of Parts:

The glazing may be replaced in the installed system without removing the collector from
the array by removing the screws holding the glazing cap stripping. Total replacement
time is a maximum of fifteen minutes and requires only a screw driver. Sensors are
clamped on outlet piping using screw-type pipe clamps. Replacement time is
approximately ten minutes. If the recommended installation procedures are followed,
one collector may be replaced in the array without removing another collector.
Collectors are connected together with a standard copper couplings (mechanical or
soldered).

5.0 Warranty:

The solar collector absorber is warranted for a period of ten years. Repair allowances
may also apply. The manufacturer may repair or replace the absorber as required at his
discretion.

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I. Durability

1.0 Operating Experience:

The G32 has been installed worldwide since 1985.

2.0 Accelerated Aging Tests:

The collector has been subjected to 30 day plus high temperature (204°C;400°F)
stagnation tests at the Canadian National Solar Test Facility with no evidence of
deterioration (CSA F-378). One year of stagnation at DSET laboratories in Arizona were
also conducted in 1982 with no sign of deterioration.
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J. Collector Efficiency

1.0 General Description

1.1 Test Method:

Tested in accordance with SRCC (Solar Rating and Certification Corporation) Standard
OG100-81 with reference ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 93-86. Thermal efficiency is
calculated as recommended in ASHRAE 93-86.

1.2 Testing Information:

Agency: National Solar Test Facility

Location: Ontario, Canada Lat. 43.53 °N Long. 79.66 °W
Elevation: 160 m (525 ft)
Date: September 14, 1990

1.3 Details of Tested collector:

Model: G32
Glazing: low-iron tempered Solite
Absorber material: aluminum fin and tube
Absorber coating: Anodic&shy;Cobalt
Insulation: fiberglass Gross area: 2.96 m2 (31.9 ft2)
Aperture area: 2.78 m2 (30.0 ft2)
Absorber area: 2.87 m2 (30.9 ft2)

1.4 Comments:

The time constant and thermal efficiency test were determined in the solar simulator.
Incident angle modifier was determined from outdoor testing.

2.0 Test Conditions

2.1 Collector Tilt and Orientation:

Normal to the direction of irradiation.

2.2 Heat Transfer Fluid:

Water

2.3 Liquid Flow Rate:

0.0667 kg/s (0.1467 lb/s)

2.4 Range of Ambient Air Temperature:

19.9°C to 20.7°C (67.8°F to 69.3°F)

2.5 Wind Velocity:

3.5 m/sec (11.5 ft/sec)

2.6 Range of insolation:

996 to 1007 W/m2 (316 to 319 Btu/ft2 h)

3.0 Time Constant:

90 sec± 5 sec at 0.0667 kg/s (0.1467 lb/s)

4.0 Efficiency:

Efficiency curve is based on gross collector area, and was determined using the indoor solar
simulator. First order efficiency equation:

eff = 0.738 - 5.247(Ti - Ta)/G

5.0 Incident Angle Modifier:

K(ta) = 1 - 0.154(1/cosq - 1)

6.0 FSEC Standard Day Tests:

The following standard day tests were performed by The Florida Solar Energy Center,
(FSEC).
 Standard day: 5045 W·hr/m2.
Energy collected per collector per day:
Clear day: 35.3 MJ/d (33.5 MBtu/d)
Mildly Cloudy: 27.7 MJ/d (26.3 MBtu/d)
Cloudy Day: 9.12 MJ/d (8.65 MBtu/d)

The G Series Collectors described by this brochure, when properly installed and maintained,
meet the minimum standards established by the SRCC, (Solar Rating & Certification
Corporation). This certification does not imply endorsement or warranty of this product by
SRCC.