TITLE PAGE

INFLUENCE OF ENRICHMENT STRATEGIES ON JOB

SATISFACTION OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS IN UNIVERSITIES

(A CASE STUDY OF UMARU MUSA YAR’ADUA UNIVERSITY AND

ALQALAM UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES)

BY

MUSTAPHA JAFAR

N16LS061

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE, COLLEGE SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY, HASSAN USMAN KATSINA
POLYTECHNIC

IN THE FULFILLMENT OF NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN

LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

OCTOBER, 2018
 APPROVAL PAGE

This project has been approved for the Department of Library and Information

Science, Hassan Usman Katsina Polytechnic

By

Attahiru Saminu Sama’ila Adamu Dangani

Supervisor project coordinator

Nura Abba U/Alkali

Head of Department
 CERTIFICATION PAGE

I, Mustapha Jafar a National Diploma student with Registration Number N16LS061,

has satisfactorily completed the project requirements for the award of National Diploma in

Library and Information Science. The work embedded in this project has not been submitted

in part or full for any other degree or diploma of this or any other university.

Mustapha Jafar Attahiru Saminu

Student Supervisor
 DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated to The Almighty God and to my lovely parents
Alh. Jafar Mai Yasin Danja and my mother Malama Hajara Usman
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The researcher is immensely grateful to Allah (SWT) for His multiple and miraculous

blessing and sense of direction through the period of my project. And also to who accepted

to supervise this work when the earlier supervisor disengaged from the employment of the

university. She is appreciated for the invaluable support, direction, painstaking assessments

and sound contributions to the successful completion of this work. Prof. Michael A. Afolabi,

the first supervisor is acknowledged for his down to earth mentoring and laying the

foundation of the study.

The researcher hereby acknowledge Dr. V.N. Nwachukwu and Dr. F.C. Ekere,Dr.

A.O. Ovute, Dr. V. Asogwa, and Dr. E.N. Nwosu, who are lecturers of the Department of

Library and Information Science and in the departments of Education,and Foundation

Education, all of the Faculty of Education,University of Nigeria, Nsukka.for reading the

work and making corrections. Dr. Nwachukwu, Dr. E. N. Nwosu and Dr. A. O.Ovute are this

study’s content and design readers respectively. These three, including Dr. F.C.Ekere also

read and made corrections. Dr. V.Asogwa and Dr. V. N. Nwanchukwu did the validation.

The lecturers’ tutelage and all the authors whose works were used in the cause of this

research work are highly appreciated.

The prayers, co-operation and support of my wife Elizabeth and children are highly

appreciated. Dr. DiepreyeOkodoko is highly appreciated for data analysis and making

corrections.Also, Sister Hannah Nseyo, Mrs. Ogbara, D. Liberty and Mr. ZidoughaDiepreye

are recognized for enthusically typing the whole work whenever called upon. Finally,the

researcher acknowledged the following persons; Mr. & Mrs. Patrick Ebikake, Mr.& Mrs.

Stephen Ebikake, Mrs. Preye George, Mr. E.A. Etebu and Pastor & Mrs. James Akpan who

from time to time assisted in prayers, gave financial, moral support and supplied the

resources the researcher needed for such a magnitude of academic work.

The researcher is grateful to all his benefactors, God bless all of them.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pag

Title Page i

Approval Page ii

Certification iii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgements v

Table of Contents vi

List of Tables ix

List of Figures xi

Abstract xii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study 1

Statement of the Problem 9

Purpose of the Study 11

Research Questions 11

Hypotheses 12

Significance of the Study 13

Scope of the Study 15

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 16

Concept of Librarianship 17
Concept of Enrichment Strategies 22

Concept of Job Satisfaction 33

Theoretical Framework 38

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 39

Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory 43

Hackman and Oldham’s job characteristics model (theory). 45

Review of Empirical Studies 49

Summary of Literature Review

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS

Design of the Study 60

Area of the Study 60

Population 61

Sample and Sampling Techniques 62

Instruments for Data Collection 62

Validation of the Instruments 71

Reliability of the Instruments 72

Method of Data Collection 72

Method of Data Analysis 73
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 74

Research Questions 74

Testing of Hypotheses 79

Summary of Findings 83

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSION,

RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY

Discussions 85

Conclusion 92

Implication of the Study 92

Recommendations 93

Limitations of the Study 94

Suggestion for Further Study 94

Summary of the Study 95
References 97

Appendices 109
 LIST OF FIGURES

Table Pages

1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 40

2. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Application in Academic 43

Libraries

Job Characteristics Model

3. 47
ABSTRACT

This study investigated the influence of enrichment strategies on job satisfaction of academic
librarians in universities in South-South, Nigeria. The basic five enrichment strategies of Job
Characteristics examined were skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback.
The population of the study consists of 85 academic librarians in two universities in Katsina State;
State and private, and in the 2017/18 academic session. Sample size was all 85 academic librarians.
The researcher used proportionate stratified random sampling technique and ex post facto design
for this study. Two instruments, namely; Librarians’ Enrichment Strategies Questionnaire (LESQ),
Librarians’ Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (LJSQ) and Librarians’ Enrichment and Satisfaction
Interview (LESI) were used for the study. The LESQ and LJSQ consisted of 40 and 12 items
respectfully. Also, the LESI is consisting of 18 structured interviews conducted on the two university
librarians seeking in depth opinions, ideas and meanings they attached to job enrichment strategies.
Research question one to six were analyzed using simple percentage table comparing the influence
on academic librarians in private and State universities. These found values enhanced the
comparison between federal and state academic librarians. Nonetheless, there was little or no
significant satisfaction difference between them. The findings in this study revealed that each of the
enrichment strategies had significant influence on job satisfaction of the academic librarians. The
researcher therefore made some recommendations namely; that University librarians should sustain
the use of enrichment strategies to empower academic librarians to enhance their personal growth,
meaningful work experience, commitment and work output. Academic librarians should be provided
with relevant professional education; possibly through formal education, attendance of workshops,
conferences and seminars. This will give them the required competence and organizational support
to practice their (career), have the needed and deserved job satisfaction.

12
INFLUENCE OF ENRICHMENT STRATEGIES ON JOB SATISFACTION OF
ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS IN UNIVERSITIES IN KATSINA STATE, NIGERIA

BY
MUSTAPHA JAFAR
N16LSO61

13
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
Happiness and reward from work itself is obtainable from enriched jobs. Workers want to
be doing jobs where such a job empowers them, giving motivation and satisfying their needs.
Many authors have defined job in varying ways. For instance, Kumari (2013) opined that “a job
can be defined as group of homogeneous tasks related by similarity of functions performed by an
employee in an exchange for pay; a job consists of duties, responsibilities, and tasks”. Jobs that
offer workers’ desire to satisfy higher level needs such as recognition for doing a good job, with
visible achievement and the opportunity for growth and responsibility do come by as a result of
job design. Ali and Aroosiya (2013) opined that “job design is the most important function of
human resource management (HRM)”. It involves the designing of contents, methods and
functions of job which require that the work itself must be well structured and broken into bits
that are definite, worthy of challenges, satisfaction and motivation.
Furthermore, job design simply means thestructuring of work into units with inherent potentials
that empowers and motivates the worker in an organization. Job design is defined by Patha
(2002) as “the functions of arranging task, duties and responsibilities in an organizational unit of
work”. SmallBizconnet.com (2013) asserts that for many people, job design is as important as
fair remuneration in motivating employees to be more effective. There are possibilities that an
employer may incorrectly assume that money is the sole motivator for their employees. Diverse
views on money being a sole factor of motivation cannot over shadow job design prospects yet
money is one of the motivators as well as it is needed to satisfy most basic needs. The study of
Thapisa (1993) has revealed the importance and need of job enrichment in influencing job
satisfaction.
Job content is derived from job activities which make up job description. These job
activities often state duties and taskswhich have inherent psychological factors that are the core
job holder’s internal experiences for which the study is investigating. According to Armstrong
cited in Kumari (2012) job design is the process of deciding on the content of job in terms of its
duties and responsibilities, and the methods to be used in carrying out the job in terms of
techniques, systems and procedures, and on the relationships. The author further explained that

14
co-operation, friendliness and respect should exist between the job holder and his superior,
subordinates and colleagues.
In 1975 Hackman and Oldham formulated a model; Job Characteristics Model (JCM), on
the assumption that any job can be described by five core job characteristics or dimensions. When
these are present three psychological states critical to job satisfaction are produced resulting in
positive outcomes. JCM evaluated job contents in terms of those job dimensions and they are:
skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.These are the study’s topic
title, “Enrichment Strategies”. These job characteristics were defined by Hackman and Oldham
(1976) in the following way:
Skill variety:“The degree to which a job requires a variety of
different activities in carrying out the work, which involve the use
of a number ofdifferent skills and talents of the person”
(competence, skills and talentsneededto performthe job).

Task identity:“The degree to which a job requires completion of a

“whole” and identifiable piece of work that is; doing a job from
beginning to end with a visible outcome” (the extent to which the
job is seen as a whole identifiable task).

Task Significance:“The degree to which the job has a substantial

impact on the lives or work of other people, whether in the
immediate organization or in the external environment” (how the
job affects the well being of others).

Autonomy:“The degree to which the job provides substantial

freedom, independence and discretion to the individual in
scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be
used in carrying it out” (how job allows personal discretion and
initiatives).

Feedback:“The degree to which carrying out the work activities

required by the job results in the individual obtaining direct and

15
 clear information about the effectiveness of his or her
performance” (the extent to which the job itself provides
information about job performance).

These definitions of Hackman and Oldham and the researcher’s explanation have
described the relationship between job characteristics and individual response to work. Besides,
the study of Numan (2007) posited that “the presence ofthese dimensions make each job a
platform of need fulfillment for the employees”. Gautam (2012) opines that job enrichment “is
done to improve motivation level, empower employers, reduce attrition, to engage and involve
employee in the job itself”. The author asserts that job enrichment begins with three
fundamentals, namely; job analysis, personnel analysis and organizational analysis. Job analysis
makes it possible for the employer to access the job on the five job characteristics and redesign it
if needed. It is done considering the nature of the job itself and not the person doing it. A job
high on skill variety adds variety and kills monotony.
Employers use personnel analysis to access the need of the person occupying the job
position. This assessment is done in two areas, being growth and security oriented. On growth, it
serves as a motivational factor whereby workers are even willing to take risk for growth;
personal or professional. It is only a democratic culture that will support change made to any of
the five job characteristics.
University library jobs ought to be enriched to give employees; particularly academic
librarians job satisfaction to dutifully serve their clientele. “The library is one democratic
institution that allows people of all background and abilitiesto have access to information and a
place of enjoyment for all categories of people” (Hayden, 2013). The academic librarians’ job
should be well designed to equip them to positively impact on library users’ need. Jubb and
Green (2007) observed that “academic libraries have for centuries played critically important
roles in supporting research in all subjects and disciplines within their host universities or
colleges”.
Motivation is one of the most important concepts in human resource management and
development. Management Study Guide (2012) posits that “motivation can be understood as the
desire or drive that an individual has to get work done. It is a vital aspect in functioning of every
organization”. They further assert that the control given to an employee over his work is meant

16
to reward him intrinsically which is capable of bringing forth the inner force to accomplish the
designed tasks effectively and productively. This is the focus of human resource management
which every manager or leader is keenly interested in an effective organization.

Tella, Ayeni and Popoola (2007) posited that “in order to make employees satisfied and
committed to their jobs in academic and research libraries; there is need for strong and effective
motivation at the various levels, departments and sections of the library”. Owolabi, Ajiboye,
Bakare, Bello, Omotoso, and Adeleke (2013) and Otokiti, (2002) in their studies on motivation
of library staff asserted that staff who are highly motivated are always committed to their work.
Owolabi, et al,also found that “motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment were
inherent in the job content of the librarians studied”. The researcher agrees with the above
explanations and assert that the manager include the university librarian should always ensure
that his or her staff work activities are well designed, workplace environment is congenial and
the spirit of cooperation, commitment and satisfaction is prevailing.

Job satisfaction is the ultimate expectation of all organizational employees, including

academic librarians of university libraries. Job satisfaction is generally defined in terms of
people’s emotional reactions to their jobs. Thus, it refers to “how employees perceive their jobs”
(McShane and Glinow, 2005). According to Armstrong (2004)“job satisfaction refers to the
attitude and feelings people have about their work. Positive and favorable attitudes towards the
job indicate job satisfaction. Negative and unfavourable attitudes towards the job indicate job
dissatisfaction”. The researcher asserts that it is an emotional state resulting from experiences at
work. Bartolo and Furlonger(1999) opined that “if employees experience high satisfaction with
their jobs, it may create a pleasurable emotional state”.Furthermore,

The idea of job enrichment to increase job satisfaction was first developed by Fredrick
Herzberg (1974) in his Two-Factor Theory which has two dimensions. The first being hygiene
factor (extrinsic) that involves mostly the presence of dissatisfies. The second factor led to
satisfaction (intrinsic factors). Herzberg (1968) in his studies listed the following as hygiene
factors; namely; company policy and administration, supervision, relationship with supervisor,
working conditions, salary, relationships with peers, personal life, relationship with subordinates,
status, and security, while the satisfier factors were recognition, work itself, responsibility,
advancement and growth.Fincham and Rhodes (2005) opined that there should be clear reasons
given to explain the factors that influence their choices of intrinsic motivators in relation to
17
satisfaction or dissatisfaction of external organizational factors. Nevertheless, Hackman and
Oldham (1976) further improved on the Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory and propounded the job
characteristics model (JCM). Lawrence (2001) posits that Hackman and Oldham developed their
theory based on the job itself which possessed fundamental characteristics needed to create
conditions for high work motivation, satisfaction and performance. The JCM of Hackman and
Oldham (1976) proposed that managers could change specific job characteristics (of the job
itself) to motivate and promote job satisfaction. The authors identified five core job
characteristics namely; skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback
which are also the basic elements of job design.

1.1 Statement of the Problem

Enrichment strategies, which are five core job characteristics are known as; skill variety,
task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. A job in high in skill variety means the
work requires competences, skills, and talents. For task identity job is seen as accomplished as a
whole identifiable task. A job high in task significance allows worker’s creativity and adding of
value to clients and colleagues. Jobs high in autonomy permit employee decisions and
discretions. Feedback is high when job itself provide job holder instant information about
performance. There seemed to be low enrichment strategies in job contents of academic
librarians in the universities under study. This does negatively affecting the exploitation and
dissemination of information, teaching and research information needs. Furthermore, access of
information are not being professionally managed which causes students to have low use of
university libraries and library information resources.
Academic librarians’ jobs that are contentiously low in enrichment strategies have other
chains of adverse and unpleasant consequences. These include poor personal growth and
achievement, no supportive climate for change, and academic librarians’ job dissatisfaction in
Nigeria generally and the two universities specifically. Job enrichment is a technique of job
design is made up of job characteristics (JC). These JCs can be used by university librarians to
connect situational characteristics of a job with motivation to design employee jobs that are
meaningful, interesting and so increase their satisfaction, self worth and organizational
performance. This is important because job characteristics and the worker’s (academic librarians)
psychological state when combined bring about job outcomes such as satisfaction and
meaningfulness of work. Besides, because the academic librarians’ jobs were not enriched in the

18
Katsina State universities, , they are being boring, monotonous and carry minimal job
satisfaction. This constitutes a problem and the study is to determine the influence of job
characteristics (enrichment strategies) on academic librarians’ job satisfaction. Therefore, the
problem of the study is: What is the influence of enrichment strategies on job satisfaction of
academic librarians.
1.2 Objective of the Study
This study’s main purpose is to determine the influence enrichment strategies on the job
satisfaction of academic librarians in universities in Katsina State, Nigeria. In this regard the
study was designed specially to achieve the following objectives:
1. To determine the influence of skill variety on job satisfaction of academic librarians.
2. To determine the influence of task identity on job satisfaction of academic librarians.
3. To determine the influence of task significance on job satisfaction of academic librarians.
4. To find out the influence of autonomy on job satisfaction of academic librarians.
5. To determine the influence of feedback on job satisfaction of academic librarians.
6. To find out the level of influence of joint enrichment strategies (skill variety, task
identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) on job satisfaction of academic
librarians.
1.3 Research Questions
The following research questions were used to guide the study:
1. What is the difference between federal and state universities on the influence of skill
variety on job satisfaction of academic librarians?
2. What is the difference between federal and state universities difference on the influence
of task identity on job satisfaction of academic librarians?
3. What is the difference between federal and state universities on the influence of task
significance on job satisfaction of academic librarians?
4. What is the difference between federal and state universities on the influence of
autonomy on job satisfaction of academic librarians?
5. What is the difference between federal and state universities on the influence of feedback
on job satisfaction of academic librarians?
6. What is the difference between federal and state universities on the level of influence of
joint enrichment strategies on job-satisfaction of academic librarians?

19
1.4 Significance of the Study
The findings of this study are expected to be of value to university proprietors (who are
federal government, state governments and private owners) and university librarians. Others
include librarians (in universities and other organizations), and library educators.
The influence of enrichment strategies on job satisfaction of academic librarians is of
benefit to university proprietors because it would provide guide to current work structures that
are inhibiting performance and design jobs as a source of happiness and growth for the workers
which leads to accomplishment of goals and objectives for the universities This is achievable by
changing the design of the job only, whereby simple job analysis, personnel analysis and
organizational analysis in terms of the five enrichment strategies (skill variety, task identity,
task significance, autonomy and feedback). This yields congenial organizational climate and
culture that support improved motivation levels, empower employers, reduce attrition,
unionisms, and to engage and involve employee in the job itself.
This study would benefit university librarians as it would give them knowledge of
boring and monotonous jobs and design or redesign them with enrichment strategies.
Happiness and growth in a work place for the employee, particularly for the academic
librarian is of a very high premium. This is ensured in organizations where job enrichment
strategies are used in their job design. This study would therefore benefit academic
This study is beneficial to library educators for the fact that academic librarian’s work
activities are professional in nature needing theory and practice and are done with variety of
activities. The continuous need for library education can never be over emphasized since theory
and practice are dynamic. Job enrichment is a fall-out of the need that would always exist to
either design or re-design jobs. This calls for library educators to use the core job characteristics
to foster effective professionalism in librarianship, competence and job satisfaction and career
development in their curriculum implementation. JCM had provided the rudiments of job
enrichment that teaches library managerial skills, employees (academic librarians) skill and
competences, responsibilities and opportunities for librarians’ personal growth and meaningful
work experience. Besides studies that provide academic librarians with degrees and diplomas,
workshops, conferences and other forms of short courses can be used for the education of
librarians. Furthermore, library educators would benefit when and as they have need to evaluate
the performance of their products; the librarians they had trained. The use of assessment

20
 questionnaires, especially the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS).
1.5 Scope of the study
The scope of this study was confined to five core enrichment strategies. They are skill variety,
task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. It was also restricted to academic
librarians in public university libraries in Katsina State only.

References
Ali, M.A.M.& Aroosiya, M.A.C.F. (2013). Impact of job design on employee’s

performance (with special reference to school teachers in the Kalmunai

Zone).Retrieved 17/7/18 from:
http://www.kin.ac.ik/fcms/.../docs/microsoft%20-% 20HRMo13.pdf

Hackman, J. R. & Oldham, G. R. (1975). Development of the job diagnostic survey.

Journal of Applied Psychology. 60, 159 – 170.

Kumari, R. (2012). Principles underlying job enlargement, job enrichment and

jobrotation. Retrieved 30/7/18 from: http://www.slideshare net/Ritika

Kumari/Principles- underlying- job enlargement-job- enrichment- and – job-
ratation.

21
 CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0 Itroduction
The review of literature was organized under the conceptual framework, theoretical
framework, related empirical studies and summary of literature review. For the purpose of clear
understanding, the relevant subheadings were treated under main headings as listed below:
 Concept of Academic Librarianship
 Concept of Enrichment Strategies
 Concept of Job Satisfaction
 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
 Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory
 Hackman and Oldham’s job characteristics model (theory).
2.1 Concept of Academic Libraries
Academic according to Lechner (2004) in the New Webster’s dictionary of English language
means “scholarly; related to a school, college or university, the academic year”. It is an aspect of
life which has something to do with or that is related to the levels of education. Furthermore,
academic is defined in the Free Dictionary (2014) as “of relating to, or characteristics of a
school, especially one of higher learning and 2.(a) relating to studies that are liberal or classical
rather than technical or, vocational (b) relating to a scholarly performance: a student’s academic
average”. This author clearly states that ‘academic’ concerns only institution of higher education
which precludes the primary and post primary schools. The researcher adduced from the
definitions above and defined academic as human activity or conduct related to or carried out in
schools of learning. On the other hand; library is collection of books arranged by the owner or
library professional for reading or study. Reitz (2004) defined it as “a collection of books and
other materials organized and maintained for (reading, consultation, research, and the like).”
Making meaning out of ‘academic’ and ‘libraries’ from the above explanations,the researcher
has put them together; ‘academic libraries’ as a single thought.It is thus defined as “the
workplace of librarians in schools (institutions of learning) where books and other materials are
collected, organized and maintained for use to further 4education”.

22
 A university library is defined according to Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural
Sciences and Technology (2014) as “a library attached to a university.” That, it exists to cater to
the needs and requirement of students and teachers and to support the teaching and research
programmes of university.” Libraries have become so much of important for a university that the
university can hardly go without a library. In Nigeria, every course or programme taught in any
academic department must present the library holdings in this area and must be assessed and
scored by the national accreditation bodies such as; National Universities Commission; for
universities, and National Board for Technical Education; for polytechnics, courses’ approval. At
present, the nature and mode of tertiary level education is such that a student or scholar is put
into a situation so as to find a solution to problems, do some creative thing or conduct a study
on a project. The library is the most appropriate study place to carry out an independent work
outside class lectures.
Furthermore, Gupta (2011) assert the following as academic librarians’ duties among others;
(1) by procuring comprehensive range of documents including books, manuscripts, journals,
magazines, newspapers, e-resources, databases, on varied subjects. It conserves knowledge and
ideas, and (2) by processing the procured documents with the help of classification, cataloguing,
proper self arrangements which gives easy and open access to knowledge to its users.
2.2 University Libraries: Job Design and Work Organization
How university libraries as organizations have responded to job design especially job
enrichment to impact or influence job satisfaction of librarians is very important. Many
university library management and university librarians have adopted several approaches to
bring about job satisfaction of their academic librarians. Nevertheless, not many studies are
known to use job design, particularly job enrichment. University library job design and work
organization is an ever on-going phenomenon because these jobs do determine the
organizational structures. Jobs are the reasons for the individual or individuals joined together to
accomplish all university library objectives and kinds of services. Each job is known to have
characteristics, tasks, functions and grouped into units or and divisions. In so doing university
library jobs would be clearly defined and easily enriched. The researcher is of the view that with
a clearly defined university library organizational structure library managements and university
librarians can use job design to divide into specific job tasks and enriched to link the job
satisfaction of academic librarians. Model or theories have been propounded whereby such can

23
be applied to enrich jobs.
Hackman and Oldham (1976) developed a job characteristics model (JCM) that explains
how specific job tasks (contents) can be designed to obtain jobs that are interesting, motivating
and satisfying. JCM is the foundation of job enrichment and can be applied to university library
work. According to Awathappa (2006) there are many job design techniques which include job
rotation, job engineering, job enhancement, and job enrichment. Martell (1981)explained that
job rotation, job engineering and job enhancement did not have four vital factors of autonomy,
control, decision making and feedback. These are the vertical factors in a job complete in job
enrichment, whereas the earlier three techniques are made up of just a number and variety of
tasks that isadding of tasks and are known as horizontal factors.
2.3 The Concept of Enrichment Strategies
According to Stern (2010) the concept of job enrichment is a very broad theory within
the field of organizational behaviour that is applicable within all sectors of organization. That,
enrichment refers to different methods that are aimed at increasing employees job motivation,
satisfaction, self-worth, in an attempt to ultimately increasing the overall employee
productivity within the organization. Most commonly, job enrichment is attributed to the
process of job redesign, in order to reverse the negative effects of monotony in employee tasks,
which will include boredom, lack of autonomy, and dissatisfaction.
The evolution of the concept of job enrichment started in the middle of the 1950s. Hall
(2010) opined that it is response to dull, reutilized jobs that increased employee dissatisfaction,
leading to higher turnover at many companies. Enrichment strives to heighten autonomy and
variety in positions by allowing employees to engage in tasks that have normally been reserved
for workers in higher positions. According to Mione (2013) the basis for job enrichment
practices is the work done by Fredrick Herzberg in the 1950s and 1960s, which was further
refined in 1975 by Hackman and Oldham using what they called the Job Characteristics Model
(JCM).
The JCM, one of the most recognized and significant attempts to connect situational
characteristics of a job with motivation,is a most reliable support for manager to design
motivating jobs.JE matches job characteristics to personal needs. This concept can effectively
be used to guide actions that are internal between job characteristics and personal
characteristics and its relation to ideal organizational results. Robbins and Coulter (2003) cited

24
in UK Dissertations.com (2013) explain that JCM identifies five main job characteristics which
are important as they verify a range of aspects of employee’s attitude and behaviour.
According to Griffin, Patterson and West cited in stern (2010) the JCM is formulated on the
assumption that if five core (main) job characteristics are present, three psychological states
critical to motivation are produced, resulting in positive outcomes.
Academic librarian’s work activities are professional in nature and are done with variety
of skills. These activities require use of different skills and talents of the person (academic
librarian). A routine administrator (administrative officer) in the library is low in skill variety,
while the cataloguing and classification librarians’ job is high in skill variety. It is known to
enhance and motivate an employee to see his job as meaningful. For instance, a job that
involves doing the same type of work can be boring. It may be boring to read the same
reference request letter many times each day. In contrast, a job that involves a variety of skills
(such as cataloguing a book) may alleviate boredom and foster greater meaning. Greater skill
variety has been found to be associated with greater perceived meaningfulness of work
(Hackman and Oldham, 1975), perils; Johns, Xie and Fang, 1992).
2.4 Concept of Job Satisfaction
Job Satisfaction is one of the most researched areas in industrial and organizational
psychology. This is a confirmation of Hunter’s (2006) assertion on the history and development
of job satisfaction. Spector (1996) reported that over 12,400 studies were published on job
satisfaction by 1991. Hunter, in his studies using the EBSCO host, found that an additional
9,177 studies were published on job satisfaction from 1991 to 2006.According to Kh Metle
(2003) job satisfaction has been a popular topic for researchers in a wide area of fields including
industrial psychology, public administration, business and higher education. Researchers in
various areas of discipline have written countless articles concerning the job satisfaction of
their profession. Authors have borrowed from psychology, business, administration, human
resource management, and the wide umbrella of organizational science to define, measure, and
interpret the significance of job satisfaction in their disciplines. However,a significant body of
literature has not been sufficiently written concerning job satisfaction in the field of
librarianship (Ogungbeni, Ogungbo and Yahaya, 2013).
The principal reason as to why job satisfaction is so extensively researched is that it
relates to significant associations with several variables (Yousef, 2000). For example, it has a

25
positive association with life satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance as
pointed out by numerous researchers (Judge, Boudreau and Bretz, 1994; Fletcher and Williams,
1996; Babin and Boles cited in Buitendach and DeWitte, 2005) There is need to research
extensively on the job satisfaction in library work place because organizational psychology
affects librarians too. It is very important to note that factors that influence the librarian as an
individual can affect him or her performance as a service provider as well as his job satisfaction.
It is then a key to librarianship as to any other profession.
The term job satisfaction refers to a collection of feelings that an individual holds toward his or
her job. A person with a high level of job satisfaction has positive feelings about the job, while
the person who is dissatisfied with his or her job holds negative feelings about it. Armstrong
(2006) refers to “job satisfaction as the attitude and feelings people have about their work.
Positive and favourable attitudes towards the job indicate job satisfaction. Negative and
unfavourable attitudes towards the job indicate job dissatisfaction.” In addition to having
attitudes about their job as a whole, people also can have attitudes about various aspects of their
jobs such as the kind of work they do, their coworkers, supervisors or subordinates and their pay
(George and Jones, 2008). In the work of Mullins, (2005) found out that job satisfaction is more
than attitudes, but it is an internal state. It could, for examples, be associated with a personal
feeling of achievement, either quantitative or qualitative. Aziri (2008) opine that “job satisfaction
represents a feeling that appears as a result of the perception that the job enables the materials
and psychological needs.” In the researcher’s view job satisfaction is a must capacity an
employee obtains from his work, workplace and organization for real lasting efficiency and
effectiveness of work performance. Oladele, Subir and Sebiba (2010) found in their research that
additional job responsibility and task properly structured is very essential in raising the
motivation of employees. The researcher is of the opinion that this can be addressed by job
enrichment. Mohr et al cited in Tausif (2012) opined that motivational hypotheses demonstrates
that enrichment will increase satisfaction in a number of types of enrichment activities such as
information sharing, task teams, excellence circles and training.
Mathauer and Imhoff’s (2006) study on health workers presented examples of support
hypotheses that money is not as good motivator as it is said to be. The researcher is in agreement
with thisview. Money’s importance does not over- whelm the non-monetary factors of job
satisfaction. For example, three weeks after winning $87 million, Pam gave birth to Nicholas,

26
and she said “Winning the lottery was priestly exciting, but it can’t compare to Nicholas. I want
him to grow up caring about people and knowing the value of work. (Reed and Free, 1995).
Furthermore, review of literature also proved that money factor of job satisfaction is not as good
motivator as it is said to be, this study is guided by it and the stronger motivator chosen is work
itself.
2.5 Summary Literature Review
The review of literature examined three relevant theories that are related to the study which
included: Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s (1974). Hygiene and motivator and
Hackman and Oldham;s (1976) Job Characteristic Mode (JCM). Maslow asserts that needs
determine human behaviour which was organized into a hierarchy of five levels. In contrast,
Herzbert’s theory opined that there were just two kinds of needs; hygiene and motivators which
create human satisfaction and they were derived from work itself. Motivators are non-monetary
(intrinsic) factors of motivation, what people actually do on the job (enrichment factors).
Hygiene factors are related to satisfaction from outside the job. These hygiene needs were also
termed rewards or extrinsic factors which are necessary and contributory factors for
improvement in work performance.
The theory of Hackman and Oldham JCM is fundamentally the framework for enriching
jobs unlike Maslow’s and Herzberg’s theories. JCM’s focus is motivational job design to make
jobs interesting, challenging, creation of employee’s growth and development of potentials as
well as satisfaction. Job characteristics of JCM gives or provides clear impacts on job outcomes,
including job satisfaction. The similitude of JCM with Maslow’s and Herzberg’s are that with
Maslow’s it is in compliance, where job characteristics help to motivate employee’s quest for
progress. JCM is an offshoot of Herzberg’s motivator of the hygiene and motivator theory. The
conditions of summarizing the three theories and their relevance to this study are as follows:
Maslow and Herzberg have theorized on human needs and explained that needs can be satisfied
if people work to get paid. Hackman and Oldham’s JCM is relevant in that it builds into job
more motivating potentials such as skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and
feedback. These are the bedrock of job enrichment which is derived from job design or re-design
to foster and facilitate job satisfaction.
In summarizing the five empirical studies used in the work, the research categorized them
in terms of purpose. Four of them were investigations into the role of job design using either of

27
JCM, JDS and MPS which are all elements of Hackman and Oldham theory. Three of the four
compared their findings with other entities, one out of the five only did a survey on the
availability of enrichment characteristic among professional in same book trade. The researcher
has used these studies as springboard and guide to investigate the influence of enrichment
strategies of job satisfaction of academic librarians in Katsina State Nigeria. However, this study
is investigating the influence of enrichment strategies on job satisfaction which is a gap in
research that is being filled. Specifically, it brings up information on the impact of job design on
job satisfaction of academic librarian in Nigerian university, in the Katsina State public
universities in particular. The methodologies used in the area of design of the study are all
different from the ex-post-facto design used in the work. This is also a gap which provides
appropriate approach in carrying such a research.

28
 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODS
3.0 Introduction
This chapter described the design of the study, area of the study, population of the study,
sample and sampling technique, instrument for data collection, validity of the instrument,
reliability of the instrument, administration of the instrument and method of data analysis.
3.1 Design of the Study
The research design adopted for this study was ex - post - facto research design.
According to Lammers and Badia (2005) this design is a non experimental research technique
used when researcher studies preexisting groups that are compared on some dependent variable.
The researcher has no control over the independent variable; job satisfaction (which had had
external causes). The preexisting groups (Federal and State Universities) are compared by
looking at the independent variable. These two groups have similar backgrounds and were
exposed to different conditions (some dependent variables) as a result of their natural histories.
Furthermore, the reason for utilizing this design is that, it will enable the researcher to
understand the difference in perception between two variables which are quantitative. The ex-
post - facto or causal comparative design is actually used in this study because of the presence of
qualitative independent variable (institutions), quantitative independent variable (enrichment
strategies) and the quantitative dependent variable (academic librarians’ job satisfaction).
3.2 Population of the Study
The population for this study consists of all academic librarians working in two Federal
and State universities within Katsina State of Nigeria. This was made up of 66 academic
librarians respectively.
3.3 Sample and Sampling Techniques
All 66 academic librarians (100 percent) of the total population were selected for the study. The
researcher did not sampling because, the population was considered small.
3.4 Instruments for Data Collection
Thefollowing instruments were used for the study.
1. Librarians’ Enrichment Strategies Questionnaire (LESQ).
2. Librarians Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (LJSQ).

29
 3. An interview schedule; Librarian Enrichment on Job Satisfaction Interview (LEJSI).
The Librarians enrichment strategies questionnaire (LESQ) and Librarians Job Satisfaction
Questionnaire (LJSQ) were developed. The LESQ and LJSQ questionnaire instruments for data
collection had two parts, A and B. Part A sought information on demographic data of the
respondents, while Part B sought information on academic librarians’ job enrichment strategies.
The Part B of LESQ was further divided into five subsections. Each subsection of LESQ
measured one job enrichment strategies with 8 items and job satisfaction characteristics
questionnaire. Items 7-14, 15-22, 23-30, 31-38 and 39-46 sought information on skill variety,
task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback.
3.5 Reliability of the Instrument
Librarians’ Enrichment Strategies Questionnaire (LESQ) and Librarians Job Satisfaction
Questionnaire” (LJSQ) were administered to 3 academic librarians in Alqalam University that
were not part of the main study.
3.6 Method of Data Collection
The data were generated from questionnaires (LESQ). Research assistants were trained in
each of the university libraries to administer the copies of the two separate questionnaires to the
number of academic librarians on the library’s staff list and collect same from them.
3.7 Method of Data Analysis
The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The descriptive statistics of simple
percentages were used for the analyses of the demographic data of the respondents.

30
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
4.0 Introduction
This chapter is concerned with the presentation, analysis and interpretation of result arising from
the data collected for the study. The descriptive and inferential statistics were used for data
analysis. The descriptive statistics of mean were used to answer the research questions one to six,
The results of the analysis of data are presented in tables 1 to 12.
4.1 Research Question One
What difference exists between the mean scores of Federal and State university’sacademic
librarians on the influence of skill variety on job satisfaction?
Table 1: Summary of mean scores of difference between Federal and State university’s
academiclibrarians on the influence of skill variety on job satisfaction

S/N Items Mean

F S
1 Job provides variety of experiences on the job. 2.88 2.71

2 Job utilizes employee talents, abilities and skills 2.77 2.58

3 Employee is allowed on the job training/for new skills, abilities and 2.67 2.35
talents.
4 Job provides opportunity to use a lot of new technologies. 2.65 2.38

5 Employee intellect is used. 2.93 2.57

6 Job supports additional training and education 3.03 2.74

7 Job provides variety of responsibilities 2.78 2.54

8 Job provides opportunities for period change of duty 2.68 2.69

Cut-off Mean =2.50

The data presented in Table 1. Indicates that, the mean score of academic librarians in Federal
universities (2.81) and that of the State universities (2.57) were greater than the cut off mean
score of 2.50. On the whole the grand mean score of 2.66 was also greater than the cut-off mean
score of 2.50. This implies that there exists a difference between the opinion of Federal and State
Universities academic librarians on the influence of skill variety on job satisfaction. Consequent

31
upon the observed difference, the t-test analysis was carried out in order to ascertain if the
difference is significant.
4.2 Research Question Two
Is there any difference between the mean scores of Federal and State university’sacademic
librarians on the influence of task identity on job satisfaction?
Table 2: Summary of mean scores of difference between Federal and State university’s
academic librarians on the influence of task identity on job satisfaction

S/N Items Mean

F S
1 Employee understands the job from start to end. 2.69 2.77
2 Job is arranged to meet and talk with library users. 2.53 2.60
3 Job has good communication link with supervisor. 2.69 2.65
4 Employee is recognized by supervisor in performing his duties. 2.74 2.47

5 Job gives me sense of importance. 2.84 2.49

6 Job Provides terms-work opportunities 3.96 2.79
7 Co-workers respect each others 2.80 2.67
8 Job provides professional/career fulfillment 2.65 2.97

Cut-off Mean =2.50

The data presented in Table 2. reveals that, the mean score of academic librarians in Federal
universities (2.74) and that of the State Universities (2.68) were greater than the cutoff mean
score of 2.50. On the whole the grand mean score of 2.70 was greater than the cutoff mean score
of 2.50. This simply implies that there exists a difference between the opinion of Federal and
State university’s academic librarians on the influence of task identity on job satisfaction.
4.3 Research Question Three
What difference exists between the mean scores of Federal and State university’s academic
librarians on the influence of task significance on job satisfaction?
Table 3: Summary of mean and standard deviation scores of difference between Federal
and State university’s academic librarians on the influence of task significance on job
satisfaction

32
S/N Items Mean
F S
1 How well I work affects other people. 2.83 2.80

2 Job influences day-to-day institutional success. 2.88 2.60

3 Job provides understanding of the institutional mission. 2.88 2.69

4 Job influences institutional decisions. 2.68 2.73

5 Job is valued by others. 2.81 2.43

6 Job gives sense of achievement 2.68 2.71

7 Job is intellectually stimulating 2.91 2.99

8 Job is of service to the university community 2.77 2.92

Cut-off Mean =2.50

The data presented in Table 3. Shows that, the mean score of academic librarians in Federal
universities (2.83) and that of the State Universities (2.76) were greater than the cutoff mean
score of 2.50. On the whole the grand mean score of 2.78 was also greater than the cut-off mean
score of 2.50. This implies that there exists a difference between the opinion of Federal and state
Universities academic librarians on the influence of task significance on job satisfaction.
4.4 Research Question Four
Is there any difference between the mean scores of Federal and State university’s academic
librarians on the influence of autonomy on job satisfaction?
Table 4: Summary of mean and standard deviation scores of difference between Federal
and State university’s academic librarians on the influence of autonomy on job satisfaction
S/N Items Mean
F S
1 Job allows employee to do his work by himself. 2.68 2.59

2 Employee does the work as one sees it fit. 2.68 2.36

3 Job permits employee to act independently of his supervisor 2.86 2.52

4 Job provides opportunity of self directed flexible working hours. 2.64 2.39

5 Employee gets optimal support from management 2.77 2.23

6 Job supervisor encourages freedom to rearrange tasks 2.72 2.47

7 Interference of co-workers is not encouraged 2.85 2.43

33
8 Doing the job does not involve too much responsibility 2.62 2.63

Cut-off Mean =2.50

The data presented in Table 4. Indicates that, the mean score of academic librarians in Federal
Universities (2.73) was greater than the cut-off mean score of 2.50 and that of the State
universities (2.45) was less. On the whole the grand mean score of 2.55 was also greater than the
cut-off mean score of 2.50. This implies that there exists a difference between the opinion of
Federal and State university’s academic librarians on the influence of autonomy on job
satisfaction.
4.5 Research Question Five
What difference exists between the mean scores of Federal and State university’sacademic
librarians on the influence of feedback on job satisfaction?
Table 5: Summary of mean and standard deviation scores of difference between Federal
and state university’s academic librarians on the influence of feedback on job satisfaction
S/N Items Mean
F S
1 Job itself provides feedback. 2.96 2.80

2 On the job feedback is received from co-workers about ones performance. 2.72 2.75

3 There is clear and direct information about job outcomes. 2.77 2.69

4 Employee gets performance information, directly from the work. 2.79 2.55

5 Employee gets regular updates. 2.81 2.57

6 Satisfaction of user are known while doing my job 2.74 3.00

7 Satisfaction of supervisor is known while doing my job 2.72 2.85

8 Inclusive of my idea are known management policies/decisions 2.65 2.77

Cut-off Mean =2.50

The data presented in Table 5. indicates that, the mean score of academic librarians in Federal
Universities (2.77) and that of the State universities (2.75) were greater than the cutoff mean
score of 2.50. On the whole the grand mean score of 2.76 was also greater than the cut-off mean
score of 2.50. This implies that there exists a difference between the opinion of Federal and State
university’s academic librarians on the influence of feedback on job satisfaction.

34
4.6 Research Question Six
Is there any difference between the mean scores of Federal and State Universities academic
librarians on the influence of enrichment strategies on job satisfaction?
Table 6: Summary of mean scores of difference between Federal and state university’s
academic librarians on the influence of joint enrichment strategies on job satisfaction
S/N Items Mean
F S
1 University Policies/administration are fair. 2.81 2.61

2 Supervisors possess leadership skills to motivate employee to work. 2.72 2.93

3 Financial benefits are sufficient for the job. 2.68 2.55

4 Job promotes interpersonal relationships 2.63 2.78

5 Office conditions are adequate. 2.68 2.67

6 Job itself is meaningful 2.62 2.75

7 Standards for jobs are achievable 2.74 2.65

8 Individual talents being utilized are recognized for accomplishments on the job. 2.75 2.45

9 Employees are seen as responsible owners of their job. 2.84 2.57

10 There is room for advancement on the job. 2.93 2.61

11 University Policies/administration are fair. 2.73 2.57

12 Supervisors possess leadership skills to motivate employee to work. 2.75 2.59

Cut-off Mean =2.50

The data presented in Table 6 indicates that, the mean score of academic librarians in Federal
universities (2.74) and that of the State Universities (2.64) were greater than the cutoff mean
score of 2.50. On the whole the grand mean score of 2.68 was also greater than the cut-off mean
score of 2.50. This implies that there exists a difference between the opinion of Federal and State
university’s academic librarians on the influence of enrichment strategies on job satisfaction.

4.7 Summary of Findings

The summary of findings is as follows:
1. There is a significant difference between the mean scores of Federal and State
Universities academic librarians on the influence of skill variety on job satisfaction. The
mean score of academic librarians in Federal universities (2.81) is greater than the mean

35
 score of academic librarians in State universities (2.68) on the influence of skill variety
on job satisfaction.
2. There is no significant difference between the mean scores of Federal and State
university’s academic librarians on the influence of task identity on job satisfaction.
3. There is no significant difference between the mean scores of Federal and State
university’s academic librarians on the influence of task significance on job satisfaction.
4. There is a significant difference between the mean scores of Federal and State
university’s academic librarians on the influence of autonomy on job satisfaction. The
mean score of academic librarians in Federal universities (2.73) is greater than the mean
score of academic librarians in State universities (2.45) on the influence of autonomy on
job satisfaction.
5. There is no significant difference between the mean scores of Federal and State
university’s academic librarians on the influence of feedback on job satisfaction.
6. There is a significant difference between the mean scores of Federal and State
university’s academic librarians on the influence of joint enrichment strategies on job
satisfaction. The mean score of academic librarians in Federal universities (2.74) is
greater than the mean score of academic librarians in State universities (2.64) on the
influence of enrichment strategies on job satisfaction.

36
 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Introdution
This chapter consists of summary, conclusion and recommendations of the whole project

5.1Summary of the Study

The main objective of this study was to investigate the influence of enrichment strategies (skill
variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback) on job satisfaction of academic
librarians in universities in Katsina State of Nigeria. The research design adopted for this study
was ex-post facto design. The population of the study was 66 academic librarians of the
2016/2017 academic session in universities in the Katsina State of Nigeria. No sampling
technique was adopted. All the 66 academic librarians from the four studied universities in the
state were used because it was considered small. Data from the population was used to assess the
relative incidence and interrelation of the naturally occurring variables. The instruments used in
gathering data for the study were a 52-item questionnaire titled Librarians’ Enrichment Strategies
Questionnaire (LESQ), and Librarians’ Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (LJSQ), and interview
(for university librarians only). However, the LESJSQ sought information on skill variety, task
identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback, and job satisfaction characteristics
respectively.
The result also shows that task identity had a highly positive influence value on job satisfaction
of academic librarians. The influence of task identity being highly positive on job satisfaction of
academic librarians was attributed to the fact that academic librarians see their individual
assigned piece of job from start to finish.
The result also revealed that there exist a moderately positive relationship between task
significance and job satisfaction of academic librarians. The influence of task significance
enrichment strategy on job satisfaction of academic librarians was attributed to librarians’
perceived meaningfulness of their work and conducive work environment. They valued their
work and so it impacted on others.
The findings also revealed that the influence of autonomy on job satisfaction of academic
librarians is moderately positive. The moderately positive influence of autonomy on job
satisfaction of academic librarians was attributed to librarians’ opportunity of self determination,

37
empowerment and sense of coping capacity which facilitate constructive responses without
rigorous supervision. The results have also show that feedback has positive influence on job
satisfaction of academic librarians.

5.2 Conclusion
Based on the above findings and discussions of this research work, the following conclusions
were reached:
1. Skill variety has a significant influence on job satisfaction of academic librarians.
2. Task identity has a significant influence on job satisfaction of academic librarians.
3. Task significance enrichment strategy has a significant influence on job satisfaction of
academic librarians.
4. Autonomy has significance influence on job satisfaction of academic librarians.
5. Feedback has a significant influence on job satisfaction of academic librarians.

5.3 Recommendations
Based on the results and implications of this study, the following recommendations are made:

1. University authorities, particularly university librarians should Endeavour to examine

library jobs that have become boring and monotonous to restructure and enrich them to
attain work motivation, job satisfaction and increase retention. This would reposition
academic librarians to have a happy working life and improved job performance.
2. University librarians should sustain the use of enrichment strategies to empower
academic librarians to enhance their personal growth, meaningful work experience,
commitment and work output.
3. University libraries should be adequate funded and academic librarians provided with
relevant professional education; possibly through formal education, attendance of
workshops, conferences and seminars. These would equip them to plan, control, etc., and
acquire competence for the variety of library tasks.
4. Librarians’ Registration Council of Nigeria should make available government laws,
regulations, directives, standards and policies applicable to academic libraries to
proprietors of universities, educators of librarians and the general library professional
body with the sole purpose of enforcing them.

38
39
References

Ali, M.A.M.& Aroosiya, M.A.C.F. (2013). Impact of job design on employee’s performance
(with special reference to school teachers in the Kalmunai Zone).Retrieved 17/7/18 from:
http://www.kin.ac.ik/fcms/.../docs/microsoft%20-% 20HRMo13.pdf
Armstrong, C. (2012). Working as a librarian. Retrieved 5th September 2018.
From:http://www.jobs.ac.uk/careers-advice/non-academic-casestudies/ 618/working-as-a-
libarian/
Adebayo, S.O. & Ezeanya, I.D., (2013). Effects of job autonomy, task identity and profession
among health workers in Jos, Nigeria. European Journal of SocialSciences. 14 (1), 116 –
124
Armstrong, M. (2004). A handbook of human resource management practice 9thed. London:
Kogen Page Publishing.
Fincham, R. & Rhodes, P. (2005). Principles of Organizational Behavior. New York: Oxford
University Press, Inc.

40