AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF YOUTH

BINGE DRINKING FROM THE GHANAIAN PERSPECTIVE

BY: RITA ---------------

FACULTY OF HEALTH AND APPLIED SCIENCES

MODULE LEADER: --------------

MODULE SUPERVISOR: ---------------

MODULE NUMBER: --------------

STUDENT CODE: -------------

WORD COUNT: ------

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 ABSTRACT

Background

National surveys among adolescents, college students, and other young adults across the globe

show that youth have higher rates of alcohol intake, as well as higher rates of dangerous

drinking practices such as binge drinking and daily drinking. The study set off to investigate

the causes and effects of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective, with a focus on

La Nkwantanang Madina Municipality (LNMM) in the Greater Region of Ghana. Per the

research objectives, the study examined the key effects of binge drinking on the youth, and

investigated the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective.

Methods

In executing the study, the investigator adopted both qualitative and quantitative method of

research, in addition to convenience sampling technique to select respondents affiliated to

LNMM for their views among others. A questionnaire was adopted as the main research

instrument, whereas Descriptive Statistics, MS Excel, in addition to 5-Point Likert scale which

was later transform into the Relative Importance Index (RII) were employed to facilitate the

analysis of data obtained from the field.

Findings

Findings of the study indicated the 6 key effects of binge drinking on the youth from the

Ghanaian perspective as social consequences like vehicular crashes, multiple organ problems,

risky behaviours, poor mental health, and relationship breakdown, in addition to psychiatric

consequences such as mood, conduct or anxiety disorders. Lastly, with respect to the critical

causes of youth binge drinking at LNMM, 6 indispensable attributes were also intimated by

the respondents, specifically: peer influence, family, neighbourhood, age, advertisement,

religion and alcohol consumption nexus.

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Conclusion

Having identified the critical causes of youth binge drinking, the study recommended that the

youth should have diversified and pragmatic skills both in schools and the municipalities so as

to give them less time to indulge in risky behaviors such as alcohol misuse and other substance

abuse among others.

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 DECLARATION

This work is original and has not been submitted previously in support of any degree

qualification or course

Signature…………………………………………. Date……………………………….

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The value of this research cannot be fully recognized without appreciation to all who have

helped and contributed their time and resource towards its success. Born as one with purpose

and aspirations, my family and friends have always been by my side supporting in every

capacity as a team to help me fulfill my purpose and also achieve my aspirations; this I am

thankful for.

My sincere gratitude also goes to my supervisor, Dr. --------------- who has been of immense

assistance towards the successful completion of this study. My profound thanks and

appreciation are accorded to each of my course mates for their participation in my academic

efforts. Through the years, I have learned from them and appreciated the opportunity they have

afforded me in pursuing this degree. I am particularly thankful to --------------- for his unfailing

patience and guidance during the research and preparation of this dissertation. He shared his

vivid experience in research and immense knowledge with me coupled with his time to help

ensure the successful completion of my academic journey.

My family has offered me unconditional love and support through the years that it has taken

me to complete this degree vis-à-vis their willingness to lend a helping in scenarios when it

mattered most. I thank my parents for their constant love and initial encouragement of my

academic pursuits. Finally, I thank our life-long friends and colleagues at the Bachelor of Art

(BA) Health and Social Care Option class. A continuation of our fraternity, I could not have

hoped for better friends during these many years. My heartfelt and unflinching gratitude goes

to all of you. I look forward to beginning the next step in the journey with you and it’s my

fervent prayer that we stay glue to each other even after completion.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................... ii
DECLARATION.................................................................................................................................. iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................................... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................................. x
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the Study ................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Problem Statement.......................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study ................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Scope and Limitations of the Study ............................................................................................... 6
1.5 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................................ 7
1.6 Organization of the Study .............................................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................................. 8
LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Theoretical Perspective of the Key Concepts and Definitions .................................................... 8
2.2.1 Concept and Definition of Youth ................................................................................................ 8
2.2.2 Concept and Meaning of Binge Drinking .................................................................................. 9
2.3 Empirical Perspective on Youth Binge Drinking ....................................................................... 10
2.3.1 Effects of Binge Drinking on the Youth ................................................................................... 10
2.3.1.1 Medical Consequences Pertaining to Alcohol Consumption .............................................. 11
2.3.1.2 Psychiatric Consequences Relating to Alcohol Intake ......................................................... 12
2.3.1.3 Social Consequences Underpinning Alcohol Consumption ................................................ 13
2.3.1.4 Miscellaneous Effects of Binge Drinking on Young Individuals......................................... 14
2.3.2 Causes of Binge Drinking in Young Individuals ..................................................................... 15
2.3.2.1 Family/Alcohol Utilization Linkage ...................................................................................... 15
2.3.2.2 Age and Alcohol Utilization Nexus ........................................................................................ 16
2.3.2.3 Neighbourhood/Alcohol Utilization Nexus ........................................................................... 16
2.3.2.4 Peer Influence/Alcohol Utilization Linkage .......................................................................... 17
2.3.2.5 Advertisement and Alcohol Utilization Relationship........................................................... 18
2.3.2.6 Religion/Alcohol Consumption Connection.......................................................................... 18

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2.3.3 Brief Overview of Adolescents and Youth Demographics Worldwide ................................. 18
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................ 21
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................... 21
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 21
3.2 Research Approach ....................................................................................................................... 21
3.3 Research Design ............................................................................................................................ 21
3.4 Population of the Study ................................................................................................................ 22
3.5 Sample Size and Sampling Technique ........................................................................................ 22
3.6 Data Sources .................................................................................................................................. 23
3.7 Research Instruments ................................................................................................................... 23
3.8 Data Collection Procedure ........................................................................................................... 24
3.9 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 24
3.10 Reliability and Validity of the Instruments .............................................................................. 25
3.10 Ethical Considerations................................................................................................................ 26
CHAPTER FOUR............................................................................................................................... 28
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................... 28
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 28
4.2 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ................................................................. 28
4.3 Analysis of Research Objectives .................................................................................................. 30
4.4 Detailed Discussion of Results ...................................................................................................... 33
4.5 Detailed Discussion of Results Pertaining to Research Question 1 .......................................... 35
4.5.1 Social Consequences .................................................................................................................. 35
4.5.2 Multiple Organ Problems.......................................................................................................... 35
4.5.3 Risky Behaviours ....................................................................................................................... 36
4.5.4 Poor Mental Health, Poor Educational Outcome, Etc............................................................ 36
4.5.5 Relationship Breakdown, Domestic Violence, and Poor Parenting....................................... 37
4.5.6 Psychiatric Consequences.......................................................................................................... 37
4.6 Detailed Discussion of Results Relating to Research Question 2 .............................................. 38
4.6.1 Peer Influence and Alcohol Utilization Linkage ..................................................................... 38
4.6.2 Family and Alcohol Utilization Linkage .................................................................................. 39
4.6.3 Neighbourhood and Alcohol Utilization Nexus ....................................................................... 39
4.6.4 Age and Alcohol Use Nexus ....................................................................................................... 40
4.6.5 Advertisement and Alcohol Utilization Relationship.............................................................. 40
4.6.6 Religion and Alcohol Consumption Nexus .............................................................................. 41
CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................................ 42
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................... 42

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5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 42
5.2 Summary of Key Findings............................................................................................................ 42
5.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 43
5.4 Recommendations ......................................................................................................................... 43
5.5 Limitation of the Study ................................................................................................................. 44
5.6 Suggested Areas for Further Research ....................................................................................... 45
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 46
APPENDICES ..................................................................................................................................... 55
APPENDIX 1 – TABLES ................................................................................................................... 55
APPENDIX 2 – QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................................. 57

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Demographic Profile of Respondents......................................................................... 29

Table 4.2 Respondents’ View on Key Effects of Binge Drinking on the Youth, Mean scores, RII

Values and Ranking .................................................................................................................. 31

Table 4.3 Respondents’ View on Critical Causes of Youth Binge Drinking, Mean Scores, RII

Values and Ranking .................................................................................................................. 32

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1 Map of La-Nkwantanang Madina Municipality ....................................................... 27

Figure 4.1 Key Effects of Youth Binge Drinking ....................................................................... 32

Figure 4.2 Critical Causes of Youth Binge Drinking ............................................................... 322

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Globally, quite a sizable plethora of research works have opined that excessive alcohol intake

by the youth of today is among the most indispensable public health issues with their genesis

in adolescence that cannot be overemphasized (Moss, Chen & Yi, 2014; Stolle, Sack, &

Thomasius, 2009, WHO, 2014). Developed economies like the United Kingdom and Canada

have had to deal with alcohol related issues among its citizens for a considerable length of time;

dating back to the seventh century (Bartlett, Robertson-Boersma, Dell & Mykota, 2015;

Aquarius, 2011). Moreover, Plant and Plant (2006) contends that the excessive intake of

alcoholic beverages has been a common feature of most European economies like the United

Kingdom (UK), with the ancient Romans, Greeks, Sumerians, and Babylonians inclusive.

Strictly speaking, alcohol is the only psychotropic substance most widely patronized by the

teeming youth across the globe (Pinsky, Sanches, Zaleski, Laranjeira, & Caetano, 2010). The

utilization of alcohol by the youth of today is undoubtedly an incessant and pivotal health

enigma in view of the fact that it contributes to the leading causes of adolescent high death

rates (Chun & Linakis, 2012). World Health Organization (WHO) (2011) submits that 9% of

yearly youth deaths spanning between the ages of 15years and 25 years are hugely linked to

binge drinking related causes worldwide. The repercussions of youth binge drinking are well-

researched, and exploited by essayists across the globe, and include diminished educational

attainment, depression, other substance use, unintentional injuries and serious road traffic

accidents among others. Per the submission of Bartlett et al., (2011), youth binge drinking

connotes the excessive intake of alcohol by young individuals over a short time period. On the

1
other hand, the terminology “youth” epitomizes the period of life when an individual is young,

and often refers to the period between childhood and adulthood. Its definitions of a specific age

range varies, as youth is not defined chronologically as a stage that can be tied to specific age

ranges; nor can its end point be linked to specific activities, such as taking unpaid work or

having sexual relations without consent (Furlong, 2013).

According to Ghana News Agency (GNA) (2017), parliamentarians have incessantly stressed

the need for the nation to adopt legislations to regulate alcohol advertisement to reduce the

rising incidence of alcoholism among the youth. As intimated by GNA (2017), alcohol

advertisement was one cause of youth drinking, and that consumers took alcoholic beverages

for reasons such as socialisation, relaxation and peer pressure and it could be concluded that

advertisement had the power to influence consumption patterns. It also emphasized that the use

of celebrities who appealed to the youth in commercials to lure them into drinking, adding that

children also watched and listened to the commercials, and that predisposed the nation to a

catastrophe in the future. From the Ghanaian perspective, irrespective of the fact that the

minimum drinking age is 21 years, quite a huge chunk of them commence the act at the

adolescent stage of their lives. This is a high possibility that the trend will experienced a

meteoric rise if strategic initiatives are not put in place to curtail it to the barest minimum in

myriads of municipalities across nooks and crannies of Ghana, with La Nkwantanang Madina

Municipality (LNMM) inclusive (Oppong-Asante, Meyer-Weitz, & Petersen, 2014; Peprah,

2014; (Osei-Bonsu, Appiah, Norman, Asalu, Kweku, Ahiabor, Takramah, Duut, Ntow &

Boadu, 2017).

The La Nkwantanang-Madina Municipality (LNMM) is located in the Greater Accra Region.

It is one of the 16 Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies in the region and was

created in 2012 as part of the newly created Assemblies aimed at deepening decentralization

and bringing development to the door step of citizens. LNMM is located at the northern part of

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the Greater Accra Region and covers a total land surface area of 70.887 square kilometres

(GSS, 2014). According to Ghana’s population and housing census (2010), LNMM’s

population is 111,926 representing 2.8% of the region’s total population. Females constitute

51.5%, whereas the remaining 48.5% is representative of the male population. Approximately,

84.0% of LNMM populace reside in urban localities, 38.7% representing the youthful category,

whereas the elderly constitute 5% of the population within the municipality (GSS, 2014).

Furthermore, the National Statistical Office (2005) indicated that, future manpower and

development of every country’s economy lies on the physical and mental health of its youth.

However, binge drinking for instance still remains major risk behaviour among the youth

leading to both physical and mental health complications including deaths (Oshodi et al., 2010;

Peprah, 2014). Most chronic and injury-related conditions can be attributed to binge drinking.

These include but not limited to alcohol dependence; liver cirrhosis, cancers, depression and

other medical conditions (Lamptey, 2006).

Moreover, alcohol has been identified as a contributor to traumatic outcomes that either kills

or disables the consumer at a relatively younger age, thereby leading to loss of many years of

life to death or disability (Marmorstein, Iacono & Malone, 2010). Additionally, Chikere and

Mayowa (2011) further indicated in his study that the high rate of death among the youth in

Nigeria is related to unhealthy lifestyles of which binge drinking cannot be excluded.

Irrespective of all these glaring and debilitating issues, youth binge drinking is on the

ascendency, and till date, little precedence is accorded to it by policy makers (Appo & Hartel,

2003). It is therefore imperative for economies in Sub Sahara Africa to adopt appropriate

strategies and interventions in fighting against any causes and shortcomings associated with

binge drinking from the Ghanaian youth perspective.

3
Furthermore, there is currently a lack of empirical evidence and research to support whether

youth binge drinking is indeed experiencing an astronomical upsurge or drastically been

curtailed to an acceptable threshold within the precinct of La Nkwantanang Madina

Municipality (LNMM) in Ghana. It is against the backdrop that the study therefore seeks to

abridge this research gap by examining the key effects of binge drinking on the youth, and also

proceed to investigate the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian

perspective, with much precedence accorded to LNMM.

1.2 Problem Statement

Globally, alcohol consumption among the youth is of great concern (WHO, 2014). A

worldwide survey on Alcohol and Health assessed a five year trend on alcohol consumption

among the youth between the ages of 18-25 years in 82 countries and revealed that, there was

80% increase in consumption, 11% decrease in consumption, 6% stable consumption, while

12% showed inconclusive trends in consumption (Muula, Kazembe, Rudatsikira & Liziya,

2008).

Again, WHO (2011) reports indicated that about 15.3 million youth between the ages of 15 to

29 years had drug disorders and 320,000 people of same age group die yearly from alcohol and

drug related use, accounting for 9% of all deaths globally. National surveys among adolescents,

college students, and other young adults in the United States of America showed that youth

have higher rates of alcohol intake, as well as higher rates of dangerous drinking practices such

as binge drinking and daily drinking (WHO, 2013). Also, a national survey conducted in Thai

among the youth revealed that alcohol consumption has experienced an upsurge from 21.6%

in 2001, to 23.5% in 2004 and to 23.7% in 2006 (Hemphill et al., 2011). This indicates that

globally alcohol consumption among the youth is on the rise; therefore demands urgent control

measures and interventions. The effects that usually follow binge drinking on the youth has

4
remained a topical issue as well as a worry to parents, schools, governments and the society as

a whole (Peprah, 2014; Annor, 2016; GNA, 2017).

An empirical review of literature has demonstrated that a substantial proportion of youth in

Sub-Saharan Africa have ever consumed alcohol or are currently consuming alcohol (Annor,

2016). For instance, a study conducted in Uganda indicated that the country was having the

highest annual consumption of pure alcohol in litres among the youth in the world (Odejide,

2006). From the Ghanaian perspective, a research endeavour executed among second cycle

institutions and their predecessors on illicit substance usage revealed that the mean age for

initial substance users was between 14-19 years, with the maximum ranging between 16 years

and 23 years. Additionally, substances mostly patronized by the teeming Ghanaian youth

include alcohol, cigarette, cannabis and heroine (Bruce, Leslie, Jody & Mandy, 2012).

Likewise, there is minimal control on sale and consumption of alcohol among the youth in

Ghana. In view of this, the youth do patronize alcoholic beverage products in myriads of

municipalities in Ghana, including La Nkwantanang Madina Municipality with ease

(Marmorstein et al., 2010; Coffie, 2010; Osei-Bonsu et al., 2017).

Erstwhile research works that emphasis on the causes and effects of binge drinking on the youth

in Ghana, specifically using LNMM appears to be non-existent, unexploited and under-

researched. Strictly speaking, research works that seeks to identify the key effects of binge

drinking on the youth, in addition to the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the

Ghanaian perspective, specifically using LNMM, seem to be a mirage and far-fetched.

Furthermore, from a critical appraisal of related literature suggests quite a sizable plethora of

extensive research projects embarked upon that relates to “binge drinking”, and “youth” across

the globe (Stolle et al., 2009; Annor, 2016; Binder, 2010; Balsa, 2011; Wanjiru, 2015;

Educacool, 2009; Osei-Bonsu et al., 2017). However, the researcher’s chosen topic is yet to be

5
extensively subjected to any rigorous empirical assessment especially in many developing

countries including Ghana (a research gap or void that needs to be filled).

This study therefore seeks to initiate a platform for more scientific research, academic

discourse, and consequently bridge this gap by identifying the effects of binge drinking on the

youth, in addition to investigating the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian

perspective, with special emphasis on La Nkwantanang Madina Municipality (LNMM), as the

case study locality.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The main aim of the study is to investigate the causes and effects of youth binge drinking from

the Ghanaian perspective through a survey. The specific objectives are:

1. To examine the key effects of binge drinking on the youth from the Ghanaian

perspective.

2. To investigate the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian

perspective.

3. To recommend strategic interventions to manage the critical causes of youth binge

drinking from the Ghanaian perspective.

1.4 Scope and Limitations of the Study

This study is focusing on the causes and effects of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian

perspective, specifically using LNMM as the case study locality and may be representative of

the entire country. There is the likelihood of respondents providing disjointed information that

could invariably compromise the research outcomes. There is also the possibility of some

respondents’ inability to accord the requisite audience to the questions owing to the

questionnaire structural format. Moreover, language barrier may serve as an equally

6
accessibility bottleneck that cannot be overemphasized. The translation of some questions into

the local dialect may be extremely arduous due to its limited vocabulary pool.

1.5 Significance of the Study

o This study will not only assist La Nkwantanang Madina Municipality (LNMM)

inhabitants in the Greater Region of Ghana, but also folks affiliated to other

municipalities to fish out the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian

perspective, and how best to devise strategic interventions to curb its population

dynamics to an acceptable threshold;

o It could also be of immense relevance to researchers, essayists, etc. as it will

inadvertently provide the basis upon which further studies could be effectuated, in

consonance with the causes and effects of youth binge drinking in Ghana and beyond

to a varying degree.

o Lastly, the study is justified on the grounds that the key findings unearthed could assist

managers of teeming municipalities and other stakeholders in policy formulation vis-à-

vis the development of appropriate approaches for future growth and the like.

1.6 Organization of the Study

The study is apportioned into five chapters. Chapter one provides the introduction to the study

which focuses on the background to the study, problem statement, objectives, significance,

scope and limitations of the study just to mention a few. Chapter two reviews relevant literature

and expansiate on both theoretical and empirical writings that accentuates on the study’s

subject matter. Chapter three presents the methodology of the study. Chapter four illuminates

on the data analysis, vis-a-vis and results and discussion. Chapter five touches on the summary,

conclusion and make recommendations to contribute to the policy process.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents an exhaustive review of related literature on the subject matter with a

focus on the concepts, models, theories, etc. that pertains to youth binge drinking across the

globe. Likewise, a review on the perspective relating to communication, its conceptualized

meaning among others are also illuminated. The chapter is divided into 2 main sections,

specifically: (a) Theoretical Perspective; and (b) Empirical Perspective.

2.2 Theoretical Perspective of the Key Concepts and Definitions

Theoretical perspective encompasses the concepts, definitions, theories among others

applicable to youth binge drinking worldwide.

2.2.1 Concept and Definition of Youth

The terminology “youth” relates to the phase of personal building of self-awareness on the part

of a teenager (Thomas, 2003). More often than not, it is employed interchangeably across the

nooks and crannies of the globe. In tandem with Ghana’s national youth policy

(GNYP) (2010), youth is defined as those individuals whose ages ranges between 15 years and

35 years. Youth per se epitomizes a practicality that may mould someone’s threshold of

dependency, which can be tagged in diverse ways based on dissimilar cultural outlooks

(GNYP, 2010).

That notwithstanding, the above-mentioned definitions points to the same connotation. In

consonance with the assertion of Webster (2004), the term “young” as the period in an

individual’s life time spanning between childhood and adulthood. Irrespective of the fact that

8
“age” is touted as a major predictor of who should be considered as a “youth”, albeit,

contemporary children are transitioning into puberty at a faster rate, which more often than not

appears very deceptive and dicey. It is worth mentioning that quite a sizable plethora of reports

that pertains to youth binge drinking from the United Kingdom perspective is hugely reliant on

young individuals whose age ranges span between 12 years and 19 years (IAS, 2010; Mc

Mahon et al., 2007). The youth exuberance phase is usually characterized by myriads of factors

like social, cultural, spiritual orientations just to mention a few.

2.2.2 Concept and Meaning of Binge Drinking

The terminology “binge drinking” connotes a broads of definitions, most applicable to English-

speaking economies (Herring, Berridge & Thom, 2008). Binge drinking was initially captured

in the Northamptonshire Glossary comprising of words, in addition to phrases, which portrays

that an individual commutes to the alehouse in order to get a good binge, or for personal binging

purposes (Baker, 1854). Quite a sizable plethora of researches affiliated to the westernised

cultures have delineated this type of drinking (Barr, 1995; Clark, Thatcher & Tapert, 2008).

This flimsy qualitative delineation, however, differs from contemporary medicine accounts of

binge drinking, which are delineated based on the exact quantities of alcohol taken into the

human body. With the passage of time, the meaning of “binge” assumed dynamic status.

Contemporary clinicians and health affiliates have described “binge drinking” as constituting

of two dissimilar trends (Murugiah, 2012).

Firstly, a trend of excessive drinking over a stipulated lengthy period, whereby an individual

engages in frequent days of uncontrolled intake of alcohol, in addition to the second trend in

which the consumption of an arbitrary number of standard drinks in a single session is

necessary (Berridge, Herring & Thom, 2009; Berridge, Thom & Herring, 2007). It is worth

mentioning that the latter definition is widely used in reports, alcohol studies and cited in

9
policies by essayists, clinicians and politicians to delineate binge drinking (Herring, Berridge

& Thom, 2008). While the description of “binge” from the clinical perspective permits drinkers

to measure the quantity of alcohol taken into the human system, there exist no universal

concurrment as to how many standard drinks is touted as a “binge” (Herring et al., 2008; Oei

& Morawska, 2004). For instance with respect to the US perspective, binge drinking epitomizes

five and above standardized drinks allotted to the masculine gender, whereas four and above

drinks are designated for the feminine gender in a single session (Wechsler et al., 1995). Also,

pertaining to the UK’s view point 8 and above is affiliated to the male counterpart, whiles 6

and above units for a female belonged to the female category per sitting (Measham & Brain,

2005) and seven or more standard drinks in one session in New Zealand (Fryer, Jones &

Kalafatelis, 2011). Likewise, from the Australian setting, binge drinking is commonly termed

to as drinking at “risky” or “high-risk” levels (Australian Medical Association, 2009). Albeit,

the jargon “binge” is generally avoided by guidelines owing to the dicey nature of its

measurement patterns. Additionally, contemporary National Health and Medical Council

(NHMRC) guidelines adopted a single occasion of drinking to quantify “binge drinking”

(NHMRC, 2011, 2009).

2.3 Empirical Perspective on Youth Binge Drinking

Empirical perspective presents the review of previous scientific works, findings, etc. that

accurately fit into youth binge drinking across the globe. Empirical perspective derives its

findings based on the verification through experiments, experiences and observations.

2.3.1 Effects of Binge Drinking on the Youth

It is an undisputed fact that the periods spanning between mid-adolescence to the early

adulthood life are associated with glaring upsurges in alcoholic beverage consumption which

also has its related consequences (Bonomo et al., 2004). Additionally, adolescents

10
progressively use alcohol in unsafe patterns which leaves much to be desired. For instance,

from the European perspective, approximately 9 out of 10 adolescents population between the

ages of 15 and 17 years have used tasted an alcoholic beverage somewhere along the line as

far as the earlier short life on earth is concerned (Currie et al., 2012). Children and adolescents’

body cannot cope with alcohol the same way as an adult can. In as much as they have smaller

physique, they lack the knowledge of drinking effects. They have no framework for assessing

the drinking habit and also, they have not built up the ability to withstand the alcohol.

According to some researchers, adolescents hooked onto binge drinking dependence are

usually predispose to harm, which includes poor mental health, poor education outcome and

increased risk of crime in early adulthood (Odgers et al., 2008). Alcohol use therefore has

medical, psychiatric, as well as social consequences (Annor, 2016). The next subsection throws

more light on some pivotal effects underpinning youth binge drinking behavioural dynamics:

2.3.1.1 Medical Consequences Pertaining to Alcohol Consumption

Alcohol use among adolescents causes multiple organ problems (Schinke, Schwinn, & Cole,

2006). Alcohol as a substance is readily absorb from the stomach by the body via the small

intestines, the second phase is then distributes to every body organ, tissue, and cells through

the circulation(Cederbaum, 2012). Myriads of the circulating alcohol with in the blood is then

been absorbed in the body by the liver (hepatocytes). This action is fast, and the alcohol gets

broken down as a waste called carbon dioxide, water and into energy. The chemical substances

which are excreted through the body kidneys do account for about 95% to 98% of the alcohol

a human consumed. The remaining percentages escaped from the body unchanged through

sweat, breath, and urine (WHO, 2011). Medical consequences of alcohol can range anywhere

from acute organ damage to chronic damage. Acute complications may, a situation which

occurs soon after alcohol consumption; whiles chronic complications occur after prolong use

(WHO, 2011).

11
That notwithstanding, some complications may be reversed or treated soon after halting alcohol

use, but others may be non-reversible and permanent (Frimpong-Mansoh, 2013; Clark et al.,

2008). The liver as an important organ is known to be primarily affected by alcohol (Osna,

2010). Heavy uncontrolled drinking can take a toll on the liver which eventually can lead to a

number of problems such as liver inflammations, alcohol hepatitis, fibrosis and cirrhosis

(Blachier, Leleu, Peck-Radosavljevic, Valla, & Roudot-Thoraval, 2013).

Binge drinking or much on a single dose occasion at any time can damage the heart muscles

causing problems which may include cardiomyopathy; stretching and drooping of the heart

muscles, many other symptoms ranging from the chronic shortness of breath to the heart failure

(Room, Babor, & Rehm, 2005; Shirref, 1997). Other complications include arrhythmias

(irregular heartbeats), stroke, and high blood pressure.

2.3.1.2 Psychiatric Consequences Relating to Alcohol Intake

When compared to adults, adolescent’s use of alcohol is much more likely to be tilted towards

binge drinking (Danielsson, Wennberg, Hibell, & Romelsjö, 2012), which makes alcohol use

by that age group very detrimental. According to Brausch and Gutierrez, (2010), alcohol use

disorders are a threat factor to suicide attempts, also found an association between lower

minimum legal drinking age and suicide. The Psychiatric medical conditions are most likely to

be co-occurring with alcohol usage among adolescents population include mood disorders,

predominantly depression; attention deficits or hyperactivity disorder; anxiety disorders;

conduct disorders; bulimia; and schizophrenia (Woods, 2011).

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2.3.1.3 Social Consequences Underpinning Alcohol Consumption

Youth binge drinking is the pivotal contributor to adolescent death including vehicular crashes,

homicide, and suicide) in the United States (National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and

Alcoholism, 2004). Quite a sizable plethora of vehicular accidents account for the most leading

cause of death for American youths. The Youth Risk Behaviour research conducted in the

United States revealed that in the 30 days preceding the research, there was a 29.1% of student

population nationwide who had ridden one or more times in a vehicle either driven by

themselves or another person who had been drinking alcohol. About the figure of 10.5%

students reported that they had driven a car by themselves or other vehicle driven by someone

else at least once when they drink alcohol (Clarks, 2004).

Researchers have consistently reported to the association of alcohol use with other risky

behaviours like physical assault, sexual behavioural risk-taking and other substance use (Clark

et al., 2008; Champion & Skinner, 2008). According to Bonomo, Coffey, Wolfe, Lynskey,

Bowes and Patton (2001), adolescent alcohol use is associated with increased automobile

accidents and injuries sustained which leads to death, suicide, absenteeism’s, poor academic

performance, loss of consciousness, memory blackouts, involvement to fighting, property

damage, peer criticism and broken friendships, date rape and unprotected sexual intercourse

that places the adolescents at risk of STD’s, HIV infection and unplanned pregnancy.

Alcohol is implicated in relationship breakdown, domestic violence and poor parenting,

including child neglect and abuse (McLaughlin, O’Neill, McCartan, Percy, McCann, Perra &

Higgins, 2015; Frimpong-Mansoh, 2013). Family members of people who are binge drinkers

possess high rate of psychiatric morbidity, and growing up with someone who misuse alcohol

increases the likelihood of teenagers taking up alcohol early and developing alcohol problems

13
themselves (Latendresse et al., 2010). Likewise, pertaining to a similar study effectuated from

the Ghanaian perspective, 15.1% of high school students who reported to have taken alcohol,

also intimated getting tipsy, which culminated into hiccups, bickering, and quarrels with their

friends, family or fighting with their friends (Owusu, 2008).

2.3.1.4 Miscellaneous Effects of Binge Drinking on Young Individuals

There are three main direct mechanisms of harm caused by alcohol consumption in an

individual, namely:

 Toxic effects on organs and tissues e.g. cirrhosis of the liver;

 Intoxication, leading to impairment of physical coordination, consciousness, cognition,

perception, affect or behaviour; and

 Dependence, whereby the drinker’s self-control over his or her drinking behaviour is

impaired (Babor et al., 2003; WHO, 2004b; WHO, 2007).

The risk curve for incidence of liver cirrhosis is much flatter than the risk curve for mortality

from liver cirrhosis (Rehm et al., 2010). This indicates that relatively low or moderate levels

of alcohol consumption are not associated with marked increases for the risk of developing

liver cirrhosis (but this risk increases exponentially with heavier drinking). However, if a

person has developed liver cirrhosis, no matter whether this is due to alcohol consumption or

to other factors, the risk of mortality from liver cirrhosis becomes quite pronounced even at

relatively moderate levels of drinking.

Youth binge drinking is associated with a risk of developing such health problems as alcohol

dependence, liver cirrhosis, cancers and injuries (WHO, 2004a; Baan et al., 2007; Shield, Parry

& Rehm, 2013). The latest causal relationships suggested by research findings are those

14
between alcohol consumption and incidence of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and

HIV/ AIDS (Lönnroth et al., 2008; Rehm et al., 2009b; Baliunas et al., 2010) as well as between

the harmful use of alcohol and the course of HIV/AIDS (Hendershot et al., 2009; Azar et al.,

2010).

It is worth noting that the net effect of harmful use of alcohol is approximately 3.3 million

deaths each year, even when the beneficial impact of low risk patterns of alcohol use on some

diseases is taken into account. Thus, harmful use of alcohol accounts for 5.9% of all deaths

worldwide (WHO, 2014). Also, the harmful use of alcohol can also have serious social and

economic consequences for individuals other than the drinker and for society at large

(Anderson et al., 2006; Sacks et al., 2013).

2.3.2 Causes of Binge Drinking in Young Individuals

Contemporarily, myriads of factors do trigger youth binge drinking patterns. Albeit, notables

ones that cannot be overemphasized as far as the study is concerned are thoroughly dealt with

in the preceding subsection:

2.3.2.1 Family/Alcohol Utilization Linkage

It is worth mentioning that families across the globe do play an indispensable roles more often

than not, in the development of alcohol, in addition to other drug affiliated shortcomings among

youth (Rowe & Liddle, 2006). Parental influence is an integral predictor as far as youth binge

drinking is concerned (Kim & Neff, 2010). According to Nash, Mc Queen and Bray (2005), in

relation to a research project executed in the United States of America, specifically at

Wisconsin, 53.3% high school students out of the total school’s population intimated that

parental influence was instrumental in their intake or no-intake of alcohol.

15
Drug and other substance use by parents, older siblings and liberal parental attitude towards

alcohol use by adolescent predicts greater risk of youth binge drinking (Moghe et al., 2011).

Annor (2016) argues that parents who exhibit carefree attitude towards discipline and are not

stringent on any rules are more likely to see majority of their children indulging in binge

drinking. Children delivered by parents who drink excessively are at maximum risk of diverse

uncouth behavioural patterns and medical diseases like delinquencies, marked learning

disorders, psychosomatic complaints just to mention a few (Annor, 2016).

2.3.2.2 Age and Alcohol Utilization Nexus

Contemporary youth and grown-ups are particularly highly susceptible to alcohol-affiliated

repercussions from a specified quantity of alcohol as compared to those within the other age

category (Midanik & Clark, 1995; Mäkelä & Mustonen, 2000). To add to this, early exposure

to alcohol consumption such as those below 14 years happen to be one of the indispensable

predictor of debilitated physical and mental wellness condition in view of the fact that it is

linked to enhanced risk for youth binge drinking in the foreseeable future (DeWit et al., 2000;

Sartor et al., 2007; Wechsler & Nelson, 2010), with alcohol-oriented vehicular fatalities

inclusive (Hingson, Edwards & Zha, 2009), and other unplanned and oblivious accidents

(Cherpitel, 2013). To all intents and purposes, 50% of the excess risk associated with the youth

of today stems from the fact that, quite a huge chunk of the total alcohol taken in during binge

drinking periods (US Surgeon General, 2007). Additionally, contemporary youth appear to be

minimal risk-antagonistic and may indulge in extra careless tendencies while in the mood being

popularly referred to as a being “binge drunk” (WHO, 2014).

2.3.2.3 Neighbourhood/Alcohol Utilization Nexus

Theories underpinning neighbourhood influences clearly depicts the devastating its effects on

the entire spectrum of youth behavioural dynamics (Coleman, 1988). These influences are

16
birthed through mediating channels like local organizations, informed social control, deviant

peer group’s formation, helping of social network and parents’ characteristics. The community

substance use also predicts the individuals’ alcoholic beverage intake behavioural patterns.

(Brown et al., 2008). Youth binge drinking do experience an upsurge in communities in which

alcohol is less expensive and easily obtainable.

From the Sub Saharan Africa perspective, including Ghana, alcohol is relied upon during

marriages, naming ceremonies, libation pouring, funeral ceremonies and so on. The type of

drink, amount and place, rate of intake, time, sex, age and associated rituals could be traced to

socio-cultural settings (Owusu, 2008). Social norms regard alcohol use as having fun, meeting

old and new friends: no wonder binge drinking is a true reflection of the larger societal norms,

attitudes, and practices (Annor, 2016).

2.3.2.4 Peer Influence/Alcohol Utilization Linkage

Peer influence is perceived as a high affinity predictor of public youth binge drinking (Kelly et

al., 2012). Having allies with a high affinity for alcohol, in addition to other substances is

undoubtedly a driver of youth binge drinking contemporarily (Grittner et al., 2012; WHO,

2014). The social norm approach epitomizes a theory employed to explain social norms do

influence an individuals’ behavioural patterns. The theory postulates that individual’s

behavioural dynamics is affected by inappropriate perceptual tendencies of how other member

of one’s own social group thinks or acts. From youth binge drinking perspective, an adolescent

concludes that other adolescents attitudes towards alcohol are more accommodating than

expected and that they assume that other adolescents consume more than what they really

consumes (Annor, 2016).

17
2.3.2.5 Advertisement and Alcohol Utilization Relationship

Alcoholic advertisement do play an unprecedented role in sustaining a cultural environment in

which drinking is perceived as normal and moulds youth perception and attitudes towards

alcohol use, and subsequently binge drinking (Gerbner, 1995; Annor, 2016). Alcoholic

advertisement plays an indispensable role as far as encouraging youth binge drinking across

the globe is concerned (Saffer & Dave, 2006). For those who haven’t started drinking, the

expectations of these youths are influenced by a normative assumption about teenage habit of

drinking, in addition to observing parents, peers and other role models and celebrities who

advocates for alcoholic beverages through myriads of advertisement on televisions, billboards

just to mention a few (Anderson et al., 2009). Considerable effort in research has shown that

the media which the youth is exposed to can make them and adolescents more likely to cultivate

the habit of binge drinking (Strasburger & Wilson, 2002; Annor, 2016). Media (such as

television, movies, billboards, and internet), are known to be very significant in promoting

binge drinking through attractive and mesmerizing manner.

2.3.2.6 Religion/Alcohol Consumption Connection

Religious constructs like religious preference, religiosity and alcohol prohibition are

indispensable for certain drinking patterns (Michalak et al., 2007). It is also known that students

who are affiliated to a particular e.g. Muslims religion, reports less youth binge drinking

tendencies than students who report not to follow any religion like Christianity among others.

Also, students with no religious affinity, report significantly higher level of youth binge

drinking, e.g. atheism (Galen & Rogers, 2004).

2.3.3 Brief Overview of Adolescents and Youth Demographics Worldwide

While there are no universally accepted definitions of adolescence and youth, the United

Nations understands adolescents to include persons aged 10-19 years and youth as those

18
between 15- 24 years for statistical purposes without prejudice to other definitions by Member

States (UNFPA, 2010). In totality, adolescents and youth are termed to as young people,

ranging between the ages of 10 years and 24 years. Due to data limitations, these terminologies

can refer to varying age groups that are separately defined as required (UNFPA, 2010).

There are over 1.8 billion young people in the world today, 90% of whom live in developing

countries, where they tend to make up a large proportion of the population. There are more

than 235 million youth in India and 225 million in China alone. The number of adolescents and

youth today is at an all-time high, but that number might not increase considerably in coming

decades if global fertility continues to decline. The proportion of young people is actually set

to decline from 17.6% in 2010 to 13.5% in 2050. The proportion of the world’s young people

between the ages of 12-24 years living in Africa is expected to rise from 18% in 2012 to 28%

by 2040, while the shares of all other regions will decline. The region comprising Asia and the

Pacific is expected to experience the sharpest decline, from 61% in 2012 to 52% by 2040

(Mason, 2010; UNFPA, 2010).

Even though youth is in general the healthiest period of life, the global disparities of mortality

amongst youth are astronomical. In more developed regions, Northern Africa, Eastern Asia and

Western Asia, only 1% or less of 15-year olds do not survive to their 25th birthday.

Concurrently, the odds of dying during youth are almost twice as high in South Asia, and four

times higher in sub-Saharan Africa. Despite some regional variations, there is commonality in

the causes of adolescent deaths worldwide. The causes of adolescent death include

communicable diseases (HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and lower respiratory-tract infection) and

non-communicable diseases related to problem behaviours (motor vehicle fatalities, violence,

self-harm, alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs, and risky sex leading to early or unintended

19
pregnancy) (UNFPA, 2010; Patton, Coffey, Sawyer, Viner, Haller, Bose, Vos, Ferguson &

Mathers, 2009).

20
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the research design, population, sample size determination, sampling

techniques adopted, research, data collection procedure and instruments, data analysis method

chosen, ethical considerations among others.

3.2 Research Approach

Per the submission of Creswell (2009), research approach can be grouped into quantitative and

qualitative research. With regards to the postulate of Bryman and Bell (2011), quantitative

approach quantifies the collection and analysis of data. According to Bryman et al., (2011),

quantitative approach conducts a deductive approach to the linkage existing between theory

and research which focus on theory testing. Contrariwise, qualitative approach dwells on the

words rather than quantification with data, and prefers conducting an inductive approach to the

relationship between theory and research which aims on the generation of theories (Bell &

Bryman, 2011; Neuman, 2006). That notwithstanding, in relation to the study, only quantitative

approach was adopted. The adoption of this approach stemmed from the fact that it helped in

eliminating or minimizing subjectivity of judgment and also allowed for longitudinal measures

of subsequent performance of research subjects.

3.3 Research Design

A research design entails the absolute strategy for eliciting answers to questions being studied

and for handling some of the intricacies that came to the fore during the research process (Polit

& Beck, 2004). Descriptive research design is representative of a non-experimental research in

which the variables’ manipulation, and samples’ randomization are non-existent (Leedy &

21
Ormrod, 2010). A descriptive research design was employed in this study because of its

optimum degree of representativeness and the ease with which the researcher could obtain the

respondents’ view.

3.4 Population of the Study

Population in a statistical study refers to the entire group of individuals with which a researcher

solicit for information (Moore, 2009). The targeted population for this study comprising of

111, 926 belonging to LNMM (GSS, 2014), had special characteristics in equal measure

(enhanced motivation, adequate demographic information, open-mindedness, fairness,

transparency, etc.).

3.5 Sample Size and Sampling Technique

A sample connotes the segment of the population from which the researcher actually collect

information and subsequently used it to draw conclusions about the entire study (Moore, 2009).

The entire sample size for the study was 398, which consisted of inhabitants affiliated to

LNMM. Sample size determination underpinning the study was hugely reliant on Miller and

Brewer’s (2003) mathematical equation cited as below:

N
n=
1+N (α)(α)

Where N = Sample frame (population), α = Margin of error, which in this perspective, happens

to 5%. However, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) was opted for in this study because it dealt with

human beings whose accuracy of information was subjected to biases as compared to the

physical sciences that possess high degree of certainty in most instances. With particular

reference to the above-mentioned formula, N = 111, 926 and α = (0.05)2

111926
Hence, n =
1+111926 (0.05)(0.05)

22
 n = 398.58, which is approximately equal to 398.0

With respect to the assertion of Shahrokh and Dougherty (2014), sampling represents the

sorting out of a subset of individuals from within a statistical population so as to evaluate its

absolute characteristics. According to Dornyei (2007), convenience sampling epitomizes a type

of nonprobability or nonrandom sampling technique by which individuals affiliated to a

specific target population meet certain pragmatic criteria including easy accessibility,

geographical proximity, and availability at a given time. Convenience sampling technique was

given the nod because of easy accessibility and proximity on the part of the researcher to a

huge chunk of the respondents at LNMM.

3.6 Data Sources

Both primary and secondary data were used. The primary data were purely raw data generated

through the application of questionnaires to the inhabitants of LNMM within the Greater Accra

Region of Ghana. Secondary information on the other hand was gathered from published works

including project reports, journals, the internet sources and textbooks, in tandem with youth

binge drinking across the globe.

3.7 Research Instruments

Research instruments for the study was questionnaires, made up of two pivotal domains,

namely: (a) Respondents’ bio-data (gender, age, marital status, educational background,

service duration among others); and (b) Respondents’ focused on question that pertains to the

key effects of binge drinking on the youth, in addition to the critical causes of youth binge

drinking from the Ghanaian perspective. It is worth mentioning that the questionnaires were

structured using the 5-Point Likert scale’s order of significance.

The adopted scale gave the respondents the privilege to opt for variables that they perceived to

23
have contributed to the key effects of binge drinking on the youth, in addition to the critical

causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective. Numerical values were assigned

to the participants rating 1 = very insignificant; 2 = insignificant; 3 = just significant; 4 =

significant; and 5=completely significant. This instrument was the most preferred so as to

enable the respondents to answer the questions with ease, and in a coherent fashion.

3.8 Data Collection Procedure

In order to garner sufficient information from LNMM respondents, the questionnaire consisted

of both open-ended and close-ended questions. That notwithstanding, both open-and close-

ended questions, even though extremely laborious to analyze, were used to elicit responses

which reflected LNMM respondents untainted feelings, opinions, experiences just to mention

a few.

3.9 Data Analysis

Relative Importance Index (RII) method was used to determine the key effects of binge

drinking on the youth, in addition to the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the

Ghanaian perspective. The 5-Point Likert Scale ranging from “1=very insignificant” to “5=

(completely significant) was relied upon and fine-tuned into the Relative Importance Indices

(RII) for each of the factors as:

𝐏𝐢 ×𝐔𝐢
RII = ∑
𝐍 ×𝐧

Where RII = Relative importance index;

Pi = Respondent rating of severity of the key effects of binge drinking on the youth, in addition

to the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective;

Ui = Respondent’s placing identical weighting or rating;

N= Sample size; n =maximum attainable score (The greater the RII score, the highly significant

the key effects of binge drinking on the youth, in addition to the critical causes of youth binge

24
drinking from the Ghanaian perspective. It is worth noting that RII values ranges between 0

and 1). The computed RII values was used to rank the key effects of binge drinking on the

youth, in addition to the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective.

The ranking was used for comparison purposes as regards the relative significance of the

parameters as suggested by LNMM respondents. The respective predictor of RII perceived by

all respondent was employed to evaluate the absolute rankings in order to give an absolute

overview of the key effects of binge drinking on the youth, in addition to the critical causes of

youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective. Furthermore, Microsoft Excel, and

Descriptive Statistics were effectively utilized in the data analysis.

3.10 Reliability and Validity of the Instruments

Tavakol and Dennick (2011) contend that reliability and validity are indispensable concepts

mostly employed used for fine-tuning the accuracy of the assessment and evaluation of a

research study. Creswell (2014) asserts that test reliability entails the extent of how exact the

instrument measures a construct. On the other hand, validity connotes the extent to which a

test is measuring what it purports to measure (Curtis & Curtis, 2011). In order to ensure that

data collected was reliable and valid, the researcher resorted to the following

strategies/measures: (a) multiple data collection; (b) triangulation (comparison of different data

garnered to ascertain if they provide similar findings); (c) effective utilization of the Likert

scale in questionnaire construction in order to permit LNMM respondents to discriminate

responses (heterogeneity), and a plethora of alternatives at their disposal. The Likert scale was

adopted because of its optimum success rate in erstwhile and related studies (Gaines, 2014;

Noel, 2017; Rodenburg, 2013).

25
Likewise, in order to foster reliability and consistency, the data was gathered by the same

researcher. Prior to the actual field study, the questionnaire was distributed to 35 LNMM

inhabitants. Trial-testing was embarked upon by the researcher for the purpose of ensuring the

questions’ validity, in addition questionnaire’s reliability in order to collect authentic and rich

data.

3.10 Ethical Considerations

In conducting research, there is the need to normally ensure people are not harmed physically

or emotionally and that is what ethical considerations are about. According to O’ Leary (2013),

the investigator has a responsibility to ensure that respondents are shielded. Additionally,

Coghlan and Brannick (2014) argue that researchers are supposed to be truth to the whole

research process. Potential respondents were conscentized to be open-minded, and assured of

100% confidentiality, and that collected data will be used strictly for its intended purpose.

26
Figure 3.1 Map of La-Nkwantanang Madina Municipality Source: GSS, 2014

27
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

As intimated from the preamble, the main rationale of this study is to investigate the causes

and effects of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective, with a focus on the La

Nkwantanang Madina Municipality (LNMM). To execute this, the study collected data from

inhabitants of LNMM’s outfit to answer the following under catalogued research objectives:

1. To examine the key effects of binge drinking on the youth from the Ghanaian

perspective.

2. To investigate the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian

perspective.

3. To recommend strategic interventions to manage the critical causes of youth binge

drinking from the Ghanaian perspective.

Strictly speaking, this section presents the analysis of the data collected and discussed with

respect to the review of related literature, statistical analysis description in relation to the

study’s research objectives with appropriate tables and figures. It includes respondents’

demographic profile, in addition to the key effects of binge drinking on the youth, in addition

to the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective.

4.2 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

This section of the chapter deals with the demographic information of respondents. It begins

with the age distribution, marital status, stay length, and educational background of respondents

among others. The responses were then analyzed using frequency and percentage table. The

table (4.1) below depicts the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents at LNMM. It is

28
worth mentioning that out of the 398 questionnaires dole out to the respondents at LNMM,

only 320 (retrieved and collected by the researcher) which represented 80.4% compliance or

responsive rate was factored into the data analysis.

Table 4.1 Demographic Profile of Respondents

Table 4.1 presents the demographic profile of respondents at LNMM.

Gender Frequency (n) Percentage (%)

Male 117.0 36.6
Female 203.0 63.4
Total 320.0 100.0

Age Ranges (Years)

18-30 81.0 25.3
31-40 58.0 18.1
41-50 103.0 32.2
51-60 46.0 14.4
Above 60 32.0 10.0
Total 320.0 100.0

Marital Status
Single 137.0 42.8
Married 183.0 57.2
Total 320.0 100.0

Stay Length (Years)

1-5 92.0 28.8
6-10 107.0 33.4
11-16 66.0 20.6
Above 16 55.0 17.2
Total 320.0

Educational Background
SSCE/WASSCE 23.0 7.2
Diploma/HND 80.0 25.0
First Degree 103.0 32.2
Second Degree 46.0 14.4
Doctorate Degree 10.0 3.1
Other Professional Qualification 58.0 18.1
Total 320.0 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Data, 2018
In relation to table 4.1 cited above, it can be inferred that out of the 320 respondents affiliated

to LNMM, 36.6% (n=117) were males, whereas63.4% (n=63.4) were females. Secondly,

29
27.3% (n=81.0) of the respondents’ were between the ages of 18-30, whilst 18.1% (n=58.0) of

belonged to the 31-40 years age bracket. Those within the age ranges of 41-50 recorded the

percentage score of 32.2% (n=103.0). However, those within the age brackets of “51-60 years”,

in addition to those “above 60 years” categories recorded percentage scores of both 14.4%

(n=46.0) and 10.0% (n=32.0) respectively.

Thirdly, it can deduced that quite a sizable plethora of LNMM respondents are married couples

with a percentage score of 57.2% (n=183.0), whereas the “single category” recorded a

percentage score of 42.8% (n=42.8). In addition, it can be asserted that those fell within the 1st

to the 5th year range had a percentage score of 28.8% (n=92.0). The category was edgily

followed by LNMM respondents who have been domiciled within the study area spanning

between 6 years to a decade, and invariable recorded a percentage score of 33.4% (n=107.0).

Likewise, both “11-16 years”, including those captured within the “above 16 years” categories

had percentage scores of 20.6% (n=66.0), as well as 17.2% (n=55.0) with corresponding

frequencies of 6.0 and 4.0 respectively. Lastly, 25.0% (n=80.0) of LNMM respondents were

“Diploma/HND holders”, 32.2% (n=103.0) were “Bachelor’s degree holders”, 14.4% (n=46.0)

represented “Master’s degree holders”, whereas 3.1% (n=10.0) represented respondents with

“Doctorate degrees. Additionally, However, LNMM respondents belonging to the “other

professional qualification” category had a percentage score of 18.1% (n=58.0), including those

affiliated to the “SSCE/WASSCE”, with a corresponding percentage score of 7.2% (n=23.0).

4.3 Analysis of Research Objectives

This section presents the analysis of research questions underpinning the study:

Research Objective 1: To examine the key effects of binge drinking on the youth from the

Ghanaian perspective.

30
Table 4.2 Respondents’ View on Key Effects of Binge Drinking on the Youth, Mean

scores, RII Values and Ranking

The table below (4.2) presents the views of respondents’ on key effects of binge drinking on

the youth, mean scores, RII values and its subsequent rankings.

Key Effects of Binge Drinking on the Mean Score RII Value Ranking
Youth
Social consequences like vehicular crashes, 4.29 0.859 1st
homicides, etc. (SCVCH)
Multiple organ problems e.g. liver cirrhosis, 3.63 0.725 2nd
hepatitis, etc. (MOPLH)
Risky behaviours like sexual behavioural risk 3.47 0.693 3rd
taking, and other substance abuse (RBSSA)
Poor mental health, poor educational 2.83 0.565 4th
outcome, and increased risk of crime in early
adulthood (PMHEC)
Relationship breakdown, domestic violence, 2.33 0.465 5th
and poor parenting (RBDVP)
Psychiatric consequences such as suicide 1.77 0.354 6th
attempts, mood, conduct or anxiety disorders
(PCMAD)
Source: Author’s Field Data, 2018

As per the key effects of binge drinking on the youth from the Ghanaian perspective,

respondents at LNMM selected “Social consequences like vehicular crashes, homicides, etc.

(SCVCH)” as the most significant in that it recorded an RII value of 0.859, in consonance with

the 5-Point Likert model’s order of significance (see table 4.2 and figure 4.1). “SCVCH”

parameter also had a mean score of 4.29 comparatively, and was invariably ranked 1st. Also,

both “Multiple organ problem like vehicular crashes, homicides, etc. (MOPLH)”, in addition

to “Risky behaviours like sexual behavioural risk taking, and other substance use (RBSSA)”

parameters recorded mean scores (MSs) of 3.63 and 3.47, including RII values of 0.725 (2nd)

and 0.693 (3rd). Additionally, 4th, 5th and 6th ranked parameters, namely: “Poor mental health,

poor educational outcome, and increased risk of crime in early adulthood (PMHEC)”,

“Relationship breakdown, domestic violence, and poor parenting (RBDVP)”, and “Psychiatric

31
consequences such as suicide attempts, mood, conduct or anxiety disorders, etc. (PCMAD)”

recorded respective RII values and accompanying mean scores of “(0.565) (2.83)”, “(0.465)

(2.33)”, as well as “(0.354) (1.77).

Bar Chart Showing the Effects of Binge Drinkingon the Youth, Mean Scores, RII
Values and Ranking
Mean & RII Scores

SCVCH MOPLH RBSSA PMHEC RBDVP PCMAD

Series 1 4.29 3.63 3.47 2.83 2.33 1.77
Series 2 0.859 0.725 0.693 0.565 0.465 0.354
Series 3
Key Effects of Binge Drinking on the Youth

Figure 4.1 Key Effects of Youth Binge Drinking Source: Author’s Field Data, 2018

Research Objective 2: To investigate the critical causes of binge drinking from the

Ghanaian perspective.

Table 4.3 Respondents’ View on Critical Causes of Youth Binge Drinking, Mean Scores,

RII Values and Ranking

The table below (4.3) depicts the views of respondents’ on the critical causes of youth binge

drinking at LNMM, mean scores, RII values and its subsequent rankings.

Critical Causes of Youth Binge Drinking Mean Score RII Value Ranking
Peer influence and alcohol utilization linkage 4.07 0.814 1st
(PIAUL)
Family and alcohol utilization linkage 3.88 0.771 2nd
(FAAUL)
Neighbourhood and alcohol utilization nexus 2.91 0.583 3rd
(NAUNX)
Age and alcohol use nexus (AGAUX) 2.53 0.507 4th
Advertisement and alcohol utilization 1.94 0.388 5th
relationship (ADAZR)
Religion and alcohol consumption nexus 1.78 0.355 6th
(REACX)

32
Source: Author’s Field Data, 2018

With regards to the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective,

respondents at LNMM selected “Peer influence and alcohol utilization linkage (PIAUL)” as

the most significant, based on its optimal RII value (0.814), per the 5-Point Likert model’s

order of significance (see table 4.3 and figure 4.2). “PIAUL” attribute also recorded a mean

score of 4.07 comparatively, and was eventually rated 1st. Also, both “Family and alcohol

utilization linkage (FAAUL)”, in addition to “Neighbourhood and alcohol utilization nexus

(NAUNX)” attributes recorded mean scores (MSs) of 3.88 and 2.91, including RII values of

0.771, including 0.583, and were subsequently ranked 2nd and 3rd respectively. Likewise, 4th,

5th and 6th ranked factors, namely: “Age and alcohol use nexus (AGAUX)”, “Advertisement

and alcohol utilization relationship (ADAZR)”, and “Religion and alcohol consumption nexus

(REACX)” recorded respective RII values and accompanying mean scores of “(0.507) (2.53)”,

“(0.388) (1.94)”, as well as “(0.355) (1.78).

Bar Chart Showing Critical Causes of Youth Binge Drinking, Mean Scores, RII
Values and Ranking
4.29
3.63 3.47
Mean & RII Scores

2.83
2.33
1.77

0.859 0.725 0.693 0.565 0.465 0.354

Critical Causes of Youth Binge Drinking

Figure 4.2 Critical Causes of Youth Binge Drinking Source: Author’s Field Data, 2018

4.4 Detailed Discussion of Results

It is worth mentioning that all the 320 respondents’ suggestions as depicted on the

questionnaires conscentized the researcher to assign weighted values to each of the parameters

33
identified as the key effects of binge drinking on the youth from the Ghanaian perspective.

Furthermore, the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective, which,

when given the requisite precedence, will inadvertently curb the excesses identified during the

study.

Candidly speaking, with reference to the key effects of binge drinking on the youth from the

Ghanaian perspective, 6 essential categories were opined by the respondents. These are (1)

Social consequences like vehicular crashes, homicides, etc. (SCVCH) (RII=0.859) (MS=4.29);

(2) Multiple organ problems e.g. liver cirrhosis, hepatitis, etc. (MOPLH) (RII=0.725)

(MS=3.63); (3) Risky behaviours like sexual behavioural risk taking, and other substance abuse

(RBSSA) (RII=0.693) (MS=3.47); (4) Poor mental health, poor educational outcome, and

increased risk of crime in early adulthood (PMHEC) (RII=0.565) (MS=2.83); (5) Relationship

breakdown, domestic violence, and poor parenting (RBDVP) (RII=0.465) (MS=2.33); in

addition to (6) Psychiatric consequences such as suicide attempts, mood, conduct or anxiety

disorders, etc. (PCMAD) (RII=0.354) (MS=1.77).

Lastly, 6 critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective were ranked,

based on the order of relevance on the Five Point Likert scale which was later upgraded into

the Relative Importance Index (RII), in consonance with the mean values of the parameters

factored into the study. According to the ranking relating to the RII, 6 constructs were realized

by the respondents namely: (1) Peer influence and alcohol utilization linkage (PIAUL)

(RII=0.814) (MS=4.07); (2) Family and alcohol utilization linkage (FAAUL) (RII=0.771)

(MS=3.88); (3) Neighbourhood and alcohol utilization nexus (NAUNX) (RII=0.583)

(MS=2.91); (4) Age and alcohol use nexus (AGAUX) (RII=0.507) (MS=2.53); (5)

Advertisement and alcohol utilization relationship (ADAZR) (MS=1.94) (RII=0.388); (6)

Religion and alcohol consumption nexus (REACX) (RII=0.355) (MS=1.78).

34
4.5 Detailed Discussion of Results Pertaining to Research Question 1

This subsection presents an exhaustive discussion of results relating to research question 1:

4.5.1 Social Consequences

With respect to the key effects of binge drinking on the youth from the Ghanaian perspective,

respondents at LNMM selected “Social consequences like vehicular crashes, homicides, etc.

(SCVCH)” as the most significant that cannot be overemphasized. “SCVCH” attribute had an

RII value of 0.859 and was ranked 1st, based on the 5-Point Likert scale’s relevance order, in

addition to an optimum mean value of 4.29 (see table 4.2 and figure 4.1). The respondents’ fact

findings agrees with the publication credited to the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and

Alcoholism (2004), Bonomo et al., (2001), Anderson et al., (2006), in addition to what was

intimated by Sacks et al., (2013). According to an empirical revelation affiliated to the National

Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (2004), youth binge drinking is the pivotal

contributor to adolescent death including vehicular crashes, homicide, and suicide in the United

States and other economies across the globe. To add to this, Anderson et al., (2006), in addition

to the asservates of Sacks et al., (2013) observe that quite a sizable plethora of vehicular

accidents account for the most leading cause of death for American youths hooked onto binge

drinking.

4.5.2 Multiple Organ Problems

“Multiple organ problems (MOPLH)” was ranked 2nd by the respondents at LNMM, in

consonance with the key effects of binge drinking on the youth from the Ghanaian perspective.

“MOPLH” recorded an RII value of 0.725, as revealed by the 5-Point Likert scale’s order of

significance, in addition to its mean value of 3.63 (refer to table 4.2 and figure 4.1). Candidly,

the extensive research projects executed by Schink et al., (2006), Osna (2010), Cederbaum

(2012), Clark et al., (2008), Blackier et al., (2013), Frimpong-Mansoh (2013), as well as

35
publication of WHO (2011) tallies with the respondents’ discovery during the study. As per

the submissions of Schinke et al., (2006), alcohol use among adolescents causes multiple organ

problems (Schinke, Schwinn, & Cole, 2006). Additionally, Blachier et al., (2013) contend that

heavy uncontrolled (binge) drinking can take a toll on the liver which eventually can lead to a

number of problems such as liver inflammations, alcohol hepatitis, fibrosis and cirrhosis.

Again, Osna (2010) assert that the liver as an important organ is known to be primarily affected

by youth binge drinking across the nooks and crannies of the globe.

4.5.3 Risky Behaviours

As per the key effects of binge drinking on the youth from the Ghanaian perspective,

respondents at LNMM intimated “Risky behaviours like sexual behavioural risk taking, and

other substance abuse (RBSSA)” as the 3rd most significant comparatively. “RBSSA” factor

recorded an RII value of 0.693, in association with the 5-Point Likert model’s significance

order, and invariably had a mean score of 3.47 (see table 4.2 and figure 4.1). The respondents’

revelations coheres with the postulates of Clark et al., (2008), as well as the submissions of

Champion et al., (2008) during the study. Researchers like Clark et al., (2008), and Champion

et al., (2008) have consistently reported to the association of alcohol use with other risky

behaviours like physical assault, sexual behavioural risk-taking and other substance use.

4.5.4 Poor Mental Health, Poor Educational Outcome, Etc.

Pertaining to the key effects of binge drinking on the youth from the Ghanaian perspective,

respondents at LNMM opted for “Poor mental health, poor educational outcome, and increased

risk of crime in early adulthood (PMHEC)” as the 4th most pivotal that cannot be

overemphasized. “PMHEC” had an RII value of 0.565, in tandem with the 5-Point Likert

scale’s order of importance, and its mean value of 2.83 (refer to table 4.2 and figure 4.1). The

respondents’ findings synchronizes with the submissions of Rehm et al., (2010), Bonomo et

36
al., (2001), Annor (2016), as well as what was reported by Odgers et al., (2008). According to

Bonomo et al., (2001), adolescent alcohol use is associated with increased absenteeism’s, poor

academic performance, loss of consciousness, memory blackouts just to mention a few. Per the

argument of Odgers et al., (2008), adolescents hooked onto binge drinking dependence are

usually predispose to harm, which includes poor mental health, poor education outcome and

increased risk of crime in early adulthood (Odgers et al., 2008).

4.5.5 Relationship Breakdown, Domestic Violence, and Poor Parenting

“Relationship breakdown, domestic violence, and poor parenting (RBDVP)” was rated 5th by

LNMM respondents with respect to the key effects of binge drinking on the youth from the

Ghanaian perspective. “RBDVP” recorded an RII value of 0.465, as revealed by the 5-Point

Likert scale’s order of significance, including a mean score of 2.33 (refer to table 4.2 and figure

4.1). The respondents’ finding conforms to the assertions of Owusu (2008), Mc Laughlin et al.,

(2015), Frimpong-Mansoh (2013), in addition to the postulates of Latendresse et al., (2010)

during the study. As assertion by health affiliates like Mc Laughlin et al., (2015), and

Frimpong-Mansoh (2013), alcohol is implicated in relationship breakdown, domestic violence

and poor parenting, including child neglect and abuse. Likewise, pertaining to a similar study

effectuated from the Ghanaian perspective and credited to Owusu (2008), 15.1% of high school

students who reported to have taken alcohol, also intimated getting tipsy, which culminated

into hiccups, bickering, and quarrels with their friends, family or fighting with their friends.

4.5.6 Psychiatric Consequences

More so, in accordance with the key effects of binge drinking on the youth from the Ghanaian

perspective, respondents at LNMM chose “Psychiatric consequences such as suicide attempts,

mood, conduct or anxiety disorders” designated as “PCMAD” as the 6th most significant that

cannot be overemphasized. “PCMAD” perspective recorded an RII value of 0.354, in

37
consonance with the 5-Point Likert model’s relevance order and subsequently had a mean score

of 1.77, as compared to the other 5 constructs mentioned earlier (refer to table 4.2 and figure

4.1). It is interesting to note that the arguments affiliated to Brausch et al., (2010), Woods

(2011), in addition to the assertion of Danielsson et al., (2012) reinforces the observation

emanating from the respondents at LNMM. According to Brausch and Gutierrez, (2010), in

consonance with the postulate of Woods (2011) alcohol use disorders are a threat factor to

suicide attempts, also found an association between lower minimum legal drinking age and

suicide. The Psychiatric medical conditions are most likely to be co-occurring with youth binge

drinking practices include mood disorders, predominantly depression; attention deficits or

hyperactivity disorder; anxiety disorders; conduct disorders; bulimia; and schizophrenia

(Woods, 2011).

4.6 Detailed Discussion of Results Relating to Research Question 2

The following underpins the detailed discussion of results that pertains to research question 2:

4.6.1 Peer Influence and Alcohol Utilization Linkage

With reference to the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective,

respondents’ at LNMM chose “Peer influence and alcohol utilization linkage (PIAUL)” as the

most crippling factor that ought to be accorded the requisite attention. “PIAUL” factor recorded

an RII value of 0.814, based on the 5-Point Likert scale’s order of significance, in allusion to

its mean score of 4.07 (refer to table 4.3 and figure 4.2). The respondents’ findings conforms

to the postulates of Kelly et al., (2012), Annor (2016), Grittner et al., (2012), not losing sight

of the assertion of WHO (2014). In agreeableness with the submissions of Kelly et al., (2012),

peer influence is perceived as a high affinity predictor of public youth binge drinking (Kelly et

al., 2012). Synonymously, Grittner et al., (2012), in addition to WHO (2014) observe that

38
having allies with a high affinity for alcohol, in addition to other substances is undoubtedly a

driver of youth binge drinking contemporarily.

4.6.2 Family and Alcohol Utilization Linkage

“Family and alcohol utilization linkage” designated as “FAAUL” was ranked 2nd by the

respondents at LNMM with respect to the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the

Ghanaian perspective. “FAAUL” factor had an RII value of 0.771, as revealed by the 5-Point

Likert scale’s relevance order, and also had a mean score of 3.88 (see table 4.3 and figure 4.2).

The respondents’ revelation is consistent with the arguments of Kim et al., (2010), Rowe et al.,

(2006), Nash et al., (2005), Moghe et al., (2012), in addition to the postulates of Annor (2016).

In tandem with the postulates of Rowe et al., (2006), families across the globe do play an

indispensable roles in the development of alcohol, in addition to other drug affiliated

shortcomings among youth. To buttress this point, Kim et al., (2010) observe that parental

influence is an integral predictor as far as youth binge drinking is concerned. Additionally,

Moghe et al., are of the strongest conviction that drug and other substance use by parents, older

siblings and liberal parental attitude towards alcohol use by adolescent predicts greater risk of

youth binge drinking. Annor (2016) argues that parents who exhibit carefree attitude towards

discipline and are not stringent on any rules are more likely to see majority of their children

indulging in binge drinking.

4.6.3 Neighbourhood and Alcohol Utilization Nexus

As per the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective, respondents’

at LNMM preferred option for the 3rd most debilitating attribute was “Neighbourhood and

alcohol utilization nexus (NAUNX)” judging from its RII scoring (0.583), in addition to its

mean score of 2.91 (see table 4.3 and figure 4.2). The rating was based on the 5-Point Likert

scale’s relevance order. The respondents’ discovery agrees with the submissions of Brown et

39
al., (2008), Owusu (2008), as well as the argument propounded by Annor (2016) during the

study. According to Brown et al., (2008), community or neighbourhood substance use also

predicts the individuals’ alcoholic beverage intake behavioural patterns. They reiterate that

youth binge drinking do experience an upsurge in communities in which alcohol is less

expensive and easily obtainable. Likewise, per the submission of Annor (2016), social norms

regard alcohol use as having fun, meeting old and new friends: no wonder binge drinking is a

true reflection of the larger societal norms, attitudes, and practices to a significant extent.

4.6.4 Age and Alcohol Use Nexus

In connection with the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective,

respondents’ at LNMM opted for “Age and alcohol use nexus (AGAUX)” construct as the 4th

most devastating comparatively. “AGAUX” parameter had an RII value of 0.507, based on the

5-Point Likert model’s significance order, including mean value of 2.53 (see table 4.3 and

figure). The scholarly works of Midanik et al., (1995), Sartor et al., (2007), Wechsler et al.,

(2010), Hingson et al., (2009), Cherpitel (2013), including the publication credited to WHO

(2014) agrees with the respondents’ discovery during the study. DeWitt et al., (2000), Sartor et

al., (2007), in addition to Wechsler et al., (2010) trumpet that early exposure to alcohol

consumption such as those below 14 years happen to be one of the indispensable predictor of

debilitated physical and mental wellness condition in view of the fact that it is linked to

enhanced risk for youth binge drinking in the foreseeable future.

4.6.5 Advertisement and Alcohol Utilization Relationship

“Advertisement and alcohol utilization relationship (ADAZR)” was rated 5th by the

respondents at LNMM, in relation to the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the

Ghanaian perspective. “ADAZR” predictor recorded an RII value of 0.388, in association with

the 5-Point Likert model’s order of importance, and inadvertently had a mean score of 1.98

40
(see table 4.3 and figure 4.2). It is worth noting that the respondents’ findings conforms to the

assertions of Gerbner (1995), Annor (2016), Anderson et al., (2009), Strasburger et al., (2002),

including Saffer et al., (2006). Per the assertions of Annor (2016), as well as Gerbner (1995),

alcoholic advertisement do play an unprecedented role in sustaining a cultural environment in

which drinking is perceived as normal and moulds youth perception and attitudes towards

alcohol use, and subsequently binge drinking. Again, Saffer et al., (2006) contend that alcoholic

advertisement plays an indispensable role as far as encouraging youth binge drinking across

the globe is concerned.

4.6.6 Religion and Alcohol Consumption Nexus

Lastly, as ascribed to the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective,

respondents’ at LNMM selected “Religion and alcohol consumption nexus” captioned as

“REACX” for the study’s purpose, as the 6th most devastating that cannot be overemphasized.

“REACX” perspective recorded a minimal RII value of 0.355, based on the 5-Point Likert

scale’s order of importance and subsequently had a mean value of 1.78 (refer to table 4.3 and

figure 4.2). The respondents’ revelation synchronizes with the postulates of Michalak et al.,

(2007), in addition to Galen et al., (2004). As intimated by Michalak et al., (2007), religious

constructs like religious preference, religiosity and alcohol prohibition are indispensable for

certain drinking patterns (Michalak et al., 2007). Galen et al., (2004) hold the view that students

who are affiliated to a particular e.g. Muslims religion, reports less youth binge drinking

tendencies than students who report not to follow any religion like Christianity among others.

Also, students with no religious affinity, report significantly higher level of youth binge

drinking, e.g. atheism as postulated by Galen et al., (2004).

41
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

The chapter presents a summarized version of the entire study. Based on the findings, a general

conclusion has been drawn and recommendations suggested for policy implications.

5.2 Summary of Key Findings

Strictly speaking, in connection with the key effects of binge drinking on the youth from the

Ghanaian perspective, 6 attributes were intimated by the respondents, specifically: (1) Social

consequences like vehicular crashes, homicides, etc. (SCVCH) (RII=0.859) (MS=4.29); (2)

Multiple organ problems e.g. liver cirrhosis, hepatitis, etc. (MOPLH) (RII=0.725) (MS=3.63);

(3) Risky behaviours like sexual behavioural risk taking, and other substance abuse (RBSSA)

(RII=0.693) (MS=3.47); (4) Poor mental health, poor educational outcome, and increased risk

of crime in early adulthood (PMHEC) (RII=0.565) (MS=2.83); (5) Relationship breakdown,

domestic violence, and poor parenting (RBDVP) (RII=0.465) (MS=2.33); in addition to (6)

Psychiatric consequences such as suicide attempts, mood, conduct or anxiety disorders, etc.

(PCMAD) (RII=0.354) (MS=1.77).

Lastly, in allusion to the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective,

again, 6 notable variables as opined by the respondents at LNMM came to the fore. These are:

(1) Peer influence and alcohol utilization linkage (PIAUL) (RII=0.814) (MS=4.07); (2) Family

and alcohol utilization linkage (FAAUL) (RII=0.771) (MS=3.88); (3) Neighbourhood and

alcohol utilization nexus (NAUNX) (RII=0.583) (MS=2.91); (4) Age and alcohol use nexus

(AGAUX) (RII=0.507) (MS=2.53); (5) Advertisement and alcohol utilization relationship

(ADAZR) (MS=1.94) (RII=0.388); (6) Religion and alcohol consumption nexus (REACX)

42
(RII=0.355) (MS=1.78).

5.3 Conclusion

Pertaining to the concluding part of the study, it can be inferred that all the 320 respondents

belonging to LNMM intimated the under-listed variables as the most crucial that cannot be

underestimated as far as the key effects of binge drinking on the youth from the Ghanaian

perspective is concerned: (1) Social consequences like vehicular crashes, homicides, etc.

(SCVCH) (RII=0.859) (MS=4.29); (2) Multiple organ problems e.g. liver cirrhosis, hepatitis,

etc. (MOPLH) (RII=0.725) (MS=3.63); (3) Risky behaviours like sexual behavioural risk

taking, and other substance abuse (RBSSA) (RII=0.693) (MS=3.47); (4) Poor mental health,

poor educational outcome, and increased risk of crime in early adulthood (PMHEC)

(RII=0.565) (MS=2.83); (5) Relationship breakdown, domestic violence, and poor parenting

(RBDVP) (RII=0.465) (MS=2.33); in addition to (6) Psychiatric consequences such as suicide

attempts, mood, conduct or anxiety disorders, etc. (PCMAD) (RII=0.354) (MS=1.77).

Furthermore, in connection with the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian

perspective, respondents’ at LNMM preferred option for the 1st most pivotal construct was

“social consequences like vehicular crashes, homicides, etc.” since it recorded an optimal RII

value and mean score of 0.859 and 4.29 respectively. To add to this, the remaining 5 constructs,

namely: “multiple organ problems”, “risky behaviours”, “poor mental health, etc.”,

“relationship breakdown, etc.”, including “psychiatric consequences, etc.” had accompanying

RII values and mean scores of “(0.725) (3.63)”, “(0.693) (3.47)”, “(0.565) (2.83)”, “(0.465)

(2.33)”, as well as “(0.354) (1.77) respectively.

5.4 Recommendations

With particular reference to the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian

perspective and beyond, the under-listed strategic interventions cannot be over-emphasized:

43
The hypnotizing nature of alcohol advertising on our media should be reduced to the barest

minimum;

The influence of peer pressure should also be tackled especially in our teeming municipalities

to reduce the adverse effects on binge drinking on the youth by hugely reliant on its positive

sides among others;

More so, parents should aspire to live modest and chaste lives worthy of emulation by their

children and neighbours;

The youth should have diversified and pragmatic skills both in schools and the municipalities

so as to give them less time to indulge in risky behaviors such as alcohol misuse and other

substance abuse;

The strict adherence to Maslow Need Hierarchy, Max Weber, Elton Mayer’s Principle,

Frederick Herzberg’s 2 Factor Theory, Geertz Hofstede’s Cultural Dimension Theory, Mc

Cleland Need Hierarchy, Humanistic Theory, etc. by municipal top echelons will go a long

way to curtail the youth binge drinking population dynamics at LNMM and beyond.

5.5 Limitation of the Study

With respect to this study, the following under-catalogued limitations cannot be

overemphasized:

 Inconsistency (disjointed information) in some of the responses received from LNMM

respondents with respect to the filling of the questionnaires;

 Time constraints was also another bone of contention due to the questionnaire filling

dilly-dallying antics exhibited by some of the respondents at LNMM, in addition to the

44
 fact that some of them assumed a perceptual bias approach to the study (time waster

exercise);

 Language barriers reared its ugly head somewhere along the line as it was extremely

difficult translating some of the questions into the local dialects.

5.6 Suggested Areas for Further Research

Similar research endeavours relating to youth binge drinking can be embarked on in other

municipalities across the nooks and crannies of Ghana, using different research objectives,

methodological procedures, content analysis, sampling techniques, enhanced sample size,

research design among others. Again, the research endeavour could be replicated in other

municipalities outside the frontiers of the Greater Region of Ghana and beyond.

45
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 APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1 – TABLES

Table 1: Key Effects of Binge Drinking on the Youth that pertains to Respondents’

Scoring, Mean Values, ΣW, Calculated RII Scoring and Ranking

No Key Effects of Number of Respondents’ Mean ΣW RII Ranks

Binge Scoring Score Value
Drinking on
the Youth
1 2 3 4 5
1 Poor mental 56 78 91 55 40 2.83 905 0.565 4th
health, poor
educational
outcome, and
increased risk of
crime in early
adulthood
2 Multiple organ 39 23 30 155 73 3.63 1,160 0.725 2nd
problems e.g.
liver cirrhosis,
hepatitis, etc.
3 Psychiatric 153 102 55 7 3 1.77 565 0.354 6th
consequences
such as suicide
attempts, mood,
conduct or
anxiety disorders,
etc.
4 Social 12 9 30 91 178 4.29 1,374 0.859 1st
consequences
like vehicular
crashes,
homicides, etc.
5 Relationship 93 87 101 20 19 2.33 745 0.465 5th
breakdown,
domestic
violence, and
poor parenting
6 Risky behaviours 31 45 85 60 99 3.47 1,111 0.693 3rd
like sexual

55
 behavioural risk
taking, and other
substance use
Table 2: Critical Causes of Youth Binge Drinking Relating to Respondents’ Scoring,

Mean Values, ΣW, Calculated RII Scoring and Ranking

No Critical Causes Number of Respondents’ Mean ΣW RII Ranks

of Youth Binge Scoring Score Value
Drinking
1 2 3 4 5
1 Family and 31 28 40 69 152 3.88 1,243 0.771 2nd
alcohol
utilization
linkage
2 Neighbourhood 57 63 105 43 52 2.91 930 0.583 3rd
and alcohol
utilization nexus
3 Peer influence 3 17 18 199 83 4.07 1,302 0.814 1st
and alcohol
utilization
linkage
4 Advertisement 130 123 40 10 17 1.94 621 0.388 5th
and alcohol
utilization
relationship
5 Religion and 111 181 20 5 3 1.78 568 0.355 6th
alcohol
consumption
connection
6 Age and alcohol 86 64 110 33 27 2.53 811 0.507 4th
use nexus

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 APPENDIX 2 – QUESTIONNAIRE

Dear Sir/Madam:

I am undertaking a research study on the topic “An investigation into the Causes and Effects

of Youth Binge Drinking from the Ghanaian Perspective” which is in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of Bachelor of Art in Health and Social Care at Liverpool Hope

University, UK. It is purely for an academic purpose and therefore your honest response will

determine the creditability of the findings. Please kindly be assured that your responses will be

treated as highly confidential and therefore be forthright with your answers. Thank You.

SECTION A

Instructions: Please kindly tick (√) in the boxes provided where applicable and fill in the blank

spaces (dotted lines) where necessary:

Socio – Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

(1) Gender: (a) Male ( ) (b) Female ( )
(2) Age range:
Years 18 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50 51 – 60 Above 60

Tick (√)

(3) Marital status: (a) Single ( ) (b) Married ( )

(4) What is your highest academic qualification?

(a) SSCE/WASSCE ( ) (b) Diploma/HND ( ) (c) First Degree ( )

57
(d) Second Degree ( ) (e) PhD/Other Doctorate Degree ( )

(f) Other professional qualifications ( ), please kindly specify_________________________

(5) How long have you been working in your organization?

(a) 1-5 Years ( ) (b) 6-10 Years ( ) (c) 11-16 Years ( ) (d) Above 16 Years ( )

SECTION B

Consumption and Frequency of Alcohol Intake

(6) Have you taken any alcoholic beverage before? (a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )

(i) If you selected “yes”, how old were you when you first took an alcoholic beverage? Please

kindly specify _____________________________

(7) For the past 12 months, how often have you had an alcoholic beverage?

(a) Monthly ( ) (b) 2 – 4 times a month ( ) (c) 2 -3 times in a week ( ) (d) 4+ times per week

(e) None

(8) How do you get your alcohol? (a) Supervised by parents or relative ( ) (b) From brothers

or sisters (c) From home without parents knowledge ( ) (d) Get it from friends ( ) (e) Buy on

my own (on the street or under false pretense) ( ) (f) None ( )

Which of the alcohol beverages do you drink? (a) Beer ( ) (b) Wine ( ) (c) Spirits (d) All

( ) (e) None ( ) (f) Others specify ______________________________________________

(9) How much on an average do you spend on your alcoholic beverage of choice? Please kindly

specify the amount in (Ghana Cedi) ______________________________________________

58
(10) Currently, when you drink alcohol, how much do you usually drink?

(a) 1 drink ( ) (b) 2 drinks ( ) (c) 3-4 drinks ( ) (d) 5-9 drinks ( ) (e) 10 or drinks none ( )

Effects of Binge Drinking on Individuals

(11) Pertaining to the set of questions below, please kindly indicate how many times binge

drinking during the past 12 months on a scale of 1 to 4 (1=None; 2=1 to 2 times; 3=3 to 5 times;

and 4= More than 5 times)

No Key Effects of Binge Drinking 1 2 3 4

1 Not able to do my homework or study for a test
2 Got into a fight with other people (friends, relatives, strangers)
3 Missed out on other things because you spent too much on
alcohol
4 Caused shame or embarrassment to someone
5 Neglected my duties and responsibility
6 Shun by friends and relatives
7 Found yourself in a place that you could not remember getting
there
8 Passed out or fainted suddenly

(12) Have you ever been involved in an accident due to drinking that resulted in injury either

to yourself or others? (a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )

(13) In your personal opinion, what are the key effects of binge drinking on the youth from the

Ghanaian perspective? Please kindly specify by your degree of compliance with each statement

by ticking the most accurate answer: (1) Completely insignificant (2) Rarely significant (3)

Averagely significant (4) Significant (5) Highly significant

No Key Effects of Binge Drinking on the Youth 1 2 3 4 5

1 Poor mental health, poor educational outcome, and
increased risk of crime in early adulthood

59
 2 Multiple organ problems e.g. liver cirrhosis, hepatitis,
etc.
3 Psychiatric consequences such as suicide attempts,
mood, conduct or anxiety disorders, etc.
4 Social consequences like vehicular crashes, homicides,
etc.
5 Relationship breakdown, domestic violence, and poor
parenting
6 Risky behaviours like sexual behavioural risk taking,
and other substance use

Factors Influencing Binge Drinking

(14) What do you think influences other adolescents to drink?

(a) Peer pressure ( ) (b) Advertisement ( ) Social media (c) Parental/sibling influence ( ) (d)

Availability/accessibility to alcohol ( ) (e) None ( )

(15) Where do you usually get information on alcoholic beverages from?

(a) Advertisement ( ) (b) Friends and peers (c) Social media (d) Other, specify_________

(e) None ( )

(16) Does alcohol advertising encourage you to use alcohol? (a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )

(i) If “yes” what aspects of advertisements encourage you to drink?

(a) Use of celebrities ( ) (b) Musicals ( ) (c) Animation ( ) (d) Role models

(e) Other, please specify _________________

(17) What are the critical causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective? Please

kindly specify by your degree of compliance with each statement by ticking the most accurate

answer: (1) Completely insignificant (2) Rarely significant (3) Averagely significant (4)

Significant (5) Highly significant

No Critical Causes of Youth Binge Drinking 1 2 3 4 5

1 Family and alcohol utilization linkage

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 2 Neighbourhood and alcohol utilization nexus
3 Peer influence and alcohol utilization linkage
4 Advertisement and alcohol utilization relationship
5 Religion and alcohol consumption connection
6 Age and alcohol use nexus

(18) What strategic interventions do you think should be employed to manage the critical

causes of youth binge drinking from the Ghanaian perspective?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

(19) Any further comments

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Thank You!!!!!!

61