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COMPOSITES
-Composite materials are engineered materials made from two or more
constituent materials that remain separate and distinct while forming a
single component

-Generally, one material forms a continuous matrix while the other

provides the reinforcement

- The two materials must be chemically inert with respect to each other so
no interaction occurs upon heating until one of the components melts, an
exception to this condition is a small degree of interdiffusion at the
reinforcement-matrix interface to increase bonding

Can you think of any examples of where

composites are used?

CFRP – carbon
fiber reinforced
composite.

GFRP –
glass fiber
reinforced
composite

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Composites in industry

 Engineering applications
 Aerospace
 Automobile
 Pressure vessel and pipes
 Any place where high performance materials are desired

Turret Shield Bullet proof

Industrial
Medical Table shields
Spring
www.composiflex.com

Nature of Composites:
 Advantages:
 High strength to weight ratio (low density high tensile strength) or high specific strength
ratio!
 High creep resistance
 High tensile strength at elevated temperatures
 High toughness
 Generally perform better than steel or aluminum in applications where cyclic loads are
encountered leading to potential fatigue failure (i.e. helicopter blades).
 Impact loads or vibration – composites can be specially formulated with high toughness
and high damping to reduce these load inputs.
 Some composites can have much higher wear resistance than metals.
 Corrosion resistance
 Dimensional changes due to temp changes can be much less.
 Anisotropic – bi-directional properties can be design advantage (i.e. helicopter blades)

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Nature of Composites:

 Disadvantages (or limitations):

 Material costs
 Fabrication/ manufacturing difficulties
 Repair can be difficult
 Operating temperature can be an issue for polymeric matrix (i.e.
500 F). Less an issue for metal matrix (2,700 F).
 Properties non-isotropic makes design difficult!
 Example –aligned continuous fibers 10X stronger vs fibers
oriented at an angle.
 Inspection and testing typically more complex.

Classification of Composite by Filler Type:

Particle-reinforced composites
Fiber-reinforced composites
Structural composites

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Particle Reinforced Composites:

 Particles used for reinforcing include:
 ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles,
 metal particles such as aluminum,
 and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black.
 Particles are used to increase the modulus of the matrix, to decrease the permeability of the matrix, or to
decrease the ductility of the matrix.
 Particle reinforced composites support higher tensile, compressive and shear stresses
 Particles are also used to produce inexpensive composites.
 Examples:
 automobile tire which has carbon black particles in a matrix of elastomeric polymer.
 spheroidized steel where cementite is transformed into a spherical shape which improves the
machinability of the material.
 concrete where the aggregates ( sand and gravel) are the particles and cement is the matrix.

Examples for particle-reinforced composites. (Spheroidized steel and

automobile tire)

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Fiber-reinforced Composites:
 Reinforcing fibers can be made of metals, ceramics, glasses, or polymers that have been turned into
graphite and known as carbon fibers. Fibers increase the modulus of the matrix material. Fibers are
difficult to process into composites which makes fiber-reinforced composites relatively expensive. Fiber-
reinforced composites are used in some of the most advanced, and therefore most expensive, sports
equipment, such as a time-trial racing bicycle frame which consists of carbon fibers in a thermoset
polymer matrix. Body parts of race cars and some automobiles are composites made of glass fibers (or
fiberglass) in a thermoset matrix.

 The arrangement or orientation of the fibers relative to one another, the fiber concentration, and the
distribution all have a significant influence on the strength and other properties of fiber-reinforced
composites. Applications involving totally multidirectional applied stresses normally use discontinuous
fibers, which are randomly oriented in the matrix material. Consideration of orientation and fiber length
for a particular composites depends on the level and nature of the applied stress as well as fabrication
cost. Production rates for short-fiber composites (both aligned and randomly oriented) are rapid, and
intricate shapes can be formed which are not possible with continuous fiber reinforcement.

Note: Fiber composite manufacturers often rotate layers

of fibers to avoid directional variations in the modulus.

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The modulus of the entire composite, matrix plus reinforcer, is governed by

the rule of mixtures:

Stiff and Strong!!

Soft and Weak!

Structural Composites:

 The properties of structural composites depend on:

 Constituents
 Geometrical design

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Structural Composites:
Common structural composite types are:
Laminar: Is composed of two-dimensional sheets or panels that have
a preferred high strength direction such as is found in wood and
continuous and aligned fiber-reinforced plastics. The layers are
stacked and cemented together such that the orientation of the
high-strength direction varies with each successive layer. One
example of a relatively complex structure is modern ski and another
example is plywood.

Structural Composites:
Common structural composite types are:
Sandwich Panels: Consist of two strong outer sheets which are called
face sheets and may be made of aluminum alloys, fiber reinforced
plastics, titanium alloys, steel. Face sheets carry most of the loading and
stresses. Core may be a honeycomb structure which has less density than
the face sheets and resists perpendicular stresses and provides shear
rigidity. Sandwich panels can be used in variety of applications which
include roofs, floors, walls of buildings and in aircraft, for wings, fuselage
and tailplane skins.

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COMPOSITES
Composites can be classified by their matrix material which include:

-Metal matrix composites (MMC’s)

-Ceramic matrix composites (CMC’s)

-Polymer matrix composites (PMC’s) or sometimes referred to as

organic matrix composites (OMC’s)

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COMPOSITES
MMC - Metal Matrix Composites
-The matrix is relatively soft and ductile.
-The reinforcement must have high strength and stiffness
-Since the load must be transferred from the matrix to the reinforcement,
the reinforcement-matrix bond must be strong.

MMC use:
-Two types of particulates ( dispersion strengthened alloys and regular
particulate composites)
-Or long fiber reinforcements

COMPOSITES
PMC - Polymer Matrix Composites
-The matrix is relatively soft and flexible
-The reinforcement must have high strength and stiffness
-Since the load must be transferred from matrix to reinforcement,
the reinforcement-matrix bond must be strong

CMC – Ceramic Matrix Composites

-The matrix is relatively hard and brittle
-The reinforcement must have high tensile strength to arrest crack
growth
-The reinforcement must be free to pull out as a crack extends, so
the reinforcement-matrix bond must be relatively weak

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Polymer matrix composites or Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)

 Fibers generally glass, carbon or kevlar

 Matric can be:
Thermoplastics: PE, Nylon, PS, PP, PC, PVC
Thermosets: Epoxy, polyester, phenolics
 Have high strength and stiffness to weight ratio
 Aerospace, sporting goods marine
 Examples: GFRP aka fiberglass (polyester or epoxy and glass), CFRP
(polyester or epoxy and carbon), KFRP (polyester or epoxy and Keflar)

Layered Composites

Coordinate System
Lamina – 1,2,3
Laminate – x,y,z

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Ranking of Most Common Fibers for FRP

Property Glass Carbon Kevlar

Strength Worst In - between Best
Stiffness Worst Best In – between
Cost Best Worst In – between
Weight Worst Best In-between

Manufacturing FRP (see video)

 Hand lay-up (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_GDqxnahwbk&list=PL9FC6FF2112573125&index=2
 Filament winding or Pultrusion (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4MoHNZB5b_Y
 Resin Transfer (or) Injection Molding (RTM)

http://www.scaled.com/index.html
http://www.ckcomposites.com/

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Metal matrix composites (MMC):

 Metal matrix: Al, Ti, Mg, Fe, Cu, Ni

 Example: Al-SiC (silicon carbide)
 Example: Al-Al2O3 (aluminum oxide)
 High strength, high stiffness, abrasion resistance, dimensional stability, high
temperature and toughness.

Ceramic matrix composites (CMC):

 Silicon carbide-silicon carbide (SiC-SiC)

 Same material both matrix and filler BUT filler different form such as whickers,
chopped fibers or strands to achieve preferred properties.

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Nature of Composites:

 The strength of the composite depends primarily on the amount,

arrangement and type of fiber (or particle) reinforcement in the resin.

 Typically, the higher the reinforcement content, the greater the strength.
In some cases, glass fibers are combined with other fibers, such as
carbon or aramid (Kevlar29 and Kevlar49), to create a "hybrid"
composite that combines the properties of more than one reinforcing
material.

DISPERSION STRENGTHENED MMC’S

-Dispersion strengthened alloys can be considered as composites because
there is little or no interaction between the two components and the
reinforcement is not soluble in the metal matrix.
-The dispersoids are usually 10-250 nm diameter oxide particles and are
introduced by physical means rather than chemical precipitation.
-They are located within the grains and at grain boundaries but are not
coherent with the matrix as in precipitation hardening
-The dispersed particles are sufficiently small in size to impede dislocation
movement and thus improve yield strength as well as stiffness..

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SINTERED ALUMINUM POWDER (SAP) COMPOSITES

-SAPs have an aluminum matrix with aluminum oxide (Al2O3) particulate

-The matrix can be strengthened by %14

SAPs are produced using different methods, two examples are as follows:
1. Al and Al2O3 powders are blended then compacted at high pressure
then sintered like a ceramic.

2. Al powder is heated in air to form a thick film of Al2O3 on each

particle, when the powder is compacted the Al2O3 film fractures into
tiny particles and becomes surrounded by the Al during sintering

SINTERED ALUMINUM POWDER (SAP) COMPOSITES

Properties of SAP compared

to 2024-T8, 7075-T6 and a
boron fiber strengthened
1100 alloy.

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THORIA-DISPERSED COMPOSITES
-An important group of dispersion-strengthened composites is thoria-
dispersed (TD) metals
-Thorium is an element in the periodic table (atomic number 90)

A common example is TD-nickel

TD-nickel composites produced by:

-Powders of metallic Th and Ni are ball milled, compacted at
high pressure and then sintered.

-The compact is then heated in air and oxygen diffuses in to

react with Th metal to form a fine dispersion of ThO2.

-This method, internal oxidation is also used for fabricating

the W-ThO2 composites. Electron micrograph of TD-Ni with 300
nm diameter ThO2 particles (X2000)

CEMENTED CARBIDES (CERMETS)

-Cemented carbides are an example of regular particulate MMC’s (as opposed to
dispersion strengthened MMC’s)
-Carbides such as WC (tungsten-carbide) are used for cutting tool inserts but this
hard ceramic is very brittle so it cracks or chips under impact loads, to remedy this
cobalt is used as a matrix
-Co-WC (cobalt tungsten-carbide) cermets are produced by pressing Co and W
powders into compacts, which are heated above the melting point of Co
-On cooling the carbide particles become embedded in the solidified Co, which
act as a tough matrix for the WC particles
-In addition to its strength and toughness, Co is also selected because it wets the
carbide particles to give a strong bond

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CEMENTED CARBIDES (CERMETS)

-Cemented carbides are commonly used as inserts for cutting tools

Figure (from left to right):

Cutting tool inserts, a
milling tool and a lathe tool

-I’m sure you’ve seen these in the machine shop

PARTICULATE MMC’S FOR ELECTRICAL CONTACTS

-Electrical contacts used in switches, relays and motors must be quite wear
resistant to stand up in service
-Highly conductive metals such as Cu and Ag are relatively soft and thus
show excessive wear when used as contacts resulting in arcing and poor
electrical conduction.
-The goal is to produce a contact that is both a good conductor and has
excellent wear properties
-This is done by using silver reinforced with tungsten particles, the Ag is a
terrific conductor while the W provides good wear properties

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PARTICULATE MMC’S FOR ELECTRICAL CONTACTS

-The composite is made in two stages:

-First a low density compact with interconnected pores is
produced by pressing and firing tungsten powder (figure a and b)
-Liquid silver is then infiltrated into the connected voids under
vacuum (figure c)

The final product has a continuous Ag and W

structure which provides good electrical
conductivity and wear resistance

b c

CAST METAL PARTICULATE MMC’S

-Al alloys for automotive connecting rods and pistons can be strengthened
and hardened by the addition of SiC (silicon carbide) particles.

-The SiC particles are introduced at a temperature at which the alloy is in the
solid plus liquid state, ie., by “compocasting”.

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CAST METAL PARTICULATE MMC’S

Compocasting of Al-SiC:
-Partially solidified alloy is stirred to break up dendrites (fig. a)
-Particles of SiC are added at this temperature (fig. b)
-In a pressure die casting machine, the solid mixture becomes thixotropic
to form a high density casting (fig. c)

CAST METAL PARTICULATE MMC’S

Microstructure of cast Al Alloy reinforced with particles of SiC

magnified X125

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RULE OF MIXTURES

For particulate composites, the rule of mixtures predicts the density of the
composite as well as other properties (although other properties may vary
depending on how the dispersed phase is arranged)

Density, r, is given as a fraction, f, as:

rc  f m rm  f f r f Note that f m  1  f f

Where the subscripts m and f refer to the matrix and fiber.

RULE OF MIXTURES
For fiber reinforced composites, the rule of mixtures predicts the density of the
composite as well as electrical and thermal conductivity along the direction
of the fibers if they are continuous and unidirectional.

Density, r, is given as a fraction, f, as:

rc  f m rm  f f r f Note that f m  1  f f
For thermal conductivity: For electrical conductivity:
Kc  f m K m  f f K f  c  f m m  f f  f
Thermal and electrical energy can be transferred through the composite at a rate
that is proportional to the volume fraction, f of the conductive material

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RULE OF MIXTURES
In a composite material with a metal matrix and ceramic fibers, the bulk of the
energy would be transferred through the matrix.

In a composite consisting of a polymer matrix containing metallic fibers, the

energy would be transferred through the fibers.

When the fibers are not continuous or unidirectional, the simple rule of
mixtures may not apply.

For example, in a metal fiber-polymer matrix composite, electrical

conductivity would be low and would depend on the length of the fibers, the
volume fraction of fibers and how often the fibers touch one another.

RULE OF MIXTURES
The rule of mixtures can also be used to predict the modulus of elasticity when the
fibers are continuous and unidirectional.

Parallel to the fibers, the modulus of elasticity may be as high as:

Ec  f m E m  f f E f
However, when the applied load is very
large, the matrix begins to deform and the
stress-strain curve is no longer linear. Since
the matrix now contributes little to the
stiffness, the modulus is approximated by:

Ec  f f E f

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RULE OF MIXTURES
Perpendicular to the fibers, the modulus of elasticity may be as
high as:
1 ff f
  m
Ec E f E m

FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES

-Fiber reinforced composites provide improved strength, fatigue
resistance, Young’s modulus and strength to weight ratio over the
constituent materials.

-This is achieved by incorporating strong, stiff, yet brittle fibers into

a more ductile matrix.

-Generally speaking the fiber supplies the strength and stiffness

while the matrix binds the fibers together and provides a means of
transferring the load to fibers

-The matrix also provides protection for the fibers

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CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES

-Many factors must be considered when designing a fiber-reinforced

composite including the length, diameter, orientation, amount and properties
of the constituents, and the bonding between them.

-The method used to produce the final product is also very important as it
dictates the type of properties just mentioned as well as the quality of the
product.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES

Fiber length and diameter: Fiber dimensions are characterized by their
aspect ratio l/d where l is the fiber length and d is the diameter.
The strength improves when the aspect ratio is large.
Typical fiber diameters are from 10 mm to 150 mm.
Fibers often fracture because of surface imperfections. Making the
diameter small reduces its surface area, which has fewer flaws.
Long fibers are preferred because the ends of the fiber carry less of the
load. Thus the longer the fiber, the fewer the ends and the higher the load
carrying capacity of the fibers.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES

-As can be seen from this

plot, the strength of the
composite increases as the
fiber length increases (this is
a chopped E-glass-epoxy
composite)

FIBER ORIENTATION

-Maximum strength is obtained

when long fibers are oriented
parallel to the applied load
-The effect of fiber orientation
and strength can be seen in the
plot

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FIBER ORIENTATION

-The properties of fiber

composites can be tailored
to meet different loading
requirements
-By using combinations of
different fiber orientation
quasi-isotropic materials
may be produced

Figure (a) shows a unidirectional arrangement

Figure (b) shows a quasi-isotropic arrangement

FIBER ORIENTATION

-A three dimensional
weave is also possible

-This could be found

when fabrics are
knitted or weaved
together

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FIBER PROPERTIES
In most fiber-reinforced composites, the fibers are strong, stiff and
lightweight.
If the composite is to used at elevated temperatures, the fiber should
also have a high melting temperature.
The specific strength and specific modulus of fibers are important
characteristics given by:

TS E
Specific Strength  Specific modulus 
r r

Where TS is the tensile strength, E is the elastic modulus

and r is the density.

FIBER PROPERTIES

-On the left is a graph

showing specific
strength vs. specific
modulus for different
types of fibers

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TYPES OF FIBERS
Some commonly used fibers for polymer matrix composites:
-Glass fibers
-Carbon fibers
-Aramid fibers

Some commonly used fibers for metal matrix composites:

-Boron fibers
-Carbon fibers
-Oxide ceramic and non-oxide ceramic fibers

GLASS FIBERS
Due to the relatively inexpensive cost glass fibers are the most commonly used
-

reinforcement
-There are a variety of types of glass, they are all compounds of silica with a
variety of metallic oxides

Designation: Property or Characteristic:

E, electrical low electrical conductivity
S, strength high strength
C, chemical high chemical durability
M, modulus high stiffness
A, alkali high alkali or soda lime glass
D, dielectric low dielectric constant

-The most commonly used glass is E-glass, this is the most

popular because of it’s cost

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CARBON FIBERS

-Carbon fibers have gained a lot of popularity in the last two decades due to
the price reduction

“Carbon fiber composites are five times stronger than 1020 steel yet five times
lighter. In comparison to 6061 aluminum, carbon fiber composites are seven
times stronger and two times stiffer yet still 1.5 times lighter”

-Initially used exclusively by the aerospace industry they are becoming more
and more common in fields such as automotive, civil infrastructure

ARAMID FIBERS
- Aramid fibers are also becoming more and more common

-They have the highest level of specific strength of all the common
fibers

-They are commonly used when a degree of impact resistance is

required such as in ballistic armour

-The most common type of aramid is Kevlar

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COMPARATIVE COST OF FIBER

REINFORCEMENT

COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE FORMS OF REINFORCEMENT

-Filament: a single thread like fiber

-Roving: a bundle of filaments wound to form a large strand

-Chopped strand mat: assembled from chopped filaments bound with a

binder

-Continuous filament random mat: assembled from continuous filaments

bound with a binder

-Many varieties of woven fabrics: woven from rovings

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COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE FORMS OF REINFORCEMENT

Above Left: Roving

Above Right: Filaments
Right: Close up of a roving

COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE FORMS OF REINFORCEMENT

Random mat and woven fabric

(glass fibers)

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COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE FORMS OF REINFORCEMENT

Carbon fiber woven fabric

MATRIX MATERIALS

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POLYMER MATRIX MATERIAL

-There are two basic categories of polymer matrices:
-Thermoplastics
-Thermoset plastics

-Roughly 95% of the composite market uses thermosetting plastics

-Thermoseting plastics are polymerized in two ways:

-By adding a catalyst to the resin causing the resin to ‘cure’, basically one must
measure and mix two parts of the resin and apply it before the resin cures
-By heating the resin to it’s cure temperature

POLYMER MATRIX MATERIAL

Common thermosetting plastics:
-Phenolics: good electrical properties, often used in circuit board
applications

-Epoxies: low solvent emission (fumes) upon curing, low shrink rate upon
polymerization which produces a relatively residual stress-free bond with
the reinforcement, it is the matrix material that produces the highest
strength and stiffness, often used in aerospace applications

-Polyester: most commonly used resin, slightly weaker than epoxy but
about half the price, produces emission when curing, used in everything
from boats to RVs to piping to Corvette bodies

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METAL MATRIX MATERIAL

Common Metal Matrices:

-Metal martices include aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, and

intermetallic compound alloys

-MMCs are better at higher temperatures than PMCs although production is

much more difficult and expensive

-MMCs can have applications such as fan blades in engines, clutch and
brake linings, engine cylinder liners, etc.

Material property- charts: modulus - density

1000

Ceramics

100
Composites
Young’s modulus E, (GPa)

10 Woods

Metals

1
Foams
Polymers

0.1

Elastomers
0.01
0.1 1 10 100
Density (Mg/m3)

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