Geopolymer

1. INTRODUCTION

The global use of concrete is second only to water. As the demand for
concrete as a construction material increases, so also the demand for Portland cement.
It is estimated that the production of cement will increase from about from 1.5 billion
tons in 1995 to 2.2 billion tons in 2010 .

On the other hand, the climate change due to global warming and
environmental protection has become major concerns. The global warming is caused
by the emission of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), to the atmosphere
by human activities. Among the greenhouse gases, CO2 contributes about 65% of
global warming. The cement industry is held responsible for some of the CO2
emissions, because the production of one ton of Portland cement emits approximately
one ton of CO2 into the atmosphere. The environment must be protected by preventing
dumping of waste/by-product materials in un-controlled manners.

Several efforts are in progress to address these issues. These include the
utilization of supplementary cementing materials such as fly ash, silica fume,
granulated blast furnace slag, rice-husk ash and metakaolin, and the development of
alternative binders to Portland cement.

In this respect, the geopolymer concrete with a much lower environmental

footprint shows considerable promise for application in the concrete industry. In terms
of global warming, the geopolymer technology could significantly reduce the CO2
emission to the atmosphere caused by the cement industries as shown by the detailed
analyses by Gartner.

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The production of versatile, cost-effective geopolymer cements that can be mixed and
hardened essentially like Portland cement represents a game changing advancement,
revolutionizing the construction of transportation , infrastructure and the building
industry.

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1.1 RELEVANCE TO THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

Construction is one of the fast growing fields worldwide. As per the present
world statistics, every year around 260,00,00,000 Tons of Cement is required. This
quantity will be increased by 25% within a span of another 10 years. Since the Lime
stone is the main source material for the ordinary Portland cement an acute shortage of
limestone may come after 25 to 50 years. More over while producing one ton of cement,
approximately one ton of carbon di oxide will be emitted to the atmosphere, which is a
major threat for the environment. In addition to the above huge quantity of energy is
also required for the production of cement. Hence it is most essential to find an
alternative binder.
The Cement production generated carbon dioxide, which pollutes the
atmosphere. The Thermal Industry produces a waste called flyash which is simply
dumped on the earth, occupies larges areas. The waste water from the Chemical
Industries is discharged into the ground which contaminates ground water. By
producing Geopolymer Concrete all the above mentioned issues shall be solved by
rearranging them. Waste Fly Ash from Thermal Industry + Waste water from Chemical
Refineries = Geo polymer concrete. Since Geopolymer concrete doesn’t use any cement,
the production of cement shall be reduced and hence the pollution of atmosphere by the
emission of carbon di oxide shall also be minimized.

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1.2 NEED FOR THE STUDY

Extensive studies conducted on fly ash-based geopolymer concrete are
presented. Salient factors that influence the properties of the geopolymer concrete in the
fresh and hardened states are identified.
Waste Fly Ash from Thermal Industry + Waste water from Chemical
Refineries = Geo polymer concrete. Since Geopolymer concrete doesn’t use any cement,
the production of cement shall be reduced and hence the pollution of atmosphere by the
emission of carbon di oxide shall also be minimized.
Geopolymer concrete—an innovative material that is characterized by long
chains or networks of inorganic molecules—is a potential alternative to conventional
port- land cement concrete for use in transportation infrastructure construction. It relies
on minimally processed natural materials or industrial byproducts to significantly reduce
its carbon footprint, while also being very resistant to many of the durabil- ity issues that
can plague conventional concrete. However, the development of this material is still in
its infancy, and a number of advancements are still needed.
Geopolymer materials represent an innovative technology that is generating
considerable interest in the construction industry, particularly in light of the ongoing
emphasis on sustainability. In contrast to portland cement, most geopolymer systems
rely on minimally processed natural materials or industrial byproducts to provide the
binding agents. Since portland cement is responsible for upward of 85 percent of the
energy and 90 percent of the carbon dioxide attributed to a typical ready-mixed concrete
the potential energy and carbon dioxide savings through the use of geopolymers can be
considerable. Consequently, there is growing interest in geopolymer applications in
transportation infrastructure.
Although geopolymer technology is considered new, the technology has
ancient roots and has been postulated as the building material used in the construction of
the pyramids at Giza as well as in other ancient construction and Moreover, alkali-

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activated slag cement is a type of geopolymer that has been in use since the mid-20th
century.
To date, there are no widespread applications of geopolymer concrete in
transportation infrastructure, although the technology is rapidly advancing in Europe
and Australia.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Siddiqui, (2007); Cheema et al, (2009) (Ref. 1) = It has been reported by them
that high-early strength gain is a characteristic of geopolymer concrete when dry-heat or
steam cured, although ambient temperature curing is possible for geopolymer
concrete. It has been used to produce precast railway sleepers, sewer pipes, and other
prestressed concrete building components. The early- age strength gain is a
characteristic that can best be exploited in the precast industry where steam curing or
heated bed curing is common practice and is used to maximize the rate of production of
elements. Recently, geopolymer concrete has been tried in the production of precast box
culverts with successful production in a commercial precast yard with steam curing.
Geopolymer concrete has excellent resistance to chemical attack and shows promise in
the use of aggressive environments where the durability of Portland cement concrete
may be of concern. This is in aggressive marine environments, environments with high
carbon dioxide or sulphate rich soils. Similarly in highly acidic conditions, geopolymer
concrete has shown to have superior acid resistance and may be suitable for applications
such as mining, some manufacturing industries and sewer systems. Current research at
Curtin University of Technology is examining the durability of precast box culverts
manufactured from geopolymer concrete which are exposed to a highly aggressive
environment with wet-dry cycling in sulphate rich soils particularly applicable.

2.2. Gourley and Johnson (2005) (Ref. 2)=have reported the details of geopolymer
precast concrete products on a commercial scale. The products included sewer pipes,
railway sleepers, and wall panels. Reinforced geopolymer concrete sewer pipes with
diameters in the range from 375 mm to 1800 mm have been manufactured using the
facilities currently available to make similar pipes using Portland cement concrete. Tests
performed in a simulated aggressive sewer environment have shown that geopolymer

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concrete sewer pipes outperformed comparable Portland cement concrete pipes by many
folds. Gourley and Johnson (2005) also reported the good performance of reinforced
geopolymer concrete railway sleepers in mainline tracks and excellent resistance of
geopolymer mortar wall panels to fire.

2.3. Siddiqui (2007) and Cheema et al (2009) (Ref. 3)= They also demonstrated the
manufacture of reinforced geopolymer concrete culverts on a commercial scale. Tests
have shown that the culverts performed well and met the specification requirements of
such products.

2.4. Joseph Davidovits (Ref. 4)=He found that Flyash reacted with alkaline solution
and formed a binding material.

2.5 Hardijito & Rangan (Ref. 5)= They observed that higher concentration of sodium
hydroxide (molar) resulted higher compressive strength and higher the ratio of sodium
silicate-to-sodium hydroxide liquid ratio by mass, showed higher compressive strength
of geopolymer concrete. They also found that the increased in curing temperature in the
range of 30 to 90 °C increased the compressive strength of geopolymer concrete and
longer curing time also increased the compressive strength. They handled the
geopolymer concrete up to120 minutes without any sign of setting and without any
degradation in the compressive strength, resulted very little drying shrinkage and low
creep.

2.6 Suresh Thokchom etal (Ref. 6)= He reported that the Geopolymer mortar
specimens manufactured from fly ash with alkaline activators were structurally intact
and did not show any recognizable change in colour after 18 weeks exposure in 10%

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sulfuric acid solution and the Geopolymer Concrete was high resistance against sulfuric
acid.

2.7 D. Bondar etal (Ref. 7)=He indicated that the strength of geopolymer concrete
decreased as the ratio of water to geopolymer solids by mass increased. Anuar etal
revealed that the concentration (in term of molarity) of NaOH influenced the strength
characteristic of geopolymer concrete. S. Vaidya etal examined that uniform temperature
was developed throughout the mass and Elastic Modulus and Poission’s ratio were
within the acceptable limits.

3. WHAT IS GEOPOLYMER

Geopolymers are a group of material that are manufactured from an

alumino‐silicate mixture and an alkaline solution.They have a wide variety of uses
and advantages over OPC.Alternative binders to OPC includinggeopolymers belong to
the Alkali Activated Materials(AAM) group. A major advantage of using geopolymers
and AAM over OPC is an increase in durability. Cements analyzed from Egyptian and
Roman structures are show to have crystalline zeolitic phases in addition to the
OPC like hydrates.These crystalline phases are one of the reasons why researchers
believe that ancient cement was so much more durable than modern cement. This
durability comes from the three-dimensional polymeric chain and ring structure of the
alumino‐silicates. Unlike cement, water is not used in the reaction of the alumino‐
silicates,instead water is evaporatedout during the curing process.Applications
for geopolymer cements stem from their high heat tolerance, affordability and
reduced environmental impact.
Fly ash is a common component used in AAM and geopolymers. The major reasons for
the use of this material are due to the reduced CO2 emissions resulting from no

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cement being used compared to OPC.Due to the fact that they are not a lime‐base
clinker, the direct CO2 emissions are immediately removed.Geopolymers have the
advantages of an increase of durability and are duction of environmentalimpact over
OPC; however, there are also some minor barriers to bringing geopolymers into
common and ordinary and also for regular use or usage. First,the term
alkali has always carried a bad name in the OPC world due to the limits on alkalis in ce
ment to reducing cracking and expansion effects. Another barrier to introducing itto
the construction is the need for the formation governmental standards regarding
geopolymers.Finally, the science behind geopolymers must expand to fulfill all
mechanical and economical needs.As geopolymers are made by mixing an alumino-
silicate mixture and an alkaline solution, it is important to know how to create the
alumino-silicate mixture and how alkaline the solution should be.

3.1 NECESSITIES OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

This type of geopolymer concrete is starting to revolutionize concrete. It is

being used more in highway construction projects and offshore applications.
Construction is one of the world wide growing fields. As per the present world statics,
every year million tons of cement are required. Ordinary Portland cement is commonly
used in concrete. While producing one ton of cement, approximately one ton of carbon
di oxide will be emitted to the atmosphere, which cause major problems in environment.
Also huge quantity of energy is also required for the production of cement. Hence it is
most essential to find an alternative binder. The Thermal Industry produces a waste
called fly ash which is simply dumped on the earth, occupies large areas. The waste
water from the Chemical Industries is discharged into the ground which contaminates
ground water.

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By producing Geopolymer Concrete all the above mentioned issues shall be

solved by rearranging them. Waste Fly Ash from Thermal Industry + Waste water from
Chemical Refineries = Geo polymer concrete. Since Geopolymer concrete doesn’t use
any cement, the production of cement shall be reduced and hence the pollution of
atmosphere by the emission of carbon di oxide shall also be minimized.

4.MATERIALS USED IN THE GEOPOLYMER

4.1 Red mud

As pure aluminum does not occur naturally,It must be obtained from there
fining of bauxite Bauxite is an aluminum ore that yields alumina , which can form
into aluminum metal via the Hall‐Heroult electro ‐chemicals melting process. The
bauxite that Alcoa uses yields about one metric tonne of alumina for every two
tonnes of bauxite . Alcoa utilized the Bayer Process immensely throughout their
refineries involving, four steps, digestion, clarification, precipitation and calcination,
to extract alumina. This process begins with the bauxite being washed and crushed
for the purpose of increasing surface area via the reduced particle size for the later
stages. Lime and caustic soda (NaOH) from the precipitation step are added into the
mills for the purposes of creating pumpable slurry.

4.2 Fly Ash

Fly ash is a result of burning finely ground coal inside a boiler for the purpose of
producing electricity. This byproduct is removed from the plant exhaust gases through
electrostatic precipitators and scrubber systems. Fly ash is a fine, powdery
material, composed mostly of silica where nearly all particles are spherical in shape. It is
usually light tan in color and consists of silt and clay-sized glassy spheres.

Fly ash is a siliceous material, also known a pozzolan, which will react with
calcium hydroxide at ambient temperatures in the presence of water to produce
cementitious compounds. Due to fly ash’s pozzolanic properties and spherical shape, it
is useful in both cement and concrete applications.

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4.3 Sodium Silicate Na2SiO3

Sodium silicate is a white, soluble solid that produces an alkaline solution

when placed in water. There are many kinds of this compound, including sodium
orthosilicate, Na4SiO4; sodium metasilicate, Na2SiO3; sodium polysilicate,
(Na2SiO3) n, sodium pyrosilicate, Na6Si2O7, and others. All are glassy, colorless and
dissolve in water. As seen in the following equation, sodium carbonate and silicon
dioxide react when under molten conditions to form sodium silicate and carbon
dioxide.
Na2CO3 + SiO2 → Na2SiO3 + CO2

4.4 Calcium Silicate Ca2SiO4

Calcium silicate is a white free-flowing powder derived from limestone and

diatomaceous earth. It has a low bulk density and high physical water absorption. Raw
materials required to produce calcium silicate are lime, hydrochloric acid and sodium
silicate. Burnt lime is treated with hydrochloric acid to produce calcium chloride. The
addition of acid should be calculated and adjusted that almost a neutral solution is
obtained. The clear solution of calcium chloride is then decanted from the top. A
portion of calcium chloride is taken in evaporators and crystallized in suitable
crystallizers. The remaining part of calcium chloride solution is then treated with a
clear sodium silicate, when calcium silicate is precipitated out. The precipitate is
centrifuged, washed, dried, and packed in suitable containers.

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4.5 Sodium Aluminate NaAlO2

Sodium Aluminate is a white crystalline solid and it is manufactured by the

dissolution of aluminum hydroxide in a caustic soda (NaOH) solution. Aluminum
hydroxide can be dissolved in 20-25% aqueous NaOH solution at a temperature roughly
near the boiling point and the aluminum hydroxide should be boiled with approximately
50% aqueous caustic soda until a pulp forms. The final mixture has to be poured into a
tank and cooled; a solid mass containing about 70% NaAlO2 then forms. After being
crushed, this product is dehydrated in a rotary oven. The resulting product contains 90%
NaAlO2 and 1% water, together with 1% free NaOH.
ents inside and outside the ring and rolling elements are mostly ceramic material, it is
defined as the ceramic bearings; if the bearing outer rings and rolling elements are part
of the ceramic material is not used when we it is defined as the hybrid ceramic bearings.
The use of hybrid bearings is more extensive use of ceramic materials known as ceramic
ball bearings, can be divided into zirconia ceramic ball bearings, silicon nitride ceramic
ball bearings.

4.6 Gypsum CaSO4 ∙2H2O

Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dehydrate. It is

moderately water-soluble and in contrast to most other salts, it exhibits a retrograde
solubility, becoming less soluble at higher temperatures. Gypsum is a common mineral,
with thick and extensive evaporate beds in association with sedimentary rocks. Gypsum
is used as an additive during the fly ash geopolymer making process to improve the
geopolymerization.

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4.7 Kaolinite

Kaolinite and metakaolin are relatively inexpensive alumino-silicates which

have been used in most previous studies on geopolymerization. Many of studies have
utilized kaolinite or metakaolin as a secondary source of soluble Si and Al in addition to
waste or natural alumino-silicate materials to synthesis geopolymers. The rate of
dissolution of Al from the waste or natural alumino-silicates is insufficient to produce a
gel of the desired composition.

5. CONSTITUENTS OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

5.1 Coarse Aggregate
Coarse aggregates used in case of cement concrete can be used in case of
Geopolymer concrete (GPC) also where the coarse aggregate should conform to IS-383-
1970.
5.2 Fine Aggregate
In place of sand we can also use bottom ash which can be a replacement of
sand. Up to a level of 20% replacement of sand gives a good compressive strength.
5.3 Admixtures
To improve the workability of fresh concrete, a commercially available
naphthaline based superplasticizer was used. Lignin based first generation plasticizer
shows better performance in terms of workability over third generation superplasticizer.
High range water reducing naphthalene based super plasticiser, naphthalene sulphonate
based superplasticizer etc was also use.
5.4 Alkaline Activators
According to Prof. J. Davidovits the alkaline liquid should be made prior to
one day before mixing because at the time of mixing of Na2SiO3 with NaOH solution it
generates a huge amount of heat and the polymerization takes place by reacting with one
another, which will act as a binder in the geopolymer concrete. Common activators
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include NaOH, Na2SO4 , waterglass, Na2 CO3 , K2 CO3 , KOH, K2SO4 and cement
clinker, the most utilized alkaline activators are a mixture of sodium or potassium
hydroxides (NaOH, KOH) and sodium waterglass (nSiO2 Na2 O) or potassium
waterglass (nSiO2 K2 O).

6. MIXTURE PROPORTIONS OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

The primary difference between geopolymer concrete and Portland cement
concrete is the binder. The silicon and aluminum oxides in the low-calcium fly ash
reacts with the alkaline liquid to form the geopolymer paste that binds the loose coarse
aggregates, fine aggregates, and other un-reacted materials together to form the
geopolymer concrete.
As in the case of Portland cement concrete, the coarse and fine aggregates occupy about
75 to 80% of the mass of geopolymer concrete. This component of geopolymer concrete
mixtures can be designed using the tools currently available for Portland cement
concrete.
The compressive strength and the workability of geopolymer concrete are
influenced by the proportions and properties of the constituent materials that make the
geopolymer paste. Experimental results have shown the following:

 Higher concentration (in terms of molar) of sodium hydroxide solution results in

higher compressive strength of geopolymer concrete.
 Higher the ratio of sodium silicate solution-to- sodium hydroxide solution ratio by
mass, higher is the compressive strength of geopolymer concrete.
 The addition of naphthalene sulphonate-based super plasticizer, up to
approximately 4% of fly ash by mass, improves the workability of the fresh
geopolymer concrete; however, there is a slight degradation in the compressive
strength of hardened concrete when the super plasticizer dosage is greater than 2%.

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 The slump value of the fresh geopolymer concrete increases when the water content
of the mixture increases.
 As the H2O-to-Na2O molar ratio increases, the compressive strength of
geopolymer concrete decreases.
 As can be seen from the above, the interaction of various parameters on the
compressive strength and the workability of geopolymer concrete is complex. In
order to assist the design of low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete
mixtures, a single parameter called
 Higher concentration (in terms of molar) of sodium hydroxide solution results in
higher compressive strength of geopolymer concrete.Higher the ratio of sodium
silicate solution-to- sodium hydroxide solution ratio by mass, higher is the
compressive strength of geopolymer concrete.
 The addition of naphthalene sulphonate-based super plasticizer, up to
approximately 4% of fly ash by mass, improves the workability of the fresh
geopolymer concrete; however, there is a slight degradation in the compressive
strength of hardened concrete when the super plasticizer dosage is greater than 2%.
 The slump value of the fresh geopolymer concrete increases when the water
content of the mixture increases.
 As the H2O-to-Na2O molar ratio increases, the compressive strength of
geopolymer concrete decreases.
 Higher concentration (in terms of molar) of sodium hydroxide solution results
in higher compressive strength of geopolymer concrete.
 Higher the ratio of sodium silicate solution-to- sodium hydroxide solution ratio
by mass, higher is the compressive strength of geopolymer concrete.
 The addition of naphthalene sulphonate-based super plasticizer, up to
approximately 4% of fly ash by mass, improves the workability of the fresh

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geopolymer concrete; however, there is a slight degradation in the compressive

strength of hardened concrete when the super plasticizer dosage is greater than 2%.
 The slump value of the fresh geopolymer concrete increases when the water
content of the mixture increases.
 As the H2O-to-Na2O molar ratio increases, the compressive strength of
geopolymer concrete decreases.

7. GEOPOLYMER CATEGORIES
There are currently four different geopolymer categories including:
 Slag based geopolymer .
 Rock based geopolymer.
 Fly ash based geopolymer .
 Ferro-sialate based geopolymer.

7.1 SLAG BASED GEOPOLYMER

The first geopolymer developed was a slag based geopolymer in the 1980s.
The reason for using this type of cement is due to its the rapid strength gain as it can
reach strengths of up to 20 MPa after just 4 hours. Slag is a partially transparent material
and a by-product in the process of melting iron ore. It usually consists of a mixture of
metal oxides and silicon dioxide. It is also used in the cement and concrete industry. The
substitution of OPC with slag is one of the many benefits that it provides to OPC
concrete, reducing life cycle costs and improving the workability of the fresh concrete,
Easier finishability, higher compressive and flexural strength and also the improved
resistance to acid materials. The reactions of slag in alkali activating systems and in
cement blends are dominated by the small particles. The particles that are above 20 µm
usually react slowly, while particles under 2 µm react completely within 24 hours. Thus,

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when slag is used in geopolymerisation, careful control of the particle size distribution
must be ensured to control the strength of the binder.
Examples of slag used are; Iron blast-furnace slag, Corex slag& Steel slag.
7.2 ROCK BASED GEOPOLYMER
To compose this type of geopolymer, a fraction of the MK-750(“MK” is an
abbreviation for metakaolin and the “750” represents the temperature at which it was
produced) in the slag based geopolymer is replaced by natural rock forming materials
such as feldspar and quarts. This mixture yields a geopolymer with better properties and
less CO2 emissions than that of the ordinary slag based geopolymer.
The components of rock based geopolymer cement is metakaolin MK-750,
blast-furnace slag, natural rock forming materials (calcined or non-calcined) and a user
friendly alkali silicate.
7.3 FLY ASH BASED GEOPOLYMER
Fly ash is the waste material produced in blast furnace. Components of fly
ash are amorphous composition (60%), quartz (20%), mullite (17%), maghemite (1.7%)
and hematite (0.9%). Fly ash is commonly used as a substitute for OPC in concrete and
the addition of it provides.
Fly ash consists of spherical particles which improve the workability of the
fresh OPC concrete. This enables one to reduce the amount of water in the mix which
reduces the amount of bleeding of OPC concrete.
 Improves mechanical properties such as compressive strength, due to the
water reduction and ensures a higher reactiveness and better “packing” of
particles.
 Reduce the cost of the OPC concrete.
 Reduces the CO2 emissions and drying shrinkage.
 Smoother surface.

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Fig. 7.1- Graded fly ash

Fly ash can be divided in to two, type F fly ash and type C fly ash. The type
F fly ash can be again classified into two Alkali- activated fly ash geopolymer and Fly
ash/slag based geopolymer. most of the globally available fly ash material is a low
calcium by product obtained from the burning of anthracite and bituminous coal.
 Alkali-activated fly ash geopolymer
This kind of geopolymer usually requires heat curing at 60 ºC to 80 ºC. It is
also known as the alkali activation method. A high concentration of sodium hydroxide
solution is required to ensure an adequate geopolymerisation process. The mixture
consists of fly ash and a user-hostile sodium hydroxide solution. The fly ash particles
are embedded into an aluminosilicate gel with a Si: Al ratio of 1 to 2.
 Fly ash/slag based geopolymer
This kind of geopolymer is more user-friendly and it hardens at room
temperature. The mixture consists of a user-friendly silicate, blast furnace slag and fly
ash. The fly ash particles are embedded into a geopolymer matrix with and Si: Al ratio
of 2.

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7.4 FERRO SIALATE BASED GEOPOLYMER

This type of geopolymer has the same properties as rock based geopolymers
but contains geological elements with high iron oxide content, giving the geopolymer a
red colour. Some of the aluminium atoms in the matrix are substituted with iron ions to
yield a poly (Ferro-sialate) type geopolymer with the following formation: (Ca,K)- (-Fe-
O)-(-Si-O-Al-O-).

8. STUDY OF PROPERTIES OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

8.1 STUDY OF FLY ASH BASED GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE
8.1.1 Creep Test
Test Specimens Test specimens for the creep test were 150x300 mm cylinders and eight
cylinders were prepared for each test. Three cylinders were used for measuring the
creep, two companion cylinders measured the drying shrinkage and the other three
cylinders were used for the compressive strength test.
Test Procedure
The three specimens for creep test were placed in a specially-built creep
testing frame with a hydraulic loading system. Before the creep specimens were loaded,
the 7th day compressive strength of geopolymer concrete was determined by testing the
three cylinders reserved for the compressive strength test. The creep specimens were
applied with a load corresponding to 40 percent of the measured mean compressive
strength of concrete. This load was maintained as the sustained load throughout the
duration of the test. The strain values were measured and recorded immediately before
and after the loading. Strains experienced by the control shrinkage specimens were
measured at the same time as the strain measurements on creep specimens. The strain

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values were measured and recorded at 2 hours, 6 hours, and then every day for the first
week, after loading. The measurements then continued once a week until the fourth
week. After that, the measurements were done once in 2 weeks until the twelfth week
and the once every four weeks until one year. The creep tests were conducted in a
laboratory room where the temperature was maintained at about 23ºC, but the relative
humidity could not be controlled. The relative humidity varied between 40% and 60%
during the test.

Figure No.-8.1.1. creep test.

In OPC concrete creep is higher than that of geopolymer concrete and thus
the geopolymer concrete specimens undergo low creep.
8.1.2 Drying Shrinkage Test
Test specimen 75x75x285 mm prisms with gauge studs were used for drying shrinkage
test.

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Test Procedure
The shrinkage strain measurements started on the third day after casting the
concrete. On the third day after casting, the specimens were demoulded and the first
measurement was taken. Horizontal length comparator was used for length
measurements. The next measurement was on the fourth day of casting, considered as
Day 1 for the drying shrinkage measurements. The measurements then continued every
day in the first week, once a week until the fourth week, once in two weeks until the
twelfth week, and then once in four weeks until one year. During the drying shrinkage
tests, the specimens were kept in a laboratory room where the temperature was
maintained at approximately at 23ºC. The relative humidity of the room varied between
40% and 60%.

Figure No.-8.1.2 Horizontal Length Comparator with Drying Shrinkage Test Specimen.

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Geopolymer concrete specimens undergo low drying shrinkage. The drying

shrinkage of geopolymer concrete, cured at ambient temperatures, shows shrinkage
significantly higher than that of heat cured geopolymer concrete. The excess water in
the geopolymer concrete evaporates during the heat curing process, eliminating almost
any chance of drying shrinkage. The drying shrinkage for geopolymer concrete cured at
ambient temperatures is similar compared to that of OPC concrete. Figure 4.3 shows the
drying shrinkage of heat cured and ambient curing specimens.

Figure No.-8.1.3 Drying shrinkage of heat cured and ambient cured specimens.

9. ADVANTAGES OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

9.1 High Strength

It has a high compressive strength that showed higher compressive strength

than that of ordinary concrete.it also has rapid strength gain and cures very quickly.
Making it an excellent for quick builds. Geopolymer concrete has high tensile strength.it

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is less brittle than Portland concrete and can withstand more movement. it is not
completely earth quake proof, but does withstand the earth moving better than
traditional concrete.

9.2 Very Low Creep And Shrinkage

Shrinkage can cause severe and even dangerous cracks in the concrete from
the drying and heating of the concrete or even the evaporation of water from the
concrete. Geopolymer concrete does not hydrate; it is not as permeable and will not
experience significant shrinkage. The creep of geopolymer concrete is very low. The
tendency of the concrete become permanently deformed due to the constant forces being
applied against it is known as creep in concrete.

9.3 Resistant To Heat And Cold

It has the ability to stay stable even at temperature of more than 2200 degrees
Fahrenheit. Excessive heat can reduce the stability of concrete causing it to spall or have
layers break off. Geopolymer concrete does not experience spalling unless it reaches
over 2200 degrees Fahrenheit.As for old temperatures, it is resistant to freezing. The
pores are very small but water can still enter cured concrete. When temperature dip to
below freezing that water freezes and then expands this will cause cracks to form.
Geopolymer concrete will not freeze.

9.4 Chemical Resistance

It has a very strong chemical resistance. Acids, toxic waste and salt water
will not have an effect on geopolymer concrete. Corrosion is not likely to occur with
this concrete as it is with traditional Portland concrete.

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9.5 Environmental Benefits

The use of geopolymer concrete reduces the need of OPC, that’s why we
have to reduce the environmental pollution that caused by the emission of CO2 during
the production of OPC.
9.6 Repairng Works
Geopolymer Concrete shall be used in repairs and rehabilitation works.

10. DISADVANTAGE OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

10.1 Difficult To Create

Geopolymer concrete requires special handling needs and is extremely

difficult to create. It requires the use of chemicals, such as sodium hydroxide, that can
be harmful to humans.

10.2 Pre Mix Only

Geopolymer concrete is sold only as a pre-cast or pre mix material due to the
dangers associated with creating it.

10.3 Geopolymerization Process Is Sensitive

This field of study has been proven inconclusive and extremely volatile.
Uniformity is lacking.

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11. APPLICATIONS OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

Geopolymer mortars and concretes possess a high potential for use in
commercial applications due to their enhanced durability, thermal and chemical 22
resistance properties, rapid development of mechanical strength, adherence to
reinforcements aggregates and economic benefit as an industrial by-product material.
11.1 Concrete Pipes
The use of geopolymer concretes for commercial sewer piping is a good
option from the basis of their resistance to sulphates and acidic products. Sulphuric acid
is generated in conventional sewer systems through the breakdown of hydrogen
sulphide by aerobic bacteria in the system and is the main factor in corrosion and
structural deterioration of the piping networks over time. Approximately 40 percent of
the damage to PCC pipes can be attributed to corrosion by biogenous sulphuric acid
attack as a result of long flow periods and insufficient ventilation of wastewater.

Fig. 11.1 Precast Geopolymer Concrete Pipes

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11.2 Structural Elements

Geopolymer concrete is used for the casting of both columns and beams. The
load capacity of geopolymer columns is influenced by load eccentricity, concrete
compressive strength values and longitudinal reinforcement ratios. Decreased
eccentricity loading and reinforcement ratio increases favour an increase in overall
column load capacity.

Fig.11.2 -Geopolymer Columns After Demoulding.

Fig.11.3- Geopolymer beam(10.8m ) craned into position.

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11.3 Pavements
Geopolymer concrete is used for the construction of heat resistant pavement
due to its thermal capacity. Pozzolan-based geopolymer cements do not readily
decompose when exposed to high temperatures and appear to be more structurally stable
under such conditions than PCC. Geopolymer cements utilize more and store less water
from solution during particle reaction, and therefore, prevent aged dry shrinkage and
strength degradation due to rapid water loss under extreme heat.

Fig.11.4- Placing Of Pavement Using Geopolymer Concrete.

11.4 Retaining Wall

A total of over fifty 40 MPa geopolymer precast panels were used a retaining
wall for a private residence. The panels were up to 6 metres long by 2.4 metres wide and
were designed to retain earth pressure of 3 metres.

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Fig.11.5- Precast Geopolymer Retaining Walls For A Private Residence.

11.5 Other Applications

According to Davidovits (1988), geopolymeric materials have a wide range
of applications in the field of industries such as in the automobile and aerospace,
nonferrous foundries and metallurgy, civil engineering and plastic industries. The type
of application of geopolymeric materials is determined by the chemical structure in
terms of the atomic ratio Si:Al in the polysialate. Davidovits (1999) classified the type
of application according to the Si:Al ratio as presented in Table 9.6 . A low ratio of Si:Al
of 1, 2, or 3 initiates a 3DNetwork that is very rigid, while Si:Al ratio higher than 15
provides a polymeric character to the geopolymeric material.

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Table 7.1 Application of geopolymeric materials based on Si:Al atomic ratio Si:Al
ratio

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12. CONCLUSION
Geopolymer concrete is well known for its promising mechanical properties,
acid resistance and fire resistance and therefore is a potential alternative construction
material with comparable properties to OPC concrete. The constituents of Geopolymer
Concrete shall be capable of being mixed with a relatively low alkali activating solution
and must be curable in a reasonable time under ambient conditions. Geopolymers emit
approximately 80% less CO2 than OPC during production, making it a more
environmental friendly building material. Like OPC concrete, geopolymer concrete has
a brittle failure. Alternatively, fibres can be added to improve the ductility of concrete.
The properties of geopolymer include high early strength, low shrinkage, freeze- thaw
resistance, sulphate resistance and corrosion resistance. These high-alkali binders do not
generate any alkali-aggregate reaction. The geopolymer binder is a low CO2 cementious
material. It does not depend on the Calcination of limestone that generates CO2. This
technology can save up to 80% of CO2 emissions caused by the cement and aggregate
industries. Due to the high early strength, Geopolymer Concrete shall be effectively
used in the precast industries, so that huge production is possible in short duration of
time.

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13.REFERENCES

1.Ammar Motorwala, Vineet Shah, Ravishankar kammula, Praveena

Nannapaneni, Prof. D.B. Ranjiwala (2013), Alkali Activated Fly-Ash Based
Geopolymer Concrete, International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced
Engineering, Volume 3, Issue1,159-166.

2. Kolli Ramujee, M. Potharaju (2014), Development of Low Calcium Flyash Based

Geopolymer Concrete, IACSIT International Journal of Engineering and Technology,
Volume 6, Issue 1.

3. M.I Abdul Aleem, P.D.Arumairaj(2012), Geopolymer Concrete –A Review,

International Journal of Engineering Sciences & Emerging Technologies, Volume 1,
Issue 2,118-122.

4. P. Vignesh, A.R. Krishnaraja, N. Nandhini (2014), Study on Mechanical

Properties of Geopolymer concrete using M-sand and Glass Fibers, International Journal
of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, Volume 3, Issue 2,
110- 116.

5. Raijiwala D.B, Patil H.S (2011), Geopolymer Concrete: A Concrete Of Next

Decade, Journal of Engineering Research and Studies, Volume 2, Issue 1,19-25.

6. S.E Wallah , B.V.Rangan (2006), Low Calcium Fly Ash Based Geopolymer
Concrete: Long Term Properties, Curtin University of Technology, Perth , Australia.

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7. Tawatchai Tho-in, Vanchai Sata, Prinya chindaprasirt, Chai Jaturapitakkul

(2012), Pervious High Calcium Flyash Geopolymer Concrete, ELSEVIER Construction
And Building Material, Volume 25, Issue 1,366-371.
8. Davidovits, J. 1984. “Pyramids of Egypt Made of Man- Made Stone, Myth or
Fact?” Symposium on Archaeometry 1984. Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
DC.

9. "Boral Fly Ash." Boral, <http://www.boralna.com/flyash/faq.asp>.

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