Timber

UNIT 4 TIMBER
Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Definition of Timber
4.3 Uses of Timber
4.4 Classification of Trees
4.4.1 Endogenous Trees
4.4.2 Exogenous Trees
4.5 Growth of a Tree
4.6 Structure of a Tree
4.6.1 Macrostructure
4.6.2 Microstructure
4.7 Characteristics of Good Timber
4.8 Defects in Timber
4.9 Decay of Timber
4.10 Felling of Trees
4.11 Seasoning of Timber
4.11.1 Objects of Seasoning
4.11.2 Methods of Seasoning
4.12 Stacking of Timber
4.12.1 Methods of Stacking
4.12.2 Precautions to be taken in Stacking Timber
4.13 Preservation of Timber
4.14 Measurements of Timber
4.15 Tests of Timber
4.15.1 Moisture Content Test
4.15.2 Specific Gravity Test
4.16 Summary
4.17 Answers to SAQs

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Timber is one of the important construction materials. Wood is used as structural
elements in buildings, widely for doors, windows and partitions and find large use
through secondary wood products like plywood, particle boards and laminated
boards, etc. Both hard as well as soft woods are in use. Wood also forms an
integral part of any interior of building and with the development in wood
technology effective utilization of timber is essential.
Therefore, in this unit we shall concentrate on Timber.

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Engineering Materials Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• explain definition, properties and drawbacks of timber,
• elaborate classification and uses of timber,
• know the characteristics of good timber,
• know the defects in timber alongwith extensive details concerning the
causes for the defects,
• explain the objectives and methods of seasoning, and
• understand the methods of stacking and preservation of timber.

4.2 DEFINITION OF TIMBER

Wood suitable for building or other engineering purposes is called timber. When
wood forms part of a living tree it is called standing timber whereas it is called
rough timber when the tree has been felled. The wood is called converted timber
when it has been sawn to various market forms such as beams, battens and planks
etc.
Properties
Timber or wood, as building material, possesses a number of valuable
properties such as :
(i) Low heat conductivity,
(ii) Amenability to mechanical working,
(iii) Small bulk density, and
(iv) Relatively high strength, etc.
Drawbacks
Timber has its own drawbacks such as :
(i) Susceptibility to decay and inflammability,
(ii) Fluctuations in properties due to changes in moisture content,
(iii) Variations in strength in length and across fibres, etc.
These shortcomings require careful consideration while making use of it.

4.3 USES OF TIMBER

Timber is mainly used for following categories of works :
(i) It is used for construction purposes including building construction,
houseposts, beams, rafters, bridges, piles, poles and railway sleepers
etc.
(ii) It is used for furniture and cabinet making.
(iii) It is used for light packing cases.
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 (iv) It is also used for heavy packing cases such as machinery and similar Timber
stores.
(v) It is used for manufacturing agricultural implements and tool handles.
(vi) It is used for making turnery articles and toys etc.
(vii) It is used for manufacturing veneers and plywoods.

4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF TREES

Trees are classified according to their mode of growth as shown below.

4.4.1 Endogenous Trees

These trees are the ones that grow inwards in a longitudinal fibrous mass.
Examples of such trees are banana, bamboo, palm, cane etc.
Even though the “stem” of trees of this class is light and tough yet it is too
flexible and slender to furnish material suitable for engineering works, with the
exception of bamboo.
4.4.2 Exogenous Trees
These trees are those that grow outwards by the addition of one concentric ring
every year. These rings are known as annual rings. Since one ring is added to the
tree every year so the number of annual rings in the stem of a tree indicates its
age in years. The timber obtained from this class of trees is extensively used in
engineering works.
Conifers
These are also known as ever-green trees and leaves of these trees do not
fall till new ones are grown. As these trees bear cone-shaped fruits, they are
given the name conifers. These trees yield soft woods.
Deciduous
The trees are also known as broad leaf trees and leaves of these trees fall in
autumn and new ones appear in spring season. Timber for Engineering
purposes is mostly derived from deciduous trees. These trees yield hard
wood.
Hard Wood
A hard wood possesses the following characteristics :
(a) The wood is comparatively heavier and is darker in colour.
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Engineering Materials (b) The annual rings are not distinct.
(c) It contains a large percentage of acid.
(d) It is hard and difficult to work upon.
(e) It resists shearing stresses.
(f) It is close-grained and strong.
(g) It is non resinous.
Shisham, Sal, Teak, Oak, Mahagony and Babul are examples of hard wood.
Soft Wood
A soft wood possesses the following characteristics.
(i) It is light in weight and colour.
(ii) Annual rings are very distinct.
(iii) It is comparatively weaker and splits easily.
(iv) It has straight fibres.
(v) It is resinous, i.e. contains resins and turpentine. It has a peculiar
fragrance.
(vi) It is strong for resisting tensile forces.
(vii) It is weak in directions across the grains.
(viii) Its texture is soft and regular.
Spruce, Deodar, Chir, Kail and Walnut etc., are examples of soft wood.

4.5 GROWTH OF A TREE

The roots of the tree suck a solution of salts from the soil in spring season. These
salts are food for the tree and roots transmit the same through the trunk of tree to
its branches and leaves. This solution of salts looses some of the moisture because
of evaporation and absorbs carbon dioxide from the air. This action in the
presence of sun makes the solution a bit viscous. This transformed viscous
solution is known as sap.
This viscous sap descends below the bark and leaves a thick layer in autumn.
Layer of sap left below the bark gets transformed to wood and is known as
cambium layer. A fresh layer is thus added on the outside of the tree every year
forming a new annual ring. The new ring represents a year’s growth of tree.
Medullary rays carry the sap from below the bark to the interior thereby
nourishing the tree.

4.6 STRUCTURE OF A TREE

Now, after the classifications, we should know the structure of a tree, how it is
formed and the terms in its formation.
A tree basically consists of three parts, viz, trunk, crown and roots.
From the visibility aspects, the structure of a tree can be divided into two
categories :
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 (i) Macrostructure Timber

(ii) Microstructure
4.6.1 Macrostructure
The structure of wood visible to the naked eye or at a small magnification is
called macrostructure. Figure 4.1 shows the macrostructure of exogenous tree.

Figure 4.1 Cross-section of an Exogenous Tree

These parts of the cross-section are described below :
Pith or Medulla
It is the first formed portion of the stem of tree and it consists entirely of
cellular tissues. The pith contains a large amount of fluid and nourishes the
plant when the plant is young. It dies up and decays when the plant
becomes old and sap is then transmitted by the woody fibres deposited
round the pith.
Annual Rings
The rings of woody fibre arranged in concentric circle around the pith are
known as annual rings because one such ring is added every year.
Heart Wood
Inner most rings surrounding the pith constitute the heart wood. This wood
is darker in colour, stronger, more compact and durable.
Sap Wood
The outer annual rings between heart wood and cambium layer of the tree
constitute the sap wood which transmits the sap from roots to branches.
Compared with heart wood, sap wood is lighter in colour, weaker and more
liable to decay. Sap wood is also known as alburnum.
Cambium Layer
Outermost ring between the bark and sap wood which is not yet converted
into wood is known as the cambium layer.
Inner Bark
The inner skin or layer covering the cambium layer is known as inner bark.
It gives protection to cambium layer from any injury.
Outer Bark

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Engineering Materials The outer skin or cover of the tree is known as outer bark. It is the
outermost protective layer and it sometimes contains cracks and fissures. It
consists of cells of woody fibre and is also known as cortex.
Medullary Rays
These are thin horizontal veins radiating from the pith towards the bark.
They carry sap from outside to the inner parts of tree and nourish it. They
keep the annual rings tightly gripped together.
4.6.2 Microstructure
The structure of wood apparent only at great magnifications is called
microstructure. When studied under a microscope, it becomes evident that wood
consists of living and dead cells of various sizes and shapes.

4.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TIMBER

Following are the characteristics or qualities of a good timber :
(i) It should be free from sap and be from heart of a sound tree.
(ii) It should have straight and close fibres.
(iii) It should give a clear ringing sound when struck. Dull heavy sound is
a sign of internal decay.
(iv) It should be of uniform dark colour. Light colour usually indicates
timber with low strength.
(v) It should have regular annual rings.
(vi) Timbers with narrow annual rings are generally the strongest.
(vii) Freshly cut surface should give sweet smell.
(viii) It should have bright and smooth surface when planed. Dull
appearance is a sign of defective timber.
(ix) Teeth of saw should not get clogged while sawing.
(x) Out of same variety of timber, darker and heavier pieces are stronger.
(xi) It should be free from dead knots, from too many knots, shakes or
other defects.
(xii) It should have firm adhesion of fibers and compact medullary rays.
(xiii) A good timber should be durable. It should be capable of resisting the
actions of fungi, insects, chemicals etc.
(xiv) A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during
conversion or seasoning. It should not bow or warp or split.
(xv) A good timber should be capable of offering resistance to shocks due
to vibrations.

4.8 DEFECTS IN TIMBER

You have understood the tree, its classification and structure. Now, let us study
the defects in timber.

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As human body has many defects, timber also have defects. These are grouped Timber
into the following five categories :
(i) Defects due to conversion
(ii) Defects due to fungi
(iii) Defects due to insects
(iv) Defects due to natural forces
(v) Defects due to seasoning
Now, let us know various types of defects under each category :
Defects Due to Conversion
During the process of converting timber to commercial form, the following
defects may occur :
(i) Chip mark
(ii) Diagonal grain
(iii) Torn grain
(iv) Wane
Chip Mark
This defect is indicated by the marks or signs placed by chips on the
finished surface of timber. They may also be formed by the parts of a
planing machine.
Diagonal Grain
This defect is formed due to improper sawing of timber. It is indicated by
diagonal mark on straight grained surface of timber.
Torn Grain
This defect is caused when a small depression is formed on the finished
surface of timber by falling of a tool or so.
Wane
This defect is denoted by the presence of original rounded surface on the
manufactured piece of timber.
Defects Due to Fungi
Fungi are minute microscopic plant organisms. They attack timber only
when the following two conditions are satisfied simultaneously.
(i) The moisture content of timber is above 12-15%.
(ii) There is presence of air and warmth for the growth of fungi.
If any of the above condition is absent, decay of wood due to fungi would
not occur. Hence, dry wood having moisture content less than 12-14 % will
remain sound for centuries. Similarly, wood submerged in water will not be
attacked by fungi because of absence of air. Following defects are caused in
timber by fungi.
(i) Blue stain
(ii) Brown rot
(iii) Dry rot
(iv) Heart rot
(v) Sap stain 85
Engineering Materials (vi) Wet rot
(vii) White rot
Blue Stain
Sap of wood is stained to bluish colour by the action of certain type of
fungi.
Brown Rot
The term rot is used to indicate decay or disease of timber. Certain types of
fungi remove cellulose compounds from wood and hence, wood assumes
the brown colour. This is known as brown rot.
Dry Rot
Certain types of fungi feed on wood and during feeding, they attack on
wood and convert it into dry powder form. This is known as dry rot.
Following are to be noted :
(i) Dry rot occurs at places where there is no free circulation of air such
as improperly ventilated basements, rooms, etc.
(ii) Unseasoned soft woods and sap wood are easily attacked by dry rot.
(iii) If timber is not properly stored after being felled down, it is liable for
the attack of dry rot.
(iv) It is not necessary to have damp conditions for the development of
dry rot.
(v) Dry rot is also caused by charring, painting and tarring the
unseasoned timber.
Heart Rot
This is formed when a branch has come out of a tree. In such a case, heart
wood is exposed to the attack of atmospheric agents. Ultimately, the tree
becomes weak and it gives out hollow sound when struck with a hammer.
Sap Stain
Certain types of fungi do not bring about the complete decay of timber. But
they feed on cell contents of sap wood. In doing so, sap wood loses its
colour. This is known as sap stain and it generally occurs where moisture
content goes beyond 20% or so.
Wet Rot
Some varieties of fungi cause chemical decomposition of wood of the
timber and in doing so they convert timber into a greyish brown powder.
This is known as wet rot. The important facts to be remembered are :
(i) Alternate dry and wet conditions favour the development of wet rot.
(ii) If unseasoned or improperly seasoned timbers are exposed to rain and
wind, they become easily liable for the attack of wet rot.
(iii) To prevent wet rot, well-seasoned timber should be used for exterior
work or for underground work and it should be covered by tar or paint
for protection against moisture.
White Rot
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 This defect is just opposite of brown rot. In this case, certain types of fungi Timber
attack lignin of wood and wood assumes the appearance of a white mass
consisting of cellulose compounds.
Defects Due to Insects
Following are the insects which are usually responsible for the decay of
timber :
(i) Beetles
(ii) Marine borers
(iii) Termites
Beetles
These are small insects and they cause rapid decay of timber. They form
pin-holes of size about 2 mm diameter in wood. They attack the sap wood
of all species of hard wood. Tunnels are formed in all directions in sap
wood by the larvae of these beetles. The timber is converted into fine
flour-like powder. They usually do not disturb the outer shell or cover.
Hence, timber piece attacked by beetles may look sound till it completely
fails.
Marine Borers
These are generally found in salty water. Most of the varieties of marine
borers do not feed on wood. But they make holes or bore tunnels in wood
for taking shelter. The diameter and length of these holes may go as high as
25 mm and 60 mm respectively. The wood attacked by marine borers loses
colour and strength. It may be noted that no timber is completely immune
from the attack of marine borers.
Termites
These are popularly known as ‘white ants’ and they are found in abundance
in tropical and sub-tropical countries. These insects live in a colony and
they are very fast in eating away the wood from core of the cross section.
They make tunnels inside the timber in different directions and usually do
not disturb the outer shell or cover. Hence, timber piece attacked by
termites may look sound till it completely fails. Very few good timbers such
as teak, sal, etc., can resist the attack of white ants. Such timbers have
certain chemicals in their composition and the smell of these chemicals is
not favourable for termites.
Defects Due to Natural Force
The main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber are two,
namely
(i) Abnormal growth, and
(ii) Rupture of tissues.
Following defects are caused by these forces :
(i) Burls
(ii) Chemical stain
(iii) Coarse grain
(iv) Dead wood
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Engineering Materials (v) Knots
(vi) Shakes
(vii) Twisted fibres
(viii) Upsets
(ix) Water stain
(x) Wind cracks
Burls
These are also known as ‘excrescences’ and they are particularly formed
when a tree has received shock or injury in its young age. Due to such
injury, the growth of tree is completely upset and irregular projections
appear on the body of the timber.
Chemical Stain
Wood is sometimes discoloured by the chemical action caused to it by some
external agency. This is known as chemical stain.
Coarse Grain
If a tree grows rapidly, annual rings are widened. It is known as coarse
grained timber and such timber possesses less strength.
Dead Wood
Timber which is obtained from dead standing trees contains dead wood. It
is indicated by light weight and reddish colour.
Knots
These are bases of branches or limbs which are broken or cut off from the
tree. The portion from which the branch is removed receives nourishment
from the stem for a pretty long time and it ultimately results in the
formation of dark, hard rings which are known as knots. As continuity of
wood fibres is broken by knots, they form a source of weakness. Figure 4.2
shows a typical knot.

Figure 4.2 : Typical Knot

Knots are classified on the basis of their size and form. Tables 4.1 and 4.2 show
the classification of knots on the basis of their size and form and quality.
Table 4.1 : Classification of Knots on the Basis of their Size
Sl. No. Type of Knot Size
1 Pin knot Diameter upto 6.5 mm
2 Small knot Diameter between 6.5 mm and 20 mm

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 Timber
3 Medium knot Diameter between 20 mm and 40 mm
4 Large knot Diameter greater than 40 mm

Table 4.2 : Classification of Knots on the Basis of Form and Quality

Sl. No. Type of Knot Remarks
1 Dead knot The fibres of knot are not properly interconnected with
those of surrounding wood. Hence, it can be easily
separated out from the body of wood. It is not safe to use
wood with such a knot for engineering purposes.
2 Decayed knot It is also known as an unsound knot and it is formed by
the action of fungi on wood.
3 Live knot It is also known as a sound knot. It is free from decay
and cracks. It is thoroughly fixed in wood and hence, it
cannot be separated out from the body of wood.
Presence of such knots makes wood difficult to plane.
However, wood containing such knots can be used for
engineering purposes.
4 Loose knot It indicates preliminary stage of dead knot. The fibres of
this knot are not firmly held in the surrounding wood.
5 Round knot Cross-section of this type of knot is either round or oval.
It is obtained by cutting the knot at right angles to its
long axis.
6 Tight knot It indicates preliminary stage of live knot. The fibres of
knots are firmly held in the surrounding wood.

Rind Galls
Rind means bark and gall indicates abnormal growth. Hence, peculiar
curved swellings found on the body of a tree are known as Rind Galls as
shown in Figure 4.3. They develop at points from where branches are
improperly cut off or removed.

Figure 4.3 : Rind Galls

Shakes
These are cracks which partly or completely separate the fibres of wood.
Following are the different varieties of shakes :
Cup Shakes
These are caused by the rupture of tissue in a circular direction as
shown in Figure 4.4. It is a curved crack and it separates partly one
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Engineering Materials annual ring from the other. It develops due to non-uniform growth. It
may not prove to be harmful, if it covers only a portion of ring.

Figure 4.4 : Cup Shakes

Heart Shakes
These cracks occur in the centre of cross-section of tree and they
extend from pith to sap wood in the direction of medullary rays as
shown in Figure 4.5. These cracks occur due to shrinkage of interior
part of tree which is approaching maturity. Heart shakes divide the
tree cross-section into two to four parts.

Figure 4.5 : Heart Shakes

Ring Shakes
When cup shakes cover the entire ring, they are known as ring
shakes as shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6 : Ring Shakes

Star Shakes
These are cracks which extend from bark towards the sap wood. They
are usually confined upto the plane of sapwood. They are wider on the

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 outside ends and narrower on the inside ends as shown in Figure 4.7. Timber
They are usually formed due to extreme heat or frost.

Figure 4.7 : Star Shakes

Radial Shakes
These are similar to star shakes. But they are fine, irregular and
numerous. They usually occur when the tree is exposed to sun for
seasoning after being felled down. They run for a short distance from
bark towards the centre, then follow direction of annual ring and
ultimately run towards pith. Figure 4.8 shows radial shakes.

Figure 4.8 : Radial Shakes

Twisted Fibres
These are also known as wandering hearts and they are caused by twisting
of young trees by fast blowing wind. The fibres of wood are twisted in one
direction as shown in Figure 4.9.
Timber with twisted fibres is unsuitable for sawing. It can, however, be
used for posts and poles in an unsawn condition.

Figure 4.9 : Twisted Fibres

Upsets

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Engineering Materials These are also known as ruptures and they indicate wood fibres which are
injured by crushing or compression. Figure 4.10 shows a timber piece with
this defect.
Upsets are mainly due to improper felling of tree and exposure of tree in its
young age to fast blowing wind.

Figure 4.10 : Upsets

Water Stain
Wood is sometimes discoloured when it comes into contact with water. This
is known as water stain and this defect is usually found in converted timber.
Wind Cracks
If wood is exposed to atmospheric agencies, its exterior surface shrinks.
Such a shrinkage results in cracks as shown in Figure 4.11. These are
known as wind cracks.

Figure 4.11 : Wind Cracks

Defects Due to Seasoning

Following defects occur in seasoning process of wood.
(i) Bow
(ii) Case-hardening
(iii) Check
(iv) Collapse
(v) Cup
(vi) Honey-combing
(vii) Radial shakes
(viii) Split
(ix) Twist
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 (x) Warp Timber

Bow
The defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the direction of length of
timber as shown in Figure 4.12.

Figure 4.12 : Bow

Case-hardening
The exposed surface of timber dries very rapidly. It, therefore, shrinks and
is under compression. The interior surface which has not completely dried
is under tension. This defect is known as case-hardening and it usually
occurs in timbers which are placed at the bottom during seasoning.
Check
A check is a crack which separates fibres of wood. It does not extend from
one end to the other.
Collapse
Due to uneven shrinkage, wood sometimes flattens during drying. This is
known as collapse.
Cup
This defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the transverse direction
of timber as shown in Figure 4.13.

Figure 4.13 : Cup

Honey-combing
Due to stress developed during drying, various radial and circular cracks
develop in the interior portion of timber. Timber thus assumes honey-comb
texture and the defect so developed is known as honey-combing.
Radial Shakes
Radial shakes are explained earlier.
Split
When a crack extends from one end to the other, it is known as a split.
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Engineering Materials Twist
When a piece of timber has spirally distorted along its length, it is known as
twist. It is shown in Figure 4.14.

Figure 4.14 : Twist

Warp
When a piece of timber has twisted out of shape, it is said to have warped.

4.9 DECAY OF TIMBER

Timber is said to be decayed when it is so deteriorated that it loses its value as an
engineering material. Various defects in timber have been mentioned earlier.
When these defects are in excess, timber decays and such timber is not used for
engineering purpose. Following are the various causes or situations which favour
the early decay of timber :
(i) Alternate dry and wet conditions.
(ii) Bad storage or stacking of timber.
(iii) Fungi which are responsible for developing diseases in timber such as
blue stain, brown rot, dry rot, heart rot, sap stain, wet and white rot.
(iv) Improper seasoning.
(v) Insects such as beetles, marine borers, termites, etc.
(vi) Keeping timber in contact with damp wall, damp earth, etc.
(vii) Shocks or impacts received during young age from natural forces
such as fast blowing wind, etc.
(viii) Use of timber without taking out sap wood from its structure.
(ix) Using seasoned timber without applying suitably preservative on its
surface.
(x) Using unseasoned wood with the application of protective coat of
paint or tar.

4.10 FELLING OF TREES

A tree should always be felled only after it has fully matured but before the heart
wood starts deteriorating.
If felling is delayed then decay would set in the heart wood which is the best and
the most important part of a tree. Early felling would give lesser quantity of
timber which has not yet developed full strength.

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The lower we go the more is the timber that the trunk of tree yields as such it Timber
would be wise to cut the tree from a place a little below the ground level but
higher up than the roots.
4.10.1 Process of Felling
(i) In the process of felling we make a deep cut with axe at the lowest
possible point of the trunk.
(ii) The trunk may be then sawn to a point beyond the centre of gravity of
the trunk.
(iii) This cut should be made on the side opposite to that on which it is
intended to be felled.
(iv) A cut is then made on a side opposite to the one on which first cut
was made.
(v) Top of tree is then tied with ropes on all the four diametrically
opposite sides. The rope on the side, the tree is to be felled is pulled
and the one on the opposite side is loosened slowly.
(vi) The tree would break at the level of cuts and it should be allowed to
fall gently otherwise it is likely to get damaged.
(vii) After felling, its branches are chopped off and the log is cut to the
needed sizes. It should be protected against rapid drying particularly
at the ends. Its bark should be removed and the log sawn at the
earliest.

4.11 SEASONING OF TIMBER

The art of seasoning is to extract the moisture under controlled conditions as
nearly as possible at a uniform rate from all parts of timber and to leave the
remaining moisture that cannot be extracted, uniformly distributed throughout the
mass.
Irregular drying will cause irregular shrinkage resulting in the setting up of
internal stresses between the fibres. When these stresses become strong enough to
overcome the cohesion of the fibres then the timber warps and shakes are formed.
4.11.1 Objects of Seasoning
(i) Seasoning makes timber resistant to decay.
(ii) Seasoning makes timber lighter.
(iii) It becomes easier to paint and polish seasoned timber.
(iv) It is easier to treat seasoned timber with preservatives.
(v) Seasoned timber becomes stronger and more stable.
(vi) Seasoning stops shrinkage of timber on drying.
(vii) Seasoned timber has better electrical resistance.
4.11.2 Methods of Seasoning
As per the recommendations of IS : 1141-1973, the seasoning methods should be
classified as :
(i) Natural seasoning or Air Seasoning
(ii) Artificial seasoning or Kiln Seasoning
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Engineering Materials Natural Seasoning or Air Seasoning
The log is converted by sawing it into battens and planks etc. as soon as
possible after felling of tree. These are then stacked on a well drained place
in the shade. Care should be taken to ensure free circulation of fresh air all
around each piece while stacking. The stacking should be done on masonry
or concrete supports a few centimeters above the ground. The pattern of
stacking is as shown in Figure 4.15.
Care should be taken not to expose the freshly converted timber stacked for
seasoning to severe winds or to sun.
This process of seasoning timber is the best as it gives very strong and
durable timber, but it is extremely slow. It takes more than six months for
timber to season in moderate climates.

Figure 4.15 : Stacks for Natural Seasoning

Kiln Seasoning or Artificial Seasoning
This method of seasoning speeds up the seasoning process. This method of
seasoning is a must for large scale production of seasoned timber.
Kiln seasoning is done in a chamber equipped with arrangements for
heating and humidifying the air to required conditions of relative humidity
and temperature and for its circulation across the timber stacked in the
chamber for seasoning. Usually, it is steam that is used for heating and
humidifying the air in the kiln. The seasoning of the timber is started at a
comparatively lower temperature and high humidity. As the timber dries,
these conditions are gradually altered until at the end of the seasoning. The
temperature of the air inside the chamber is fairly high and the humidity is
low. The kiln charge is allowed to cool inside the kiln to within 15 to 20o C
of the outside temperature before removal. Seasoning of timber by this
method takes about four to five days under normal conditions.
Relative merits and demerits of the two methods of seasoning are given in
Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 : Comparison of Air Seasoning and Kiln Seasoning
Air Seasoning Kiln Seasoning
It is a slow process It is a quick process
It is a simple and economical It is quite technical and expensive
It is difficult to reduce moisture content Moisture content can be reduced to
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 below 15 to 18%. any desired level. Timber

Air seasoned timber is more amenable to Kiln seasoned timber is less

attacks of insects and fungi. amenable to attacks of insects and
fungi.
It requires more stacking space It requires less stacking space
It gives stronger timber A little weaker timber is obtained

4.12 STACKING OF TIMBER

Timber, before seasoning, should be stacked in yards free from weeds and debris.
The yard should have big shady trees to protect the timber from direct sun.
Ends of logs should be protected against splitting by applying anti-splitting
compositions and stacked on foundations in closed stacks in one or more layers.
Stacks should be protected against direct sun by providing a covering if needed.
4.12.1 Methods of Stacking
(i) One and Nine method
(ii) Close crib method
(iii) Open crib method
One and Nine Method
This method of stacking timbers is best suited for moderately heavy
coniferous timbers in hot climate and for heavy timbers in moist climates.
Stacking pattern by this method is shown in Figure 4.16.

Figure 4.16 : One and Nine Method

Close Crib Method

In this method, reduced air circulation slows down the pace of seasoning.
This method is recommended for staking heavy structured timbers like sal
in hot and dry localities. The stacking pattern is shown in Figure 4.17.

Figure 4.17 : Close Crib Method

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Engineering Materials Open Crib Method
This method is a modification of the close crib method and because of more
air circulation taking place it is more akin to the one and nine method in its
effects. The stacking pattern is shown is Figure 4.18.

Figure 4.18 : Open Crib Method

4.12.2 Precautions to be Taken in Stacking Timber

• Stacks of not more than 100 sleepers are recommended to be made
• Poles are stacked either in closed heaps or with crossers. If stacked in
closed heaps, then there should be alternate layers of butt ends and of
top ends so that the two ends of the stack are level. Poles themselves
could be used as crossers, which should not be spaced more than three
metres.
• Fence posts should be stacked in open crib fashion in which
successive layers of posts are at right angles to each other and there is
a gap of about 8 cm between adjacent posts in the same layer. Centre
to centre distance between crossers should not exceed 1.5 m and the
height of stack should not exceed 3 metres.
• Horizontal stacking of sawn timber is done on vertical pillars of
treated timber, brick masonry or of cement concrete 30 cm square in
section and 30 to 45 cm high. The pillars are spaced 1.2 m centre to
centre along the length and the breadth of the stack. The length of
material to be stacked decides the length of stacking unit. Long beams
of cross-section 10cm × 10cm and above are placed on the foundation
pillars to form a framework for stacking timber.
• Scantlings and squares should be stacked with crossers 5 cm × 4 cm
in section and spaced 2.5 m to 3 m apart. The ends should be
protected with moisture proof coatings.
• Planks should be stacked on level platform with crossers of uniform
thickness and section, which should be in vertical alignment in a
stack. Longer planks should form the bottom of the stack and the
shorter one’s the top. Heavy wooden beams should be placed on the
top to prevent top layers from warping. A gap of about 2.5 cm should
be left between adjoining planks for free circulation of air in the
centre of stack. The stack should be protected against rain and sun by
providing a shed over it.

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4.13 PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
Timber has to be protected from the attack of insects, e.g. white ants etc., and
from internal decay due to dry and wet rots.
Perfect seasoning is the most effective means of preservation. Timber should be
so used that either it is wholly dry and well ventilated or is wholly under water. It
will not decay when kept under water but it will become soft and weak.
Proper damp proofing of the building and providing free circulation of air around
the built in portions of timber are essential for the preservation of the timber used.
However, when these conditions cannot be obtained then preservatives have to be
applied for preservation.
Timber should be well seasoned before the application of preservatives as
otherwise the preservatives would block the pores of timber thereby causing its
decay due to the entrapped moisture.
Direct contact with lime mortar should be avoided while using preservative with
masonry.
4.13.1 Methods of Preservation of Timber
Following are some of the common methods of preservation adopted
(i) Charring
(ii) Tarring
(iii) Painting
(iv) Creosoting
(v) Wolman salt
(vi) Ascu treatment
(vii) Fire proofing of timber
Charring
Lower ends of the posts that are to be embedded in ground are generally
charred with a view to prevent dry rot and attack of worms. It is done by
quenching the ends of posts in water after they are charred on wood fire to a
depth of 1.5 cm.
Tarring
It consists in coating with tar or tar mixed with pitch. Embedded portions of
timber fence posts, ends of door and window frames, battens and beams
built in wall are usually tarred. Tarring is not done in case of those portions
of structural members that are open to view, because of unsightly black
colour.
Painting
A paint when applied to timber acts not only as a good preservative but also
it enhances the appearance of the surface so treated. Only well seasoned
timber should be painted as otherwise the moisture entrapped in the timber,
because of the closing of timber bores by paint, would cause decay. Paints
however, protect seasoned timber against moisture thereby prolonging its

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Engineering Materials life, e.g. soligum paints have excellent preservative properties and protect
timber against the attack of white ants.
Creosoting
Creosote oil is a dark brown thick oily liquid. Thoroughly seasoned timber
dried for 24 hrs before its treatment is placed in an airtight chamber. After
the air has been exhausted from this chamber, the creosote oil is then
pumped in at a pressure of 9 kg/ cm2 at a temperature of 50o C so long as the
timber is not fully saturated with oil. The oil preserves the timber from rot
and from the attacks of white ant.
Uses
• It is used in case of railway sleepers, piles and transmission
poles.
Limitations
• Undesirable colour and smell, inability to take paint well and
the tendency to stain plaster limit its use.
Wolman Salt
This salt consists of creosote and sodium fluoride and is soluble in water.
It is odourless and leaves no stain on wood. After treatment, timber could
be painted or varnished. These salts destroy many kinds of fungi that cause
timber to rot. This renders the timber extremely fire resistant too.
Treatment of timber with zinc chloride, sodium fluoride, magnesium, silico
fluoride or copper sulphate renders the timber immune from the attacks of
fungi. The timber so treated is capable of being painted on drying.
Ascu Treatment
Ascu is available in the form of powder and is made up of three chemicals
mixed in the ratios given below :
(i) 1 part by weight of hydrated arsenic pentaoxide (As2 O5.2H2 O)
(ii) 3 parts by weight of blue vitriol (CuSO4 . 5H2 O)
(iii) 4 parts by weight of potassium dichromate (K2 Cr2 O7 . 2H2O)
Six parts of this powder are mixed with 100 parts by weight of water. Ascu
solution can be applied or sprayed in two coats.
To achieve better results, timber may be soaked in the solution and
impregnated with it under pressure. The timber should be allowed to dry for
three to six weeks. This treatment renders timber immune to the attacks of
white ant.
Ascu treated timber may be painted, varnished, polished or waxed. The
solution is odourless.
Fire Proofing of Timber
Timber cannot be made completely fireproof, however, by treating as below
it can be made fire resistant to a sufficient extent.
Soaking timber in ammonium sulphate, ammonium chloride, ammonia
100 phosphate, sodium arsenate, zinc chloride etc. or spraying on timber, a
 solution of sodium silicate, potassium silicate or ammonia phosphate etc. Timber
imparts fire resisting properties.
Abel’s methods of fire proofing timber is painting the surface first with a
dilute solution of sodium silicate (Na2 SiO3) then with a cream like paste of
slaked fat time and in the end with a concentrated solution of silicate of
soda.

4.14 MEASUREMENTS OF TIMBER

Sawn timber shall be measured as follows :
Length
Rounded or damaged end portions of the sawn timber shall be excluded
from the length which shall be measured in metres. Fractions of a meter
shall be rounded of to the nearest lower 0.01m.
Width and Thickness
It shall be nearest at the narrowest section in centimetres and shall be
rounded off to the nearest centimetres.
Volume
It shall be measured in cubic metres correct to three places of decimal based
on accepted sizes. The volume of a log of wood is calculated by the quarter
girth formula as given below :
4
⎛G⎞
V =⎜ ⎟ ×L
⎝4⎠
where V = volume in m3,
G = girth in m, and
L = length in m.
Dimensions
Sawn timber is generally available in the following lengths and
cross-sections :
Length 2 m; 2.5 m; 3 m and 3.5 m
Cross- section 20 × 10 cm; 25 × 12.5 cm
20 × 12.5 cm; 25 × 15 cm
and 20 × 15 cm; 30 × 15 cm

4.15 TESTS OF TIMBER

The following tests are carried out to check up the physical properties of a test
piece of timber.
4.15.1 Moisture Content Test
To determine the moisture contents of a specimen, a test piece 5 cm × 5 cm
× 2.5 cm is taken and weighed fresh. It is then dried in an oven at a temperature of
103 + 2o C. The weight of the specimen in the oven is regularly observed till the
variation in the last two observations does not exceed 0.002 gm. The specimen is
then considered to have dried.
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Engineering Materials Let W1 be the weight of fresh sample and W0 the weight of the oven dry specimen.
Moisture content is then calculated as below :
W1 − W0
Percentage of moisture content = × 100 .
W0

4.15.2 Specific Gravity Test

The specimens for the test shall be 5 × 5 × 15 cm pieces and free from usual
defects.
The specimens shall be weighed (W1) usually green, correct to 0.001 gm and
volume measured (V1) by immersion method correct to 0.01 cm3. The specimens
are then end coated with paraffin wax by immersion and left to air season at room
temperatures till moisture content of about 12% are reached. The weight (Wr) and
volume (Vr) of the specimen are then noted by the immersion method when the
moisture content is r percent.
The specimens are then kept in an oven at a temperature of 103 + 2o C till the
weight becomes constant. Weight (W0) and volume (V0) are noted then :
W1
Specific gravity at test =
V1

W0
Standard specific gravity =
V1

W0
Over dry specific gravity =
V0

Wr − W0
Moisture content r percent = × 100 %
V0

W1 − W0
or = × 100 %
V0

SAQ 1
(a) Differentiate between hard wood and soft wood. Could a soft wood be
stronger than hard wood?
(b) Describe the characteristics of a good timber.
(c) Explain the precautions required to be taken for prevention of wet rot
and dry rot.
(d) Explain as to why timber used for structural purposes should be
properly seasoned?
(e) Enumerate various defects in timber.

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4.16 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have gained adequate knowledge of Timber as one of the
important construction materials. Wood is used as structural elements in buildings
for various purposes. The timber used for engineering purposes should be free
from defects as far as possible. Defects free timber is possible only when tree has
been felled at proper time and with adequate precautions. It is also necessary that
timber should be properly seasoned and necessary preservatives are used before it
is used for engineering purposes.
Thus, you can see that like any other construction materials, timbers are also very
important construction materials which play an important role in construction
industry.

4.17 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic
listed in Section “Further Reading” to get the answers of the SAQs.

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