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A population is the total collection of elements about which we wish to make some inferences.
The basic idea of sampling is that by selecting some of the elements in a population, we may
draw conclusions about the entire population. A population element is the individual participant
or object on which the measurement is taken. It is the unit of study.
We call the listing of all population elements from which the sample will be drawn the sample
frame.
Why Sample?
There are several compelling reasons for sampling, including
(1) lower cost,
(2) greater accuracy of results,
(3) greater speed of data collection, and
(4) availability of population elements.
Target Population:
The specific, complete group relevant to the research project.
ii) Proper Source from which data are to be collected can be identified.
Despite all due care, the actual sample achieved will not match perfectly the sample that is
originally drawn. Some people will refuse to participate, and others will be difficult, if not
impossible, to find. Thus, no matter how careful we are in replacing those who refuse or are
never located, sampling error is likely to rise.
Probability Sampling
Advantage Disadvantage
Easy to implement with automatic dialing Requires a listing of population elements.
(random-digit dialing) and with com-puterized Takes more time to implement.
voice response systems Uses larger sample sizes.
Produces larger errors.
Systematic Sampling
In this approach, every kth ele-ment in the population is sampled, beginning with a random start
of an element in the range of 1 to k. The kth element, or skip interval, is determined by dividing
the sample size into the population size to obtain the skip pattern applied to the sampling frame.
This assumes that the sample frame is an accurate list of the population; if not, the number of
elements in the sample frame is substituted for population size.
Advantage Disadvantage
Simple to design. Periodicity within the population may skew
Easier to use than the simple random. Easy to the sample and results.
determine sampling distribution of mean or If the population list has a mono-tonic trend, a
proportion. biased estimate will result based on the start
point.
Stratified Sampling
Most populations can be segregated into several mutually exclusive
subpopulations, or strata. The process by which the sample is constrained to
include elements from each of the segments is called stratified random
sampling.
Advantage Disadvantage
Researcher controls sample size in strata. Increased error will result if subgroups are
Increased statistical effi ciency. selected at different rates.
Provides data to represent and Especially expensive if strata on the
analyze subgroups. population have to be created.
Enables use of different methods in strata
Cluster Sampling
In a simple random sample, each population element is selected individually. The
population can also be divided into groups of elements with some groups
randomly selected for study. This is cluster sampling. Cluster sampling differs
from stratified sampling in several ways
Advantage Disadvantage
Provides an unbiased estimate of popula-tion Often lower statistical effi ciency (more error)
parameters if properly done. due to subgroups being homogeneous rather
Economically more effi cient than simple than heterogeneous.
random.
Lowest cost per sample, especially with
geographic clusters.
Easy to do without a population list.
Methods
Convenience
Nonprobability samples that are unrestricted are called convenience samples. They are the least
reli-able design but normally the cheapest and easiest to conduct. Researchers or field workers
have the freedom to choose whomever they find: thus, the name “convenience.”
Judgmental
Judgment sampling occurs when a researcher selects sample members to conform
to some criterion.
Quota sampling
Quota sampling is the second type of purposive sampling. We use it to improve
representativeness. The logic behind quota sampling is that certain relevant
characteristics describe the dimensions of the population. If a sample has the same
distribution on these characteristics, then it is likely to be repre-sentative of the
population regarding other variables on which we have no control.
Snowball
In the initial stage of snowball sampling, individuals are discovered and may or
may not be selected through probability methods. This group is then used to refer
the researcher to others who possess similar characteristics and who, in turn,
identify others.
Sampling Error:
1. Random Sampling Error
2. Non Sampling Error/Systematic Error
Systematic Errors:
Occurs when
i) Response error
z 2 p (1 p )
n
e2
Where
z tabulated zvalue 90 1.645, 95 1.96 99 2.576
p proportion
e error , level of confidence
N PopulationSize
When population Size known
n0 N
n
n0 ( N 1)