What is a Network?

A computer network is simply two or more computers connected together so, they can
exchange information. A small network can be as simple as two Computers linked together by a
single cable.

Categories of Network

 The categories of computer network are determined by its size.

 Basically there are three classes of computer networked based on their geographical
scope and these are LAN, MAN & WAN.

Local Area Network(LAN)

 A Local Area Network (LAN) is the first category of computer network.

 It is used for establish network in the same building or a campus
 A LAN can be as simple as two PCs.
 In LAN the distance between the nodes is limited.
 There is an upper limit of distance between the nodes is approximately 10 K.M and the
lower limit is 1 meters.
 The distance limitations involved in LANs normally means the entire network is under
the ownership and control of a single organization
 LANs are designed to allow sharing of resources between personal computers.
 Resources to be shared can include hardware like printer, software like application
program or any other data.
 Early LAN had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per second (Mpbs) range. Today,
speeds are normally 100 or 1000Mpbs.
 The most common topologies used in LAN are Bus, Ring and Star.
Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)
 MAN lies between the LAN and WAN i.e. the size of the network is larger than LAN and
smaller than WAN.
 MAN covers the area inside a city or a town or very nearby cities.
 A MAN is a network that covers a metropolitan area, usually connected by high
performance Fiber Optic Cable.
 The normal speed of MAN is gigabits per second (Gbps)
 A company can use MAN to connect the LANs in all its offices throughout a city.
Wide area network(WAN)
 A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e. any
network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national
boundaries).
 WAN is a network that uses routers and public communications links.
 The largest and most well-known example of a WAN is the Internet. A WAN is a
data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area (i.e. one
city to another and one country to another country) and that often uses transmission
facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies.
 WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference
model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.

Networking Topology
A topology refers to both physical and logical layout of network. The physical topology
refers to actual layout of network devices. Physical topology should not be confused with
logical topology which is method used to pass information between workstation.

1. BUS Topology
2. RING Topology
3. STAR Topology
4. MESH Topology
5. TREE Topology
6. HYBRID Topology

BUS Topology:
A BUS topology uses a trunk or backbone to which all of the computers on the network
connect. System connects to this backbone using “T” type connector terminators. This
topology requires terminator for both side of backbone to avoid signal reflection.
Commonly used for implementing Ethernet at 10 Mbps. Using Coaxial cable during the
1980 and early 1990. It has more segments.
Advantages

1. Easy to implement

2. Low Cost

3. Easy to connect

4. Require less cable.

Disadvantages

1.Entire network shut down if there is break in main cable.

2.Terminator are require both side.

3.Difficult the problem if entire network shut down.

Ring Topology
The ring Network is a part of topology. In this Network all massage travel in a same
direction. This type network is wired in a serial circuit a failure in any cable or device
break the loop and can take down the entire network. All PC are connected in a Ring circle.
There is no terminated in end.
The method by which the data is transmitted around the ring is called token ring passing.
IBM token ring uses this method. In the token ring network use Multistations access unit
(MSAU) is equipment to a hub or Switch on Ethernet network.

Advantages
1.Cable faulty are easily located , Making troubleshoot easier.

2.Ring network are moderately easy to install.

Disadvantages
1.Expansion to the network can cause network disruption.

2.A single break in the cable can disrupt the entire network.

STAR TOPOLOGY
In the star network all the computers and other network devices connected with central
Device called HUB or SWITCH. Each connected require a single cable to connected to
HUB. Creating point to point connection between hub or network device. It has require
more cable. Generally UTP cable are used( Unshielded twisted pair).The star topology is
most widely implemented network design in use today.

Advantages
1.Easy to implement and extend even in large network.
2.Well suitable for temporary network.
3. Security can be implemented in the HUB/Switch.

Disadvantages
1.It has limited cable and length and number of station.
2.Maintence costs may be higher in long run.
3.Failure of central node can be disturb all network.

Mesh Topology
In the mesh topology each computer are connected with each other by separate cable.
Create point to point connection to every device on network. If one cable fail data always
has alternative path to get to its destination.
On a large scale, you can connect multiple LANs using mesh topology with leased line.
This type topology generally used in military area.
 Advantages
1.Provide redundant path between device.

2. The network can be expanded without disruption to current user.

Disadvantages
1. Require more cable then other topology.
2. Complicated implementations.

TREE Topology
Tree Topology integrated multiple star topologies together onto bus. In its design only
HUB / Switch device connect directly to the tree. A tree topology combines characteristics
of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured workstations
connected to a linear bus backbone cable. Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an
existing network, and enable schools to configure a network to meet their needs.

Advantages
1.Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
2.Supported by several hardware and software venders.
 Disadvantages
1. Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
2. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
3. More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

HYBRID Topology
With the hybrid topology are combination of two or more topologies from a complete
Network for example the hybrid topology could be the combination of star and bus
topology. If a computer fails, it will not affect the rest of the network.

Basic hardware components

All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes,
such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers. In addition,
some method of connecting these building blocks is required, usually in the form of galvanic
cable (most commonly Category 5 cable). Less common are microwave links (as in IEEE
802.12) or optical cable ("optical fiber").

Network interface cards

A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of
computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It
provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing
system through the use of MAC addresses.
Repeaters
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal, cleans it of unnecessary noise,
regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction,
so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet
configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. Repeaters
work on the Physical Layer of the OSI model.

Hubs
A network hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied
unmodified to all ports of the hub for transmission. The destination address in the frame is not
changed to a broadcast address. It works on the Physical Layer of the OSI model.
Bridges
A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of
the OSI model. Bridges broadcast to all ports except the port on which the broadcast was
received. However, bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn
which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port
and an address, it will send traffic for that address to that port only.
Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames
that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored
and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time that a
previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports
other than the one on which the frame arrived.

Bridges come in three basic types:

• Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs)
• Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs.
Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have
been replaced with routers.
• Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs.

Switches
 A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams (chunk of
data communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the MAC addresses in the
packets. A switch is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the frames to the ports involved
in the communication rather than all ports connected. A switch breaks the collision domain but
represents itself as a broadcast domain. Switches make forwarding decisions of frames on the
basis of MAC addresses. A switch normally has numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for
devices, and cascading additional switches. Some switches are capable of routing based on
Layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels; these are called multi-layer switches. The term
switch is used loosely in marketing to encompass devices including routers and bridges, as well
as devices that may distribute traffic on load or by application content (e.g., a Web URL
identifier).

Routers
A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by processing
information found in the datagram or packet (Internet protocol information from Layer 3 of the
OSI Model). In many situations, this information is processed in conjunction with the routing
table (also known as forwarding table). Routers use routing tables to determine what interface
to forward packets

OSI model
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a product of
the Open Systems Interconnection effort at the International Organization for
Standardization. It is a way of sub-dividing a communications system into smaller
parts called layers. A layer is a collection of conceptually similar functions that
provide services to the layer above it and receives services from the layer below
it. On each layer an instance provides services to the instances at the layer above
and requests service from the layer below.

Layer 1: Physical Layer

The Physical Layer defines the electrical and physical specifications for devices. In
particular, it defines the relationship between a device and a transmission medium, such as a
copper or optical cable. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, cable specifications, hubs,
repeaters, network adapters, host bus adapters (HBA used in storage area networks) and more.
To understand the function of the Physical Layer, contrast it with the functions of the Data
Link Layer. Think of the Physical Layer as concerned primarily with the interaction of a single
device with a medium, whereas the Data Link Layer is concerned more with the interactions of
multiple devices (i.e., at least two) with a shared medium. Standards such as RS-232 do use
physical wires to control access to the medium.
The major functions and services performed by the Physical Layer are:
• Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium.

• Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are

effectively shared among multiple users. For example, contention resolution
and flow control.

• Modulation, or conversion between the representation of digital data in user

equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications
channel. These are signals operating over the physical cabling (such as copper
and optical fiber) or over a radio link.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data
between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the
Physical Layer. Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-point and point-to-multipoint
media, characteristic of wide area media in the telephone system. Local area network
architecture, which included broadcast-capable multiaccess media, was developed
independently of the ISO work in IEEE Project 802. IEEE work assumed sublayering and
management functions not required for WAN use. In modern practice, only error detection, not
flow control using sliding window, is present in data link protocols such as Point-to-Point
Protocol (PPP), and, on local area networks, the IEEE 802.2 LLC layer is not used for most
protocols on the Ethernet, and on other local area networks, its flow control and
acknowledgment mechanisms are rarely used. Sliding window flow control and
acknowledgment is used at the Transport Layer by protocols such as TCP, but is still used in
niches where X.25 offers performance advantages.

Layer 3: Network Layer

The Network Layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring
variable length data sequences from a source to a destination via one or more networks, while
maintaining the quality of service requested by the Transport Layer. The Network Layer
performs network routing functions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly,
and report delivery errors. Routers operate at this layer—sending data throughout the extended
network and making the Internet possible. This is a logical addressing scheme – values are
chosen by the network engineer. The addressing scheme is not hierarchical.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The Transport Layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing
reliable data transfer services to the upper layers. The Transport Layer controls the reliability
of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some
protocols are state and connection oriented. This means that the Transport Layer can keep track
of the segments and retransmit those that fail. The Transport layer also provides the
acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and if no error free data was transferred
then sends the next data.
Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI
definition of the Transport Layer, typical examples of Layer 4 are the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

Layer 5: Session Layer

The Session Layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It
establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application.
It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing,
adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible
for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and
also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol
Suite. The Session Layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that
use remote procedure calls.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
The Presentation Layer establishes context between Application Layer entities, in
which the higher-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation
service provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data
units are encapsulated into session protocol data units, and passed down the stack.
This layer provides independence from data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating
between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form
that the application accepts. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network. It
is sometimes called the syntax layer.

Layer 7: Application Layer

The Application Layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both
the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer
interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such
application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application layer functions
typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and
synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application
layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with
data to transmit. When determining resource availability, the application layer must decide
whether sufficient network or the requested communication exist. In synchronizing
communication, all communication between applications requires cooperation that is managed
by the application layer. Some examples of application layer implementations include
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP) and X.400 Mail.