Journal of Materials Science & Technology 32 (2016) 987–995

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Materials Science & Technology

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. j m s t . o r g

Frontiers of 3D Printing/Additive Manufacturing: from Human Organs

to Aircraft Fabrication†
Lawrence E. Murr 1,2,*
1
Department of Metallurgical, Materials and Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA
2 W.M. Keck Center for 3D Innovation, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O
It has been more than three decades since stereolithography began to emerge in various forms of addi-
Article history: tive manufacturing and 3D printing. Today these technologies are proliferating worldwide in various forms
Received 20 July 2016 of advanced manufacturing. The largest segment of the 3D printing market today involves various polymer
Received in revised form component fabrications, particularly complex structures not attainable by other manufacturing methods.
22 July 2016 Conventional printer head systems have also been adapted to selectively print various speciated human
Accepted 22 July 2016 cells and special molecules in attempts to construct human organs, beginning with skin and various tissue
Available online 8 August 2016 patches. These efforts are discussed along with metal and alloy fabrication of a variety of implant and
bone replacement components by creating powder layers, which are selectively melted into complex forms
Key words: (such as foams and other open-cellular structures) using laser and electron beams directed by CAD soft-
3D printing/additive manufacturing
ware. Efforts to create a “living implant” by bone ingrowth and eventual vascularization within these
Laser and electron beam melting
implants will be discussed briefly. Novel printer heads for direct metal droplet deposition as in other
Organ printing
Organ and implant vascularization
3D printing systems are briefly described since these concepts will allow for the eventual fabrication of
Metal droplet printing very large and complex products, including automotive and aerospace structures and components.
Copyright © 2016, The editorial office of Journal of Materials Science & Technology. Published by
Elsevier Limited.

1. Introduction
The concept of printing broadly involves the deposition of drops
or particles that fuses to form a layer having varying dimensions.
In 3D printing, such layers are formed one over the other, forming
a layer-fabricated product by additive (layer) manufacturing. Droplet
deposition is modeled after common ink-jet printers as illustrated
conceptually (and broadly) in Fig. 1. Droplets in Fig. 1 are pulsed
into a jet stream, which can be scanned across a surface as the printer
head moves in x and y directions. Droplets can variously contain
particles such as inks, nanoparticles, cells; or remain as a contig-
uous liquid as in printing specific materials, even metals. The first
such printing device using ink droplets emitted from an orifice was
developed by Lord Kelvin around 1867 to record modulated lines
representing dots and dashes corresponding to Morse code in tele-
graph transmissions.
Other forms of layer printing began with lithography (around
1797), which extended to chromolithography for multicolor (layer)
* Corresponding author. Fax: 915-747-8036.
E-mail address: lemurr@utep.edu (L.E. Murr).
†
Based on a Lee Hsun Lecture presented at the Institute of Metal Research (IMR),
Shenyang, China, May 24, 2016.
printing (still used today) and integrated circuit (IC) fabrication using
photolithography. More recently (around 1986) Charles Hull coined
the term stereolithography as a method for making a variety of
solid objects by the layer-by-layer forming (or printing) of thin liquid
photopolymer resins cured by focused ultraviolet beams (usually
a UV laser). Fig. 2 illustrates a simple schematic view for a
stereolithography system, variously referred to as rapid prototyping
(RP) or solid freeform fabrication (SFF).
There are several other dispenser-head configurations for de-
positing material in sequential layers. The laser engineered net
shaping (LENS) process uses a metal powder feed system that sprays
the powder on a surface where a central laser beam melts it. This
process is especially useful in repairing eroded metal surfaces. Fused
deposition modeling (FDM) dispenses an extruded polymer along
with a support material, both in spools that feed the materials
through extrusion heads.
In a system characterized by Fig. 2, the build piston lowers the
build table so that a specific layer of thickness is achieved above
the building product, and a focused laser beam photo-cures spe-
cific layer portions by mirror scanning the beam across the layer
(x–y) using a computer-aided design (CAD) or stereolithography (STL)
file. This file includes layer-by-layer instruction sets for selectively
curing layer portions to build a 3D product, often more complex than
any other product or fabrication methodology. The uncured (or

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2016.08.011
1005-0302/Copyright © 2016, The editorial office of Journal of Materials Science & Technology. Published by Elsevier Limited.
988 L.E. Murr / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 32 (2016) 987–995
Fig. 1. Inkjet (droplet generator) schematic. Piezoelectric pulse generator in ink reservoir. Droplet features are illustrated. For many droplets surface tension is an impor-
tant issue. Adapted from Murr[1].
unreacted) polymer layer is then swept away using the sweeper at
left in Fig. 2, and the build piston is lowered to continue the layer
building process. Fig. 3 illustrates several examples of complex
3D structure polymer products fabricated in a commercial
stereolithography system. Models of such products are initially em-
bedded in CAD files (or software), which direct the mirror system
scanning the laser beam in Fig. 2[1–4].
Fig. 4 illustrates two popular metal layer building systems con-
ceptually similar to Fig. 2 where metal powders are rolled or raked
into layers that are selectively melted (using CAD software). Fig. 4(a)
shows a selective laser melting (SLM) schematic while Fig. 4(b) il-
lustrates a schematic for electron beam melting (EBM) of sequential
layers.
2. Electronic Circuit Printing on Flexible Surfaces
With the availability of nano-conducting inks such as silver,
copper, and related alloys, as well as the ability to print organic field
effect transistor circuits as well as organic LEDs (OLEDs)[1], direct
printing on a variety of flexible material surfaces has emerged over
the past decade[5,6]. Such surfaces include flexible, transparent
polymer sheets as illustrated in Fig. 5, as well as direct printing of
circuits on papers[6]. With the incorporation of conducting polymer
fibers and related CAD (computer-aided design) software in fabric
weave development, the construct of complex circuit and display
technologies in fabrics is becoming a novel reality. In creating cir-
cuits on flexible surfaces, the suppression of the melting point as
conducting particle size decreases to the nanosize regime poses a
fortuitous advantage since low-temperature (<200 °C) sintering and
removal of the binder (Fig. 1) create continuous, highly conduct-
ing interconnects (Fig. 5)[1]. A series of multiple material printing
heads as illustrated in Fig. 1 can allow for complex component in-
tegration and the fabrication of novel device and display structures[6].
3. Printing Human Organs
By replacing human cells or speciated stem cells in the ink matrix
shown conceptually in Fig. 1, human organ printing is conceptu-
ally possible as shown schematically in Fig. 6. Fig. 6 shows multiple
printer heads able to selectively print matrix (collagen-based) cells
as well as vascular (blood vessel) cells to create living tissue and
organ structures[1,7,8]. Even in 3D tissue or organ printing, various
speciated cells along with signaling molecules and related biolog-
ical instruction or connecting molecules must be included in the
CAD instructions. Fig. 7 illustrates idealized blood vessel structure
and development, which includes at least three cell types or layer
features. The smallest blood vessels are single-layer endothelial cell
capillaries that originate from angioblasts. In natural tissue devel-
opment, endothelial cells self-assemble in capillaries that thicken
as shown in Fig. 7. While vascular networks can self-assemble from
endothelial tissue as implicit in Fig. 6, selective 3D printing may assist
the process[8,9].
Progress in printing human organs has been presented re-
cently by Yanez et al[11]. in the 3D printing of skin grafts by printing
 L.E. Murr / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 32 (2016) 987–995
Fig. 2. Stereolithography system schematic for laser curing of photopolymer layers.
Build piston is lowered as each layer is swept and the next layer cured. Adapted from
Murr[1].
the dermal layer onto a biopaper (a biomimetic hydrogel) using col-
lagen bioink (a hydrogel matrix) with fibroblast cells, an intermediate
layer using a fibrin gel bioink containing endothelial cells, and an
outer or epidermal layer using a collagen-based hydrogel bioink con-
taining keratinocyte cells. This approach encouraged vascularization
to occur in the intermediate layer printed with endothelial cells as
shown conceptually in Fig. 6.
While still in its infancy, 3D organ printing, especially pros-
pects for DNA speciated, of patient specific organs can have a
significant effect on the demand for organ replacement and dona-
tions. This number is in the hundreds of thousands worldwide
annually.
4. Metal Implant Fabrication and Prospects for
Vascularization: Living 3D Implants
Although there are more than a million knee and hip replace-
ment surgeries performed annually in the US alone, using
manufactured (mostly cast) metal appliances augmented with highly
cross-linked polyethylene inserts. 3D printed/additively manufac-
tured implants using laser or electron melting systems shown
schematically in Fig. 4 pose improvements in biomechanical com-
patibility as well as bone ingrowth. This is especially true for complex,
open cellular (foam or reticulated mesh) metal structure fabrica-
tion of implants having elastic moduli or stiffnesses, which can range
from ~18 GPa, compatible with outer, cortical bone to < 1 GPa com-
patible with softer, trabecular or intramedullary bone; thereby
eliminating so-called stress shielding characteristic of solid, con-
temporary implants where the stiffness ranges from 110 GPa for Ti
or Ti alloys (such as Ti-6Al-4V) to 210 GPa for Co–Cr superalloy
implants[1]. Fig. 8 illustrates several CAD models representing these
989
Fig. 3. 3D stereolithographic (polymer) products. (a) Reticulated mesh. (b) Complex,
open-cellular structure. From Murr[1] (Courtesy of Springer).
open-cellular structures, which have been fabricated by laser and
electron beam melting[1].
As implicit in Fig. 8 functionally graded metal or alloy implants
not only can eliminate stress shielding, but they can also allow ef-
ficient osteoblast cell (bone cells) ingrowth[9,10]. It also appears that
efficient bone cell ingrowth along with novel insertion of collagen-
hydrogel matrix containing pre-osteoblast and endothelial cells along
with appropriate signaling molecules can promote vasculariza-
tion and the eventual establishment of a “living” implant[10,12]. This
might be especially effective in the insertion of intramedullary rods
to repair a fractured femur as shown conceptually in Fig. 9.
Many other applications for patient-specific, additively manu-
factured implants are being developed around the world including
teeth, skull patches and implants, chin bone replacements, total hip
replacements, and a variety of other orthopedic replacements in-
cluding knees. Hospitals in parts of the world are already considering
establishing manufacturing facilities for the in-house fabrication of
patient-specific implants.
5. Directional Architectures by Laser and Electron Beam
Melting: Prospects for Turbine Component Fabrication
One of the more ambitious goals for laser and electron melting
strategies for 3D printing/additive manufacturing has been the fab-
rication of turbine blades and other turbine components from nickel
and cobalt-base superalloys, especially directional and single-
crystal blade structures. Beginning in the early 1960s, turbine blade
structures first emerged as polycrystalline nickel-base superalloys
that evolved to directional, columnar grains in the 1970s and single-
crystal structures in the past 3 decades. Fig. 10 illustrates these
microstructural evolution categories. Acharya et al. and Basak and
Das[13,14] have illustrated the ability to resurface worn, single-
crystal nickel-base superalloy turbine blades using a technique
990 L.E. Murr / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 32 (2016) 987–995
Fig. 4. Laser (a) and electron beam (b) melting systems for powder layer additive manufacturing. (a) uses an inert atmosphere (N2 or Ar) while (b) uses a vacuum envi-
ronment. In (a) laser beam (1) scanning uses a mirror (2) with beam focus at (3). Powder is rolled into layers (4) on build platform (5) from container at (6). Excess powder
is retrieved at (7). In (b) electron gun (1), scanning coils (2), powder cassettes (3), layer rake (4), build table (product) (5). From Murr[1] (Courtesy of Springer).
referred to as scanning laser epitaxy for turbine engine hot section
repair. This is an extension of laser cladding technology, which has
been variously developed over the past two decades.
The ability to fabricate superalloy turbine blades by direct digital
(3D) manufacturing has a distinct advantage in being able to con-
struct complex (internal) cooling arrays, which not only allow for
more efficient blade cooling but intrinsically reduce the blade mass.
While commercial laser and electron beam melting systems are cur-
rently limited in build volume and corresponding blade dimensions,
there are several encouraging examples for future 3D manufacturing
Fig. 5. 3D printing on flexible polymer surfaces. (a) Patterned inkjet circuit arrays.
(b) Circuit with surface mount additions. From Murr[1] (Courtesy of Springer).
success. Murr et al.[15] have recently shown that while nickel-base
superalloy products having columnar architectures can be achieved
by electron beam melting, there is insufficient control over the
grain size. However, optimized gamma-prime (Ni3 (Al, Ta)) cuboi-
dal precipitates were observed, which are normally achieved in cast
blade production only by complex heat treatment schedules after
fabrication. These features are illustrated in the sequence of mi-
crographs shown in Figs. 11 and 12. Optimized creep properties
nominally require cuboidal gamma-prime precipitate edge lengths
of ~240 nm and gamma matrix (Ni–Cr) spacings of ~30 nm. This
allows dislocation creep to advance from the Ni–Cr matrix into the
cuboidal precipitate volume during hot section turbine operation
(Fig. 10(a)).
Growing superalloy turbine products on appropriate sub-
strates by epitaxial processes in optimized laser and electron beam
melt fabrications seems conceptually feasible if the growth process
parameters can be controlled and optimized. Aspects of this process
control have been demonstrated in the work of Acharya et al. and
Basak and Das[13,14], and recent work by Hinojos et al.[17] for the
Inconel 718/316 stainless steel system. However, large blade fab-
rication might only be possible in competition with current cast
technologies when true metal drop 3D fabrication technologies
emerge in the future.
6. Direct 3D Metal Printing Using Droplet Generators:
Prospects for Integrated Automotive and Aerospace
Component Fabrication
Although there have been numerous studies of 3D metal droplet
printing over nearly the past two decades involving low tempera-
ture metals, ranging from 75 Ga–25 In (mp ~16 °C)[18] to aluminum
(mp ~646 °C)[19,20], and including control of molten droplet streams[21]
as well as micro-droplet deposition[22,23], Zenou et al.[24] have re-
cently noted that “Digital printing of metal is the most important
element missing from functional 3D printing. . .metal inks are cur-
rently printed in nano size in binders which are then sintered.” This
is especially true for high-temperature metals and alloys with melting
points above ~1400 °C. These are currently sequentially melted in
layer-by-layer additive processes involving laser or electron beam
melting as illustrated schematically in Fig. 4(a) and (b), respectively.
 L.E. Murr / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 32 (2016) 987–995 991

Fig. 6. Multiple inkjet printer heads (bioink reservoirs) for tissue (organ) and blood vessel building. (1) Fibroblast cells in fibrin cell hydrogel. (2) Fibroblast and smooth
muscle cell hydrogel. (3) Endothelial cells in hydrogel/(collagen-based). From Murr[1] (Courtesy of Springer).

Fig. 8. CAD models for functional foam (a–c) and open cellular structures (d) emu-
lating cortical (outer) and trabecular (inner) bone density and corresponding stiffness.
Fig. 7. Blood vessel development and structure. From Murr[1] (Courtesy of Springer). From Murr[1] (Courtesy of Springer).
992 L.E. Murr / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 32 (2016) 987–995

Fig. 9. Living implant concept. (a) Femur with functional intramedullary, porous implant that can extend the length of the femur. (b) Fabricated implant impregnated with
endothelial cells and signaling molecules in a collagen hydrogel containing osteoblast cells, which also ingrow from the outer cortical bone.

Fig. 13 illustrates a schematic view of a droplet generator concept

adapted from Orme et al.[23], which was originally developed for alu-
minum deposition. This concept is very similar to the ink jet printer
head shown schematically in Fig. 1. To adapt such a concept for print-
ing, high-temperature metal droplets would require a special crucible
design and an efficient droplet production and scanning strategy,
perhaps augmented by auxiliary laser or electron beam heat treat-
ment of deposited metal layers. Of course this process would require
either an inert gas or vacuum environment, but such printer heads
could be clustered and mounted on CAD-driven gantry systems that
would allow for the rapid printing of metal layers.
Fig. 14 shows an automotive engine prototype printed by polymer
stereolithography illustrated schematically in Fig. 2; with a build
chamber of more than 0.5 m2 using a suitable gantry printer. More
practical systems might print multiple automotive components in
build volumes much greater than 103 m3, and in stark contrast to
current commercial laser or electron beam melting systems (Fig. 4)
where the build volume is around 0.1 m3 (a factor of 104). Even larger
multiple printer systems could conceivably print multi-component
aerospace (aircraft) structures and components as illustrated in
Fig. 15. Not only could multiple-head gantry systems cluster printer
heads for rapid product fabrication, but the concept could be ex-
panded to include multiple material printer heads capable of
fabricating a variety of functional material systems and compo-
nents, integrating metals and alloys, semiconductors, polymers,
Fig. 10. Gas turbine schematic (a) and comparative turbine blade microstructures:
composites, etc. Such systems may require several more decades (b) polycrystalline, (c) directional, columnar grains, (d) single crystal, Tc and Tt in-
to fully develop and optimize, but the outcomes would be truly rev- dicate cooler compression and hot turbine sections, respectively in (a). From Murr[1]
olutionary in a manufacturing context. (Courtesy of Springer).
 L.E. Murr / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 32 (2016) 987–995
Fig. 11. EBM fabricated Rene 142 nickel-base superalloy product section view showing
columnar, micrograin structure in the build direction (B). The insert shows the gamma-
prime cuboidal precipitates (Ni3 (Al, Ta)). (Taken from Murr and Li[16].).
Fig. 12. TEM image showing gamma-prime cuboidal precipitates in the insert in
Fig. 11. The gamma/gamma-prime interface is semicoherent as indicated by the fringe
pattern surrounding the precipitates. (Taken from Murr and Li[16].).
993
Fig. 13. Metal droplet generator concept based on the work of Orme et al[23]. (Taken
from Murr and Li[16]).
7. Concluding Remarks
This presentation has briefly described recent advances in 3D
printing/additive manufacturing, especially prospects for the print-
ing of human organs, implants, and the eventual fabrication of large
products and structures involving the direct droplet printing of high-
temperature metals, including superalloy components, automotive,
and aircraft structures. While there are considerable challenges in
these emerging technologies, continuing progress will eventually
lead to significant breakthroughs in most if not all these additive
manufacturing arenas. Although this brief review/overview has high-
lighted only a few prominent 3D printing technologies as illustrated
in Figs. 1–4, additional topics have been recently discussed in reviews
of corresponding advances by Gong et al.[25], Smith et al.[26] and
Korner[27]. The reader is referred to these references for a more
994 L.E. Murr / Journal of Materials Science & Technology 32 (2016) 987–995
Fig. 14. Stereolithographic automotive engine (V6) prototype fabricated from 3D polymer printing in an enlarged build area (volume) is shown.
extensive overview and summary of 3D printing/additive manu-
facturing advances.
While limited, porous metal implant components fabricated by
3D printing have been utilized in thousands of hip replacements
worldwide over the past decade, many human trials for 3D (addi-
tively manufactured) porous implants have also been conducted
more recently in both the US and China. There is a trend in China
to begin producing patient-specific implants in dedicated facili-
ties within hospitals, and commercial implant producers in the US
have also committed to 3D printing facility development.
Fig. 15. Examples of modern aircraft internal structure (a) and integrated struc-
ture and components (b).
In the US, the American Transplant Foundation estimates that
there are more than 121,000 people awaiting organ transplants, al-
though the prospects for printing entire organs for transplant are
at least 10 years away. Nonetheless, progress in augmenting organ
printing continues at a steady pace as indicated in this article.
Many companies around the world are adopting 3D printing tech-
nologies not only for augmenting existing product development and
fabrication, but also in new product manufacturing. Because 3D
printed components can be easily reconfigured or reengineered
without redesigned tooling, specialized product manufacturing even
on a small scale is often profitable, changing the manufacturing par-
adigm for mass production. Finally, while large-scale metal 3D
printing is still a distant prospect, many large and complex prod-
ucts are being manufactured in tandem 3D factory modules, which
are revolutionizing manufacturing and advanced materials devel-
opment and applications.
Acknowledgments
The author is grateful for the Lee Hsun Award by IMR-CAS, China
and the support of research upon which this work was based by
the Office of Research and Sponsored Projects at The University of
Texas at El Paso. Contributions of many students and collabora-
tors are also gratefully acknowledged.
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995
Lawrence E. Murr is Professor Emeritus in the Depart-
ment of Metallurgical, Materials and Biomedical
Engineering at The University of Texas at El Paso. Dr. Murr
received a B.Sc. in physical science from Albright College
and a B.S.EE (electronics), M.S. (engineering mechan-
ics), and Ph.D. (solid-state science) all from the
Pennsylvania State University. Dr. Murr has published 21
books (the latest, “Handbook of Materials Structures, Prop-
erties, Processing and Performance” in 2 volumes by
Springer in 2015) and over 800 scientific and technical
articles in a wide range of research areas spanning more
than 50 years. Recent honors include the 2001 Buehler
Technical Paper Merit Award for excellence (IMS), the TMS
2007 Educator Award, the 2007 John S. Rinehart Award
(TMS) for global leadership in shock and high strain rate phenomena, the 2008 Henry
Clifton Sorby Award (IMS) for lifetime achievements in the field of metallography,
and the 2009 Albert Easton White Distinguished Teacher Award by ASM Interna-
tional. Dr. Murr was also awarded a Lee Hsun Award by the Shenyang National
Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of
Science (IMR-CAS) in 2010 when he was also honored as a Visiting Professor for Senior
International Scientists by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Also in 2010, Profes-
sor Murr was appointed as Guest Professor of Harbin Engineering University, China
and chosen for a Piper Professor Award for “Outstanding scholarly achievements and
superior teaching at the college level” by the Texas Higher Education Program of
the Minnie Stevens Piper Foundation. In 2014, Professor Murr received the Alpha
Sigma Mu International Professional Society Distinguished Life Member Award, and
in 2016 he presented an extension of the Lee Hsun Award Lecture at IMR, Shenyang,
China. Professor Murr is a member of the Editorial Advisory Board and Associate
Editor for numerous international journals, including the Journal of Material Science
and Technology (IMR). He is a Fellow of ASM International and a licensed profes-
sional engineer (Texas); and holds 4 patents with 2 pending.