Chapter-5

Chapter 5
Wing design - selection of wing parameters

Keywords : Considerations for choice of wing parameters – airfoil section,

aspect ratio, sweep, taper ratio, twist, incidence, dihedral and vertical location
Topics
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Airfoil selection
5.2.1 Presentation of aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils
5.2.2 Geometric characteristics of airfoils
5.2.3 Airfoil nomenclature/designation
5.2.4 Effects of geometric parameters, Reynolds number and
roughness on aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils
5.2.5 Choice of airfoil camber
5.2.6 Choice of airfoil thickness ratio (t/c)
5.3 Selection of wing parameters
5.3.1 Choice of aspect ratio (A)
5.3.2 Choice of sweep (  )
5.3.3 Choice of taper ratio ( λ )
5.3.4 Choice of twist ( ε )
5.3.5 Wing incidence(iw)
5.3.6 Choice of dihedral (  )
5.3.7 Wing vertical location
5.3.8 Flaps
5.3.9 Ailerons
5.3.10 Other aspects of wing design
Example 5.1
References
Exercises

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Chapter-5

Chapter 5
Wing design - selection of wing parameters - 1

Topics
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Airfoil selection
5.2.1 Presentation of aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils
5.2.2 Geometric characteristics of airfoils
5.2.3 Airfoil nomenclature/designation

5.1 Introduction
In the context of wing design the following aspects need consideration.
I) Wing area (S) : This is calculated from the wing loading and gross weight
which have been already decided i.e. S= W / (W / S)
II)Location of the wing on fuselage : High-, low- or mid-wing
III) Aerofoil : Thickness ratio, camber and shape
IV) Sweep (Λ) : Whether swept forward, swept backward, angle of sweep,
cranked wing, variable sweep.
V) Aspect ratio (A) : High or low, winglets
VI) Taper ratio (λ) : Straight taper or variable taper.
VII)Twist (ε) : Amount and distribution
VIII) Wing incidence or setting (iw)
IX) High lift devices : Type of flaps and slats; values of CLmax, Sflap/S
X) Ailerons and spoilers : Values of Saileron/S; Sspoiler/S
XI) Leading edge strakes if any.
XII) Dihedral angle ( Γ ).
XIII) Other aspects : Variable camber, planform tailoring, area ruling, braced
wing, aerodynamic coupling (intentionally adding a coupling lifting surface like
canard).

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Chapter-5
The above parameters are dealt with in the following order.
i) Airfoil selection
ii) Aspect ratio
iii) Sweep
iv) Taper ratio
v) Twist
vi) Incidence
vii) Dihedral
viii) Vertical location
ix) Wing tips
x) Other aspects
At this stage, Fig.A2.1.1 of Appendix 2.1 which gives the geometric details of the
wing may be seen again. Section 4.2.1 (Figs.4.4a and b) give the definitions of
some additional terms regarding the wing.
5.2 Airfoil selection
Large airplane companies like Boeing and Airbus may design their own airfoils.
However, during the preliminary design stage, the usual practice is to choose the
airfoil from the large number of airfoils whose geometric and aerodynamic
characteristics are available in the aeronautical literature. To enable such a
selection it is helpful to know the aerodynamic and geometrical characteristics of
airfoils and their nomenclature. These topics are covered in the next three
subsections.
5.2.1 Presentation of aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils
Figure 5.1 shows typical experimental characteristics of an aerofoil. The features
of the three plots in this figure can be briefly described as follows.
(I) Lift coefficient ( Cl ) vs angle of attack (α). This curve, shown in Fig.5.1a, has

four important features viz. (a) angle of zero lift ( α0l ), (b) slope of the lift curve

denoted by d Cl / dα or a0 or Clα , (c) maximum lift coefficient ( Clmax ) and (d) angle

of attack (αstall) corresponding to Clmax .

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Chapter-5

Fig.5.1 Aerodynamic characteristics of an airfoil

(a) Cl vs α (b) Cl vs Cd (c) Cmc/4 vs α

(II) Drag coefficient (Cd) vs Cl . This curve, shown in Fig.5.1b, has two important

features viz. (a) minimum drag coefficient (Cdmin) and (b) lift coefficient ( Clopt )

corresponding to Cdmin. In some airfoils, called laminar flow airfoils or low-drag

airfoils, the minimum drag coefficient extends over a range of lift coefficients
(Fig.5.1b). This feature is called ‘Drag bucket’. The extent of the drag bucket and
the lift coefficient at the middle of this region are also characteristic features of
the airfoil. It may be added that the camber decides Clopt and thickness ratio

decides the extent of the drag bucket.

(III) Pitching moment coefficient about quarter-chord Cmc/4 vs α . This curve is
shown in Fig.5.1c. Sometimes this curve is also plotted as Cmc/4 vs Cl . From this

curve, the location of the aerodynamic center (a.c.) and the moment about it
(Cmac) can be worked out. It may be recalled that a.c. is the point on the chord

about which the moment coefficient is independent of Cl .

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Chapter-5

(IV) Stall pattern : Variation of the lift coefficient with angle of attack near the stall
is an indication of the stall pattern. A gradual pattern as shown in Fig.5.1a is a
desirable feature. Some airfoils display abrupt decrease in Cl after stall. This
behaviour is undesirable as pilot does not get adequate warning regarding
impending loss of lift. Airfoils with thickness ratio (t/c) between 6 – 10% generally
display abrupt stall while those with t/c more than 14% display a gradual stall. It
may be added that the stall patterns on the wing and on the airfoil are directly
related only for high aspect ratio (A > 6) unswept wings. For low aspect ratio
highly swept wings three-dimensional effects may dominate.
5.2.2 Geometrical characteristics of airfoils
To describe the geometrical characteristics of airfoils, the procedure given in
chapter 6 of Ref.5.1 is followed. In this procedure, the camber line or the mean
line is the basic line for definition of the aerofoil shape (Fig.5.2a). The line joining
the extremities of the camber line is the chord. The leading and trailing edges are
defined as the forward and rearward extremities, respectively, of the mean line.
Various camber line shapes have been suggested and they characterize various
families of airfoils. The maximum camber as a fraction of the chord length
(ycmax/c) and its location as a fraction of chord (xycmax/c) are the important
parameters of the camber line.
Various thickness distributions have been suggested and they characterize
different families of airfoils Fig.5.2b. The maximum ordinate of the thickness
distribution as fraction of chord (ytmax/c) and its location as fraction of chord
(xytmax/c) are the important parameters of the thickness distribution.
Airfoil shape and ordinates
The aerofoil shape (Fig.5.2c) is obtained by combining the camber line and the
thickness distribution in the following manner.
a) Draw the camber line shape and draw lines perpendicular to it at various
locations along the chord (Fig.5.2c).
b) Lay off the thickness distribution along the lines drawn perpendicular to the
mean line (Fig.5.2c).

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Chapter-5

c) The coordinates of the upper surface (xu, yu) and lower surface (xl, yl) of the
airfoil are given by the four equations presented in Eq.(5.1) :

Fig.5.2 Airfoil geometry

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Chapter-5

xu = x - y t sinθ 

yu = y c + y t cosθ 
xl = x + y t sinθ 
 5.1
yl = y c - y t cosθ 
where yc and yt are the ordinates, at location x, of the camber line and the

thickness distribution respectively; tan θ is the slope of the camber line at

location x (see also Fig.5.2c and d).
d)The leading edge radius is also prescribed for the aerofoil. The center of the
leading edge radius is located along the tangent to the mean line at the leading
edge (Fig.5.2c).
e)Depending on the thickness distribution, the trailing edge angle may be zero or
have a finite value. In some cases, thickness may be non-zero at the trailing
edge.

5.2.3 Airfoil nomenclature/designation

Early airfoils were designed by trial and error. Royal Aircraft Establishment
(RAE), UK and Gottingen laboratory of the German establishment which is now
called DLR (Deutsches Zentrum fϋr Luft-und Raumfahrt – German Centre for
Aviation and Space Flight) were the pioneers in airfoil design. Clark Y airfoil
shown in Fig.5.3a is an example of a 12% thick airfoil with almost flat bottom
surface which has been used on propeller blades.
Taking advantage of the developments in airfoil theory and boundary layer
theory, NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) of USA
systematically designed and tested a large number of airfoils in 1930’s. These
are designated as NACA airfoils. In 1958 NACA was superseded by NASA
(National Aeronautic and Space Administration). This organization has
developed airfoils for special purposes. These are designated as NASA airfoils.
A brief description of their nomenclature is presented below. The description of
NACA airfoils is based on chapter 6 of Ref.5.1.

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Chapter-5

NACA four-digit series airfoils

Earliest NACA airfoils were designated as four-digit series. The thickness
distribution was based on successful RAE & Gottigen airfoils. It is given as :
t 
 yt = 0.2969 x - 0.1260 x - 0.3516 x 2 +0.2843 x3 -0.1015 x 4  (5.2)
20
where, t = maximum thickness as fraction of chord.
The leading radius is : rt = 1.1019 t2
Appendix I of Ref.5.1 contains ordinates for thickness ratios of 6%, 9%, 10%,
12%, 15%, 18%, 21% and 24%. The thickness distributions are denoted as
NACA 0006, NACA 0009,……..,NACA 0024. Figure 5.3 b shows the shape of
NACA 0009 airfoil. It is a symmetrical airfoil by design. The maximum thickness
of all four-digit airfoils occurs at 30% of chord. In the designation of these airfoils,
the first two digits indicate that the camber is zero and the last two digits indicate
the thickness ratio as percentage of chord.
The camber line for the four-digit series airfoils consists of two parabolic arcs
tangent at the point of maximum ordinate. The expressions for camber(yc) are :


2 
2px - x 2  ; x  x ycmax
m
yc = 
p 
m                          5.3 
2 
=  1-2p  +2px - x 2  ; x > x ycmax

1-p  
m = maximum ordinate of camber line as fraction of chord
p = chordwise position of maximum camber as fraction of chord

The camber lines obtained by using different values of m & p are denoted by two
digits, e.g. NACA 64 indicates a mean line of 6% camber with maximum camber
occuring at 40% of the chord. Appendix II of Ref.5.1 gives ordinates for NACA 61
to NACA 67 mean lines. The ordinates of other meanlines are obtained by
suitable scaling. For example, NACA 24 mean lines is obtained by multiplying the
ordinates of NACA 64 mean line by (2/6).

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Chapter-5

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 Chapter-5
A cambered airfoil of four-digit series is obtained by combining meanline and
the thickness distribution as described in the previous subsection. For
example, NACA 2412 airfoil is obtained by combining NACA 24 meanline and
NACA 0012 thickness distribution. This airfoil has (a) maximum camber of 2%
occurring at 40% chord and (b) maximum thickness ratio of 12%.
Appendix III of Ref.5.1, be referred for ordinates of the upper and lower surfaces
of several four-digit series airfoils. Appendix IV of the same reference presents
the low speed aerodynamic characteristics at M = 0.17 and various Reynolds
numbers. Chapter 7 of the same reference gives details of experimental
conditions and comments on the effects of parameters like camber, thickness
ratio, Reynolds number and roughness on aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils.

NACA five-digit series airfoils

During certain tests it was observed that Clmax of the airfoil could be increased by

shifting forward the location of the maximum camber. This finding led to
development of five-digit series airfoils. The new camber lines for the five-digit
series airfoils are designated by three digits. The same thickness distribution was
retained as that for NACA four-digit series airfoils. The camber line shape is
given as :

1 
yc = k1  x 3 - 3mx 2 +m2  3 -m  x  , 0 < x  m 
6 
                    (5.4)
1
= k1 m 1- x ; m< x <1
3 
6 

The value of ‘m’ decides the location of the maximum camber and that of k 1 the
design lift coefficient( Cli or Clopt ). A combination of m = 0.2025 and k1 = 15.957

gives Cli = 0.3 and maximum camber at 15% of chord. This meanline is

designated as NACA 230. The first digit ‘2’ indicates that Cli = 0.3 and the

subsequent two digits (30) indicate that the maximum camber occurs at 15% of
chord.

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Chapter-5

A typical five-digit cambered airfoil is NACA 23012. Its shape is shown in

Fig.5.3c. The digits signify :
First digit(2) indicates that Cli = 0.3.
Second & third digits (30) indicate that maximum camber occurs at 15% of chord.
Last two digits (12) indicate that the maximum thickness ratio is 12%.

Remarks:
(i) Appendices II, III and IV of Ref.5.1 be referred for camber line shape,
ordinates and aerodynamic characteristics of five-digit series airfoils.
(ii) Modified four and five digit series airfoils were obtained when leading edge
radius and position of maximum thickness were altered. For details Ref.5.1,
chapter 6 may be consulted.

Six series airfoils

As a background to the development of these airfoils the following points may be
mentioned.
(i) In 1931 T.Theodorsen presented ’Theory of wing sections of arbitrary shape’
NACA TR 411, which enabled calculation flow past airfoils of general shape .
(ii) Around the same time the studies of Tollmien and Schlichting on boundary
layer transition indicated that the transition process, which causes laminar
boundary layer to become turbulent, depends predominantly on the pressure
gradient in the flow around the airfoil.
(iii) A turbulent boundary layer results in a higher skin friction drag coefficient as
compared to when the boundary layer is laminar. Hence, maintaining a laminar
boundary layer over a longer portion of the airfoil would result in a lower drag
coefficient.
(iv) Inverse methods, which could permit design of meanline shapes and
thickness distributions for prescribed pressure distributions were also available at
that point of time. Section 4.4 of Ref.5.1 may be consulted for details.
Taking advantage of these developments, new series of airfoils called low drag
airfoils or laminar flow airfoils were designed. These airfoils are designated as

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 Chapter-5
1-series, 2-series,…….,7-series. Among these the six series airfoils are
commonly used airfoils. Refer Ref.5.1, chapter 6 for more details.
When the airfoil surface is smooth, these airfoils have a Cdmin which is lower than
that for four-and five-digit series airfoils of the same thickness ratio. Further, the
minimum drag coefficient extends over a range of lift coefficient. This extent is
called drag bucket (see Fig.5.1b).
The thickness distributions for these airfoils are obtained by calculations which
give a desired pressure distribution. Analytical expressions for these
thickness distributions are not available. However, Appendix I of Ref.5.1 gives
symmetrical thickness distributions for t/c between 6 to 21%.

The camber lines are designated as : a = 0, 0.1, 0.2 …., 0.9 and 1.0. For
example, the camber line shape with a = 0.4 gives a uniform pressure distribution
from x/c = 0 to 0.4 and then linearly decreasing to zero at x/c = 1.0. If the camber
line designation is not mentioned, ‘a’ equal to unity is implied.
An airfoil with a designation as NACA 662-215 is shown in Fig.5.3d. It is obtained
by combining NACA 662 – 015 thickness distribution and a = 1.0 mean line. The
digits signify :
1st digit ‘6’ indicates that it is a 6 series airfoil
2nd digit ‘6’ denotes the chordwise position of the minimum pressure in tenths of
chord for the symmetrical airfoil at Cl = 0. i.e. the symmetrical section

(NACA 662 - 015) would have the minimum pressure at x/c = 0.6 when producing
zero lift.
The suffix ‘2’ indicates that the drag bucket extends ±0.2 around Clopt .

The digit ‘2’ after the dash indicates that Clopt is 0.2. Thus in this case, drag

bucket extends for Cl = 0.0 to 0.4.

The last two digits ”15” indicate that the thickness ratio is 15%.
Since, the value of ‘a’ is not explicitly mentioned, the camber line shape
corresponds to a = 1.0.

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Chapter-5

Remarks:
(i)Refer appendices I, II, III and IV of Ref.5.1 for details of thickness distribution,
camber distribution, ordinates and aerodynamic characteristics of various six
series airfoils.
(ii)The lift coefficient at the centre of the drag bucket ( Clopt ) depends on the

camber. The extent of drag bucket depends on the thickness ratio and the
Reynolds number. The value given in the designation of the airfoil is at Re = 9 x
106. The extent is about ±0.1 for t/c of 12%, ±0.2 for t/c of 15% and ±0.3 for t/c
of 18%. When the extent of the drag bucket is less than ±0.1 , the subscript in
the designation of the airfoil is omitted, e.g. NACA 66-210

NASA airfoils
NASA has developed airfoil shapes for special applications. For example GA(W)
series airfoils were designed for general aviation aircraft. The ‘LS’ series of
airfoils among these are for low speed airplanes. A typical airfoil of this category
is designated as LS(1) - 0417. In this designation, the digit ‘1’ refers to first
series, the digits ‘04’ indicate Clopt of 0.4 and the digits ‘17’ indicate the thickness

ratio of 17%. Figure 5.3e shows the shape of this airfoil. For the airfoils in this
series, specifically designed for medium speed airplanes, the letters ‘LS’ are
replaced by ‘MS’(see Fig.5.3f).
NASA NLF series airfoils are ‘Natural Laminar Flow’ airfoils.
NASA SC series airfoils are called ‘Supercritical airfoils’. These airfoils have a
higher critical Mach number. Figure 5.3g shows an airfoil of this category. Refer
chapter 3 of Ref.3.4 for further details.
Remarks:
(i)Besides NACA & NASA airfoils, some researchers have designed airfoils for
specialized applications like (a) low Reynolds number airfoils for micro air
vehicles, (b) wind mills, (c) hydrofoils etc.These include those by Lissaman,

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Chapter-5

Liebeck, Eppler and Drela. Reference 1.18, chapter 4, and internet

(www.google.com) may be consulted for details.
(ii)The coordinates of NACA, NASA and many other airfoils are available on the
website entitled ‘UIUC airfoil data base’.

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Chapter-5

Chapter 5
Wing design - selection of wing parameters – 2

Topics
5.2.4 Effects of geometric parameters, Reynolds number and
roughness on aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils
5.2.5 Choice of airfoil camber
5.2.6 Choice of airfoil thickness ratio (t/c)
5.3 Selection of wing parameters
5.3.1 Choice of aspect ratio (A)

5.2.4 Effect of geometric parameters, Reynolds number and roughness on

aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils
The important aerodynamic characteristics of airfoil from the point of view of
design are angle of zero lift ( αol ), maximum lift coefficient ( Clmax ), stall pattern,

minimum drag coefficient ( Cdmin ), lift coefficient corresponding to Cdmin which is

also called optimum lift coefficient (Clopt), extent of drag bucket for low drag
airfoils, moment coefficient about aerodynamic centre (Cmac) and critical Mach
number. At subsonic speeds these characteristics are affected by geometrical
parameters viz. camber, thickness ratio (t/c), airfoil shape, Reynolds number and
roughness. Various chapters in Refs.5.1 and 5.2 contain information about
characteristics of NACA airfoils. These effects can be summarized as follows.
(i) The camber decides α0l , Clopt and Cmac. For a given family of airfoils, with

increase of camber, α0l and Cmac become more negative whereas Clopt increases.

(ii) The thickness ratio influences Cdmin and Clmax . For a given family of airfoils,
the minimum drag coefficient (Cdmin) increases with (t/c). The maximum lift
coefficient (Clmax) is highest for (t/c) between 12 to 16%. The stall pattern is also
gradual for these thickness ratios.
(iii) The Reynolds number (Re) mainly influences Clmax and Cdmin. The former
(Clmax) increases with Re and the latter generally decreases with Re. As noted in

1
the previous subsection, the extent of drag bucket indicated by the nomenclature
of the airfoil is at Re = 9 x 106.
(iv) The surface roughness influences Clmax and Cdmin. With increase of
roughness Clmax decreases and Cdmin increases.
(v)The critical Mach number, in connection with the airfoil, is defined as the
“Free stream Mach number at which the maximum Mach number on the airfoil is
unity”. This quantity can be obtained theoretically by calculating the pressure
distribution on the airfoil, but cannot be determined experimentally.
However, when the critical Mach number is exceeded, the drag coefficient
starts to increase. Making use of this behavior, the term ‘Drag divergence Mach
number (MD)’ is defined as the Mach number at which the drag coefficient
shows an increase of 0.002 over the subsonic drag value (Fig.5.4).
Some authors (Ref.4.3) define MD as the Mach number at which the slope of the
Cd vs. M curve has a value of 0.1 i.e. (dCd/dM) = 0.1

Fig.5.4 Drag divergence Mach number

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 Chapter-5
The drag divergence Mach number (MD) depends on airfoil shape, thickness
ratio, and lift coefficient. For a given airfoil MD is highest near Clopt. It decreases
with thickness ratio.
Supercritical airfoil
For airplanes flying at high subsonic speeds the lift coefficient under cruising
condition (CLcr) is around 0.5. At this value of lift coefficient, the older NACA
airfoils have drag divergence Mach number (MD) of around 0.68 for a thickness
ratio (t/c) of around 15%.
With the advancements in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) it was possible, in
1970’s to compute transonic flow past airfoils. This enabled design of improved
airfoils, called supercritical airfoils, which have MD around 0.75 for t/c of 15%
(Ref.1.12 part II, chapter 6). For comparison, the shapes of older airfoil (NACA
662 - 215) and a supercritical airfoil are shown in Fig.5.3 d and g. Note the flat
upper surface of the supercritical airfoil. Refer chapter 3 of Ref.3.4 and Ref.5.4,
for additional information.
Remarks :
(i) To illustrate the effects of Reynolds number, roughness, camber and thickness
ratio on Cl, Cd and Cmac, the experimentally obtained variations (Ref.5.5) are
presented in Figs.5.5 a to e. They related to NASA MS(1)-0317, MS(1)-0313 and
LS(1)-0417 airfoils. It may be mentioned that the airfoil LS(1)-0417 is 17% thick
airfoil with Cldesign of 0.4. It is designed specifically for low speed airplanes. Later
NASA MS(1)-0317 with, thickness ratio of 17% was designed for applications to
medium speed airplanes (M 0.7 ). The value of Cldesign is 0.3. The airfoil NASA

MS(1)-0313 is similar to NASA MS(01)-0317, but has t/c of 13%

Figure 5.5a shows the effect of varying Reynolds number from 2x106 to 12 x 106
on lift characteristics of NASA MS (01)-0317 airfoil. It is observed that Clmax
increases from about 1.6 to 2.0. Note that α is -3o.

ol

Figure 5.5b shows the effect of varying Reynolds number on Cd vs Cl curve of

the same airfoil. It is seen that Cdmin occurs around Cl = 0.3 but is almost constant
between Cl = 0.1 to 0.5, effect of Reynolds number on Cdmin is not very clear,

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Chapter-5

near Cl = 0.3 but at higher values of Cl (Cl > 0.75) the values of Cd decrease as
Re increases.
Figure 5.5c shows the Cd vs Cl curves with Re as parameter for the same airfoil
but with rough surface details of roughness see Ref.5.5 comparing Figs.5.5 b
and c. It is seen that Cdmin is significantly higher for the rough airfoil as compared
to the smooth one. The value of Cdmin decreases with Re.
Figure 5.5d compares the Cl vs α , Cd vs Cl and C c vs Cl curves for NASA
m
4

LS(1)-0417 and MS(1)-0.317 airfoils. The cambers of the two airfoils are
different, being higher for LS(1)-0.417. It is seen that ol and C c are more
m
4

negative for the LS(1)-0417.

Figure 5.5 e compares Cl vs α , Cd vs Cl and C c vs Cl curves for NASA MS(1)-
m
4

0317 and MS(1)-0313 airfoils. It is observed that the thinner airfoil has slightly
lower value of Cdmin.
(ii)Appendix F of Ref.1.20 gives the designations of airfoils used on many
airplanes.

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Chapter-5

Fig.5.5a Effect of Reynolds number on Cl vs α curve

Airfoil : NASA MS(1)-0317; M = 0.15 ; smooth surface
(Adapted from Ref.5.5)

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Chapter-5

Fig.5.5b Effect of Reynolds number on Cd vs Cl curve

Airfoil : NASA MS(1)-0317; M = 0.15 ; smooth surface
(Adapted from Ref.5.5)

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Chapter-5

Fig.5.5c Effect of Reynolds number on Cd vs Cl curve

Airfoil : NASA MS(1)-0317; M = 0.15 ; Rough surface
(Adapted from Ref.5.5)

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Chapter-5

Fig.5.5d Cl vs α , Cl vs Cd, Cl vs Cmc/4 curves for NASA LS(1)-0417 and

NASA MS(1)-0317 airfoils; Re = 6 x 106 ; M = 0.15 ; Rough surface
(Adapted from Ref.5.5)

Fig.5.5e Cl vs α , Cl vs Cd, Cl vs Cmc/4 curves for NASA MS(1)-0317 and

NASA MS(1)-0313 airfoils; Re = 6 x 106 ; M = 0.15 ; Rough surface
(Adapted from Ref.5.5)

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Chapter-5

5.2.5 Choice of airfoil camber

The choice of the airfoil for the airplane wing involves the selection of camber,
thickness ratio and shape of the airfoil. The camber decides the C lopt of the airfoil
and the thickness ratio decides the characteristics like Clmax, Cdmin, drag
divergence Mach number (MD), weight of the wing and the stall pattern. For a
good design, the camber should be chosen such that Clopt of the airfoil is close to
the lift coefficient of the aircraft (CL) in the flight corresponding to the mission of
the airplane. This lift coefficient is called design lift coefficient (CLdesign). In most of
the cases, this would correspond to the cruise flight condition.
1 2
Assuming L = W = ρV SCL
2
W
CLdesign = ; ρ and V correspond to mission of the airplane e.g cruise
1 2
ρV S
2
Remark:
The camber of the airfoil is chosen such that Clopt approximately equals CLdesign.

5.2.6 Choice of airfoil thickness ratio (t/c)

The thickness ratio (t/c) affects Cdmin, Clmax, stall pattern, wing structural weight
and MD. The influence of (t/c) on Cdmin, Clmax and stall pattern has been dealt with
in subsection 5.2.4.
The following may be noted to understand the effect of thickness ratio (t/c) on the
structural weight of the wing.
The wing structure consists of spars (front and rear), stingers and skin (see
Airbus 380 cut-away section in Appendix 1.1 and cut away drawing of airplanes
in Ref.1.21).The spars are like I section beams. The flanges of the I section take
the bending moment and the web takes the shear. If the wing section is thicker,
then the spar flanges will be away from the centroidal axis of the section. Now,
the bending moment resisted by an ‘I ’ section beam is proportional to the
product of the area of the flange and the distance of flange from centroidal
axis.Thus, for a given bending moment, a thicker I beam would require lower

9
Chapter-5

area of flange. Consequently, it would be lighter. Thus, a thicker wing will result
in lighter wing.
Reference 1.9, chapter 8; Ref.1.12, Pt.V, ch.9; Ref.1.15, chapter 6; Ref.1.18,
chapter 15; Ref.1.19, chapter 8 and Ref.1.20, chapter 20 give formulae for the
weight of wing (W W) in terms of the geometrical parameters of the wing. Based
on these, W w can be expressed as :

WW = CSaw Ab  t/c  1+ λ   cos  

c d e
(5.5)

where, SW = wing area, A = aspect ratio,

t/c = thickness ratio, λ = taper ratio and  = sweep and C is a constant.
The exponents a to e depend on the type of airplane. Their values lie in the
following ranges.
a = 0.62 to 0.76; b = 0.5 to 0.79; C = -0.3 to -0.4 ; d = 0.05 to 0.1 and e = -1.
Remarks:
(i) The final selection of the airfoil involve trade-off studies. It is seen that an
increase in (t/c) results in increase of Clmax, decrease in wing weight and increase
in Cdmin. The trade-off studies would involve selecting different (t/c) values and
examining which value gives minimum weight or fuel required etc.
At the preliminary design stage the guidelines are obtained from the airfoils used
on similar airplanes. Low speed airplanes have thickness ratio between 15 to
18%. NASA LS(1) – 0417 is being used on low speed airplanes.
NASA MS (01)-031 is being used on medium speed airplanes with turboprop
engines. The high subsonic airplanes use supercritical airfoils of camber which
would give Clopt = CLdesign and (t/c) around 14%. At supersonic speeds, Cdmin is
proportional to (t/c)2. These airplanes have (t/c) between 3 to 5%. Concorde
airplane had biconvex airfoil of t/c = 0.035.
(ii) Sometimes the (t/c) of the airfoil at the wing root is larger than the (t/c) of
airfoil near wing tip. This is a compromise between the conflicting effects of
increase of (t/c) on Cdmin and the wing weight. Values of (t/c) = 0.18 at root and
0.15 at tip have been used.

10
 Chapter-5
5.3 Selection of wing parameters

In this section, the selection of aspect ratio (A), sweep    and taper ratio  λ  are

considered.
5.3.1 Choice of aspect ratio(A)
Aspect ratio affects the slope of the lift curve  CLα  , the induced drag  CDi  , the

structural weight of the wing and the wing span.

a)Effect of aspect ratio on slope of the lift curve
The slope of lift curve of a wing in subsonic flow for A > 4, is given by :
(Ref.5.6, section 3.2)
2πA
CL = (5.6)
 tan2 Λ 1 
A β 
2 2
2 
2+ 4+ 1+
η2  β2 

 
2 2
where β = 1 - M , η = Clα / (2 π), Λ 1 = sweep of the half chord line ,
2

Clα is the slope of lift curve of the airfoil used on wing.

Equation (5.6) shows that  CLα  , decreases as aspect ratio decreases.

b)Effect of aspect ratio on induced drag

The induced drag coefficient (CDi) of a subsonic airplane is given by :
CL2
CDi = 1+δ  (5.7)
πA
where, δ depends on wing geometry i.e. aspect ratio, taper ratio and sweep.
c)Effect of aspect ratio on structural weight
Equation (5.5) shows that the wing weight increases as Ab where b = 0.5 to 0.79.
The reason for this is as follows.
As the aspect ratio increases the wingspan(b) increases (b= AS ). An increase
in the span would increase the bending moment at the wing root. This would
require higher moment of inertia of the spar and hence higher weight.

11
Chapter-5

d) Effect of aspect ratio on span

For a chosen wing area, the aspect ratio decides the span of the wing

b =  A×S  .
1/2
In turn the span decides the hanger space needed for the

airplane. Hence, for personal airplanes, a moderate aspect ratio of 6 to 7 is

generally chosen. Further, the ride in turbulent weather is poor for a high aspect
ratio wing. Hence, agricultural and other airplanes, which fly in proximity of
ground, are subjected to air turbulence and have moderate aspect ratio of 6 to 7.
Remark :
The final choice of the aspect ratio would be arrived at after the trade-off studies
which would involve selecting various values of aspect ratio and examining their
effect on the criterion for the design of the particular airplane. At the preliminary
design stage guidelines are obtained from the aspect ratios used on similar
airplanes.
Low speed airplanes of earlier designs had aspect ratio between 6 to 7.5, but the
current trend is to choose between 7.5 to 8.5.
The medium speed airplane, using turboprop engines, of earlier design had
aspect ratio between 9 to 11. The current trend is the aspect ratio between 11 to
13. The high subsonic jet transport of earlier designs had aspect ratio between 7
to 8. The current trend is between 8.5 to 10.0. The trend towards higher aspect
ratio appears to be due to availability of carbon epoxi material for fabrication of
wing. This material is lighter than aluminium and has more stiffness.
Reference 1.18, chapter 4 be referred for guidelines to select aspect ratios of
other types of airplanes.

12
Chapter-5

Chapter 5
Wing design - selection of wing parameters - 3

Topics
5.3.2 Choice of sweep (  )
5.3.3 Choice of taper ratio ( λ )
5.3.4 Choice of twist ( ε )
5.3.5 Wing incidence(iw)
5.3.6 Choice of dihedral (  )
5.3.7 Wing vertical location
5.3.8 Flaps

5.3.2 Choice of sweep (  )

The wing sweep affects the slope of the lift curve ( CLα ), the maximum lift

coefficient CLmax, the induced drag coefficient (CDi), the drag divergence Mach
number (MD), the wing weight and the tip stalling.
a) Effect of sweep on slope of lift curve
From Eq.(5.6) it is seen that CLα decreases as sweep increases. It can be shown

that CLα of a wing of aspect ratio 9, operating at Mach number 0.8, would

decrease by about 20% when sweep increases from 0o to 30o.

b) Effect of sweep on maximum lift coefficient(CLmax)
It is pointed out in subsection 4.3.2, that the CLmax of a swept wing decreases in
proportion to cos Λ Eq.(4.8).
c) Effect of sweep on induced drag
From Eq.(3.57) the induced drag coefficient of typical jet airplane would be:
 
2 1  0.2078 
CDi = KC =
L  1.0447+ 
πA  cos2 Λ 1 
 4 

1
Chapter-5

 
1  0.2078 
Or K =  1.0447+ 
πA  cos 2 Λ 1 
 4 
From the above equation, the values of K shown in Table 5.1 are obtained for
different values of Λ 1 ; the aspect ratio (A) is taken equal to 9.
4

1 K
4

0 0.0443
25o 0.0459
30o 0.0467
o
35 0.0479
40o 0.0495

Table 5.1 Typical change in K due to sweep

It is observed that K and in turn the induced drag coefficient increases as angle
of sweep increases.
d) Effect of sweep on divergence Mach number (MD)
For a swept wing the change in drag divergence Mach number due to sweep
angle  , is given approximately by the following equation (Ref.5.7, chapter 15):
1- MD Λ Λ
= 1- (5.8)
1- MD Λ=0 90

where, MD Λ = 0 and MD  are the drag divergence Mach numbers of the

unswept and the swept wing respectively;  is quarter-chord sweep in degrees.

As an illustration consider a wing employing a supercritical airfoil with MD of 0.78.
Ignoring the effects of aspect ratio on MD the value of MD would be 0.78
for a wing with  = 0. If the wing has a sweep of 30o, then its MD from Eq.(5.8)
would be 0.853. The increase in MD due to sweep is very significant. Further,
when M < MD, the lift to drag ratio (L/D) is high. Thus, when MD increases the
high value of (L/D) can continue upto higher values of Mach numbers or flight

2
Chapter-5

speeds. Equation (3.30) shows that for jet airplanes the range increases as flight
speed increases. In other words, when MD increases, the range would increase.
e) Effect of sweep on wing weight
Equation (5.5) shows that the weight of the wing is proportional to (1 / cos  ).
Thus, the weight of the wing increases as sweep increases.
Remarks :
i) Wing with cranked trailing edge:
Instead of having a trapezoidal wing planform, the wings of high subsonic
airplanes have an unswept trailing edge up to about 30% of semi-span in the
inboard region (Fig.4.4b). These wings have the following favourable effects.
(a)Higher thickness at the root.
(b)Span-wise center of pressure is brought slightly inboard which reduces the
bending moment at the root as compared to the trapezoidal wing.
These two effects tend to reduce the weight of wing structure. The thicker
inboard section also provides room for accommodating the back-up
structure for the landing gear.
ii) From the above discussion it is noted that the sweep has the beneficial effect
of increasing MD. However, it has the adverse effects of (a) increasing CDi and
weight and (b) decreasing CLmax. Hence, airplanes flying upto M = 0.5 have
unswept wings. The airplanes like business jets and short large jet airplanes
flying at M  0.7, have moderate sweep of about 20o. For the jet transport
airplanes cruising at Mach number between 0.8 to 0.85, the value of sweep is
chosen taking into account (a) CLdesign (b) airfoil used and (c) aspect ratio of the
wing. The value of CLdesign for these airplanes is generally between 0.5 to 0.7.
The supercritical airfoil of NASA SC series with (t/c) of 14% to 15% and camber
corresponding to CLdesign is generally chosen. The value of MD for this airfoil at
CL=CLdesign can be obtained from sources like Ref.5.4. Then the value of  that
will give the desired value of MD for the wing can be obtained from Eq.(5.7).
The final value of  is obtained after trade-off studies which involve considering
different values of  and assessing their influence on the criteria for design.

3
Chapter-5

To avoid the adverse effects of sweep, the wings of high subsonic speed
airplanes have, features like (a) complicated high lift devices to take care of
effect of sweep on CLmax, (b) low taper ratio and cranked wing to alleviate the
increase in structural weight due to sweep.
The wings of supersonic airplanes need values of  between 45o to 60o. Variable
sweep wings have been designed for such airplanes. These wings have
(a) low sweep at flight speeds near take-off and landing (b) moderate sweep

 Λ  35  for cruise at high subsonic Mach numbers and (c) highest sweep for
o

cruise at supersonic Mach numbers.

Information on airplanes with variable sweep e.g. Panavia Tornado, General
Dynamics F-111, Tupolev Tu-22M, F-14A Tomcat and MIG-27 can be obtained
from internet (www.google.com).
The wings with variable sweep are naturally heavier than those with fixed value
of sweep.
5.3.3 Choice of taper ratio  λ 

The taper ratio influences the following quantities.

a) Induced drag
b) Structural weight
c) Ease of fabrication
It is known that an elliptic wing has the lowest induced drag ( δ = 0 in Eq.5.7).
However, this planform shape is difficult to fabricate. A rectangular wing is easy
to fabricate but has about 7% higher CDi as compared to the elliptic wing
( δ = 0.07 ). It is also heavier structurally (Eq.5.5). An unswept wing, with

 λ  between 0.3 to 0.5, has a slightly positive value of δ . Further, in a tapered

wing, the span loading is concentrated in the inboard portions of the wing and the
airfoil at the root is thicker than that near the tip. These factors help in reducing
the wing weight Eq.(5.5). Tip stalling (discussed in section 5.3.4) is also not a
problem when the taper ratio is between 0.3 and 0.5. From these considerations,
a taper ratio between 0.3 and 0.5 is common for low speed airplanes.

4
Chapter-5

Some airplane wings have straight central portion (Figure 2.1 shows such a Wing
Planform). This appears as a compromise between (a) ease of fabrication with
untapered wing and (b) lower structural weight of a tapered wing.

5.3.4 Twist
A wing is said to have a twist when the chord lines of airfoils at different spanwise
stations are not parallel to each other. The difference between the angles of
attack of the airfoil sections at the root and near the tip is called geometric twist
(Fig. A2.1.1). Whereas, the aerodynamic twist is the difference between zero lift
lines of airfoils at root and near the tip. Twist is given to prevent tip stalling which
is explained below.
Tip stalling
It is a phenomenon in which the stalling on the wing begins in the region near the
wing tip. This is because the distribution of local lift coefficient (Cl) is not uniform
along the span and as the angle of attack of the wing increases, the stalling will
begin at a location where the local lift coefficient exceeds the maximum lift
coefficient (Clmax) there. To understand this phenomenon better, an unswept
tapered wing is considered. The lift distribution on such a wing has a maximum at
the root and goes to zero at the tip. This distribution is also known as 
distribution. Further, the local lift ( ΔL ) can be equated to 1/2 ρV2cCl Δy , where c

is the local chord and Cl is the local lift coefficient over an element ( Δy ) of span.
Thus,  distribution is proportional to the product c Cl. The local lift coefficient
(Cl) is proportional to Γ/c and is not uniform along the span. The  distribution
along the span can be approximately obtained by Schrenk’s method. According
to this method, c Cl distribution is roughly midway between the chord distribution
of the actual wing and that of an elliptic wing of the same area. Figure 5.6 shows
distributions of cCl and c. From these distributions, the variation of Cl along the
span can be calculated (Fig.5.7). It can be proved, that for a wing with taper ratio
λ , and Clmax constant along span, the local maximum of Cl will occur at a span-
wise location (y) where:
y/(b/2)  1- λ (5.9)

5
Chapter-5

Fig.5.6 Schrenk’s Method

Fig.5.7 Typical distribution of Cl

6
 Chapter-5
It is known that the maximum lift coefficient (Clmax) of an airfoil depends on the
airfoil shape, surface roughness and Reynolds number. For simplicity, it is
assumed that Clmax is approximately constant along the span. Then from the
distribution of Cl in Fig.5.7, it is observed that as the angle of attack of the wing
increases, the stalling will begin at the span-wise location where local Cl equals
local Clmax . Subsequently, stalling will progress along the wing span and finally
the wing will stall (i.e. CL of wing will reach a maximum and then decrease). The
beginning of stall near the tip is undersirable as airlerons are located in the tip
region. Stalling there would reduce aileron effectiveness. For a wing of a taper
ratio 0.3, the stall is likely to begin around y / (b/2) of 0.7.
Remarks :
(i) In the case of swept wings, there is a cross flow along the span and the
tendency for the tip stall is enhanced.
(ii) Tip stalling can be prevented if the airfoil section in the tip region has an angle
of attack lower than that at the root. In this case, the wing acquires a twist. As
mentioned earlier, the difference between the angle of attack of the airfoil at the
root and that near the tip is called geometric twist and denoted by ε (Fig.A 2.1.1)
Twist is negative when airfoil near the tip is at an angle of attack lower than that
at the root. This is also called wash-out. Sometimes airfoils with higher Clmax are
used near the tip. Thus airfoils at the root and near the tip may have different

values of angle of zero lift ( α0l ). This leads to aerodynamic twist which is the

angle between the zero lift lines at the root and that near the tip.
To completely eliminate the occurrence of tip stalling, may require a complex
variation of the angle of twist. However, for ease of fabrication, linear twist is
given in which the angle of twist varies linearly along the span.
(iii) Actual value of twist can be obtained by calculating the Cl distribution on
untwisted wing and then varying the twist such that tip-stalling is avoided. A value
of 3o can be used as an initial estimate.
(iv) Early swept wing airplanes had the following features to avoid tip stalling.
(a)Vortex generators, (b) Fences on top surface.

7
Chapter-5

Refer to Internet (www.google.com) for details of these two methods to avoid tip
stalling.

5.3.5 Wing incidence

The mean aerodynamic chord is the reference line of the wing. Fuselage
reference line (FRL) is the reference line for the entire airplane. The angle
between fuselage reference line and the wing reference line is called wing
incidence and denoted by iw. The reason for providing the wing incidence is given
below.
For the economy in fuel consumption, the drag should be minimum during cruise.
The fuselage has a minimum drag when its angle of attack is zero. However,
during cruise, the wing should produce sufficient lift to support the weight of the
airplane. Keeping these factors in view, the wing is mounted on the fuselage in
such a manner that it produces the required amount of lift in cruise while the
fuselage is at zero angle of attack.
During the preliminary design phase, iw can be obtained as follows.
a)Obtain CLdesign corresponding to cruise or any other design condition i.e.
W
CL design =
1 2
ρV S
2
where, ρ and V correspond to the design flight conditions.

b) Obtain CLα for the wing (Eq.5.6 for subsonic airplanes)

c) Obtain zero lift angle  α0L  for wing. This depends on α0l of the airfoil used on

the wing and the wing twist.

For an untwisted wing,
α0L = αolr

where, αolr is the zero lift angle of the airfoil at the root.

Reference 4.7, chapter 2 gives the following procedure for a wing with
aerodynamic twist of ε .
α0L = α0lr + Jε (5.10)

8
Chapter-5

where, ε is positive when the airfoil at the tip is at an angle of attack higher than
at root.
The quantity J has a weak dependence on aspect ratio and taper ratio of the
wing.
However, a value of -0.4 can be taken for the first estimate of α0L . For more

accurate estimate of α0L , refer to section 4.1.3.1 of Ref.4.2.

d) Calculate iw from the following equation :

CLdesign = CLα iw - α0L 

Remark :
The final choice of iw is arrived at from wind tunnel tests on the airplane model.

5.3.6 Dihedral (  )
Figure A2.1.1 shows the dihedral angle  . Its value is decided after the lateral
dynamic stability calculations have been done for the airplane. For preliminary
design purposes a value based on data collection can be used.

5.3.7 Wing vertical location

There are three choices for the location of the wing on the fuselage namely,high-,
mid- and low- wing. Figure 5.8 shows three military airplanes with these locations
for the wing. The advantages and disadvantages of the three configurations are
as follows.
High Wing configuration
Advantages :
i) Allows placing fuselage closer to ground, thus allowing loading and unloading
without special ground handling equipment.
ii) Jet engines & propeller have sufficient ground clearance without excessive
landing gear length leading to lower landing gear weight.
iii) For low speed airplanes, weight saving can be effected by strut braced wing
(Fig.1.2a)

9
Chapter-5

iv) For short take off and landing (STOL) airplanes, the high wing configuration
has the following specific advantages. (a) Large wing flaps can be used.
(b) Engines are away from the ground and hence ingestion of debris rising from
unprepared runways is avoided. (c) Prevents floating of wing due to ground effect
which may occur for low wing configuration.

Fig.5.8 High wing, mid wing and low wing configurations

Disadvantages
i) Fuselage generally houses the landing gear in special pods leading to higher
weight and drag.
ii) Pilot’s visibility may be blocked during a turning flight.
Mid wing configuration
Advantages :
i) Lower drag.
ii) Advantages of ground clearance as in the case of high wing configuration.

10
Chapter-5

iii) No blockage of visibility. Hence, used on some military airplanes.

Disadvantages:
Wing root structure passing through the fuselage is not possible, which leads to
higher weight. However, in HFB Hansa airplane, a swept forward mid-wing is
located behind the passenger cabin. This permits wing root structure passing
through the fuselage.

Low-wing configuration
Advantages:
i) Landing gear can be located in the wing thereby avoiding pods on the fuselage
and hence lower drag. However, to provide adequate ground clearance, the
fuselage has to be at a higher level as compared to the high wing configuration.
ii) Wing structure can be through the fuselage.
Disadvantages:
(i) Low ground clearance.
(ii) A low-wing configuration has unstable contribution to the longitudinal and
lateral static stability. In addition Ref.1.18, chapter 4, mentions that for low-wing
airplanes the dihedral angle may be decided by need to avoid wing tip hitting the
ground during a bad landing. A wing with high value of dihedral may require
higher vertical tail area to prevent tendency to Dutch roll.

5.3.8 Flaps
The flaps are high lift devices. These devices are deployed to increase the
maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) during take-off and landing.
Section 3.7 of Ref.3.3 be referred to for discussion on high lift devices. The flaps
are generally located near the trailing edge.
The flaps in common use are : plain flap, split flap, zap flap, single slotted flap,
double slotted flap, triple slotted flap and fowler flap. Along with flaps, the
medium speed airplanes and the jet airplanes have slats near the leading edge.
Typical values of CLmax for different types of high lift devices are given in
subsection 4.3.2. The plain flap and split flap are simple to fabricate. The

11
 Chapter-5
complexity of fabrication and the weight of the wing increase progressively for
zap flap, single slotted flap, double slotted flap, triple slotted flap and fowler flap.
The airplanes flying at high subsonics speed need high wing loading from the
consideration of cruise (sections 4.7 and 4.9). Hence, complicated high lift
devices are employed to reduce take-off and landing distances.
Considering these factors, the flaps used on different types of airplane are as
follows.
(i) The homebuilt and general aviation aircraft use plain flap.
(ii) Single slotted flaps are used on general aviation aircraft and some transport
airplanes with turboprop engines e.g. SAAB 2000.
(iii) Double slotted flaps are used on some turbo-prop airplanes (e.g. ATR – 72 -
200) and on some jet airplanes.(e.g. Boeing 767).
(iv) Triple slotted flaps are employed on large jet airplanes. Some airplane
companies have perfected the design of such flaps and use them.
(v) Fowler flaps are used on some turboprop airplanes (e.g. IPTN M – 250 – 100
and Dash 8 – Q 300) and on many Boeing airplanes. The jet airplanes generally
have leading edge slats in combination with Fowler flap to increase CLmax further.
Remarks:
(i) The CLmax with a high lift device mainly depends on (a) angle of deflection of
flap, (b) the ratio of flap chord to wing chord (cf/cw) in the region where flap is
located and (c) the spanwise extent of the flap (bf/b). The exact values of (cf/cw)
and (bf/b) are obtained after CFD calculations and wind tunnel tests. As
guidelines for subsonic airplanes (cf/cw) = 0.3 to 0.4 and bf equals 70% of the
exposed span (wing span – width of fuselage) can be used. The values of (cf/
cw) and (bf/b) on similar airplanes can be used, at this stage of preliminary
design.
(ii) The flap deflection during take-off  δf to  is lower than that during

landing  δfland  . Section 10.6 of Ref.3.3 describes the reasons for this difference.

Chapter 5 of Ref.1.24 presents typical values of  δf to  and  δfland  .

12
Chapter-5

Chapter 5
Wing design - selection of wing parameters - 4

Topics
5.3.9 Ailerons
5.3.10 Other aspects of wing design
Example 5.1

5.3.9 Ailerons
The main purpose of the ailerons is to create rolling moment and provide
adequate rate of roll. Subsection 6.10.1 of Ref.3.1 be referred for discussion on
different types of ailerons, subsection 6.10.2 to 6.10.4 for steps to obtain the rate
of roll for given parameters of wing and aileron. Federal Aviation Regulations
prescribe rates of roll for different types of airplanes. Chapter 12 of Ref.1.24 also
gives some data. However, these calculations can be done at a later stage. At
this stage of preliminary design, guidelines from similar airplanes can be taken
regarding (i) ratio of aileron chord to wing chord (ca / cw) and (ii) extent of aileron
span to wing span (ba / b).

5.3.10 Other aspects of wing design

Chapter 4 of Ref.1.18 be consulted for shapes of wing tips. Section 3.2.21 of
Ref.3.3 gives brief information on winglets. Websites (www.google.com) be
referred to for information on topics like a) wing strakes, b) double delta wings
and c) behavior of delta wings at high angles of attack.
Example 5.1
In example 2.1, the preliminary estimates of wing parameters were obtained for a
60 seater turboprop airplane. Obtain, for the same airplane, the refined estimates
of the following wing parameters (a) airfoil section, (b) aspect ratio, (c) sweep,
(d) taper ratio, (e) twist, (f) incidence, (g) dihedral and (h) vertical location.

1
Chapter-5

Solution :
From example 3.1: weight of the airplane = W0 = 21,280 kgf = 208,757 N
From section 4.10.5: W/S = 3570 N/m2
Hence, wing area = W0/( W/S) = 208757/3570 = 58.48 m2
I) Airfoil selection
Since, the airplane under consideration is a commercial airplane, the cruising
flight is considered as the design condition.
Vcr = 500 kmph = 138.9 m/s
hcr = 4.5 km ; Hence, ρcr = 0.7768 kg/m3

Speed of sound at 4.5 km : 322.57 m/s; Mcr = 138.9 / 322.57 = 0.431

Consequently,
2W/S 2×3570
CLcruise = = = 0.476
ρV 2
0.7768×138.92
An airfoil with Clopt between 0.4 to 0.5 would be near optimum. However, from the
discussion in subsection 5.2.4, it is noted that the airfoil NASA MS(1)-0317 has
been specifically designed keeping in view, the application to medium speed
airplanes. This airfoil has Clmax  2.0 (Fig.5.5a), Cdmin occurs for Cl from 0 to
about 0.6. Further, this airfoil has been used on IPTN-N-250-100 airplane.
Hence, this airfoil is selected.
It has been pointed out in remark (ii) of subsection 5.2.6 that using a thinnner
airfoil at tip is advantageous.
Following the choices in IPTN-N-250-100 airplane, the value of (t/c) at root is
taken as 17% and that near the wing tips as 13%.
II) Aspect ratio
At the present stage of preliminary design, A = 12 is chosen as this value is close
to that of some airplanes in this category (Table 2.1).
III) Sweep
Since, the value of Mcr is only 0.431, an unswept wing (  = 0) would appear to be
an appropriate choice. However, from table 2.1 it is observed that the wings of
airplanes in this category, which are similar to the configuration shown in Fig.2.1,

2
Chapter-5
have small amount of quarter chord sweep (  c ) in the outboard portion.
4

Observing the trends in table 2.1, an average value of  c = 3.9o is tentatively

4

chosen for the outboard wing of the airplane under design. This results in a
leading edge sweep (  le ) of 6.07o for the outboard wing. This is shown in

Fig. E 5.1a. It is seen that with this sweep angle the rear spar of the wing, to
which the flaps and ailerons are attached, has a simpler shape without any bend.
IV) Taper ratio
In subsection 5.3.3 it is pointed out that a wing with constant chord central
section and outer panels tapered, combines the advantages of ease of
fabrication and lower structural weight. This type of planform is also observed in
XAC-YC-7, IPTN-N-250-N, ATR-72-250 and DASH-8-Q300. The straight section
is chosen to extend upto 35% of semispan on either side of the root chord. A
taper ratio of 0.5 for the outer panels appears to be a preferred choice.
With these choices the root chord (cr) and tip chord (ct) can be worked out as
follows.
S = 58.48 m2 , A = 12, Hence, b = AS = 58.48×12 = 26.49 m
Hence,
 c +0.5c r  0.65
58.48 = 0.35 x 26.49 cr + 2  r  x 26.49
 2  2
Or cr = 2.636 m and c t = 1.318 m

The final planform of the wing will be arrived at after the optimisation procedure
which will result in low drag and weight of the wing.
The wing planform is shown in Fig.E 5.1.

3
Chapter-5

Fig. E 5.1a Wing planform

Fig.E 5.1b. Wing and equivalent trapezoidal wing

Remark :
The value of the mean aerodynamic chord of the wing  c w  and the location of

the aerodynamic centre would be needed in chapter 6. These are worked out
below.
For a wing which is symmetric about the root chord, c w is given by :
b/2
2
c
2
cw = dy
SW 0

4
Chapter-5

In the present case :

c = 2.636 m for 0  y  4.636

 2.636-1.318 
= 2.636-  y - 4.636  for 4.636  y  13.245
8.609
= 3.3458-0.1531 y for 4.636  y  13.245 (5.11)
Consequently,
2 
4.636 13.245

  3.3458 - 0.1531y 
2
cW =  2.6362 dy + dy
58.48  0 4.636

13.245
=
2
58.48
2.6362 ×4.636 +  11.194 + 0.02344 y
2
- 1.0245 y  dy
4.636

2  
= 32.211+11.194 13.245- 4.636  +
58.48 
0.02344
3
13.2453 - 4.636 3  -1.0245 13.2452 - 4.6362 


= 2.295 m
Location of aerodynamic centre
From Eq.(5.11) the spanwise location (ymac) where a chord of 2.295 m is located
is given by :
2.295 = 3.3458 – 0.1531 ymac
Or ymac = 6.863 m
To obtain the location of a.c. of the wing, the wing chord at ymac is projected on to
the root chord. The quarter chord of this is the a.c. of the wing. (Fig. E 5.1 a).
The leading edge sweep of the outboard wing is 6.07o. Hence, the location of a.c.
from the leading edge of the root chord is given by :
2.295
 6.863- 4.636  tan6.07+ = 0.811 m
4
V) Twist
Taking guidelines from the value of wing twist in IPTN-N-250-100, a value of
ε = 30 (wash-out) is chosen at this stage of preliminary design.
VI) Incidence (iw)

5
Chapter-5

This angle is chosen such that during cruise, the fuselage is horizontal and wing
with α = iw produces the desired lift. From item(I) above, CLcruise = 0.476

From Eq.(5.6)

2πA
CLα =
 tan2 Λ 1 
A β  2 2
2 
2 + 4+ 2  1+ 
η  β 2

 

A = 12, β = 1-M2 = 1-0.4312 = 0.902

η = (average slope of lift curve of airfoil on wing) / 2 π .

Generally, η is taken as unity.
This quantity Λ 1 depends, A, λ and Λ 1 . The taper ratio and Λ 1 are those of an
2 4 4

equivalent trapezoidal wing (ETW). The steps to obtain the dimensions of ETW
are given below.
Equivalent trapezoidal wing :
It may be pointed out that the procedures to obtain the aerodynamic data and
stability derivatives are generally available for straight tapered wings. Reference
5.6, section 2 suggests that the geometrical parameters of practical wings can be
approximated by an ETW. A certain amount of judgement is involved to obtain
ETW. The procedure is as follows.
(a) The actual wing and the ETW have the same span and area.
(b) The length and location of tip chord is the same for the two wings. The swept
back portion of the two wings are nearly the same.
In the present case the actual wing has the following values.
Area of wing = 58.48 m2 ; wing span = 26.49 m; root chord (cr) = 2.636 m;
tip chord(ct) = 1.318 m ; the constant chord (2.636 m) extends upto 4.636 m on
either side of the root chord ; leading edge sweep of the outboard wing is 6.07o ;
quarter chord sweep of the outboard wing is 3.9 o through out the .
The ETW is taken as having area of 58.48 m2, span of 28.49 m, tip chord of
1.318 m and quarter chord sweep of 3.9o through out the same-span.

6
Chapter-5

Consequently, the root chord (cre) of ETW is given by :

26.49
58.48 =  cre +1.318  or cre = 3.1 m
2
Taper ratio of  λe  of ETW = 1.318 / 3.1 = 0.425

The ETW as superposed over actual wing is shown in Fig.E5.1b.

   
The quarter chord sweep   1  is chosen to be 3.9 o. The value of   1 
 4 ETW  2 ETW
can be worked out by geometry. However, from section 1 of Ref.5.6, the value of
tan  1 is given by :
2

4 1- λe 
tan  1 = tan  1 -  0.5-0.25  
2 4 A 1+ λe 

= 0.06817 – 0.0336 = 0.03454

 1 = 1.98o
2

With the above data, the value of CLα of the wing is obtained as :

2π×12
CLα =
122 × 0.9022  0.034542 
2+ 4+  1+ 
1  0.9022 

= 5.793 rad-1 = 0.1011 deg-1

From Fig.5.5 a, αol of the airfoil is - 3o

Since, the wing has a twist of 3o (wash-out), from Eq.(5.10) the angle of zero lift
of the wing ( αoL ) is :

αoL = 0.4(-3) = -1.8o

Hence, wing incidence (iW) is given by :

0.476 = 0.1011 (iW + 1.8) or iW = 2.90
Remark :
IPTN-N-250-100 which also uses NASA MS (1)-0317 airfoil has iw = 20
This value would have been obtained after wind tunnel tests on the model of the
final configuration of the airplane.

7
Chapter-5

VII) Dihedral Γ 

At this stage of the preliminary design a value of Γ = 30 is chosen based on

Table 2.1.
VIII) Vertical location
For airplanes with propellers mounted on wings, the preferred vertical location is
the high wing configuration. This is chosen in the present case.
Flaps and ailerons
As mentioned in example 4.11, a double slotted flap, similar to ATR-72-200 has
been chosen. Based on this airplane, the flap span is chosen as 70% of the
exposed wing span (i.e. wing span minus the fuselage width). The flap chord is
40% of the wing chord in the constant chord section. The ailerons start from the
spanwise location where the flap ends and extend upto the wing tip.
Figure E 5.1a shows the tentative locations of flaps and ailerons.
Answers :
The wing parameters, at this stage of preliminary design, are :
Wing area (S) = 58.48 m2, span (b) = 26.49 m
Root chord (cr) = 2.636 m, constant chord central section upto 4.636 m from
root on either side.
Tip chord (ct) = 1.318 m.
Airfoil : NASA MS(1) – 0317 at root, t/c = 17%
NASA MS(1) – 0313 at tip, t/c = 13%
Aspect ratio = 12
Quarter chord sweep of outboard panel = 3.9o
Mean aerodynamic chord = 2.295 m
Twist ( ε ) = 3o (wash-out)
Wing incidence (iw) = 2.9o
Dihedral angle Γ  = 3o

8
Chapter-5

Chapter 5
References

5.1 Abbott I. H. & Von Doenhoff A. E. “Theory of wing sections”, Dover, (1959).
5.2 Riegels “Airfoil sections”, Butterworth (1960).
5.3 Eppler R. “Airfoil design and data”, Springer, (1990).
5.4 Harris C.H. “NASA supercritical airfoils – A matrix of family- related airfoils”
NASA TP 2969 , March 1990. (This reference can be downloaded from the site
“NASA Technical Report Server (NTRS)”)
5.5 McGhee, R.J. and Beasley, W.D. “Low speed aerodynamic characteristics of
a 17 - percent thick medium speed airfoil designed for general aviation
applications” NASA TP 1786, December 1980. (This report can be downloaded
from the site “NASA Technical Report Server(NTRS)”.
5.6 Roskam,J. “Methods for estimating stability and control derivatives of
conventional subsonic airplanes” Roskam Aviation and Engineering (1973).
5.7 Hoerner S. F. “Fluid-dynamic drag”, published by Hoerner Fluid Dynamics,
Brick Town, NJ, (1965).

1
Chapter-5

Chapter 5
Exercises

5.1 Distinguish between gross area, exposed area and reference area of a wing.
5.2 Consider two untwisted wings ‘T’ and ‘R’. Wing ‘T’ has a taper ratio of 0.3 and
wing ‘R’ is rectangular. Both wings have same span ‘b’ and planform area ‘S’.
Both have the same airfoil NASA G-A (W)-1 with 17% thickness ratio along the
span.
Answer the following:
a. What is the ratio of the maximum thickness at root for these two wings?
b. Express the chord as function of the span wise distance ‘y’ for the wing ‘T’.
c. Find the ratio of the internal volumes of the two wings. Assume that the wing
cross sectional area at any span wise station is proportional to the product of
local chord and thickness.
[ Answer : (a)1.538; (b) c = cr{1 – 0.7 (2y/b) }; (c) 1.0965]
5.3 The weight of a wing is given by the following expression. Justify the sign
of the indices of terms involving A, t/c, λ and  .
W wing = C A0.5 (t/c)-0.4 (1+ λ )0.1 (cos  )-1; C is a constant.