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Contents
Articles
History of group theory 1
Group (mathematics) 7
Group theory 27
Elementary group theory 34
Symmetry group 40
Symmetric group 44
Combinatorial group theory 53
Algebraic group 54
Solvable group 56
Solvable subgroup 59
Tits building 62
Finite group 67
p-adic number 69
Tits alternative 76
Finitely generated group 77
Linear group 79
Finite index 81
Free subgroup 85
Tits group 88
Tits–Koecher construction 90
Primitive group 91
Geometric group theory 92
Hyperbolic group 98
Automatic group 101
Discrete group 103
Todd–Coxeter algorithm 105
Frobenius group 107
Zassenhaus group 109
Regular p-group 110
Isoclinism of groups 111
Variety (universal algebra) 113
Reflection group 115
Fundamental group 117
Classical group 122
Unitary group 124
Character theory 128
Sylow theorem 133
Lie algebra 139
Class group 144
Abelian group 148
Lie group 155
Galois group 164
General linear group 165
Representation theory 170
Symmetry in physics 181
Space group 186
Molecular symmetry 193
Applications of group theory 198
Examples of groups 205
Modular representation theory 210
Conway group 215
Mathieu group 219
Sporadic groups 230
Janko group J1 234
Janko group J2 237
Janko group J3 239
Janko group J4 240
Fischer group 241
Baby Monster group 243
Monster group 244
References
Article Sources and Contributors 248
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 252
Article Licenses
License 253
History of group theory 1
Groups similar to Galois groups are (today) called permutation groups, a concept investigated in particular by
Cauchy. A number of important theorems in early group theory is due to Cauchy. Cayley's On the theory of groups,
as depending on the symbolic equation θn = 1 (1854) gives the first abstract definition of finite groups.
History of group theory 2
Felix Klein
Sophus Lie
History of group theory 3
Ernst Kummer
Convergence
Group theory as an increasingly independent subject was popularized by
Serret, who devoted section IV of his algebra to the theory; by Camille
Jordan, whose Traité des substitutions et des équations algébriques (1870) is
a classic; and to Eugen Netto (1882), whose Theory of Substitutions and its
Applications to Algebra was translated into English by Cole (1892). Other
group theorists of the nineteenth century were Bertrand, Charles Hermite,
Frobenius, Leopold Kronecker, and Émile Mathieu;[3] as well as Burnside,
Dickson, Hölder, Moore, Sylow, and Weber.
The convergence of the above three sources into a uniform theory started with
Jordan's Traité and von Dyck (1882) who first defined a group in the full
modern sense. The textbooks of Weber and Burnside helped establish group
theory as a discipline.[9] The abstract group formulation did not apply to a
Camille Jordan
large portion of 19th century group theory, and an alternative formalism was
given in terms of Lie algebras.
dimensional projective spaces were studied by Jordan in his Traité and included composition series for most of the
so called classical groups, though he avoided non-prime fields and omitted the unitary groups. The study was
continued by Moore and Burnside, and brought into comprehensive textbook form by Leonard Dickson in 1901. The
role of simple groups was emphasized by Jordan, and criteria for non-simplicity were developed by Hölder until he
was able to classify the simple groups of order less than 200. The study was continued by F. N. Cole (up to 660) and
Burnside (up to 1092), and finally in an early "millennium project", up to 2001 by Miller and Ling in 1900.
Continuous groups in the 1870-1900 period developed rapidly. Killing and Lie's foundational papers were published,
Hilbert's theorem in invariant theory 1882, etc.
Today
Group theory continues to be an intensely studied matter. Its importance to contemporary mathematics as a whole
may be seen from the 2008 Abel Prize, awarded to John Griggs Thompson and Jacques Tits for their contributions to
group theory.
Notes
[1] Wussing 2007
[2] Kleiner 1986
[3] Smith 1906
[4] Galois 1908
[5] Kleiner 1986, p. 202
[6] Wussing 2007, §III.2
[7] Kleiner 1986, p. 204
[8] Wussing 2007, §I.3.4
[9] Solomon writes in Burnside's Collected Works, "The effect of [Burnside's book] was broader and more pervasive, influencing the entire
course of non-commutative algebra in the twentieth century."
[10] Curtis 2003
[11] Aschbacher 2004
[12] Tarski, Alfred (1953) "Undecidability of the elementary theory of groups" in Tarski, Mostowski, and Raphael Robinson Undecidable
Theories. North-Holland: 77-87.
References
• Historically important publications in group theory.
• Curtis, Charles W. (2003), Pioneers of Representation Theory: Frobenius, Burnside, Schur, and Brauer, History
of Mathematics, Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, ISBN 978-0-8218-2677-5
• Galois, Évariste (1908), Tannery, Jules, ed., Manuscrits de Évariste Galois (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/
text/text-idx?c=umhistmath;idno=AAN9280), Paris: Gauthier-Villars
• Kleiner, Israel (1986), "The evolution of group theory: a brief survey" (http://www.jstor.org/
sici?sici=0025-570X(198610)59:4<195:TEOGTA>2.0.CO;2-9), Mathematics Magazine 59 (4): 195–215,
doi:10.2307/2690312, MR863090, ISSN 0025-570X
• Smith, David Eugene (1906), History of Modern Mathematics (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/8746),
Mathematical Monographs, No. 1
• Wussing, Hans (2007), The Genesis of the Abstract Group Concept: A Contribution to the History of the Origin of
Abstract Group Theory, New York: Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-45868-7
• du Sautoy, Marcus (2008), Finding Moonshine, London: Fourth Estate, ISBN 978-0-00-721461-7
Group (mathematics) 7
Group (mathematics)
In mathematics, a group is an algebraic structure consisting of a set
together with an operation that combines any two of its elements to
form a third element. To qualify as a group, the set and the operation
must satisfy a few conditions called group axioms, namely closure,
associativity, identity and invertibility. Many familiar mathematical
structures such as number systems obey these axioms: for example, the
integers endowed with the addition operation form a group. However,
the abstract formalization of the group axioms, detached as it is from
the concrete nature of any particular group and its operation, allows
entities with highly diverse mathematical origins in abstract algebra
and beyond to be handled in a flexible way, while retaining their
essential structural aspects. The ubiquity of groups in numerous areas
within and outside mathematics makes them a central organizing The possible manipulations of this Rubik's Cube
form a group.
principle of contemporary mathematics.[1] [2]
Groups share a fundamental kinship with the notion of symmetry. A symmetry group encodes symmetry features of
a geometrical object: it consists of the set of transformations that leave the object unchanged, and the operation of
combining two such transformations by performing one after the other. Such symmetry groups, particularly the
continuous Lie groups, play an important role in many academic disciplines. Matrix groups, for example, can be
used to understand fundamental physical laws underlying special relativity and symmetry phenomena in molecular
chemistry.
The concept of a group arose from the study of polynomial equations, starting with Évariste Galois in the 1830s.
After contributions from other fields such as number theory and geometry, the group notion was generalized and
firmly established around 1870. Modern group theory—a very active mathematical discipline—studies groups in
their own right.a[›] To explore groups, mathematicians have devised various notions to break groups into smaller,
better-understandable pieces, such as subgroups, quotient groups and simple groups. In addition to their abstract
properties, group theorists also study the different ways in which a group can be expressed concretely (its group
representations), both from a theoretical and a computational point of view. A particularly rich theory has been
developed for finite groups, which culminated with the monumental classification of finite simple groups completed
in 1983. Since the mid-1980s, geometric group theory, which studies finitely generated groups as geometric objects,
has become a particularly active area in group theory.
3. If a is any integer, then 0 + a = a + 0 = a. Zero is called the identity element of addition because adding it to any
integer returns the same integer.
4. For every integer a, there is an integer b such that a + b = b + a = 0. The integer b is called the inverse element of
the integer a and is denoted −a.
The integers, together with the operation +, form a mathematical object belonging to a broad class sharing similar
structural aspects. To appropriately understand these structures as a collective, the following abstract definition is
developed.
Definition
A group is a set, G, together with an operation • (called the group law of G) that combines any two elements a and b
to form another element, denoted a • b or ab. To qualify as a group, the set and operation, (G, •), must satisfy four
requirements known as the group axioms:[4]
Closure
For all a, b in G, the result of the operation, a • b, is also in G.b[›]
Associativity
For all a, b and c in G, (a • b) • c = a • (b • c).
Identity element
There exists an element e in G, such that for every element a in G, the equation e • a = a • e = a holds. The
identity element of a group G is often written as 1 or 1G,[5] a notation inherited from the multiplicative
identity.
Inverse element
For each a in G, there exists an element b in G such that a • b = b • a = 1G.
The order in which the group operation is carried out can be significant. In other words, the result of combining
element a with element b need not yield the same result as combining element b with element a; the equation
a•b=b•a
may not always be true. This equation does always hold in the group of integers under addition, because a + b = b +
a for any two integers (commutativity of addition). However, it does not always hold in the symmetry group below.
Groups for which the equation a • b = b • a always holds are called abelian (in honor of Niels Abel). Thus, the
integer addition group is abelian, but the following symmetry group is not.
The set G is called the underlying set of the group (G, •). Often the group's underlying set G is used as a short name
for the group (G, •). Along the same lines, sometimes a shorthand expression such as "a subset of the group G" is
used when what is actually meant is "a subset of the underlying set G of the group (G, •)." Usually, it is clear from
the context whether a symbol like G refers to a group or to an underlying set.
id (keeping it as is) r1 (rotation by 90° right) r2 (rotation by 180° right) r3 (rotation by 270° right)
Group table of D4
• id r1 r2 r3 fv fh fd fc
id id r1 r2 r3 fv fh fd fc
r1 r1 r2 r3 id fc fd fv fh
r2 r2 r3 id r1 fh fv fc fd
r3 r3 id r1 r2 fd fc fh fv
fv fv fd fh fc id r2 r1 r3
fh fh fc fv fd r2 id r3 r1
fd fd fh fc fv r3 r1 id r2
fc fc fv fd fh r1 r3 r2 id
The elements id, r1, r2, and r3 form a subgroup, highlighted in red (upper left region). A left and right coset of this subgroup is highlighted in green
(in the last row) and yellow (last column), respectively.
Given this set of symmetries and the described operation, the group axioms can be understood as follows:
1. The closure axiom demands that the composition b • a of any two symmetries a and b is also a symmetry.
Another example for the group operation is
r3 • fh = fc,
Group (mathematics) 10
i.e. rotating 270° right after flipping horizontally equals flipping along the counter-diagonal (fc). Indeed every
other combination of two symmetries still gives a symmetry, as can be checked using the group table.
2. The associativity constraint deals with composing more than two symmetries: Starting with three elements a, b
and c of D4, there are two possible ways of using these three symmetries in this order to determine a symmetry of
the square. One of these ways is to first compose a and b into a single symmetry, then to compose that symmetry
with c. The other way is to first compose b and c, then to compose the resulting symmetry with a. The
associativity condition
(a • b) • c = a • (b • c)
means that these two ways are the same, i.e., a product of many group elements can be simplified in any order.
For example, (fd • fv) • r2 = fd • (fv • r2) can be checked using the group table at the right
While associativity is true for the symmetries of the square and addition of numbers, it is not true for all
operations. For instance, subtraction of numbers is not associative: (7 − 3) − 2 = 2 is not the same as 7 − (3 − 2) =
6.
3. The identity element is the symmetry id leaving everything unchanged: for any symmetry a, performing id after a
(or a after id) equals a, in symbolic form,
id • a = a,
a • id = a.
4. An inverse element undoes the transformation of some other element. Every symmetry can be undone: each of
transformations—identity id, the flips fh, fv, fd, fc and the 180° rotation r2—is its own inverse, because performing
each one twice brings the square back to its original orientation. The rotations r3 and r1 are each other's inverse,
because rotating 90° and then rotation 270° (or vice versa) yields a rotation over 360° which leaves the square
unchanged. In symbols,
fh • fh = id,
r3 • r1 = r1 • r3 = id.
In contrast to the group of integers above, where the order of the operation is irrelevant, it does matter in D4: fh • r1 =
fc but r1 • fh = fd. In other words, D4 is not abelian, which makes the group structure more difficult than the integers
introduced first.
History
The modern concept of an abstract group developed out of several fields of mathematics.[7] [8] [9] The original
motivation for group theory was the quest for solutions of polynomial equations of degree higher than 4. The
19th-century French mathematician Évariste Galois, extending prior work of Paolo Ruffini and Joseph-Louis
Lagrange, gave a criterion for the solvability of a particular polynomial equation in terms of the symmetry group of
its roots (solutions). The elements of such a Galois group correspond to certain permutations of the roots. At first,
Galois' ideas were rejected by his contemporaries, and published only posthumously.[10] [11] More general
permutation groups were investigated in particular by Augustin Louis Cauchy. Arthur Cayley's On the theory of
groups, as depending on the symbolic equation θn = 1 (1854) gives the first abstract definition of a finite group.[12]
Geometry was a second field in which groups were used systematically, especially symmetry groups as part of Felix
Klein's 1872 Erlangen program.[13] After novel geometries such as hyperbolic and projective geometry had emerged,
Klein used group theory to organize them in a more coherent way. Further advancing these ideas, Sophus Lie
founded the study of Lie groups in 1884.[14]
Group (mathematics) 11
The third field contributing to group theory was number theory. Certain abelian group structures had been used
implicitly in Carl Friedrich Gauss' number-theoretical work Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1798), and more explicitly
by Leopold Kronecker.[15] In 1847, Ernst Kummer led early attempts to prove Fermat's Last Theorem to a climax by
developing groups describing factorization into prime numbers.[16]
The convergence of these various sources into a uniform theory of groups started with Camille Jordan's Traité des
substitutions et des équations algébriques (1870).[17] Walther von Dyck (1882) gave the first statement of the
modern definition of an abstract group.[18] As of the 20th century, groups gained wide recognition by the pioneering
work of Ferdinand Georg Frobenius and William Burnside, who worked on representation theory of finite groups,
Richard Brauer's modular representation theory and Issai Schur's papers.[19] The theory of Lie groups, and more
generally locally compact groups was pushed by Hermann Weyl, Élie Cartan and many others.[20] Its algebraic
counterpart, the theory of algebraic groups, was first shaped by Claude Chevalley (from the late 1930s) and later by
pivotal work of Armand Borel and Jacques Tits.[21]
The University of Chicago's 1960–61 Group Theory Year brought together group theorists such as Daniel
Gorenstein, John G. Thompson and Walter Feit, laying the foundation of a collaboration that, with input from
numerous other mathematicians, classified all finite simple groups in 1982. This project exceeded previous
mathematical endeavours by its sheer size, in both length of proof and number of researchers. Research is ongoing to
simplify the proof of this classification.[22] These days, group theory is still a highly active mathematical branch
crucially impacting many other fields.a[›]
= l • (a • r) because r is an inverse of a, so 1G = a • r
The two extremal terms l and r are equal, since they are connected by a chain of equalities. In other words there is
only one inverse element of a. Similarly, to prove that the identity element of a group is unique, assume G is a group
with two identity elements 1G and e. Then 1G = 1G • e = e, hence 1G and e are equal.
Division
In groups, it is possible to perform division: given elements a and b of the group G, there is exactly one solution x in
G to the equation x • a = b.[26] In fact, right multiplication of the equation by a−1 gives the solution x = x • a • a−1 = b
• a−1. Similarly there is exactly one solution y in G to the equation a • y = b, namely y = a−1 • b. In general, x and y
need not agree.
A consequence of this is that multiplying by a group element g is a bijection. Specifically, if g is an element of the
group G, there is a bijection from G to itself called left translation by g sending h ∈ G to g • h. Similarly, right
translation by g is a bijection from G to itself sending h to h • g. If G is abelian, left and right translation by a group
element are the same.
Basic concepts
To understand groups beyond the level of mere symbolic manipulations as above, more structural concepts have to
be employed.c[›] There is a conceptual principle underlying all of the following notions: to take advantage of the
structure offered by groups (which sets, being "structureless", do not have), constructions related to groups have to
be compatible with the group operation. This compatibility manifests itself in the following notions in various ways.
For example, groups can be related to each other via functions called group homomorphisms. By the mentioned
principle, they are required to respect the group structures in a precise sense. The structure of groups can also be
understood by breaking them into pieces called subgroups and quotient groups. The principle of "preserving
structures"—a recurring topic in mathematics throughout—is an instance of working in a category, in this case the
category of groups.[27]
Group homomorphisms
Group homomorphismsg[›] are functions that preserve group structure. A function a: G → H between two groups
(G,•) and (H,*) is a homomorphism if the equation
a(g • k) = a(g) * a(k)
holds for all elements g, k in G. In other words, the result is the same when performing the group operation after or
before applying the map a. This requirement ensures that a(1G) = 1H, and also a(g)−1 = a(g−1) for all g in G. Thus a
group homomorphism respects all the structure of G provided by the group axioms.[28]
Two groups G and H are called isomorphic if there exist group homomorphisms a: G → H and b: H → G, such that
applying the two functions one after another (in each of the two possible orders) equal the identity function of G and
H, respectively. That is, a(b(h)) = h and b(a(g)) = g for any g in G and h in H. From an abstract point of view,
isomorphic groups carry the same information. For example, proving that g • g = 1G for some element g of G is
equivalent to proving that a(g) • a(g) = 1H, because applying a to the first equality yields the second, and applying b
to the second gives back the first.
Group (mathematics) 13
Subgroups
Informally, a subgroup is a group H contained within a bigger one, G.[29] Concretely, the identity element of G is
contained in H, and whenever h1 and h2 are in H, then so are h1 • h2 and h1−1, so the elements of H, equipped with
the group operation on G restricted to H, form indeed a group.
In the example above, the identity and the rotations constitute a subgroup R = {id, r1, r2, r3}, highlighted in red in the
group table above: any two rotations composed are still a rotation, and a rotation can be undone by (i.e. is inverse to)
the complementary rotations 270° for 90°, 180° for 180°, and 90° for 270° (note that rotation in the opposite
direction is not defined). The subgroup test is a necessary and sufficient condition for a subset H of a group G to be a
subgroup: it is sufficient to check that g−1h ∈ H for all elements g, h ∈ H. Knowing the subgroups is important in
understanding the group as a whole.d[›]
Given any subset S of a group G, the subgroup generated by S consists of products of elements of S and their
inverses. It is the smallest subgroup of G containing S.[30] In the introductory example above, the subgroup generated
by r2 and fv consists of these two elements, the identity element id and fh = fv • r2. Again, this is a subgroup, because
combining any two of these four elements or their inverses (which are, in this particular case, these same elements)
yields an element of this subgroup.
Cosets
In many situations it is desirable to consider two group elements the same if they differ by an element of a given
subgroup. For example, in D4 above, once a flip is performed, the square never gets back to the r2 configuration by
just applying the rotation operations (and no further flips), i.e. the rotation operations are irrelevant to the question
whether a flip has been performed. Cosets are used to formalize this insight: a subgroup H defines left and right
cosets, which can be thought of as translations of H by arbitrary group elements g. In symbolic terms, the left and
right coset of H containing g are
gH = {g • h, h ∈ H} and Hg = {h • g, h ∈ H}, respectively.[31]
The cosets of any subgroup H form a partition of G; that is, the union of all left cosets is equal to G and two left
cosets are either equal or have an empty intersection.[32] The first case g1H = g2H happens precisely when g1−1 • g2
∈ H, i.e. if the two elements differ by an element of H. Similar considerations apply to the right cosets of H. The left
and right cosets of H may or may not be equal. If they are, i.e. for all g in G, gH = Hg, then H is said to be a normal
subgroup. One may then simply refer to N as the set of cosets.
In D4, the introductory symmetry group, the left cosets gR of the subgroup R consisting of the rotations are either
equal to R, if g is an element of R itself, or otherwise equal to U = fcR = {fc, fv, fd, fh} (highlighted in green). The
subgroup R is also normal, because fcR = U = Rfc and similarly for any element other than fc.
Quotient groups
In addition to disregarding the internal structure of a subgroup by considering its cosets, it is desirable to endow this
coarser entity with a group law called quotient group or factor group. For this to be possible, the subgroup has to be
normal. Given any normal subgroup N, the quotient group is defined by
G / N = {gN, g ∈ G}, "G modulo N".[33]
This set inherits a group operation (sometimes called coset multiplication, or coset addition) from the original group
G: (gN) • (hN) = (gh)N for all g and h in G. This definition is motivated by the idea (itself an instance of general
structural considerations outlined above) that the map G → G / N that associates to any element g its coset gN be a
group homomorphism, or by general abstract considerations called universal properties. The coset eN = N serves as
the identity in this group, and the inverse of gN in the quotient group is (gN)−1 = (g−1)N.e[›]
Group (mathematics) 14
• R U
R R U
U U R
The elements of the quotient group D4 / R are R itself, which represents the identity, and U = fvR. The group
operation on the quotient is shown at the right. For example, U • U = fvR • fvR = (fv • fv)R = R. Both the subgroup R
= {id, r1, r2, r3}, as well as the corresponding quotient are abelian, whereas D4 is not abelian. Building bigger groups
by smaller ones, such as D4 from its subgroup R and the quotient D4 / R is abstracted by a notion called semidirect
product.
Quotient and subgroups together form a way of describing every group by its presentation: any group is the quotient
of the free group over the generators of the group, quotiented by the subgroup of relations. The dihedral group D4,
for example, can be generated by two elements r and f (for example, r = r1, the right rotation and f = fv the vertical
(or any other) flip), which means that every symmetry of the square is a finite composition of these two symmetries
or their inverses. Together with the relations
r 4 = f 2 = (r • f)2 = 1,[34]
the group is completely described. A presentation of a group can also be used to construct the Cayley graph, a device
used to graphically capture discrete groups.
Sub- and quotient groups are related in the following way: a subset H of G can be seen as an injective map H → G,
i.e. any element of the target has at most one element that maps to it. The counterpart to injective maps are surjective
maps (every element of the target is mapped onto), such as the canonical map G → G / N.y[›] Interpreting subgroup
and quotients in light of these homomorphisms emphasizes the structural concept inherent to these definitions
alluded to in the introduction. In general, homomorphisms are neither injective nor surjective. Kernel and image of
group homomorphisms and the first isomorphism theorem address this phenomenon.
The fundamental group of a plane minus a point (bold) consists of loops around the missing point. This group is isomorphic to the integers.
Group (mathematics) 15
Examples and applications of groups abound. A starting point is the group Z of integers with addition as group
operation, introduced above. If instead of addition multiplication is considered, one obtains multiplicative groups.
These groups are predecessors of important constructions in abstract algebra.
Groups are also applied in many other mathematical areas. Mathematical objects are often examined by associating
groups to them and studying the properties of the corresponding groups. For example, Henri Poincaré founded what
is now called algebraic topology by introducing the fundamental group.[35] By means of this connection, topological
properties such as proximity and continuity translate into properties of groups.i[›] For example, elements of the
fundamental group are represented by loops. The second image at the right shows some loops in a plane minus a
point. The blue loop is considered null-homotopic (and thus irrelevant), because it can be continuously shrunk to a
point. The presence of the hole prevents the orange loop from being shrunk to a point. The fundamental group of the
plane with a point deleted turns out to be infinite cyclic, generated by the orange loop (or any other loop winding
once around the hole). This way, the fundamental group detects the hole.
In more recent applications, the influence has also been reversed to motivate geometric constructions by a
group-theoretical background.j[›] In a similar vein, geometric group theory employs geometric concepts, for example
in the study of hyperbolic groups.[36] Further branches crucially applying groups include algebraic geometry and
number theory.[37]
In addition to the above theoretical applications, many practical applications of groups exist. Cryptography relies on
the combination of the abstract group theory approach together with algorithmical knowledge obtained in
computational group theory, in particular when implemented for finite groups.[38] Applications of group theory are
not restricted to mathematics; sciences such as physics, chemistry and computer science benefit from the concept.
Numbers
Many number systems, such as the integers and the rationals enjoy a naturally given group structure. In some cases,
such as with the rationals, both addition and multiplication operations give rise to group structures. Such number
systems are predecessors to more general algebraic structures known as rings and fields. Further abstract algebraic
concepts such as modules, vector spaces and algebras also form groups.
Integers
The group of integers Z under addition, denoted (Z, +), has been described above. The integers, with the operation of
multiplication instead of addition, (Z, ·) do not form a group. The closure, associativity and identity axioms are
satisfied, but inverses do not exist: for example, a = 2 is an integer, but the only solution to the equation a · b = 1 in
this case is b = 1/2, which is a rational number, but not an integer. Hence not every element of Z has a
(multiplicative) inverse.k[›]
Rationals
The desire for the existence of multiplicative inverses suggests considering fractions
Fractions of integers (with b nonzero) are known as rational numbers.l[›] The set of all such fractions is commonly
denoted Q. There is still a minor obstacle for (Q, ·), the rationals with multiplication, being a group: because the
rational number 0 does not have a multiplicative inverse (i.e., there is no x such that x · 0 = 1), (Q, ·) is still not a
group.
However, the set of all nonzero rational numbers Q \ {0} = {q ∈ Q, q ≠ 0} does form an abelian group under
multiplication, denoted (Q \ {0}, ·).m[›] Associativity and identity element axioms follow from the properties of
integers. The closure requirement still holds true after removing zero, because the product of two nonzero rationals is
never zero. Finally, the inverse of a/b is b/a, therefore the axiom of the inverse element is satisfied.
Group (mathematics) 16
The rational numbers (including 0) also form a group under addition. Intertwining addition and multiplication
operations yields more complicated structures called rings and—if division is possible, such as in Q—fields, which
occupy a central position in abstract algebra. Group theoretic arguments therefore underlie parts of the theory of
those entities.n[›]
Cyclic groups
A cyclic group is a group all of whose elements are powers (when the group
operation is written additively, the term 'multiple' can be used) of a particular
element a.[42] In multiplicative notation, the elements of the group are:
..., a−3, a−2, a−1, a0 = e, a, a2, a3, ...,
where a2 means a • a, and a−3 stands for a−1 • a−1 • a−1=(a • a • a)−1 etc.h[›] Such
an element a is called a generator or a primitive element of the group.
A typical example for this class of groups is the group of n-th complex roots of
unity, given by complex numbers z satisfying zn = 1 (and whose operation is
The 6th complex roots of unity form
multiplication).[43] Any cyclic group with n elements is isomorphic to this group.
a cyclic group. z is a primitive
Using some field theory, the group Fp× can be shown to be cyclic: for example, if element, but z2 is not, because the
p = 5, 3 is a generator since 31 = 3, 32 = 9 ≡ 4, 33 ≡ 2, and 34 ≡ 1. odd powers of z are not a power of
z2.
Some cyclic groups have an infinite number of elements. In these groups, for
every non-zero element a, all the powers of a are distinct; despite the name
"cyclic group", the powers of the elements do not cycle. An infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to (Z, +), the group of
integers under addition introduced above.[44] As these two prototypes are both abelian, so is any cyclic group.
The study of abelian groups is quite mature, including the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups;
and reflecting this state of affairs, many group-related notions, such as center and commutator, describe the extent to
which a given group is not abelian.[45]
Group (mathematics) 17
Symmetry groups
Symmetry groups are groups consisting of symmetries of given mathematical objects—be they of geometric nature,
such as the introductory symmetry group of the square, or of algebraic nature, such as polynomial equations and
their solutions.[46] Conceptually, group theory can be thought of as the study of symmetry.t[›] Symmetries in
mathematics greatly simplify the study of geometrical or analytical objects. A group is said to act on another
mathematical object X if every group element performs some operation on X compatibly to the group law. In the
rightmost example below, an element of order 7 of the (2,3,7) triangle group acts on the tiling by permuting the
highlighted warped triangles (and the other ones, too). By a group action, the group pattern is connected to the
structure of the object being acted on.
In chemical fields, such as crystallography, space groups and point
groups describe molecular symmetries and crystal symmetries.
These symmetries underlie the chemical and physical behavior of
these systems, and group theory enables simplification of quantum
mechanical analysis of these properties.[47] For example, group
theory is used to show that optical transitions between certain
quantum levels cannot occur simply because of the symmetry of
the states involved.
Likewise, group theory helps predict the changes in physical properties that occur when a material undergoes a phase
transition, for example, from a cubic to a tetrahedral crystalline form. An example is ferroelectric materials, where
the change from a paraelectric to a ferroelectric state occurs at the Curie temperature and is related to a change from
the high-symmetry paraelectric state to the lower symmetry ferroelectic state, accompanied by a so-called soft
phonon mode, a vibrational lattice mode that goes to zero frequency at the transition.[50]
Such spontaneous symmetry breaking has found further application in elementary particle physics, where its
occurrence is related to the appearance of Goldstone bosons.
Buckminsterfullerene Ammonia, NH3. Its Cubane C8H8 The (2,3,7) triangle group, a
Hexaaquacopper(II) complex ion,
displays symmetry group is of order 6, features hyperbolic group, acts on
[Cu(OH2)6]2+. Compared to a perfectly
icosahedral symmetry. generated by a 120° rotation octahedral this tiling of the hyperbolic
symmetrical shape, the molecule is
and a reflection. symmetry. plane.
vertically dilated by about 22%
(Jahn-Teller effect).
Finite symmetry groups such as the Mathieu groups are used in coding theory, which is in turn applied in error
correction of transmitted data, and in CD players.[51] Another application is differential Galois theory, which
Group (mathematics) 18
characterizes functions having antiderivatives of a prescribed form, giving group-theoretic criteria for when solutions
of certain differential equations are well-behaved.u[›] Geometric properties that remain stable under group actions are
investigated in (geometric) invariant theory.[52]
Representation theory is both an application of the group concept and important for a deeper understanding of
groups.[55] [56] It studies the group by its group actions on other spaces. A broad class of group representations are
linear representations, i.e. the group is acting on a vector space, such as the three-dimensional Euclidean space R3. A
representation of G on an n-dimensional real vector space is simply a group homomorphism
ρ: G → GL(n, R)
from the group to the general linear group. This way, the group operation, which may be abstractly given, translates
to the multiplication of matrices making it accessible to explicit computations.w[›]
Given a group action, this gives further means to study the object being acted on.x[›] On the other hand, it also yields
information about the group. Group representations are an organizing principle in the theory of finite groups, Lie
groups, algebraic groups and topological groups, especially (locally) compact groups.[55] [57]
Galois groups
Galois groups have been developed to help solve polynomial equations by capturing their symmetry features.[58] [59]
For example, the solutions of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by
Exchanging "+" and "−" in the expression, i.e. permuting the two solutions of the equation can be viewed as a (very
simple) group operation. Similar formulae are known for cubic and quartic equations, but do not exist in general for
degree 5 and higher.[60] Abstract properties of Galois groups associated with polynomials (in particular their
solvability) give a criterion for polynomials that have all their solutions expressible by radicals, i.e. solutions
expressible using solely addition, multiplication, and roots similar to the formula above.[61]
The problem can be dealt with by shifting to field theory and considering the splitting field of a polynomial. Modern
Galois theory generalizes the above type of Galois groups to field extensions and establishes—via the fundamental
theorem of Galois theory—a precise relationship between fields and groups, underlining once again the ubiquity of
groups in mathematics.
Group (mathematics) 19
Finite groups
A group is called finite if it has a finite number of elements. The number of elements is called the order of the group
G.[62] An important class is the symmetric groups SN, the groups of permutations of N letters. For example, the
symmetric group on 3 letters S3 is the group consisting of all possible swaps of the three letters ABC, i.e. contains the
elements ABC, ACB, ..., up to CBA, in total 6 (or 3 factorial) elements. This class is fundamental insofar as any finite
group can be expressed as a subgroup of a symmetric group SN for a suitable integer N (Cayley's theorem). Parallel
to the group of symmetries of the square above, S3 can also be interpreted as the group of symmetries of an
equilateral triangle.
The order of an element a in a group G is the least positive integer n such that a n = e, where a n represents
i.e. application of the operation • to n copies of a. (If • represents multiplication, then an corresponds to the nth power
of a.) In infinite groups, such an n may not exist, in which case the order of a is said to be infinity. The order of an
element equals the order of the cyclic subgroup generated by this element.
More sophisticated counting techniques, for example counting cosets, yield more precise statements about finite
groups: Lagrange's Theorem states that for a finite group G the order of any finite subgroup H divides the order of G.
The Sylow theorems give a partial converse.
The dihedral group (discussed above) is a finite group of order 8. The order of r1 is 4, as is the order of the subgroup
R it generates (see above). The order of the reflection elements fv etc. is 2. Both orders divide 8, as predicted by
Lagrange's Theorem. The groups Fp× above have order p − 1.
Topological groups
Some topological spaces may be endowed with a group law. In order
for the group law and the topology to interweave well, the group
operations must be continuous functions, that is, g • h, and g−1 must
not vary wildly if g and h vary only little. Such groups are called
topological groups, and they are the group objects in the category of
topological spaces.[66] The most basic examples are the reals R under
addition, (R \ {0}, ·), and similarly with any other topological field
such as the complex numbers or p-adic numbers. All of these groups
are locally compact, so they have Haar measures and can be studied via
harmonic analysis. The former offer an abstract formalism of invariant
integrals. Invariance means, in the case of real numbers for example:
for any constant c. Matrix groups over these fields fall under this regime, as do adele rings and adelic algebraic
groups, which are basic to number theory.[67] Galois groups of infinite field extensions such as the absolute Galois
group can also be equipped with a topology, the so-called Krull topology, which in turn is central to generalize the
above sketched connection of fields and groups to infinite field extensions.[68] An advanced generalization of this
idea, adapted to the needs of algebraic geometry, is the étale fundamental group.[69]
Lie groups
Lie groups (in honor of Sophus Lie) are groups which also have a manifold structure, i.e. they are spaces looking
locally like some Euclidean space of the appropriate dimension.[70] Again, the additional structure, here the manifold
structure, has to be compatible, i.e. the maps corresponding to multiplication and the inverse have to be smooth.
A standard example is the general linear group introduced above: it is an open subset of the space of all n-by-n
matrices, because it is given by the inequality
det (A) ≠ 0,
where A denotes an n-by-n matrix.[71]
Lie groups are of fundamental importance in physics: Noether's theorem links continuous symmetries to conserved
quantities.[72] Rotation, as well as translations in space and time are basic symmetries of the laws of mechanics.
Group (mathematics) 21
They can, for instance, be used to construct simple models—imposing, say, axial symmetry on a situation will
typically lead to significant simplification in the equations one needs to solve to provide a physical description.v[›]
Another example are the Lorentz transformations, which relate measurements of time and velocity of two observers
in motion relative to each other. They can be deduced in a purely group-theoretical way, by expressing the
transformations as a rotational symmetry of Minkowski space. The latter serves—in the absence of significant
gravitation—as a model of space time in special relativity.[73] The full symmetry group of Minkowski space, i.e.
including translations, is known as the Poincaré group. By the above, it plays a pivotal role in special relativity and,
by implication, for quantum field theories.[74] Symmetries that vary with location are central to the modern
description of physical interactions with the help of gauge theory.[75]
Generalizations
Group-like structures
Magma Yes No No No
In abstract algebra, more general structures are defined by relaxing some of the axioms defining a group.[27] [76] [77]
For example, if the requirement that every element has an inverse is eliminated, the resulting algebraic structure is
called a monoid. The natural numbers N (including 0) under addition form a monoid, as do the nonzero integers
under multiplication (Z \ {0}, ·), see above. There is a general method to formally add inverses to elements to any
(abelian) monoid, much the same way as (Q \ {0}, ·) is derived from (Z \ {0}, ·), known as the Grothendieck group.
Groupoids are similar to groups except that the composition a • b need not be defined for all a and b. They arise in
the study of more complicated forms of symmetry, often in topological and analytical structures, such as the
fundamental groupoid or stacks. Finally, it is possible to generalize any of these concepts by replacing the binary
operation with an arbitrary n-ary one (i.e. an operation taking n arguments). With the proper generalization of the
group axioms this gives rise to an n-ary group.[78] The table gives a list of several structures generalizing groups.
Notes
^ a: Mathematical Reviews lists 3,224 research papers on group theory and its generalizations written in 2005.
^ b: The closure axiom is already implied by the condition that • be a binary operation. Some authors therefore omit
this axiom. Lang 2002
^ c: See, for example, the books of Lang (2002, 2005) and Herstein (1996, 1975).
^ d: However, a group is not determined by its lattice of subgroups. See Suzuki 1951.
^ e: The fact that the group operation extends this canonically is an instance of a universal property.
^ f: For example, if G is finite, then the size of any subgroup and any quotient group divides the size of G, according
to Lagrange's theorem.
^ g: The word homomorphism derives from Greek ὁμός—the same and μορφή—structure.
^ h: The additive notation for elements of a cyclic group would be t • a, t in Z.
Group (mathematics) 22
Citations
[1] Herstein 1975, §2, p. 26
[2] Hall 1967, §1.1, p. 1: "The idea of a group is one which pervades the whole of mathematics both pure and applied."
[3] Lang 2005, App. 2, p. 360
[4] Herstein 1975, §2.1, p. 27
[5] Weisstein, Eric W., " Identity Element (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ IdentityElement. html)" from MathWorld.
[6] Herstein 1975, §2.6, p. 54
[7] Wussing 2007
[8] Kleiner 1986
[9] Smith 1906
[10] Galois 1908
[11] Kleiner 1986, p. 202
[12] Cayley 1889
[13] Wussing 2007, §III.2
[14] Lie 1973
[15] Kleiner 1986, p. 204
[16] Wussing 2007, §I.3.4
[17] Jordan 1870
[18] von Dyck 1882
[19] Curtis 2003
[20] Mackey 1976
[21] Borel 2001
[22] Aschbacher 2004
[23] Ledermann 1953, §1.2, pp. 4–5
[24] Ledermann 1973, §I.1, p. 3
[25] Lang 2002, §I.2, p. 7
[26] Lang 2005, §II.1, p. 17
Group (mathematics) 23
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• Fulton, William; Harris, Joe (1991), Representation theory. A first course, Graduate Texts in Mathematics,
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org/notices/200407/fea-aschbacher.pdf) (PDF), Notices of the American Mathematical Society 51 (7): 736–740,
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• Bishop, David H. L. (1993), Group theory and chemistry, New York: Dover Publications,
ISBN 978-0-486-67355-4.
• Borel, Armand (1991), Linear algebraic groups, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 126 (2nd ed.), Berlin, New
York: Springer-Verlag, MR1102012, ISBN 978-0-387-97370-8.
• Carter, Roger W. (1989), Simple groups of Lie type, New York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-471-50683-6.
• Conway, John Horton; Delgado Friedrichs, Olaf; Huson, Daniel H.; Thurston, William P. (2001), "On
three-dimensional space groups" (http://arxiv.org/abs/math.MG/9911185), Beiträge zur Algebra und
Geometrie 42 (2): 475–507, MR1865535, ISSN 0138-4821.
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Group Theory], Lecture Notes in Mathematics, 1441, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, MR1075994,
ISBN 978-3-540-52977-4.
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• Denecke, Klaus; Wismath, Shelly L. (2002), Universal algebra and applications in theoretical computer science,
London: CRC Press, ISBN 978-1-58488-254-1.
• Dudek, W.A. (2001), "On some old problems in n-ary groups" (http://www.quasigroups.eu/contents/
contents8.php?m=trzeci), Quasigroups and Related Systems 8: 15–36.
• (German) Frucht, R. (1939), "Herstellung von Graphen mit vorgegebener abstrakter Gruppe [Construction of
Graphs with Prescribed Group (http://www.numdam.org/numdam-bin/fitem?id=CM_1939__6__239_0)"],
Compositio Mathematica 6: 239–50, ISSN 0010-437X.
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Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-79540-1.
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MR1199112, ISBN 978-0-8176-3688-3.
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• Michler, Gerhard (2006), Theory of finite simple groups, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-86625-5.
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Group theory 27
Group theory
In mathematics and abstract algebra, group theory studies the algebraic structures known as groups. The concept of
a group is central to abstract algebra: other well-known algebraic structures, such as rings, fields, and vector spaces
can all be seen as groups endowed with additional operations and axioms. Groups recur throughout mathematics, and
the methods of group theory have strongly influenced many parts of algebra. Linear algebraic groups and Lie groups
are two branches of group theory that have experienced tremendous advances and have become subject areas in their
own right.
Various physical systems, such as crystals and the hydrogen atom, can be modelled by symmetry groups. Thus group
theory and the closely related representation theory have many applications in physics and chemistry.
One of the most important mathematical achievements of the 20th century was the collaborative effort, taking up
more than 10,000 journal pages and mostly published between 1960 and 1980, that culminated in a complete
classification of finite simple groups.
History
Group theory has three main historical sources: number theory, the theory of algebraic equations, and geometry. The
number-theoretic strand was begun by Leonhard Euler, and developed by Gauss's work on modular arithmetic and
additive and multiplicative groups related to quadratic fields. Early results about permutation groups were obtained
by Lagrange, Ruffini, and Abel in their quest for general solutions of polynomial equations of high degree. Évariste
Galois coined the term “group” and established a connection, now known as Galois theory, between the nascent
theory of groups and field theory. In geometry, groups first became important in projective geometry and, later,
non-Euclidean geometry. Felix Klein's Erlangen program famously proclaimed group theory to be the organizing
principle of geometry.
Galois, in the 1830s, was the first to employ groups to determine the solvability of polynomial equations. Arthur
Cayley and Augustin Louis Cauchy pushed these investigations further by creating the theory of permutation group.
The second historical source for groups stems from geometrical situations. In an attempt to come to grips with
possible geometries (such as euclidean, hyperbolic or projective geometry) using group theory, Felix Klein initiated
the Erlangen programme. Sophus Lie, in 1884, started using groups (now called Lie groups) attached to analytic
problems. Thirdly, groups were (first implicitly and later explicitly) used in algebraic number theory.
The different scope of these early sources resulted in different notions of groups. The theory of groups was unified
starting around 1880. Since then, the impact of group theory has been ever growing, giving rise to the birth of
abstract algebra in the early 20th century, representation theory, and many more influential spin-off domains. The
classification of finite simple groups is a vast body of work from the mid 20th century, classifying all the finite
simple groups.
Permutation groups
The first class of groups to undergo a systematic study was permutation groups. Given any set X and a collection G
of bijections of X into itself (known as permutations) that is closed under compositions and inverses, G is a group
acting on X. If X consists of n elements and G consists of all permutations, G is the symmetric group Sn; in general,
G is a subgroup of the symmetric group of X. An early construction due to Cayley exhibited any group as a
permutation group, acting on itself (X = G) by means of the left regular representation.
Group theory 28
In many cases, the structure of a permutation group can be studied using the properties of its action on the
corresponding set. For example, in this way one proves that for n ≥ 5, the alternating group An is simple, i.e. does not
admit any proper normal subgroups. This fact plays a key role in the impossibility of solving a general algebraic
equation of degree n ≥ 5 in radicals.
Matrix groups
The next important class of groups is given by matrix groups, or linear groups. Here G is a set consisting of
invertible matrices of given order n over a field K that is closed under the products and inverses. Such a group acts
on the n-dimensional vector space Kn by linear transformations. This action makes matrix groups conceptually
similar to permutation groups, and geometry of the action may be usefully exploited to establish properties of the
group G.
Transformation groups
Permutation groups and matrix groups are special cases of transformation groups: groups that act on a certain space
X preserving its inherent structure. In the case of permutation groups, X is a set; for matrix groups, X is a vector
space. The concept of a transformation group is closely related with the concept of a symmetry group:
transformation groups frequently consist of all transformations that preserve a certain structure.
The theory of transformation groups forms a bridge connecting group theory with differential geometry. A long line
of research, originating with Lie and Klein, considers group actions on manifolds by homeomorphisms or
diffeomorphisms. The groups themselves may be discrete or continuous.
Abstract groups
Most groups considered in the first stage of the development of group theory were "concrete", having been realized
through numbers, permutations, or matrices. It was not until the late nineteenth century that the idea of an abstract
group as a set with operations satisfying a certain system of axioms began to take hold. A typical way of specifying
an abstract group is through a presentation by generators and relations,
A significant source of abstract groups is given by the construction of a factor group, or quotient group, G/H, of a
group G by a normal subgroup H. Class groups of algebraic number fields were among the earliest examples of
factor groups, of much interest in number theory. If a group G is a permutation group on a set X, the factor group
G/H is no longer acting on X; but the idea of an abstract group permits one not to worry about this discrepancy.
The change of perspective from concrete to abstract groups makes it natural to consider properties of groups that are
independent of a particular realization, or in modern language, invariant under isomorphism, as well as the classes of
group with a given such property: finite groups, periodic groups, simple groups, solvable groups, and so on. Rather
than exploring properties of an individual group, one seeks to establish results that apply to a whole class of groups.
The new paradigm was of paramount importance for the development of mathematics: it foreshadowed the creation
of abstract algebra in the works of Hilbert, Emil Artin, Emmy Noether, and mathematicians of their school.
Group theory 29
are compatible with this structure, i.e. are continuous, smooth or regular (in the sense of algebraic geometry) maps
then G becomes a topological group, a Lie group, or an algebraic group.[1]
The presence of extra structure relates these types of groups with other mathematical disciplines and means that
more tools are available in their study. Topological groups form a natural domain for abstract harmonic analysis,
whereas Lie groups (frequently realized as transformation groups) are the mainstays of differential geometry and
unitary representation theory. Certain classification questions that cannot be solved in general can be approached and
resolved for special subclasses of groups. Thus, compact connected Lie groups have been completely classified.
There is a fruitful relation between infinite abstract groups and topological groups: whenever a group Γ can be
realized as a lattice in a topological group G, the geometry and analysis pertaining to G yield important results about
Γ. A comparatively recent trend in the theory of finite groups exploits their connections with compact topological
groups (profinite groups): for example, a single p-adic analytic group G has a family of quotients which are finite
p-groups of various orders, and properties of G translate into the properties of its finite quotients.
Representation of groups
Saying that a group G acts on a set X means that every element defines a bijective map on a set in a way compatible
with the group structure. When X has more structure, it is useful to restrict this notion further: a representation of G
on a vector space V is a group homomorphism:
ρ : G → GL(V),
where GL(V) consists of the invertible linear transformations of V. In other words, to every group element g is
assigned an automorphism ρ(g) such that ρ(g) ∘ ρ(h) = ρ(gh) for any h in G.
This definition can be understood in two directions, both of which give rise to whole new domains of mathematics.[4]
On the one hand, it may yield new information about the group G: often, the group operation in G is abstractly given,
but via ρ, it corresponds to the multiplication of matrices, which is very explicit.[5] On the other hand, given a
well-understood group acting on a complicated object, this simplifies the study of the object in question. For
example, if G is finite, it is known that V above decomposes into irreducible parts. These parts in turn are much more
easily manageable than the whole V (via Schur's lemma).
Given a group G, representation theory then asks what representations of G exist. There are several settings, and the
employed methods and obtained results are rather different in every case: representation theory of finite groups and
representations of Lie groups are two main subdomains of the theory. The totality of representations is governed by
the group's characters. For example, Fourier polynomials can be interpreted as the characters of U(1), the group of
complex numbers of absolute value 1, acting on the L2-space of periodic functions.
has the two solutions , and . In this case, the group that exchanges the two roots is the Galois
group belonging to the equation. Every polynomial equation in one variable has a Galois group, that is a
certain permutation group on its roots.
The axioms of a group formalize the essential aspects of symmetry. Symmetries form a group: they are closed
because if you take a symmetry of an object, and then apply another symmetry, the result will still be a symmetry.
The identity keeping the object fixed is always a symmetry of an object. Existence of inverses is guaranteed by
undoing the symmetry and the associativity comes from the fact that symmetries are functions on a space, and
composition of functions are associative.
Frucht's theorem says that every group is the symmetry group of some graph. So every abstract group is actually the
symmetries of some explicit object.
The saying of "preserving the structure" of an object can be made precise by working in a category. Maps preserving
the structure are then the morphisms, and the symmetry group is the automorphism group of the object in question.
benefit from the flexibility of the geometric objects, hence their group
structures, together with the complicated structure of these groups, which
make the discrete logarithm very hard to calculate. One of the earliest
encryption protocols, Caesar's cipher, may also be interpreted as a (very easy)
group operation. In another direction, toric varieties are algebraic varieties
The cyclic group Z26 underlies Caesar's
cipher. acted on by a torus. Toroidal embeddings have recently led to advances in
algebraic geometry, in particular resolution of singularities.[8]
Algebraic number theory is a special case of group theory, thereby following the rules of the latter. For example,
Euler's product formula
captures the fact that any integer decomposes in a unique way into primes. The failure of this statement for more
general rings gives rise to class groups and regular primes, which feature in Kummer's treatment of Fermat's Last
Theorem.
• The concept of the Lie group (named after mathematician Sophus Lie) is important in the study of differential
equations and manifolds; they describe the symmetries of continuous geometric and analytical structures.
Analysis on these and other groups is called harmonic analysis. Haar measures, that is integrals invariant under
the translation in a Lie group, are used for pattern recognition and other image processing techniques.[9]
• In combinatorics, the notion of permutation group and the concept of group action are often used to simplify the
counting of a set of objects; see in particular Burnside's lemma.
• The presence of the 12-periodicity in the circle of fifths yields applications
of elementary group theory in musical set theory.
• In physics, groups are important because they describe the symmetries
which the laws of physics seem to obey. Physicists are very interested in
group representations, especially of Lie groups, since these representations
often point the way to the "possible" physical theories. Examples of the
use of groups in physics include the Standard Model, gauge theory, the
Lorentz group, and the Poincaré group.
See also
• Group (mathematics)
• Glossary of group theory
• List of group theory topics
Notes
[1] This process of imposing extra structure has been formalized through the notion of a group object in a suitable category. Thus Lie groups are
group objects in the category of differentiable manifolds and affine algebraic groups are group objects in the category of affine algebraic
varieties.
[2] Schupp & Lyndon 2001
[3] La Harpe 2000
[4] Such as group cohomology or equivariant K-theory.
[5] In particular, if the representation is faithful.
[6] For example the Hodge conjecture (in certain cases).
[7] See the Birch-Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture, one of the millennium problems
[8] Abramovich, Dan; Karu, Kalle; Matsuki, Kenji; Wlodarczyk, Jaroslaw (2002), "Torification and factorization of birational maps", Journal of
the American Mathematical Society 15 (3): 531–572, doi:10.1090/S0894-0347-02-00396-X, MR1896232
[9] Lenz, Reiner (1990), Group theoretical methods in image processing (http:/ / webstaff. itn. liu. se/ ~reile/ LNCS413/ index. htm), Lecture
Notes in Computer Science, 413, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, doi:10.1007/3-540-52290-5, ISBN 978-0-387-52290-6,
References
• Borel, Armand (1991), Linear algebraic groups, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 126 (2nd ed.), Berlin, New
York: Springer-Verlag, MR1102012, ISBN 978-0-387-97370-8
• Carter, Nathan C. (2009), Visual group theory (http://web.bentley.edu/empl/c/ncarter/vgt/), Classroom
Resource Materials Series, Mathematical Association of America, MR2504193, ISBN 978-0-88385-757-1
• Cannon, John J. (1969), "Computers in group theory: A survey", Communications of the Association for
Computing Machinery 12: 3–12, doi:10.1145/362835.362837, MR0290613
• Frucht, R. (1939), "Herstellung von Graphen mit vorgegebener abstrakter Gruppe" (http://www.numdam.org/
numdam-bin/fitem?id=CM_1939__6__239_0), Compositio Mathematica 6: 239–50, ISSN 0010-437X
• Golubitsky, Martin; Stewart, Ian (2006), "Nonlinear dynamics of networks: the groupoid formalism", Bull. Amer.
Math. Soc. (N.S.) 43: 305–364, doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-06-01108-6, MR2223010 Shows the advantage of
generalising from group to groupoid.
• Judson, Thomas W. (1997), Abstract Algebra: Theory and Applications (http://abstract.ups.edu) An
introductory undergraduate text in the spirit of texts by Gallian or Herstein, covering groups, rings, integral
domains, fields and Galois theory. Free downloadable PDF with open-source GFDL license.
• Kleiner, Israel (1986), "The evolution of group theory: a brief survey" (http://jstor.org/stable/2690312),
Mathematics Magazine 59 (4): 195–215, doi:10.2307/2690312, MR863090, ISSN 0025-570X
• La Harpe, Pierre de (2000), Topics in geometric group theory, University of Chicago Press,
ISBN 978-0-226-31721-2
• Livio, M. (2005), The Equation That Couldn't Be Solved: How Mathematical Genius Discovered the Language of
Symmetry, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-7432-5820-7 Conveys the practical value of group theory by explaining
how it points to symmetries in physics and other sciences.
• Mumford, David (1970), Abelian varieties, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-560528-0, OCLC 138290
• Ronan M., 2006. Symmetry and the Monster. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280722-6. For lay readers.
Describes the quest to find the basic building blocks for finite groups.
• Rotman, Joseph (1994), An introduction to the theory of groups, New York: Springer-Verlag,
ISBN 0-387-94285-8 A standard contemporary reference.
Group theory 34
• Schupp, Paul E.; Lyndon, Roger C. (2001), Combinatorial group theory, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag,
ISBN 978-3-540-41158-1
• Scott, W. R. (1987) [1964], Group Theory, New York: Dover, ISBN 0-486-65377-3 Inexpensive and fairly
readable, but somewhat dated in emphasis, style, and notation.
• Shatz, Stephen S. (1972), Profinite groups, arithmetic, and geometry, Princeton University Press, MR0347778,
ISBN 978-0-691-08017-8
• Weibel, Charles A. (1994), An introduction to homological algebra, Cambridge Studies in Advanced
Mathematics, 38, Cambridge University Press, MR1269324, ISBN 978-0-521-55987-4, OCLC 36131259
External links
• History of the abstract group concept (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/
Abstract_groups.html)
• Higher dimensional group theory (http://www.bangor.ac.uk/r.brown/hdaweb2.htm) This presents a view of
group theory as level one of a theory which extends in all dimensions, and has applications in homotopy theory
and to higher dimensional nonabelian methods for local-to-global problems.
• Plus teacher and student package: Group Theory (http://plus.maths.org/issue48/package/index.html) This
package brings together all the articles on group theory from Plus, the online mathematics magazine produced by
the Millennium Mathematics Project at the University of Cambridge, exploring applications and recent
breakthroughs, and giving explicit definitions and examples of groups.
• US Naval Academy group theory guide (http://www.usna.edu/Users/math/wdj/tonybook/gpthry/node1.
html) A general introduction to group theory with exercises written by Tony Gaglione.
Notation
The group is often referred to as "the group " or more simply as " " Nevertheless, the operation "
" is fundamental to the description of the group. is usually read as "the group under ". When
we wish to assert that is a group (for example, when stating a theorem), we say that " is a group under ".
The group operation can be interpreted in a great many ways. The generic notation for the group operation,
identity element, and inverse of are respectively. Because the group operation associates, parentheses
have only one necessary use in group theory: to set the scope of the inverse operation.
Group theory may also be notated:
• Additively by replacing the generic notation by , with "+" being infix. Additive notation is typically
used when numerical addition or a commutative operation other than multiplication interprets the group
operation;
• Multiplicatively by replacing the generic notation by . Infix "*" is often replaced by simple
concatenation, as in standard algebra. Multiplicative notation is typically used when numerical multiplication or a
noncommutative operation interprets the group operation.
Other notations are of course possible.
Examples
Arithmetic
• Take or or or , then is an abelian group.
• Take or or , then is an abelian group.
Function composition
• Let be an arbitrary set, and let be the set of all bijective functions from to . Let function
composition, notated by infix , interpret the group operation. Then is a group whose identity element
is The group inverse of an arbitrary group element is the function inverse
Alternative Axioms
The pair of axioms A3 and A4 may be replaced either by the pair:
• A3’, left neutral. There exists an such that for all , .
• A4’, left inverse. For each , there exists an element such that .
or by the pair:
• A3”, right neutral. There exists an such that for all , .
• A4”, right inverse. For each , there exists an element such that .
These evidently weaker axiom pairs are trivial consequences of A3 and A4. We will now show that the nontrivial
converse is also true. Given a left neutral element and for any given then A4’ says there exists an
such that .
Theorem 1.2:
Proof. Let be an inverse of Then:
Elementary group theory 36
Basic theorems
Identity is unique
Theorem 1.4: The identity element of a group is unique.
Proof: Suppose that and are two identity elements of . Then
As a result, we can speak of the identity element of rather than an identity element. Where different
groups are being discussed and compared, denotes the identity of the specific group .
As a result, we can speak of the inverse of an element , rather than an inverse. Without ambiguity, for all in
, we denote by the unique inverse of .
Elementary group theory 37
Inverse of ab
Theorem 1.7: For all elements and in group , .
Proof. . The conclusion follows
from Theorem 1.4.
Cancellation
Theorem 1.8: For all elements in a group , then
.
Proof.
(1) If , then multiplying by the same value on either side preserves equality.
(2) If then by (1)
Powers
For and in group we define:
Order
Of a group element
The order of an element a in a group G is the least positive integer n such that an = e. Sometimes this is written
"o(a)=n". n can be infinite.
Theorem 1.10: A group whose nontrivial elements all have order 2 is abelian. In other words, if all elements g in a
group G g*g=e is the case, then for all elements a,b in G, a*b=b*a.
Proof. Let a, b be any 2 elements in the group G. By A1, a*b is also a member of G. Using the given condition, we
know that (a*b)*(a*b)=e. Hence:
• b*a
• =e*(b*a)*e
• = (a*a)*(b*a)*(b*b)
• =a*(a*b)*(a*b)*b
• =a*e*b
• =a*b.
Since the group operation * commutes, the group is abelian
Of a group
The order of the group G, usually denoted by |G| or occasionally by o(G), is the number of elements in the set G, in
which case <G,*> is a finite group. If G is an infinite set, then the group <G,*> has order equal to the cardinality of
G, and is an infinite group.
Subgroups
A subset H of G is called a subgroup of a group <G,*> if H satisfies the axioms of a group, using the same operator
"*", and restricted to the subset H. Thus if H is a subgroup of <G,*>, then <H,*> is also a group, and obeys the
above theorems, restricted to H. The order of subgroup H is the number of elements in H.
A proper subgroup of a group G is a subgroup which is not identical to G. A non-trivial subgroup of G is (usually)
any proper subgroup of G which contains an element other than e.
Theorem 2.1: If H is a subgroup of <G,*>, then the identity eH in H is identical to the identity e in (G,*).
Proof. If h is in H, then h*eH = h; since h must also be in G, h*e = h; so by theorem 1.8, eH = e.
Theorem 2.2: If H is a subgroup of G, and h is an element of H, then the inverse of h in H is identical to the inverse
of h in G.
Proof. Let h and k be elements of H, such that h*k = e; since h must also be in G, h*h -1 = e; so by theorem 1.5, k =
h -1.
Given a subset S of G, we often want to determine whether or not S is also a subgroup of G. A handy theorem valid
for both infinite and finite groups is:
Theorem 2.3: If S is a non-empty subset of G, then S is a subgroup of G if and only if for all a,b in S, a*b -1 is in S.
Proof. If for all a, b in S, a*b -1 is in S, then
• e is in S, since a*a -1 = e is in S.
• for all a in S, e*a -1 = a -1 is in S
• for all a, b in S, a*b = a*(b -1) -1 is in S
Thus, the axioms of closure, identity, and inverses are satisfied, and associativity is inherited; so S is subgroup.
Conversely, if S is a subgroup of G, then it obeys the axioms of a group.
Elementary group theory 39
Cosets
If S and T are subsets of G, and a is an element of G, we write "a*S" to refer to the subset of G made up of all
elements of the form a*s, where s is an element of S; similarly, we write "S*a" to indicate the set of elements of the
form s*a. We write S*T for the subset of G made up of elements of the form s*t, where s is an element of S and t is
an element of T.
If H is a subgroup of G, then a left coset of H is a set of the form a*H, for some a in G. A right coset is a subset of
the form H*a.
If H is a subgroup of G, the following useful theorems, stated without proof, hold for all cosets:
• And x and y are elements of G, then either x*H = y*H, or x*H and y*H have empty intersection.
• Every left (right) coset of H in G contains the same number of elements.
• G is the disjoint union of the left (right) cosets of H.
• Then the number of distinct left cosets of H equals the number of distinct right cosets of H.
Define the index of a subgroup H of a group G (written "[G:H]") to be the number of distinct left cosets of H in G.
From these theorems, we can deduce the important Lagrange's theorem, relating the order of a subgroup to the order
of a group:
• Lagrange's theorem: If H is a subgroup of G, then |G| = |H|*[G:H].
For finite groups, this can be restated as:
• Lagrange's theorem: If H is a subgroup of a finite group G, then the order of H divides the order of G.
• If the order of group G is a prime number, G is cyclic.
Elementary group theory 40
References
• Jordan, C. R and D.A. Groups. Newnes (Elsevier), ISBN 0-340-61045-X
• Scott, W R. Group Theory. Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-65377-3
Symmetry group
The symmetry group of an object (image, signal,
etc.) is the group of all isometries under which it is
invariant with composition as the operation. It is a
subgroup of the isometry group of the space
concerned.
If not stated otherwise, this article considers
symmetry groups in Euclidean geometry, but the
concept may also be studied in wider contexts; see
below.
Introduction
The "objects" may be geometric figures, images,
and patterns, such as a wallpaper pattern. The
definition can be made more precise by specifying
what is meant by image or pattern, e.g., a function
of position with values in a set of colors. For
symmetry of physical objects, one may also want
to take physical composition into account. The
group of isometries of space induces a group action
on objects in it.
Any symmetry group whose elements have a common fixed point, which is true for all finite symmetry groups and
also for the symmetry groups of bounded figures, can be represented as a subgroup of orthogonal group O(n) by
choosing the origin to be a fixed point. The proper symmetry group is a subgroup of the special orthogonal group
SO(n) then, and therefore also called rotation group of the figure.
Discrete symmetry groups come in three types: (1) finite point groups, which include only rotations, reflections,
inversion and rotoinversion - they are in fact just the finite subgroups of O(n), (2) infinite lattice groups, which
include only translations, and (3) infinite space groups which combines elements of both previous types, and may
also include extra transformations like screw axis and glide reflection. There are also continuous symmetry groups,
Symmetry group 41
which contain rotations of arbitrarily small angles or translations of arbitrarily small distances. The group of all
symmetries of a sphere O(3) is an example of this, and in general such continuous symmetry groups are studied as
Lie groups. With a categorization of subgroups of the Euclidean group corresponds a categorization of symmetry
groups.
Two geometric figures are considered to be of the same symmetry type if their symmetry groups are conjugate
subgroups of the Euclidean group E(n) (the isometry group of Rn), where two subgroups H1, H2 of a group G are
conjugate, if there exists g ∈ G such that H1=g−1H2g. For example:
• two 3D figures have mirror symmetry, but with respect to different mirror planes.
• two 3D figures have 3-fold rotational symmetry, but with respect to different axes.
• two 2D patterns have translational symmetry, each in one direction; the two translation vectors have the same
length but a different direction.
When considering isometry groups, one may restrict oneself to those where for all points the set of images under the
isometries is topologically closed. This excludes for example in 1D the group of translations by a rational number. A
"figure" with this symmetry group is non-drawable and up to arbitrarily fine detail homogeneous, without being
really homogeneous.
One dimension
The isometry groups in 1D where for all points the set of images under the isometries is topologically closed are:
• the trivial group C1
• the groups of two elements generated by a reflection in a point; they are isomorphic with C2
• the infinite discrete groups generated by a translation; they are isomorphic with Z
• the infinite discrete groups generated by a translation and a reflection in a point; they are isomorphic with the
generalized dihedral group of Z, Dih(Z), also denoted by D∞ (which is a semidirect product of Z and C2).
• the group generated by all translations (isomorphic with R); this group cannot be the symmetry group of a
"pattern": it would be homogeneous, hence could also be reflected. However, a uniform 1D vector field has this
symmetry group.
• the group generated by all translations and reflections in points; they are isomorphic with the generalized dihedral
group of R, Dih(R).
See also symmetry groups in one dimension.
Two dimensions
Up to conjugacy the discrete point groups in 2 dimensional space are the following classes:
• cyclic groups C1, C2, C3, C4,... where Cn consists of all rotations about a fixed point by multiples of the angle
360°/n
• dihedral groups D1, D2, D3, D4,... where Dn (of order 2n) consists of the rotations in Cn together with reflections
in n axes that pass through the fixed point.
C1 is the trivial group containing only the identity operation, which occurs when the figure has no symmetry at all,
for example the letter F. C2 is the symmetry group of the letter Z, C3 that of a triskelion, C4 of a swastika, and C5, C6
etc. are the symmetry groups of similar swastika-like figures with five, six etc. arms instead of four.
D1 is the 2-element group containing the identity operation and a single reflection, which occurs when the figure has
only a single axis of bilateral symmetry, for example the letter A. D2, which is isomorphic to the Klein four-group, is
the symmetry group of a non-equilateral rectangle, and D3, D4 etc. are the symmetry groups of the regular polygons.
The actual symmetry groups in each of these cases have two degrees of freedom for the center of rotation, and in the
case of the dihedral groups, one more for the positions of the mirrors.
Symmetry group 42
The remaining isometry groups in 2D with a fixed point, where for all points the set of images under the isometries
is topologically closed are:
• the special orthogonal group SO(2) consisting of all rotations about a fixed point; it is also called the circle group
S1, the multiplicative group of complex numbers of absolute value 1. It is the proper symmetry group of a circle
and the continuous equivalent of Cn. There is no figure which has as full symmetry group the circle group, but for
a vector field it may apply (see the 3D case below).
• the orthogonal group O(2) consisting of all rotations about a fixed point and reflections in any axis through that
fixed point. This is the symmetry group of a circle. It is also called Dih(S1) as it is the generalized dihedral group
of S1.
For non-bounded figures, the additional isometry groups can include translations; the closed ones are:
• the 7 frieze groups
• the 17 wallpaper groups
• for each of the symmetry groups in 1D, the combination of all symmetries in that group in one direction, and the
group of all translations in the perpendicular direction
• ditto with also reflections in a line in the first direction
Three dimensions
Up to conjugacy the set of 3D point groups consists of 7 infinite series, and 7 separate ones. In crystallography they
are restricted to be compatible with the discrete translation symmetries of a crystal lattice. This crystallographic
restriction of the infinite families of general point groups results in 32 crystallographic point groups (27 from the 7
infinite series, and 5 of the 7 others).
The continuous symmetry groups with a fixed point include those of:
• cylindrical symmetry without a symmetry plane perpendicular to the axis, this applies for example often for a
bottle
• cylindrical symmetry with a symmetry plane perpendicular to the axis
• spherical symmetry
For objects and scalar fields the cylindrical symmetry implies vertical planes of reflection. However, for vector fields
it does not: in cylindrical coordinates with respect to some axis, has cylindrical
symmetry with respect to the axis if and only if and have this symmetry, i.e., they do not depend on φ.
Additionally there is reflectional symmetry if and only if .
For spherical symmetry there is no such distinction, it implies planes of reflection.
The continuous symmetry groups without a fixed point include those with a screw axis, such as an infinite helix. See
also subgroups of the Euclidean group.
For a given geometric figure in a given geometric space, consider the following equivalence relation: two
automorphisms of space are equivalent if and only if the two images of the figure are the same (here "the same" does
not mean something like e.g. "the same up to translation and rotation", but it means "exactly the same"). Then the
equivalence class of the identity is the symmetry group of the figure, and every equivalence class corresponds to one
isomorphic version of the figure.
There is a bijection between every pair of equivalence classes: the inverse of a representative of the first equivalence
class, composed with a representative of the second.
In the case of a finite automorphism group of the whole space, its order is the order of the symmetry group of the
figure multiplied by the number of isomorphic versions of the figure.
Examples:
• Isometries of the Euclidean plane, the figure is a rectangle: there are infinitely many equivalence classes; each
contains 4 isometries.
• The space is a cube with Euclidean metric; the figures include cubes of the same size as the space, with colors or
patterns on the faces; the automorphisms of the space are the 48 isometries; the figure is a cube of which one face
has a different color; the figure has a symmetry group of 8 isometries, there are 6 equivalence classes of 8
isometries, for 6 isomorphic versions of the figure.
Compare Lagrange's theorem (group theory) and its proof.
Further reading
• Burns, G.; Glazer, A.M. (1990). Space Groups for Scientists and Engineers (2nd ed.). Boston: Academic Press,
Inc. ISBN 0-12-145761-3.
• Clegg, W (1998). Crystal Structure Determination (Oxford Chemistry Primer). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-855-901-1.
• O'Keeffe, M.; Hyde, B.G. (1996). Crystal Structures; I. Patterns and Symmetry. Washington, DC: Mineralogical
Society of America, Monograph Series. ISBN 0-939950-40-5.
• Miller, Willard Jr. (1972). Symmetry Groups and Their Applications [1]. New York: Academic Press.
OCLC 589081. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
External links
• Weisstein, Eric W., "Symmetry Group [2]" from MathWorld.
• Weisstein, Eric W., "Tetrahedral Group [3]" from MathWorld.
• Overview of the 32 crystallographic point groups [4] - form the first parts (apart from skipping n=5) of the 7
infinite series and 5 of the 7 separate 3D point groups
References
[1] http:/ / www. ima. umn. edu/ ~miller/ symmetrygroups. html
[2] http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ SymmetryGroup. html
[3] http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ TetrahedralGroup. html
[4] http:/ / newton. ex. ac. uk/ research/ qsystems/ people/ goss/ symmetry/ Solids. html
Symmetric group 44
Symmetric group
In mathematics, the symmetric group on a set is the group
consisting of all bijections of the set (all one-to-one and onto
functions) from the set to itself with function composition as the
group operation.[1]
The symmetric group is important to diverse areas of mathematics
such as Galois theory, invariant theory, the representation theory
of Lie groups, and combinatorics. Cayley's theorem states that
every group G is isomorphic to a subgroup of the symmetric group
on G.
This article focuses on the finite symmetric groups: their
applications, their elements, their conjugacy classes, a finite
presentation, their subgroups, their automorphism groups, and
their representation theory. For the remainder of this article, Cayley graph of the symmetric group of degree 4 (S4)
represented as the group of rotations of a standard die.
"symmetric group" will mean a symmetric group on a finite set.
Applications
The symmetric group on a set of size n is the Galois group of the general polynomial of degree n and plays an
important role in Galois theory. In invariant theory, the symmetric group acts on the variables of a multi-variate
function, and the functions left invariant are the so-called symmetric functions. In the representation theory of Lie
groups, the representation theory of the symmetric group plays a fundamental role through the ideas of Schur
functors. In the theory of Coxeter groups, the symmetric group is the Coxeter group of type An and occurs as the
Weyl group of the general linear group. In combinatorics, the symmetric groups, their elements (permutations), and
their representations provide a rich source of problems involving Young tableaux, plactic monoids, and the Bruhat
order. Subgroups of symmetric groups are called permutation groups and are widely studied because of their
importance in understanding group actions, homogenous spaces, and automorphism groups of graphs, such as the
Symmetric group 45
Elements
The elements of the symmetric group on a set X are the permutations of X.
Multiplication
The group operation in a symmetric group is function composition, denoted by the symbol or simply by
juxtaposition of the permutations. The composition of permutations f and g, pronounced "f after g", maps any
element x of X to f(g(x)). Concretely, let
and
Applying f after g maps 1 first to 2 and then 2 to itself; 2 to 5 and then to 4; 3 to 4 and then to 5, and so on. So
composing f and g gives
A cycle of length L =k·m, taken to the k-th power, will decompose into k cycles of length m: For example (k=2,
m=3),
Transpositions
A transposition is a permutation which exchanges two elements and keeps all others fixed; for example (1 3) is a
transposition. Every permutation can be written as a product of transpositions; for instance, the permutation g from
above can be written as g = (1 5)(1 2)(3 4). Since g can be written as a product of an odd number of transpositions, it
is then called an odd permutation, whereas f is an even permutation.
The representation of a permutation as a product of transpositions is not unique; however, the number of
transpositions needed to represent a given permutation is either always even or always odd. There are several short
proofs of the invariance of this parity of a permutation.
The product of two even permutations is even, the product of two odd permutations is even, and all other products
are odd. Thus we can define the sign of a permutation:
is a group homomorphism ({+1, –1} is a group under multiplication, where +1 is e, the neutral element). The kernel
of this homomorphism, i.e. the set of all even permutations, is called the alternating group An. It is a normal
subgroup of Sn, and for n ≥ 2 it has n! / 2 elements. The group Sn is the semidirect product of An and any subgroup
generated by a single transposition.
Furthermore, every permutation can be written as a product of adjacent transpositions, that is, transpositions of the
form . For instance, the permutation g from above can also be written as g = (4 5)(3 4)(4 5)(1 2)(2 3)(3
4)(4 5). The representation of a permutation as a product of adjacent transpositions is also not unique.
Cycles
A cycle of length k is a permutation f for which there exists an element x in {1,...,n} such that x, f(x), f2(x), ..., fk(x) =
x are the only elements moved by f; it is required that k ≥ 2 since with k = 1 the element x itself would not be moved
either. The permutation h defined by
is a cycle of length three, since h(1) = 4, h(4) = 3 and h(3) = 1, leaving 2 and 5 untouched. We denote such a cycle by
(1 4 3). The order of a cycle is equal to its length. Cycles of length two are transpositions. Two cycles are disjoint if
they move disjoint subsets of elements. Disjoint cycles commute, e.g. in S6 we have (3 1 4)(2 5 6) = (2 5 6)(3 1 4).
Every element of Sn can be written as a product of disjoint cycles; this representation is unique up to the order of the
factors.
Special elements
Certain elements of the symmetric group of {1,2, ..., n} are of particular interest (these can be generalized to the
symmetric group of any finite totally ordered set, but not to that of an unordered set).
The order reversing permutation is the one given by:
This is the unique maximal element with respect to the Bruhat order and the longest element in the symmetric group
with respect to generating set consisting of the adjacent transpositions (i i+1), 1 ≤ i ≤ n−1.
This is an involution, and consists of (non-adjacent) transpositions
, or adjacent transpositions:
which is 4-periodic in n.
In , the perfect shuffle is the permutation that splits the set into 2 piles and interleaves them. Its sign is also
Note that the reverse on n elements and perfect shuffle on 2n elements have the same sign; these are important to the
classification of Clifford algebras, which are 8-periodic.
Symmetric group 47
Conjugacy classes
The conjugacy classes of Sn correspond to the cycle structures of permutations; that is, two elements of Sn are
conjugate in Sn if and only if they consist of the same number of disjoint cycles of the same lengths. For instance, in
S5, (1 2 3)(4 5) and (1 4 3)(2 5) are conjugate; (1 2 3)(4 5) and (1 2)(4 5) are not. A conjugating element of Sn can be
constructed in "two line notation" by placing the "cycle notations" of the two conjugate permutations on top of one
another. Continuing the previous example:
This permutation then relates (1 2 3)(4 5) and (1 4 3)(2 5) via conjugation, i.e.
symmetric group of degree n of dimension below n−1, which only occurs for n=4.
Sym(5)
Sym(5) is the first non-solvable symmetric group. Along with the special linear group SL(2,5) and the
icosahedral group Alt(5) × Sym(2), Sym(5) is one of the three non-solvable groups of order 120 up to
isomorphism. Sym(5) is the Galois group of the general quintic equation, and the fact that Sym(5) is not a
solvable group translates into the non-existence of a general formula to solve quintic polynomials by radicals.
There is an exotic inclusion map as a transitive subgroup; the obvious inclusion map
fixes a point and thus is not transitive. This yields the outer automorphism of discussed below, and
corresponds to the resolvent sextic of a quintic.
Sym(6)
Sym(6), unlike other symmetric groups, has an outer automorphism. Using the language of Galois theory, this
can also be understood in terms of Lagrange resolvents. The resolvent of a quintic is of degree 6—this
corresponds to an exotic inclusion map as a transitive subgroup (the obvious inclusion map
fixes a point and thus is not transitive) and, while this map does not make the general quintic
solvable, it yields the exotic outer automorphism of —see automorphisms of the symmetric and alternating
groups for details.
Note that while Alt(6) and Alt(7) have an exceptional Schur multiplier (a triple cover) and that these extend to
triple covers of Sym(6) and Sym(7), these do not correspond to exceptional Schur multipliers of the symmetric
group.
Properties
Symmetric groups are Coxeter groups and reflection groups. They can be realized as a group of reflections with
respect to hyperplanes . Braid groups Bn admit symmetric groups Sn as quotient groups.
Cayley's theorem states that every group G is isomorphic to a subgroup of the symmetric group on the elements of G,
as a group acts on itself faithfully by (left or right) multiplication.
Conversely, for has no outer automorphisms, and for it has no center, so for it is a
complete group, as discussed in automorphism group, below.
For n≥5, is an almost simple group, as it lies between the simple group and its group of automorphisms.
Subgroup structure
A subgroup of a symmetric group is called a permutation group.
Normal subgroups
The normal subgroups of the symmetric group are well understood in the finite case. The alternating group of degree
n is the only non-identity, proper normal subgroup of the symmetric group of degree n except when n = 1, 2, or 4. In
cases n ≤ 2, then the alternating group itself is the identity, but in the case n = 4, there is a second non-identity,
proper, normal subgroup, the Klein four group.
The normal subgroups of the symmetric groups on infinite sets include both the corresponding "alternating group" on
the infinite set, as well as the subgroups indexed by infinite cardinals whose elements fix all but a certain cardinality
of elements of the set. For instance, the symmetric group on a countably infinite set has a normal subgroup S
consisting of all those permutations which fix all but finitely many elements of the set. The elements of S are each
contained in a finite symmetric group, and so are either even or odd. The even elements of S form a characteristic
subgroup of S called the alternating group, and are the only other non-identity, proper, normal subgroup of the
symmetric group on a countably infinite set. For more details see (Scott 1987, Ch. 11.3) or (Dixon & Mortimer 1996,
Ch. 8.1).
Maximal subgroups
The maximal subgroups of the finite symmetric groups fall into three classes: the intransitive, the imprimitive, and
the primitive. The intransitive maximal subgroups are exactly those of the form Sym(k) × Sym(n−k) for 1 ≤ k < n/2.
The imprimitive maximal subgroups are exactly those of the form Sym(k) wr Sym( n/k ) where 2 ≤ k ≤ n/2 is a
proper divisor of n and "wr" denotes the wreath product acting imprimitively. The primitive maximal subgroups are
more difficult to identify, but with the assistance of the O'Nan–Scott theorem and the classification of finite simple
groups, (Liebeck, Praeger & Saxl 1987) gave a fairly satisfactory description of the maximal subgroups of this type
according to (Dixon & Mortimer 1996, p. 268).
Symmetric group 50
Sylow subgroups
The Sylow subgroups of the symmetric groups are important examples of p-groups. They are more easily described
in special cases first:
The Sylow p-subgroups of the symmetric group of degree p are just the cyclic subgroups generated by p-cycles.
There are (p−1)!/(p−1) = (p−2)! such subgroups simply by counting generators. The normalizer therefore has order
p·(p-1) and is known as a Frobenius group Fp(p-1) (especially for p=5), and as the affine general linear group,
AGL(1,p).
The Sylow p-subgroups of the symmetric group of degree p2 are the wreath product of two cyclic groups of order p.
For instance, when p=3, a Sylow 3-subgroup of Sym(9) is generated by a=(1,4,7)(2,5,8)(3,6,9) and the elements
x=(1,2,3), y=(4,5,6), z=(7,8,9), and every element of the Sylow 3-subgroup has the form aixjykzl for 0 ≤ i,j,k,l ≤ 2.
The Sylow p-subgroups of the symmetric group of degree pn are sometimes denoted Wp(n), and using this notation
one has that Wp(n+1) is the wreath product of Wp(n) and Wp(1).
In general, the Sylow p-subgroups of the symmetric group of degree n are a direct product of ai copies of Wp(i),
where 0 ≤ ai ≤ p−1 and n = a0 + p·a1 + ... + pk·ak.
For instance, W2(1) = C2 and W2(2) = D8, the dihedral group of order 8, and so a Sylow 2-subgroup of the
symmetric group of degree 7 is generated by { (1,3)(2,4), (1,2), (3,4), (5,6) } and is isomorphic to D8 × C2.
These calculations are attributed to (Kaloujnine 1948) and described in more detail in (Rotman 1995, p. 176). Note
however that (Kerber 1971, p. 26) attributes the result to an 1844 work of Cauchy, and mentions that it is even
covered in textbook form in (Netto 1882, §39–40).
Automorphism group
n
1 1
1 1
For , is a complete group: its center and outer automorphism group are both trivial.
For n = 2, the automorphism group is trivial, but is not trivial: it is isomorphic to , which is abelian, and
hence the center is the whole group.
For n = 6, it has an outer automorphism of order 2: , and the automorphism group is a semidirect
product
In fact, for any set X of cardinality other than 6, every automorphism of the symmetric group on X is inner, a result
first due to (Schreier & Ulam 1937) according to (Dixon & Mortimer 1996, p. 259).
Symmetric group 51
Homology
The group homology of is quite regular and stabilizes: the first homology (concretely, the abelianization) is:
The first homology group is the abelianization, and corresponds to the sign map which is the
abelianization for for the symmetric group is trivial. This homology is easily computed as follows:
is generated by involutions (2-cycles, which have order 2), so the only non-trivial maps are to
and all involutions are conjugate, hence map to the same element in the abelianization (since conjugation is trivial in
abelian groups). Thus the only possible maps send an involution to 1 (the trivial map) or to
(the sign map). One must also show that the sign map is well-defined, but assuming that, this gives the first
homology of
The second homology (concretely, the Schur multiplier) is:
This was computed in (Schur 1911), and corresponds to the double cover of the symmetric group,
Note that the exceptional low-dimensional homology of the alternating group (
corresponding to non-trivial abelianization, and due to the exceptional 3-fold cover)
does not change the homology of the symmetric group; the alternating group phenomena do yield symmetric group
phenomena – the map extends to and the triple covers of and extend to triple covers
of and – but these are not homological – the map does not change the abelianization of and
the triple covers do not correspond to homology either.
The homology "stabilizes" in the sense of stable homotopy theory: there is an inclusion map and for
fixed k, the induced map on homology is an isomorphism for sufficiently high n. This is
analogous to the homology of families Lie groups stabilizing.
The homology of the infinite symmetric group is computed in (Nakaoka 1961), with the cohomology algebra
forming a Hopf algebra.
Representation theory
The representation theory of the symmetric group is a particular case of the representation theory of finite groups, for
which a concrete and detailed theory can be obtained. This has a large area of potential applications, from symmetric
function theory to problems of quantum mechanics for a number of identical particles.
The symmetric group Sn has order n!. Its conjugacy classes are labeled by partitions of n. Therefore according to the
representation theory of a finite group, the number of inequivalent irreducible representations, over the complex
numbers, is equal to the number of partitions of n. Unlike the general situation for finite groups, there is in fact a
natural way to parametrize irreducible representation by the same set that parametrizes conjugacy classes, namely by
partitions of n or equivalently Young diagrams of size n.
Each such irreducible representation can be realized over the integers (every permutation acting by a matrix with
integer coefficients); it can be explicitly constructed by computing the Young symmetrizers acting on a space
generated by the Young tableaux of shape given by the Young diagram.
Over other fields the situation can become much more complicated. If the field K has characteristic equal to zero or
greater than n then by Maschke's theorem the group algebra KSn is semisimple. In these cases the irreducible
representations defined over the integers give the complete set of irreducible representations (after reduction modulo
the characteristic if necessary).
Symmetric group 52
However, the irreducible representations of the symmetric group are not known in arbitrary characteristic. In this
context it is more usual to use the language of modules rather than representations. The representation obtained from
an irreducible representation defined over the integers by reducing modulo the characteristic will not in general be
irreducible. The modules so constructed are called Specht modules, and every irreducible does arise inside some such
module. There are now fewer irreducibles, and although they can be classified they are very poorly understood. For
example, even their dimensions are not known in general.
The determination of the irreducible modules for the symmetric group over an arbitrary field is widely regarded as
one of the most important open problems in representation theory.
See also
• History of group theory
• Symmetric inverse semigroup
• Signed symmetric group
• Generalized symmetric group
References
[1] Jacobson (2009), p. 31.
[2] Jacobson (2009), p. 32. Theorem 1.1.
• Cameron, Peter J. (1999), Permutation Groups, London Mathematical Society Student Texts, 45, Cambridge
University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-65378-7
• Dixon, John D.; Mortimer, Brian (1996), Permutation groups, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 163, Berlin, New
York: Springer-Verlag, MR1409812, ISBN 978-0-387-94599-6
• Jacobson, Nathan (2009), Basic algebra, 1 (2nd ed.), Dover, ISBN 978-0-486-47189-1.
• Kaloujnine, Léo (1948), "La structure des p-groupes de Sylow des groupes symétriques finis" (http://www.
numdam.org/item?id=ASENS_1948_3_65__239_0), Annales Scientifiques de l'École Normale Supérieure.
Troisième Série 65: 239–276, MR0028834, ISSN 0012-9593
• Kerber, Adalbert (1971), Representations of permutation groups. I, Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Vol. 240, 240,
Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, doi:10.1007/BFb0067943, MR0325752
• Liebeck, M.W.; Praeger, C.E.; Saxl, J. (1988), "On the O'Nan-Scott theorem for finite primitive permutation
groups", J. Austral. Math. Soc. 44: 389-396
• Nakaoka, Minoru (March 1961), "Homology of the Infinite Symmetric Group" (http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1970333), The Annals of Mathematics, 2 (Annals of Mathematics) 73 (2): 229–257, doi:10.2307/1970333
• Netto, E. (1882) (in German), Substitutionentheorie und ihre Anwendungen auf die Algebra., Leipzig. Teubner,
JFM 14.0090.01
• Scott, W.R. (1987), Group Theory, New York: Dover Publications, pp. 45–46, ISBN 978-0-486-65377-8
• Schur, Issai (1911), "Über die Darstellung der symmetrischen und der alternierenden Gruppe durch gebrochene
lineare Substitutionen", Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik 139: 155–250
• Schreier, J.; Ulam, Stanislaw (1936), "Über die Automorphismen der Permutationsgruppe der natürlichen
Zahlenfolge." (http://matwbn.icm.edu.pl/ksiazki/fm/fm28/fm28128.pdf) (in German), Fundam. Math. 28:
258–260, Zbl: 0016.20301
Symmetric group 53
External links
• Marcus du Sautoy: Symmetry, reality's riddle (http://www.ted.com/talks/
marcus_du_sautoy_symmetry_reality_s_riddle.html) (video of a talk)
History
See (Chandler & Magnus 1982) for a detailed history of combinatorial group theory.
A proto-form is found in the 1856 Icosian Calculus of William Rowan Hamilton, where he studied the icosahedral
symmetry group via the edge graph of the dodecahedron.
The foundations of combinatorial group theory were laid by Walther von Dyck, student of Felix Klein, in the early
1880s, who gave the first systematic study of groups by generators and relations.[1]
References
[1] Stillwell, John (2002), Mathematics and its history, Springer, p. 374 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WNjRrqTm62QC& pg=PA374),
ISBN 978-0-38795336-6
• Chandler, B.; Magnus, Wilhelm (December 1, 1982), The History of Combinatorial Group Theory: A Case Study
in the History of Ideas, Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences (1st ed.), Springer, pp. 234,
ISBN 978-0-38790749-9
Algebraic group 54
Algebraic group
In algebraic geometry, an algebraic group (or group variety) is a group that is an algebraic variety, such that the
multiplication and inverse are given by regular functions on the variety. In category theoretic terms, an algebraic
group is a group object in the category of algebraic varieties.
Classes
Several important classes of groups are algebraic groups, including:
• Finite groups
• GLnC, the general linear group of invertible matrices over C
• Elliptic curves
Two important classes of algebraic groups arise, that for the most part are studied separately: abelian varieties (the
'projective' theory) and linear algebraic groups (the 'affine' theory). There are certainly examples that are neither one
nor the other — these occur for example in the modern theory of integrals of the second and third kinds such as the
Weierstrass zeta function, or the theory of generalized Jacobians. But according to a basic theorem any algebraic
group is an extension of an abelian variety by a linear algebraic group. This is a result of Claude Chevalley: if K is a
perfect field, and G an algebraic group over K, there exists a unique normal closed subgroup H in G, such that H is a
linear group and G/H an abelian variety.[1]
According to another basic theorem, any group in the category of affine varieties has a faithful linear representation:
we can consider it to be a matrix group over K, defined by polynomials over K and with matrix multiplication as the
group operation. For that reason a concept of affine algebraic group is redundant over a field — we may as well use
a very concrete definition. Note that this means that algebraic group is narrower than Lie group, when working over
the field of real numbers: there are examples such as the universal cover of the 2×2 special linear group that are Lie
groups, but have no faithful linear representation. A more obvious difference between the two concepts arises
because the identity component of an affine algebraic group G is necessarily of finite index in G.
When one wants to work over a base ring R (commutative), there is the group scheme concept: that is, a group object
in the category of schemes over R. Affine group scheme is the concept dual to a type of Hopf algebra. There is quite a
refined theory of group schemes, that enters for example in the contemporary theory of abelian varieties.
Algebraic subgroup
An algebraic subgroup of an algebraic group is a Zariski closed subgroup. Generally these are taken to be
connected (or irreducible as a variety) as well.
Another way of expressing the condition is as a subgroup which is also a subvariety.
This may also be generalized by allowing schemes in place of varieties. The main effect of this in practice, apart
from allowing subgroups in which the connected component is of finite index > 1, is to admit non-reduced schemes,
in characteristic p.
Coxeter groups
There are a number of analogous results between algebraic groups and Coxeter groups – for instance, the number of
elements of the symmetric group is , and the number of elements of the general linear group over a finite field is
the q-factorial ; thus the symmetric group behaves as though it were a linear group over "the field with one
element". This is formalized by the field with one element, which considers Coxeter groups to be simple algebraic
groups over the field with one element.
Algebraic group 55
Notes
[1] Chevalley's result is from 1960 and difficult. Contemporary treatment by Brian Conrad: PDF (http:/ / math. stanford. edu/ ~conrad/ papers/
chev. pdf).
References
• Humphreys, James E. (1972), Linear Algebraic Groups, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 21, Berlin, New York:
Springer-Verlag, MR0396773, ISBN 978-0-387-90108-4
• Lang, Serge (1983), Abelian varieties, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-90875-5
• Milne, J. S., Algebraic and Arithmetic Groups. (http://www.jmilne.org/math/CourseNotes/AAG.pdf/)
• Mumford, David (1970), Abelian varieties, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-560528-0, OCLC 138290
• Springer, Tonny A. (1998), Linear algebraic groups, Progress in Mathematics, 9 (2nd ed.), Boston, MA:
Birkhäuser Boston, MR1642713, ISBN 978-0-8176-4021-7
• Waterhouse, William C. (1979), Introduction to affine group schemes, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 66, Berlin,
New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-90421-4
• Weil, André (1971), Courbes algébriques et variétés abéliennes, Paris: Hermann, OCLC 322901
Solvable group 56
Solvable group
Concepts in group theory
category of groups
Types of groups
discrete, continuous
multiplicative, additive
nilpotent, solvable
In mathematics, more specifically in the field of group theory, a solvable group (or soluble group) is a group that
can be constructed from abelian groups using extensions. That is, a solvable group is a group whose derived series
terminates in the trivial subgroup.
Historically, the word "solvable" arose from Galois theory and the proof of the general unsolvability of quintic
equation. Specifically, a polynomial equation is solvable by radicals if and only if the corresponding Galois group is
solvable.
Definition
A group is called solvable if it has a subnormal series whose factor groups are all abelian, that is, if there are
subgroups such that is normal in , and is an abelian
group, for .
Or equivalently, if its derived series, the descending normal series
where every subgroup is the commutator subgroup of the previous one, eventually reaches the trivial subgroup {1}
of G. These two definitions are equivalent, since for every group H and every normal subgroup N of H, the quotient
H/N is abelian if and only if N includes H(1). The least n such that is called the derived length of the
solvable group G.
For finite groups, an equivalent definition is that a solvable group is a group with a composition series all of whose
factors are cyclic groups of prime order. This is equivalent because a finite abelian group has finite composition
length, and every finite simple abelian group is cyclic of prime order. The Jordan–Hölder theorem guarantees that if
one composition series has this property, then all composition series will have this property as well. For the Galois
group of a polynomial, these cyclic groups correspond to nth roots (radicals) over some field. The equivalence does
not necessarily hold for infinite groups: for example, since every nontrivial subgroup of the group Z of integers
under addition is isomorphic to Z itself, it has no composition series, but the normal series {0,Z}, with its only factor
group isomorphic to Z, proves that it is in fact solvable.
Solvable group 57
In keeping with George Pólya's dictum that "if there's a problem you can't figure out, there's a simpler problem you
can figure out", solvable groups are often useful for reducing a conjecture about a complicated group into a
conjecture about a series of groups with simple structure: abelian groups (and in the finite case, cyclic groups of
prime order).
Examples
All abelian groups are solvable - the quotient A/B will always be abelian if A is abelian. But non-abelian groups may
or may not be solvable.
More generally, all nilpotent groups are solvable. In particular, finite p-groups are solvable, as all finite p-groups are
nilpotent.
A small example of a solvable, non-nilpotent group is the symmetric group S3. In fact, as the smallest simple
non-abelian group is A5, (the alternating group of degree 5) it follows that every group with order less than 60 is
solvable.
The group S5 is not solvable — it has a composition series {E, A5, S5} (and the Jordan–Hölder theorem states that
every other composition series is equivalent to that one), giving factor groups isomorphic to A5 and C2; and A5 is not
abelian. Generalizing this argument, coupled with the fact that An is a normal, maximal, non-abelian simple subgroup
of Sn for n > 4, we see that Sn is not solvable for n > 4, a key step in the proof that for every n > 4 there are
polynomials of degree n which are not solvable by radicals.
The celebrated Feit–Thompson theorem states that every finite group of odd order is solvable. In particular this
implies that if a finite group is simple, it is either a prime cyclic or of even order.
Any finite group whose every p-Sylow subgroups is cyclic is a semidirect product of two cyclic groups, in particular
solvable. Such groups are called Z-groups.
Properties
Solvability is closed under a number of operations.
• If G is solvable, and there is a homomorphism from G onto H, then H is solvable; equivalently (by the first
isomorphism theorem), if G is solvable, and N is a normal subgroup of G, then G/N is solvable.
• The previous property can be expanded into the following property: G is solvable if and only if both N and G/N
are solvable.
• If G is solvable, and H is a subgroup of G, then H is solvable.
• If G and H are solvable, the direct product G × H is solvable.
Solvability is closed under group extension:
• If H and G/H are solvable, then so is G; in particular, if N and H are solvable, their semidirect product is also
solvable.
It is also closed under wreath product:
• If G and H are solvable, and X is a G-set, then the wreath product of G and H with respect to X is also solvable.
For any positive integer N, the solvable groups of derived length at most N form a subvariety of the variety of
groups, as they are closed under the taking of homomorphic images, subalgebras, and (direct) products. The direct
product of a sequence of solvable groups with unbounded derived length is not solvable, so the class of all solvable
groups is not a variety.
Solvable group 58
Burnside's theorem
Burnside's theorem states that if G is a finite group of order
where p and q are prime numbers, and a and b are non-negative integers, then G is solvable.
Related concepts
Supersolvable groups
As a strengthening of solvability, a group G is called supersolvable (or supersoluble) if it has an invariant normal
series whose factors are all cyclic. Since a normal series has finite length by definition, uncountable groups are not
supersolvable. In fact, all supersolvable groups are finitely generated, and an abelian group is supersolvable if and
only if it is finitely generated. The alternating group A4 is an example of a finite solvable group that is not
supersolvable.
If we restrict ourselves to finitely generated groups, we can consider the following arrangement of classes of groups:
cyclic < abelian < nilpotent < supersolvable < polycyclic < solvable < finitely generated group.
Hypoabelian
A solvable group is one whose derived series reaches the trivial subgroup at a finite stage. For an infinite group, the
finite derived series may not stabilize, but the transfinite derived series always stabilizes. A group whose transfinite
derived series reaches the trivial group is called a hypoabelian group, and every solvable group is a hypoabelian
group. The first ordinal α such that G(α) = G(α+1) is called the (transfinite) derived length of the group G, and it has
been shown that every ordinal is the derived length of some group (Malcev 1949).
References
• Malcev, A. I. (1949), "Generalized nilpotent algebras and their associated groups", Mat. Sbornik N.S. 25 (67):
347–366, MR0032644
External links
• Sequence A056866 [1] in the OEIS - orders of non-solvable finite groups.
References
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Oeis%3Aa056866
Solvable subgroup 59
Solvable subgroup
Concepts in group theory
category of groups
Types of groups
discrete, continuous
multiplicative, additive
nilpotent, solvable
In mathematics, more specifically in the field of group theory, a solvable group (or soluble group) is a group that
can be constructed from abelian groups using extensions. That is, a solvable group is a group whose derived series
terminates in the trivial subgroup.
Historically, the word "solvable" arose from Galois theory and the proof of the general unsolvability of quintic
equation. Specifically, a polynomial equation is solvable by radicals if and only if the corresponding Galois group is
solvable.
Definition
A group is called solvable if it has a subnormal series whose factor groups are all abelian, that is, if there are
subgroups such that is normal in , and is an abelian
group, for .
Or equivalently, if its derived series, the descending normal series
where every subgroup is the commutator subgroup of the previous one, eventually reaches the trivial subgroup {1}
of G. These two definitions are equivalent, since for every group H and every normal subgroup N of H, the quotient
H/N is abelian if and only if N includes H(1). The least n such that is called the derived length of the
solvable group G.
For finite groups, an equivalent definition is that a solvable group is a group with a composition series all of whose
factors are cyclic groups of prime order. This is equivalent because a finite abelian group has finite composition
length, and every finite simple abelian group is cyclic of prime order. The Jordan–Hölder theorem guarantees that if
one composition series has this property, then all composition series will have this property as well. For the Galois
group of a polynomial, these cyclic groups correspond to nth roots (radicals) over some field. The equivalence does
not necessarily hold for infinite groups: for example, since every nontrivial subgroup of the group Z of integers
under addition is isomorphic to Z itself, it has no composition series, but the normal series {0,Z}, with its only factor
group isomorphic to Z, proves that it is in fact solvable.
Solvable subgroup 60
In keeping with George Pólya's dictum that "if there's a problem you can't figure out, there's a simpler problem you
can figure out", solvable groups are often useful for reducing a conjecture about a complicated group into a
conjecture about a series of groups with simple structure: abelian groups (and in the finite case, cyclic groups of
prime order).
Examples
All abelian groups are solvable - the quotient A/B will always be abelian if A is abelian. But non-abelian groups may
or may not be solvable.
More generally, all nilpotent groups are solvable. In particular, finite p-groups are solvable, as all finite p-groups are
nilpotent.
A small example of a solvable, non-nilpotent group is the symmetric group S3. In fact, as the smallest simple
non-abelian group is A5, (the alternating group of degree 5) it follows that every group with order less than 60 is
solvable.
The group S5 is not solvable — it has a composition series {E, A5, S5} (and the Jordan–Hölder theorem states that
every other composition series is equivalent to that one), giving factor groups isomorphic to A5 and C2; and A5 is not
abelian. Generalizing this argument, coupled with the fact that An is a normal, maximal, non-abelian simple subgroup
of Sn for n > 4, we see that Sn is not solvable for n > 4, a key step in the proof that for every n > 4 there are
polynomials of degree n which are not solvable by radicals.
The celebrated Feit–Thompson theorem states that every finite group of odd order is solvable. In particular this
implies that if a finite group is simple, it is either a prime cyclic or of even order.
Any finite group whose every p-Sylow subgroups is cyclic is a semidirect product of two cyclic groups, in particular
solvable. Such groups are called Z-groups.
Properties
Solvability is closed under a number of operations.
• If G is solvable, and there is a homomorphism from G onto H, then H is solvable; equivalently (by the first
isomorphism theorem), if G is solvable, and N is a normal subgroup of G, then G/N is solvable.
• The previous property can be expanded into the following property: G is solvable if and only if both N and G/N
are solvable.
• If G is solvable, and H is a subgroup of G, then H is solvable.
• If G and H are solvable, the direct product G × H is solvable.
Solvability is closed under group extension:
• If H and G/H are solvable, then so is G; in particular, if N and H are solvable, their semidirect product is also
solvable.
It is also closed under wreath product:
• If G and H are solvable, and X is a G-set, then the wreath product of G and H with respect to X is also solvable.
For any positive integer N, the solvable groups of derived length at most N form a subvariety of the variety of
groups, as they are closed under the taking of homomorphic images, subalgebras, and (direct) products. The direct
product of a sequence of solvable groups with unbounded derived length is not solvable, so the class of all solvable
groups is not a variety.
Solvable subgroup 61
Burnside's theorem
Burnside's theorem states that if G is a finite group of order
where p and q are prime numbers, and a and b are non-negative integers, then G is solvable.
Related concepts
Supersolvable groups
As a strengthening of solvability, a group G is called supersolvable (or supersoluble) if it has an invariant normal
series whose factors are all cyclic. Since a normal series has finite length by definition, uncountable groups are not
supersolvable. In fact, all supersolvable groups are finitely generated, and an abelian group is supersolvable if and
only if it is finitely generated. The alternating group A4 is an example of a finite solvable group that is not
supersolvable.
If we restrict ourselves to finitely generated groups, we can consider the following arrangement of classes of groups:
cyclic < abelian < nilpotent < supersolvable < polycyclic < solvable < finitely generated group.
Hypoabelian
A solvable group is one whose derived series reaches the trivial subgroup at a finite stage. For an infinite group, the
finite derived series may not stabilize, but the transfinite derived series always stabilizes. A group whose transfinite
derived series reaches the trivial group is called a hypoabelian group, and every solvable group is a hypoabelian
group. The first ordinal α such that G(α) = G(α+1) is called the (transfinite) derived length of the group G, and it has
been shown that every ordinal is the derived length of some group (Malcev 1949).
References
• Malcev, A. I. (1949), "Generalized nilpotent algebras and their associated groups", Mat. Sbornik N.S. 25 (67):
347–366, MR0032644
External links
• Sequence A056866 [1] in the OEIS - orders of non-solvable finite groups.
Tits building 62
Tits building
In mathematics, a building (also Tits building, Bruhat–Tits building, named after François Bruhat and Jacques
Tits) is a combinatorial and geometric structure which simultaneously generalizes certain aspects of flag manifolds,
finite projective planes, and Riemannian symmetric spaces. Initially introduced by Jacques Tits as a means to
understand the structure of exceptional groups of Lie type, the theory has also been used to study the geometry and
topology of homogeneous spaces of p-adic Lie groups and their discrete subgroups of symmetries, in the same way
that trees have been used to study free groups.
Overview
The notion of a building was invented by Jacques Tits as a means of describing simple algebraic groups over an
arbitrary field. Tits demonstrated how to every such group G one can associate a simplicial complex Δ = Δ(G) with
an action of G, called the spherical building of G. The group G imposes very strong combinatorial regularity
conditions on the complexes Δ that can arise in this fashion. By treating these conditions as axioms for a class of
simplicial complexes, Tits arrived at his first definition of a building. A part of the data defining a building Δ is a
Coxeter group W, which determines a highly symmetrical simplicial complex Σ = Σ(W,S), called the Coxeter
complex. A building Δ is glued together from multiple copies of Σ, called its apartments, in a certain regular fashion.
When W is a finite Coxeter group, the Coxeter complex is a topological sphere, and the corresponding buildings are
said to be of spherical type. When W is an affine Weyl group, the Coxeter complex is a subdivision of the affine
plane and one speaks of affine, or Euclidean, buildings. An affine building of type is the same as an infinite tree
without terminal vertices.
Although the theory of semisimple algebraic groups provided the initial motivation for the notion of a building, not
all buildings arise from a group. In particular, projective planes and generalized quadrangles form two classes of
graphs studied in incidence geometry which satisfy the axioms of a building, but may not be connected with any
group. This phenomenon turns out to be related to the low rank of the corresponding Coxeter system (namely, two).
Tits proved a remarkable theorem: all spherical buildings of rank at least three are connected with a group;
moreover, if a building of rank at least two is connected with a group then the group is essentially determined by the
building.
Iwahori–Matsumoto, Borel–Tits and Bruhat–Tits demonstrated that in analogy with Tits' construction of spherical
buildings, affine buildings can also be constructed from certain groups, namely, reductive algebraic groups over a
local non-Archimedean field. Furthermore, if the split rank of the group is at least three, it is essentially determined
by its building. Tits later reworked the foundational aspects of the theory of buildings using the notion of a chamber
system, encoding the building solely in terms of adjacency properties of simplices of maximal dimension; this leads
to simplifications in both spherical and affine cases. He proved that, in analogy with the spherical case, any building
of affine type and rank at least four arises from a group.
Definition
An n-dimensional building X is an abstract simplicial complex which is a union of subcomplexes A called
apartments such that
• every k-simplex of X is contained in an at least three n-simplices if k < n;
• any (n – 1 )-simplex in an apartment A lies in exactly two adjacent n-simplices of A and the graph of adjacent
n-simplices is connected;
• any two simplices in X lie in some common apartment A;
• if two simplices both lie in apartments A and A ', then there is a simplicial isomorphism of A onto A ' fixing the
vertices of the two simplices.
Tits building 63
Elementary properties
Every apartment A in a building is a Coxeter complex. In fact, for every two n-simplices intersecting in an (n –
1)-simplex or panel, there is a unique period two simplicial automorphism of A, called a reflection, carrying one
n-simplex onto the other and fixing their common points. These reflections generate a Coxeter group W, called the
Weyl group of A, and the simplicial complex A corresponds to the standard geometric realization of W. Standard
generators of the Coxeter group are given by the reflections in the walls of a fixed chamber in A. Since the apartment
A is determined up to isomorphism by the building, the same is true of any two simplices in X lie in some common
apartment A. When W is finite, the building is said to be spherical. When it is an affine Weyl group, the building is
said to be affine or euclidean.
The chamber system is given by the adjacency graph formed by the chambers; each pair of adjacent chambers can
in addition be labelled by one of the standard generators of the Coxeter group (see Tits 1981).
Every building has a canonical length metric inherited from the geometric realisation obtained by identifying the
vertices with an orthonormal basis of a Hilbert space. For affine buildings, this metric satisfies the CAT(0)
comparison inequality of Alexandrov, known in this setting as the Bruhat-Tits non-positive curvature condition for
geodesic triangles: the distance from a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side is no greater than the distance in
the corresponding Euclidean triangle with the same side-lengths (see Bruhat & Tits 1972).
• X is a union of apartments.
• Any two simplices in X are contained in a common apartment.
• If a simplex is contained in two apartments, there is a simplicial isomorphism of one onto the other fixing all
common points.
Spherical building
Let F be a field and let X be the simplicial complex with vertices the non-trivial vector subspaces of V=Fn. Two
subspaces U1 and U2 are connected if one of them is a subset of the other. The k-simplices of X are formed by sets of
k + 1 mutually connected subspaces. Maximal connectivity is obtained by taking n - 1 subspaces and the
corresponding (n-2)-simplex corresponds to a complete flag
(0) U1 ··· Un – 1 V
Lower dimensional simplices correspond to partial flags with fewer intermediary subspaces Ui.
To define the apartments in X, it is convenient to define a frame in V as a basis (vi) determined up to scalar
multiplication of each of its vectors vi; in other words a frame is a set of one-dimensional subspaces Li = F·vi such
that any k of them generate a k-dimensional subspace. Now an ordered frame L1, ..., Ln defines a complete flag via
Ui = L1 ··· Li
Since reorderings of the Li's also give a frame, it is straightforward to see that the subspaces, obtained as sums of the
Li's, form a simplicial complex of the type required for an apartment of a spherical building. The axioms for a
building can easily be verified using the classical Schreier refinement argument used to prove the uniqueness of the
Jordan-Hölder decomposition.
Affine building
Let K be a field lying between Q and its p-adic completion Qp with respect to the usual non-Archimedean p-adic
norm ||x||p on Q for some prime p. Let R be the subring of K defined by
When K = Q, R is the localization of Z at p and, when K = Qp, R = Zp, the p-adic integers, i.e. the closure of Z in Qp.
The vertices of the building X are the R-lattices in V = Kn, i.e. R-submodules of the form
L = R·v1 ··· R·vn
where (vi) is a basis of V over K. Two lattices are said to be equivalent if one is a scalar multiple of the other by an
element of the multiplicative group K* of K (in fact only integer powers of p need be used). Two lattice L1 and L2 are
said to be adjacent if some lattice equivalent to L2 lies between L1 and its sublattice p·L1: this relation is symmetric.
The k-simplices of X are equivalence classes of k + 1 mutually adjacent lattices, The (n - 1)- simplices correspond,
after relabelling, to chains
p·Ln L1 L2 ··· Ln – 1 Ln
where each successive quotient has order p. Apartments are defined by fixing a basis (vi) of V and taking all lattices
with basis (pai vi) where (ai) lies in Zn and is uniquely determined up to addition of the same integer to each entry.
By definition each apartment has the required form and their union is the whole of X. The second axiom follows by a
variant of the Schreier refinement argument. The last axiom follows by a simple counting argument based on the
orders of finite Abelian groups of the form
L + pk ·Li / pk ·Li .
A standard compactness argument shows that X is in fact independent of the choice of K. In particular taking K = Q,
it follows that X is countable. On the other hand taking K = Qp, the definition shows that GLn(Qp) admits a natural
simplicial action on the building.
Tits building 65
The building comes equipped with a labelling of its vertices with values in Z / n Z. Indeed, fixing a reference lattice
L, the label of M is given by
label (M) = logp |M/ pk L| modulo n
for k sufficiently large. The vertices of any (n – 1)-simplex in X have distinct labels, running through the whole of Z
/ n Z. Any simplicial automorphism φ of X defines a permutation π of Z / n Z such that label (φ(M)) = π(label (M)).
In particular for g in GLn (Qp),
label (g·M) = label (M) + logp || det g ||p modulo n.
Thus g preserves labels if g lies in SLn(Qp).
Automorphisms
Tits proved that any label-preserving automorphism of the affine building arises from an element of SLn(Qp). Since
automorphisms of the building permute the labels, there is a natural homomorphism
Aut X Sn.
The action of GLn(Qp) gives rise to an n-cycle τ. Other automorphisms of the building arise from outer
automorphisms of SLn(Qp) associated with automorphisms of the Dynkin diagram. Taking the standard symmetric
bilinear form with orthonormal basis vi, the map sending a lattice to its dual lattice gives an automorphism with
square the identity, giving the permutation σ that sends each label to its negative modulo n. The image of the above
homomorphism is generated by σ and τ and is isomorphic to the dihedral group Dn of order 2n; when n = 3, it gives
the whole of S3.
If E is a finite Galois extension of Qp and the building is constructed from SLn(E) instead of SLn(Qp), the Galois
group Gal (E/Qp) will also act by automorphisms on the building.
Geometric relations
Spherical buildings arise in two quite different ways in connection with the affine building X for SLn(Qp):
• The link of each vertex L in the affine building corresponds to submodules of L/p·L under the finite field F =
R/p·R = Z/(p). This is just the spherical building for SLn(F).
• The building X can be compactified by adding the spherical building for SLn(Qp) as boundary "at infinity" (see
Garrett 1997 or Brown 1989).
Classification
Tits proved that all irreducible spherical buildings (i.e. with finite Weyl group) of rank greater than 2 are associated
to simple algebraic or classical groups. A similar result holds for irreducible affine buildings of dimension greater
than two (their buildings "at infinity" are spherical of rank greater than two). In lower rank or dimension, there is no
such classification. Indeed each incidence structure gives a spherical building of rank 2 (see Pott 1995); and
Ballmann and Brin proved that every 2-dimensional simplicial complex in which the links of vertices are isomorphic
to the flag complex of a finite projective plane has the structure of a building, not necessarily classical. Many
2-dimensional affine buildings have been constructed using hyperbolic reflection groups or other more exotic
constructions connected with orbifolds.
Tits also proved that every time a building is described by a BN pair in a group, then in almost all cases the
automorphisms of the building correspond to automorphisms of the group (see Tits 1974).
Tits building 66
Applications
The theory of buildings has important applications in several rather disparate fields. Besides the already mentioned
connections with the structure of reductive algebraic groups over general and local fields, buildings are used to study
their representations. The results of Tits on determination of a group by its building have deep connections with
rigidity theorems of George Mostow and Grigory Margulis, and with Margulis arithmeticity.
Special types of buildings are studied in discrete mathematics, and the idea of a geometric approach to characterizing
simple groups proved very fruitful in the classification of finite simple groups. The theory of buildings of type more
general than spherical or affine is still relatively undeveloped, but these generalized buildings have already found
applications to construction of Kac-Moody groups in algebra, and to nonpositively curved manifolds and hyperbolic
groups in topology and geometric group theory.
See also
• Buekenhout geometry
• Coxeter group
• BN pair
• Affine Hecke algebra
• Bruhat decomposition
• Generalized polygon
• Tits geometry
• Twin building
• Hyperbolic building
• Tits simplicity theorem
• Mostow rigidity
• Coxeter Complex
References
• Ballmann, Werner; Brin, Michael (1995), "Orbihedra of nonpositive curvature" [1], Publications Mathématiques
de l'IHÉS 82: 169–209
• Barré, Sylvain (1995), "Polyèdres finis de dimension 2 à courbure ≤ 0 et de rang 2" [2], Ann. Inst. Fourier 45:
1037–1059
• Barré, Sylvain; Pichot, Mikaël (2007), "Sur les immeubles triangulaires et leurs automorphismes" [3], Geom.
Dedicata 130: 71–91, doi:10.1007/s10711-007-9206-0
• Bourbaki, Nicolas (1968), Lie Groups and Lie Algebras: Chapters 4-6, Elements of Mathematics, Hermann,
ISBN 3-540-42650-7
• Brown, Kenneth S. (1989), Buildings, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-96876-8
• Bruhat, François; Tits, Jacques (1972), "Groupes réductifs sur un corps local, I. Données radicielles valuées" [4],
Publ. Math. IHES 41: 5–251
• Garrett, Paul (1997), Buildings and Classical Groups [5], Chapman & Hall, ISBN 0-412-06331-X
• Kantor, William M. (2001), "Tits building" [6], in Hazewinkel, Michiel, Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, Springer,
ISBN 978-1556080104
• Kantor, William M. (1986), "Generalized polygons, SCABs and GABs", in Rosati, L.A., Buildings and the
Geometry of Diagrams (CIME Session, Como 1984), Lect. notes in math., 1181, Springer, pp. 79–158,
doi:10.1007/BFb0075513
• Pott, Alexander (1995), Finite Geometry and Character Theory, Lect. Notes in Math., 1601, Springer-Verlag,
doi:10.1007/BFb0094449, ISBN 354059065X
Tits building 67
• Ronan, Mark (1995), A construction of buildings with no rank 3 residues of spherical type, Lect. Notes in Math.,
1181, Springer-Verlag, pp. 159–190, doi:10.1007/BFb0075518
• Ronan, Mark (1992), "Buildings: main ideas and applications. II. Arithmetic groups, buildings and symmetric
spaces", Bull. London Math. Soc. 24 (2): 97–126, doi:10.1112/blms/24.2.97, MR1148671
• Ronan, Mark (1992), "Buildings: main ideas and applications. I. Main ideas.", Bull. London Math. Soc. 24 (1):
1–51, doi:10.1112/blms/24.1.1, MR1139056
• Ronan, Mark (1989), Lectures on buildings, Perspectives in Mathematics 7, Academic Press, ISBN
0-12-594750-X
• Tits, Jacques (1974), Buildings of spherical type and finite BN-pairs, Lecture Notes in Mathematics, 386,
Springer-Verlag, doi:10.1007/BFb0057391, ISBN 0-387-06757-4
• Tits, Jacques (1981), "A local approach to buildings", The geometric vein: The Coxeter Festschrift,
Springer-Verlag, pp. 519–547, ISBN 0387905871
• Tits, Jacques (1986), "Immeubles de type affine", in Rosati, L.A., Buildings and the Geometry of Diagrams
(CIME Session, Como 1984), Lect. notes in math., 1181, Springer, pp. 159–190, doi:10.1007/BFb0075514
• Weiss, Richard M. (2003), The structure of spherical buildings, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-11733-0
References
[1] http:/ / www. numdam. org/ item?id=PMIHES_1995__82__169_0
[2] http:/ / www. numdam. org/ numdam-bin/ fitem?id=AIF_1995__45_4_1037_0
[3] http:/ / web. univ-ubs. fr/ lmam/ barre/ henri. pdf
[4] http:/ / www. numdam. org/ item?id=PMIHES_1972__41__5_0
[5] http:/ / www. math. umn. edu/ ~garrett/ m/ buildings
[6] http:/ / eom. springer. de/ T/ t092900. htm
Finite group
In mathematics and abstract algebra, a finite group is a group whose underlying set G has finitely many elements.
During the twentieth century, mathematicians investigated certain aspects of the theory of finite groups in great
depth, especially the local theory of finite groups, and the theory of solvable groups and nilpotent groups. A
complete determination of the structure of all finite groups is too much to hope for; the number of possible structures
soon becomes overwhelming. However, the complete classification of the finite simple groups was achieved,
meaning that the "building blocks" from which all finite groups can be built are now known, as each finite group has
a composition series.
During the second half of the twentieth century, mathematicians such as Chevalley and Steinberg also increased our
understanding of finite analogs of classical groups, and other related groups. One such family of groups is the family
of general linear groups over finite fields. Finite groups often occur when considering symmetry of mathematical or
physical objects, when those objects admit just a finite number of structure-preserving transformations. The theory of
Lie groups, which may be viewed as dealing with "continuous symmetry", is strongly influenced by the associated
Weyl groups. These are finite groups generated by reflections which act on a finite dimensional Euclidean space.
The properties of finite groups can thus play a role in subjects such as theoretical physics and chemistry.
Finite group 68
1 1 1 0
2 1 1 0
3 1 1 0
4 2 2 0
5 1 1 0
6 2 1 1
7 1 1 0
8 5 3 2
9 2 2 0
10 2 1 1
11 1 1 0
12 5 2 3
13 1 1 0
14 2 1 1
15 1 1 0
16 14 5 9
17 1 1 0
18 5 2 3
19 1 1 0
Finite group 69
20 5 2 3
21 2 1 1
22 2 1 1
23 1 1 0
24 15 3 12
25 2 2 0
Notes
[1] John F. Humphreys, A Course in Group Theory, Oxford University Press, 1996, pp. 238-242.
External references
• Number of groups of order n (sequence A000001 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oeis:a000001) in OEIS)
p-adic number
In mathematics, and chiefly number theory, the p-adic number system for any prime number p extends the ordinary
arithmetic of the rational numbers in a way different from the extension of the rational number system to the real and
complex number systems. The extension is achieved by an alternative interpretation of the concept of absolute value.
First described by Kurt Hensel in 1897[1] , the p-adic numbers were motivated primarily by an attempt to bring the
ideas and techniques of power series methods into number theory. Their influence now extends far beyond this. For
example, the field of p-adic analysis essentially provides an alternative form of calculus.
More formally, for a given prime p, the field Qp of p-adic numbers is a completion of the rational numbers. The field
Qp is also given a topology derived from a metric, which is itself derived from an alternative valuation on the
rational numbers. This metric space is complete in the sense that every Cauchy sequence converges to a point in Qp.
This is what allows the development of calculus on Qp, and it is the interaction of this analytic and algebraic
structure which gives the p-adic number systems their power and utility.
The p in p-adic is a variable and may be replaced with a constant (yielding, for instance, "the 2-adic numbers") or
another placeholder variable (for expressions such as "the l-adic numbers").
Introduction
This section is an informal introduction to p-adic numbers, using examples from the ring of 10-adic numbers. More
formal constructions and properties are given below.
In the standard decimal representation, almost all[2] real numbers do not have a terminating decimal representation.
For example, 1/3 is represented as a non-terminating decimal as follows
Informally, most people are comfortable with non-terminating decimals because it is clear that a real number can be
approximated to any required degree of "closeness" (precision) by a terminating decimal adequately expressed for its
intended application. If two decimal expansions differ only after the 10th decimal place they are quite close to one
another, and if they differ only after the 20th decimal place they are even closer.
10-adic numbers use a similar non-terminating expansion, but with a different concept of "closeness" (which
mathematicians call a metric). Whereas two decimal expansions are close to one another if they differ by a large
''p''-adic number 70
negative power of 10, two 10-adic expansions are close if they differ by a large positive power of 10. Thus 3333 and
4333 are close in the 10-adic metric, and 33333333 and 43333333 are even closer.
In the 10-adic metric, the following sequence of numbers gets closer and closer to −1
and taking this sequence to its limit, we can say (informally) that the 10-adic expansion of −1 is
In this notation, 10-adic expansions can be extended indefinitely to the left, in contrast to decimal expansions, which
can be extended indefinitely to the right. Note that this is not the only way to write p-adic numbers—for alternatives
see the Notation section below.
More formally, a 10-adic number can be defined as
where each of the ai is a digit taken from the set {0, 1, …..., 9} and the initial index n may be positive, negative or 0,
but must be finite. From this definition, it is clear that positive integers and positive rational numbers with
terminating decimal expansions will have terminating 10-adic expansions that are identical to their decimal
expansions. Other numbers may have non-terminating 10-adic expansions.
It is possible to define addition, subtraction, and multiplication on 10-adic numbers in a consistent way, so that the
10-adic numbers form a commutative ring. We can create 10-adic expansions for negative numbers as follows
and fractions which have non-terminating decimal expansions also have non-terminating 10-adic expansions. For
example
Generalizing the last example, we can find a 10-adic expansion for any rational number p⁄q such that q is co-prime to
10; Euler's theorem guarantees that if q is co-prime to 10, then there is an n such that 10n − 1 is a multiple of q.
However, 10-adic numbers have one major drawback. It is possible to find pairs of non-zero 10-adic numbers whose
product is 0. In other words, the 10-adic numbers are not a domain because they contain zero divisors. This turns out
to be because 10 is a composite number. Fortunately, this problem can be avoided by using a prime number p as the
base of the number system instead of 10.
''p''-adic number 71
p-adic expansions
If p is a fixed prime number, then any positive integer can be written in a base p expansion in the form
where the ai are integers in {0, …, p − 1}. For example, the binary expansion of 35 is 1·25 + 0·24 + 0·23 + 0·22 + 1·21
+ 1·20, often written in the shorthand notation 1000112.
The familiar approach to extending this description to the larger domain of the rationals (and, ultimately, to the reals)
is to use sums of the form:
A definite meaning is given to these sums based on Cauchy sequences, using the absolute value as metric. Thus, for
example, 1/3 can be expressed in base 5 as the limit of the sequence 0.1313131313...5. In this formulation, the
integers are precisely those numbers for which ai = 0 for all i < 0.
As an alternative, if we extend the base p expansions by allowing infinite sums of the form
where k is some (not necessarily positive) integer, we obtain the p-adic expansions defining the field Qp of p-adic
numbers. Those p-adic numbers for which ai = 0 for all i < 0 are also called the p-adic integers. The p-adic integers
form a subring of Qp, denoted Zp. (Not to be confused with the ring of integers modulo p which is also sometimes
written Zp. To avoid ambiguity, Z/pZ or Z/(p) are often used to represent the integers modulo p.)
Intuitively, as opposed to p-adic expansions which extend to the right as sums of ever smaller, increasingly negative
powers of the base p (as is done for the real numbers as described above), these are numbers whose p-adic expansion
to the left are allowed to go on forever. For example, the p-adic expansion of 1/3 in base 5 is …1313132, i.e. the
limit of the sequence 2, 32, 132, 3132, 13132, 313132, 1313132,… . Multiplying this infinite sum by 3 in base 5
gives …0000001. As there are no negative powers of 5 in this expansion of 1/3 (i.e. no numbers to the right of the
decimal point), we see that 1/3 is a p-adic integer in base 5.
While it is possible to use this approach to rigorously define p-adic numbers and explore their properties, just as in
the case of real numbers other approaches are generally preferred. Hence we want to define a notion of infinite sum
which makes these expressions meaningful, and this is most easily accomplished by the introduction of the p-adic
metric. Two different but equivalent solutions to this problem are presented in the Constructions section below.
Notation
There are several different conventions for writing p-adic expansions. So far this article has used a notation for
p-adic expansions in which powers of p increase from right to left. With this right-to-left notation the 3-adic
expansion of 1/5, for example, is written as
When performing arithmetic in this notation, digits are carried to the left. It is also possible to write p-adic
expansions so that the powers of p increase from left to right, and digits are carried to the right. With this left-to-right
notation the 3-adic expansion of 1/5 is
p-adic expansions may be written with other sets of digits instead of {0, 1, …, p − 1}. For example, the 3-adic
expansion of 1/5 can be written using balanced ternary digits {1,0,1} as
''p''-adic number 72
In fact any set of p integers which are in distinct residue classes modulo p may be used as p-adic digits. In number
theory, Teichmüller digits are sometimes used.
Constructions
Analytic approach
The real numbers can be defined as equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences of rational numbers; this allows us to,
for example, write 1 as 1.000… = 0.999… . However, the definition of a Cauchy sequence relies on the metric
chosen and, by choosing a different one, numbers other than the real numbers can be constructed. The usual metric
which yields the real numbers is called the Euclidean metric.
For a given prime p, we define the p-adic absolute value in Q as follows: for any non-zero rational number x, there is
a unique integer n allowing us to write x = pn(a/b), where neither of the integers a and b is divisible by p. Unless the
numerator or denominator of x in lowest terms contains p as a factor, n will be 0. Now define |x|p = p−n. We also
define |0|p = 0.
For example with x = 63/550 = 2−1 32 5−2 7 11−1
This definition of |x|p has the effect that high powers of p become "small". By the fundamental theorem of arithmetic,
for distinct primes and with for all and , and non-zero
integers and we can write any non-zero rational number n as follows:
The field Qp of p-adic numbers can then be defined as the completion of the metric space (Q,dp); its elements are
equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences, where two sequences are called equivalent if their difference converges to
zero. In this way, we obtain a complete metric space which is also a field and contains Q.
It can be shown that in Qp, every element x may be written in a unique way as
where k is some integer and each ai is in {0, …, p − 1}. This series converges to x with respect to the metric dp.
With this absolute value, the field Qp is a local field.
''p''-adic number 73
Algebraic approach
In the algebraic approach, we first define the ring of p-adic integers, and then construct the field of fractions of this
ring to get the field of p-adic numbers.
We start with the inverse limit of the rings Z/pnZ (see modular arithmetic): a p-adic integer is then a sequence
(an)n≥1 such that an is in Z/pnZ, and if n < m, an ≡ am (mod pn).
Every natural number m defines such a sequence (an) by an = m mod pn and can therefore be regarded as a p-adic
integer. For example, in this case 35 as a 2-adic integer would be written as the sequence (1, 3, 3, 3, 3, 35, 35, 35,
…).
The operators of the ring amount to pointwise addition and multiplication of such sequences. This is well defined
because addition and multiplication commute with the mod operator, see modular arithmetic.
Moreover, every sequence (an) where the first element is not 0 has an inverse. In that case, for every n, an and p are
coprime, and so an and pn are relatively prime. Therefore, each an has an inverse mod pn, and the sequence of these
inverses, (bn), is the sought inverse of (an). For example, consider the p-adic integer corresponding to the natural
number 7; as a 2-adic number, it would be written (1, 3, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, ...). This object's inverse would be written as an
ever-increasing sequence that begins (1, 3, 7, 7, 23, 55, 55, 183, 439, 439, 1463 ...). Naturally, this 2-adic integer has
no corresponding natural number.
Every such sequence can alternatively be written as a series of the form we considered above. For instance, in the
3-adics, the sequence (2, 8, 8, 35, 35, ...) can be written as 2 + 2·3 + 0·32 + 1·33 + 0·34 + ... The partial sums of this
latter series are the elements of the given sequence.
The ring of p-adic integers has no zero divisors, so we can take the field of fractions to get the field Qp of p-adic
numbers. Note that in this field of fractions, every non-integer p-adic number can be uniquely written as p−nu with a
natural number n and a unit in the p-adic integers u. This means that
Note that , where is a multiplicative subset (contains the unit and closed under
multiplication) of a commutative ring with unit , is an algebraic construction called the ring of fractions of
by .
Properties
The ring of p-adic integers is the inverse limit of the finite rings Z/pkZ, but is nonetheless uncountable[3] , and has
the cardinality of the continuum. Accordingly, the field Qp is uncountable. The endomorphism ring of the Prüfer
p-group of rank n, denoted Z(p∞)n, is the ring of n×n matrices over the p-adic integers; this is sometimes referred to
as the Tate module.
The p-adic numbers contain the rational numbers Q and form a field of characteristic 0. This field cannot be turned
into an ordered field.
Let the topology τ on Zp be defined by taking as a basis all sets of the form Ua(n) = {n + λ pa for λ in Zp and a in N}.
Then Zp is a compactification of Z, under the derived topology (it is not a compactification of Z with its usual
topology). The relative topology on Z as a subset of Zp is called the p-adic topology on Z.
The topology of the set of p-adic integers is that of a Cantor set; the topology of the set of p-adic numbers is that of a
Cantor set minus a point (which would naturally be called infinity)[4] . In particular, the space of p-adic integers is
compact while the space of p-adic numbers is not; it is only locally compact. As metric spaces, both the p-adic
integers and the p-adic numbers are complete[5] .
The real numbers have only a single proper algebraic extension, the complex numbers; in other words, this quadratic
extension is already algebraically closed. By contrast, the algebraic closure of the p-adic numbers has infinite
degree[6] . Furthermore, Qp has infinitely many inequivalent algebraic extensions. Also contrasting the case of real
''p''-adic number 74
numbers, the algebraic closure of Qp is not (metrically) complete[7] . Its (metric) completion is called Cp. Here an
end is reached, as Cp is algebraically closed[8] .
The field Cp is isomorphic to the field C of complex numbers, so we may regard Cp as the complex numbers
endowed with an exotic metric. It should be noted that the proof of existence of such a field isomorphism relies on
the axiom of choice, and does not provide an explicit example of such an isomorphism.
The p-adic numbers contain the nth cyclotomic field (n>2) if and only if n divides p − 1[9] . For instance, the nth
cyclotomic field is a subfield of Q13 if and only if n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, or 12. In particular, there is no multiplicative
p-torsion in the p-adic numbers, if p > 2. Also, -1 is the only torsion element in 2-adic numbers.
Given a natural number k, the index of the multiplicative group of the k-th powers of the non-zero elements of Qp in
the multiplicative group of Qp is finite.
The number e, defined as the sum of reciprocals of factorials, is not a member of any p-adic field; but ep is a p-adic
number for all p except 2, for which one must take at least the fourth power[10] . (Thus a number with similar
properties as e - namely a pth root of ep - is a member of the algebraic closure of the p-adic numbers for all p.)
Over the reals, the only functions whose derivative is zero are the constant functions. This is not true over Qp[11] .
For instance, the function
f: Qp → Qp, f(x) = (1/|x|p)2 for x ≠ 0, f(0) = 0,
has zero derivative everywhere but is not even locally constant at 0.
Given any elements r∞, r2, r3, r5, r7, ... where rp is in Qp (and Q∞ stands for R), it is possible to find a sequence (xn)
in Q such that for all p (including ∞), the limit of xn in Qp is rp.
The field Qp is a locally compact Hausdorff space.
If is a finite Galois extension of , the Galois group is solvable. Thus, the Galois group
is prosolvable.
Rational arithmetic
Hehner and Horspool proposed in 1979 the use of a p-adic representation for rational numbers on computers.[12] The
primary advantage of such a representation is that addition, subtraction, and multiplication can be done in a
straightforward manner analogous to similar methods for binary integers; and division is even simpler, resembling
multiplication. However, it has the disadvantage that representations can be much larger than simply storing the
numerator and denominator in binary; for example, if 2n−1 is a Mersenne prime, its reciprocal will require 2n−1 bits
to represent.
Completing with respect to this absolute value |.|P yields a field EP, the proper generalization of the field of p-adic
numbers to this setting. The choice of c does not change the completion (different choices yield the same concept of
Cauchy sequence, so the same completion). It is convenient, when the residue field D/P is finite, to take for c the size
of D/P.
''p''-adic number 75
For example, when E is a number field, Ostrowski's theorem says that every non-trivial non-Archimedean absolute
value on E arises as some |.|P. The remaining non-trivial absolute values on E arise from the different embeddings of
E into the real or complex numbers. (In fact, the non-Archimedean absolute values can be considered as simply the
different embeddings of E into the fields Cp, thus putting the description of all the non-trivial absolute values of a
number field on a common footing.)
Often, one needs to simultaneously keep track of all the above mentioned completions when E is a number field (or
more generally a global field), which are seen as encoding "local" information. This is accomplished by adele rings
and idele groups.
Local-global principle
Helmut Hasse's local-global principle is said to hold for an equation if it can be solved over the rational numbers if
and only if it can be solved over the real numbers and over the p-adic numbers for every prime p.
Notes
[1] Hensel, Kurt (1897). "Über eine neue Begründung der Theorie der algebraischen Zahlen" (http:/ / www. digizeitschriften. de/ resolveppn/
GDZPPN00211612X& L=2). Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung (http:/ / www. digizeitschriften. de/ resolveppn/
PPN37721857X& L=2) 6 (3): 83–88. .
[2] The number of real numbers with terminating decimal representations is countably infinite, while the number of real numbers without such a
representation is uncountably infinite.
[3] Robert (2000) Section 1.1
[4] Robert (2000) Section 2.3
[5] Gouvêa (2000) Corollary 3.3.8
[6] Gouvêa (2000) Corollary 5.3.10
[7] Gouvêa (2000) Theorem 5.7.4
[8] Gouvêa (2000) Proposition 5.7.8
[9] Gouvêa (2000) Proposition 3.4.2
[10] Robert (2000) Section 4.1
[11] Robert (2000) Section 5.1
[12] Eric C. R. Hehner, R. Nigel Horspool, A new representation of the rational numbers for fast easy arithmetic. SIAM Journal on Computing 8,
124-134. 1979.
References
• Gouvêa, Fernando Q. (2000). p-adic Numbers : An Introduction (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 3540629114.
• Koblitz, Neal (1996). P-adic Numbers, p-adic Analysis, and Zeta-Functions (2nd ed.). Springer.
ISBN 0387960171.
• Robert, Alain M. (2000). A Course in p-adic Analysis. Springer. ISBN 0387986693.
• Bachman, George (1964). Introduction to p-adic Numbers and Valuation Theory. Academic Press.
ISBN 0120702681.
• Steen, Lynn Arthur (1978). Counterexamples in Topology. Dover. ISBN 048668735X.
''p''-adic number 76
External links
• Weisstein, Eric W., " p-adic Number (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/p-adicNumber.html)" from MathWorld.
• p-adic integers (http://planetmath.org/?op=getobj&from=objects&id=3118) on PlanetMath
• p-adic number (http://eom.springer.de/P/p071020.htm) at Springer On-line Encyclopaedia of Mathematics
• Completion of Algebraic Closure (http://math.stanford.edu/~conrad/248APage/handouts/algclosurecomp.
pdf) - on-line lecture notes by Brian Conrad
• An Introduction to p-adic Numbers and p-adic Analysis (http://www.maths.gla.ac.uk/~ajb/dvi-ps/
padicnotes.pdf) - on-line lecture notes by Andrew Baker, 2007
Tits alternative
In mathematics, the Tits alternative, named for Jacques Tits, is an important theorem about the structure of finitely
generated linear groups. It states that every such group is either virtually solvable (i.e. has a solvable subgroup of
finite index), or it contains a subgroup isomorphic to the free group on two generators.
Generalization
In geometric group theory, a group G is said to satisfy the Tits alternative if for every subgroup H of G either H is
virtually solvable or H contains a nonabelian free subgroup (in some versions of the definition this condition is only
required to be satisfied for all finitely generated subgroups of G).
References
• Tits, J. (1972). "Free subgroups in linear groups". J. Algebra 20: 250–270. doi:10.1016/0021-8693(72)90058-0.
• Bestvina, Mladen; Feighn, Mark; Handel, Michael (2000). "The Tits alternative for Out(Fn) I: Dynamics of
exponentially-growing automorphisms" [1]. Annals of Mathematics (Annals of Mathematics) 151 (2): 517–623.
doi:10.2307/121043.
References
[1] http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ math/ 9712217
Finitely generated group 77
Free group
The most general group generated by a set S is the group freely generated by S. Every group generated by S is
isomorphic to a factor group of this group, a feature which is utilized in the expression of a group's presentation.
Frattini subgroup
An interesting companion topic is that of non-generators. An element x of the group G is a non-generator if every
set S containing x that generates G, still generates G when x is removed from S. In the integers with addition, the
only non-generator is 0. The set of all non-generators forms a subgroup of G, the Frattini subgroup.
Examples
The group of units U(Z9) is the group of all integers relatively prime to 9 under multiplication mod 9
(U9 = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8}). All arithmetic here is done modulo 9. Seven is not a generator of U(Z9), since
On the other hand, for n > 2 the symmetric group of degree n is not cyclic, so it is not generated by any one element.
However, it is generated by the two permutations (1 2) and (1 2 3 ... n). For example, for S3 we have:
e = (1 2)(1 2)
(1 2) = (1 2)
(1 3) = (1 2)(1 2 3)
(2 3) = (1 2 3)(1 2)
(1 2 3) = (1 2 3)
(1 3 2) = (1 2)(1 2 3)(1 2)
Infinite groups can also have finite generating sets. The additive group of integers has 1 as a generating set. The
element 2 is not a generating set, as the odd numbers will be missing. The two-element subset {3, 5} is a generating
set, since (−5) + 3 + 3 = 1 (in fact, any pair of coprime numbers is, as a consequence of Bézout's identity).
References
• Lang, Serge (2002), Algebra, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 211 (Revised third ed.), New York:
Springer-Verlag, MR1878556, ISBN 978-0-387-95385-4
External links
• Mathworld: Group generators [1]
References
[1] http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ GroupGenerators. html
Linear group 79
Linear group
In mathematics, a matrix group is a group G consisting of invertible matrices over some field K, usually fixed in
advance, with operations of matrix multiplication and inversion. More generally, one can consider n × n matrices
over a commutative ring R. (The size of the matrices is restricted to be finite, as any group can be represented as a
group of infinite matrices over any field.) A linear group is an abstract group that is isomorphic to a matrix group
over a field K, in other words, admitting a faithful, finite-dimensional representation over K.
Any finite group is linear, because it can be realized by permutation matrices using Cayley's theorem. Among
infinite groups, linear groups form an interesting and tractable class. Examples of groups that are not linear include
all "sufficiently large" groups; for example, the infinite symmetric group of permutations of an infinite set.
Basic examples
The set MR(n,n) of n × n matrices over a commutative ring R is itself a ring under matrix addition and multiplication.
The group of units of MR(n,n) is called the general linear group of n × n matrices over the ring R and is denoted
GLn(R) or GL(n,R). All matrix groups are subgroups of some general linear group.
Classical groups
Some particularly interesting matrix groups are the so-called classical groups. When the ring of coefficients of the
matrix group is the real numbers, these groups are the classical Lie groups. When the underlying ring is a finite field
the classical groups are groups of Lie type. These groups play an important role in the classification of finite simple
groups.
Notice that M1b1 = b2, M1b2 = b3 and M1b3 = b1. Likewise, M2b1 = b2, M2b2 = b1 and M2b3 = b3.
Linear group 80
Examples
• See table of Lie groups, list of finite simple groups, and list of simple Lie groups for many examples.
• See list of transitive finite linear groups.
• In 2000 a longstanding conjecture was resolved when it was shown that the braid groups Bn are linear for all n.[1]
References
• Brian C. Hall Lie Groups, Lie Algebras, and Representations: An Elementary Introduction, 1st edition, Springer,
2006. ISBN 0-387-40122-9
• Wulf Rossmann, Lie Groups: An Introduction Through Linear Groups (Oxford Graduate Texts in Mathematics),
Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-859683-9.
• La géométrie des groupes classiques, J. Dieudonné. Springer, 1955. ISBN 1-114-75188-X
• The classical groups, H. Weyl, ISBN 0-691-05756-7
[1] Stephen J. Bigelow (December 13, 2000), "Braid groups are linear" (http:/ / www. ams. org/ jams/ 2001-14-02/ S0894-0347-00-00361-1/
S0894-0347-00-00361-1. pdf), Journal of the American Mathematical Society 14 (2): 471–486,
External links
• Linear groups (http://eom.springer.de/L/l059250.htm), Encyclopaedia of Mathematics
Finite index 81
Finite index
In mathematics, specifically group theory, the index of a subgroup H in a group G is the "relative size" of H in G:
equivalently, the number of "copies" (cosets) of H that fill up G. For example, if H has index 2 in G, then intuitively
"half" of the elements of G lie in H. The index of H in G is usually denoted |G : H| or [G : H].
Formally, the index of H in G is defined as the number of cosets of H in G. (The number of left cosets of H in G is
always equal to the number of right cosets.) For example, let Z be the group of integers under addition, and let 2Z be
the subgroup of Z consisting of the even integers. Then 2Z has two cosets in Z (namely the even integers and the
odd integers), so the index of 2Z in Z is two. In general,
This is Lagrange's theorem, and in this case the quotient is necessarily a positive integer.
Properties
• If H is a subgroup of G and K is a subgroup of H, then
with equality if HK = G. (If |G : H ∩ K| is finite, then equality holds if and only if HK = G.)
• Equivalently, if H and K are subgroups of G, then
with equality if HK = G. (If |H : H ∩ K| is finite, then equality holds if and only if HK = G.)
• If G and H are groups and φ: G → H is a homomorphism, then the index of the kernel of φ in G is equal to the
order of the image:
• Let G be a group acting on a set X, and let x ∈ X. Then the cardinality of the orbit of x under G is equal to the
index of the stabilizer of x:
• As a corollary, if the index of H in G is 2, or for a finite group the lowest prime p that divides the order of G,
then H is normal, as the index of its core must also be p, and thus H equals its core, i.e., is normal.
• Note that a subgroup of lowest prime index may not exist, such as in any simple group of non-prime order, or
more generally any perfect group.
Examples
• The alternating group has index 2 in the symmetric group and thus is normal.
• The special orthogonal group SO(n) has index 2 in the orthogonal group O(n), and thus is normal.
• The free abelian group Z ⊕ Z has three subgroups of index 2, namely
.
• More generally, if p is prime then Z has (p − 1) / (p − 1) subgroups of index p, corresponding to the pn − 1
n n
Infinite index
If H has an infinite number of cosets in G, then the index of H in G is said to be infinite. In this case, the index
|G : H| is actually a cardinal number. For example, the index of H in G may be countable or uncountable, depending
on whether H has a countable number of cosets in G. Note that the index of H is at most the order of G, which is
realized for the trivial subgroup, or in fact any subgroup H of infinite cardinality less than that of G.
Finite index
An infinite group G may have subgroups H of finite index (for example, the even integers inside the group of
integers). Such a subgroup always contains a normal subgroup N (of G), also of finite index. In fact, if H has index n,
then the index of N can be taken as some factor of n!.
A special case, n = 2, gives the general result that a subgroup of index 2 is a normal subgroup, because the normal
group (N above) must have index 2 and therefore be identical to the original subgroup. More generally, a subgroup
of index p where p is the smallest prime factor of the order of G (if G is finite) is necessarily normal, as the index of
N divides p! and thus must equal p, having no other prime factors.
This result is generally proven using group actions; an alternative proof of the result that subgroup of index lowest
prime p is normal, and other properties of subgroups of prime index are given in (Lam 2004).
Proof
This can be seen more concretely, by considering the permutation action of G on left cosets of H when multiplying
them on the right by elements of G (or, equally, multiplying right cosets on the left). This provides a quotient group
of G, the image of this permutation representation, which is a subgroup of the symmetric group on n elements.
Let us explain this now in more detail. The elements of G that leave all cosets the same form a group.
(If Hca ⊂ Hc ∀ c ∈ G and likewise Hcb ⊂ Hc ∀ c ∈ G, then Hcab ⊂ Hc ∀ c ∈ G. If h1ca = h2c for all c ∈ G (with h1,
h2 ∈ H) then h2ca−1 = h1c, so Hca−1 ⊂ Hc.)
Let us call this group A. Let B be the set of elements of G which perform a given permutation on the cosets of H.
Then the cardinality (size) of B is equal to the cardinality of A, and in fact B is a right coset of A.
(If cb1 = d and cb2 = hd (a member of the same coset as d), then cb1b2−1 = db2−1 = h−1c ∈ Hc. Since this is the case
for any b2 and for any c (with appropriate d), b1b2−1 ∈ A and the size of B is less than or equal to the size of A.
Conversely, Hcb1 = Hcab1, and since the left-hand side is in Hd then so is the right-hand side: Hcab1 ⊂ Hcd,
Finite index 83
showing that for any element of A there is a different element of B, and thus the size of A is less than or equal to the
size of B.)
Since the number of possible permutations of cosets is finite, namely n! (assuming H is of finite index n), then there
can only be a finite number of sets like B. If G is infinite, then all such sets are therefore infinite. The set of these sets
forms a group isomorphic to a subset of the group of permutations, so the number of these sets must divide n!.
Finally, if for some c ∈ G and a ∈ A we have ca = xc, then for any d ∈ G dca = hdc for some h ∈ H, but also dca =
dxc, so hd = dx. Since this is true for any d, x must be a member of A, so ca = xc implies that A is a normal
subgroup.
Examples
The above considerations are true for finite groups as well. For instance, the group O of chiral octahedral symmetry
has 24 elements. It has a dihedral D4 subgroup (in fact it has three such) of order 8, and thus of index 3 in O, which
we shall call H. This dihedral group has a 4-member D2 subgroup, which we may call A. Multiplying on the right
any element of a right coset of H by an element of A gives a member of the same coset of H (Hca = Hc). A is normal
in O. There are six cosets of A, corresponding to the six elements of the symmetric group S3. All elements from any
particular coset of A perform the same permutation of the cosets of H.
On the other hand, the group Th of pyritohedral symmetry also has 24 members and a subgroup of index 3 (this time
it is a D2h prismatic symmetry group, see point groups in three dimensions), but in this case the whole subgroup is a
normal subgroup. All members of a particular coset carry out the same permutation of these cosets, but in this case
they represent only the 3-element alternating group in the 6-member S3 symmetric group.
Geometric structure
An elementary observation is that one cannot have exactly 2 subgroups of index 2, as their symmetric difference
yields a third. This is a simple corollary of the above discussion (namely the projectivization of the vector space
structure of the elementary abelian group ), and further, G does not act on this geometry,
nor does it reflect any of the non-abelian structure (in both cases because the quotient is abelian).
However, it is an elementary result, which can be seen concretely as follows: the set of normal subgroups of a given
index p form a projective space, namely the projective space
In detail, the space of homomorphisms from G to the (cyclic) group of order p, is a vector space
over the finite field A non-trivial such map has as kernel a normal subgroup of index p, and
multiplying the map by an element of (a non-zero number mod p) does not change the kernel; thus one
obtains a map from to normal index p subgroups.
Conversely, a normal subgroup of index p determines a non-trivial map to up to a choice of "which coset maps
to which shows that this map is a bijection.
As a consequence, the number of normal subgroups of index p is for
some k; corresponds to no normal subgroups of index p. Further, given two distinct normal subgroups of
index p, one obtains a projective line consisting of such subgroups.
For the symmetric difference of two distinct index 2 subgroups (which are necessarily normal) gives the
third point on the projective line containing these subgroups, and a group must contain index 2
subgroups – it cannot contain exactly 2 or 4 index 2 subgroups, for instance.
References
• Lam, T. Y. (March 2004), "On Subgroups of Prime Index" (http://www.jstor.org/stable/4145135), The
American Mathematical Monthly 111 (3): 256–258, alternative download (http://math.berkeley.edu/~lam/
html/index-p.ps)
External links
• Normality of subgroups of prime index (http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/
NormalityOfSubgroupsOfPrimeIndex.html) at PlanetMath.
• " Subgroup of least prime index is normal (http://groupprops.subwiki.org/wiki/
Subgroup_of_least_prime_index_is_normal)" at Groupprops, The Group Properties Wiki (http://groupprops.
subwiki.org/wiki/Main_Page)
Free subgroup 85
Free subgroup
In mathematics, a group G is called free if there is a subset S of G such
that any element of G can be written in one and only one way as a
product of finitely many elements of S and their inverses (disregarding
trivial variations such as st−1 = su−1ut−1). Apart from the existence of
inverses no other relation exists between the generators of a free group.
A related but different notion is a free abelian group.
History
Free groups first arose in the study of hyperbolic geometry, as
examples of Fuchsian groups (discrete groups acting by isometries on
the hyperbolic plane). In an 1882 paper, Walther von Dyck pointed out The Cayley graph for the free group on two
that these groups have the simplest possible presentations.[1] The generators. Each vertex represents an element of
algebraic study of free groups was initiated by Jakob Nielsen in 1924, the free group, and each edge represents
multiplication by a or b.
who gave them their name and established many of their basic
properties.[2] [3] [4] Max Dehn realized the connection with topology,
and obtained the first proof of the full Nielsen-Schreier Theorem.[5] Otto Schreier published an algebraic proof of
this result in 1927,[6] and Kurt Reidemeister included a comprehensive treatment of free groups in his 1932 book on
combinatorial topology.[7] Later on in the 1930s, Wilhelm Magnus discovered the connection between the lower
central series of free groups and free Lie algebras.
Examples
The group (Z,+) of integers is free; we can take S = {1}. A free group on a two-element set S occurs in the proof of
the Banach–Tarski paradox and is described there.
On the other hand, any nontrivial finite group cannot be free, since the elements of a free generating set of a free
group have infinite order.
In algebraic topology, the fundamental group of a bouquet of k circles (a set of k loops having only one point in
common) is the free group on a set of k elements.
Construction
The free group FS with free generating set S can be constructed as follows. S is a set of symbols and we suppose
for every s in S there is a corresponding "inverse" symbol, s−1, in a set S−1. Let T = S ∪ S−1, and define a word in S
to be any written product of elements of T. That is, a word in S is an element of the monoid generated by T. The
empty word is the word with no symbols at all. For example, if S = {a, b, c}, then T = {a, a−1, b, b−1, c, c−1}, and
is a word in S. If an element of S lies immediately next to its inverse, the word may be simplified by omitting the
s, s−1 pair:
A word that cannot be simplified further is called reduced. The free group FS is defined to be the group of all
reduced words in S. The group operation in FS is concatenation of words (followed by reduction if necessary). The
identity is the empty word. A word is called cyclically reduced, if its first and last letter are not inverse to each
other. Every word is conjugate to a cyclically reduced word, and the cyclically reduced conjugates of a cyclically
Free subgroup 86
reduced word are all cyclic permutations. For instance b−1abcb is not cyclically reduced, but is conjugate to abc,
which is cyclically reduced. The only cyclically reduced conjugates of abc are abc, bca, and cab.
Universal property
The free group FS is the universal group generated by the set S. This can be formalized by the following universal
property: given any function ƒ from S to a group G, there exists a unique homomorphism φ: FS → G making the
following diagram commute:
That is, homomorphisms FS → G are in one-to-one correspondence with functions S → G. For a non-free group, the
presence of relations would restrict the possible images of the generators under a homomorphism.
To see how this relates to the constructive definition, think of the mapping from S to FS as sending each symbol to a
word consisting of that symbol. To construct φ for given ƒ, first note that φ sends the empty word to identity of G
and it has to agree with ƒ on the elements of S. For the remaining words (consisting of more than one symbol) φ can
be uniquely extended since it is a homomorphism, i.e., φ(ab) = φ(a) φ(b).
The above property characterizes free groups up to isomorphism, and is sometimes used as an alternative definition.
It is known as the universal property of free groups, and the generating set S is called a basis for FS. The basis for a
free group is not uniquely determined.
Being characterized by a universal property is the standard feature of free objects in universal algebra. In the
language of category theory, the construction of the free group (similar to most constructions of free objects) is a
functor from the category of sets to the category of groups. This functor is left adjoint to the forgetful functor from
groups to sets.
3. The commutator subgroup of a free group of rank k > 1 has infinite rank; for example for F(a,b), it is freely
generated by the commutators [am, bn] for non-zero m and n.
4. The free group in two elements is SQ universal; the above follows as any SQ universal group has subgroups of all
countable ranks.
5. Any group that acts on a tree, freely and preserving the orientation, is a free group of countable rank (given by 1
plus the Euler characteristic of the quotient graph).
6. The Cayley graph of a free group of finite rank, with respect to a free generating set, is a tree on which the group
acts freely, preserving the orientation.
7. The groupoid approach to these results, given in the work by P.J. Higgins below, is kind of extracted from an
approach using covering spaces. It allows more powerful results, for example on Grushko's theorem, and a normal
form for the fundamental groupoid of a graph of groups. In this approach there is considerable use of free
groupoids on a directed graph.
8. Grushko's theorem has the consequence that if a subset B of a free group F on n elements generates F and has n
elements, then B generates F freely.
Tarski's problems
Around 1945, Alfred Tarski asked whether the free groups on two or more generators have the same first order
theory, and whether this theory is decidable. Sela (2006) answered the first question by showing that any two
nonabelian free groups have the same first order theory, and Kharlampovich & Myasnikov (2006) answered both
questions, showing that this theory is decidable.
A similar unsolved (in 2008) question in free probability theory asks whether the von Neumann group algebras of
any two non-abelian finitely generated free groups are isomorphic.
Notes
[1] von Dyck, Walther (1882). "Gruppentheoretische Studien" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ t8lx644qm87p3731). Mathematische
Annalen 20 (1): 1–44. doi:10.1007/BF01443322. .
[2] Nielsen, Jakob (1917). "Die Isomorphismen der allgemeinen unendlichen Gruppe mit zwei Erzeugenden" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/
content/ xp12702q30q40381). Mathematische Annalen 78 (1): 385–397. doi:10.1007/BF01457113. MR1511907, JFM 46.0175.01. .
[3] Nielsen, Jakob (1921). "On calculation with noncommutative factors and its application to group theory. (Translated from Danish)". The
Mathematical Scientist 6 (1981) (2): 73–85.
[4] Nielsen, Jakob (1924). "Die Isomorphismengruppe der freien Gruppen" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ l898u32j37u10671).
Mathematische Annalen 91 (3): 169–209. doi:10.1007/BF01556078. .
[5] See Magnus, Wilhelm; Moufang, Ruth (1954). "Max Dehn zum Gedächtnis" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ l657774u3w864mp3).
Mathematische Annalen 127 (1): 215–227. doi:10.1007/BF01361121. ..
[6] Schreier, Otto (1928). "Die Untergruppen der freien Gruppen". Abhandlungen aus dem Mathematischen Seminar der Universität Hamburg 5:
161–183. doi:10.1007/BF02952517.
[7] Reidemeister, Kurt (1972 (1932 original)). Einführung in die kombinatorische Topologie. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
Free subgroup 88
References
• Kharlampovich, Olga; Myasnikov, Alexei (2006). "Elementary theory of free non-abelian groups". J. Algebra 302
(2): 451–552. doi:10.1016/j.jalgebra.2006.03.033. MR2293770
• W. Magnus, A. Karrass and D. Solitar, "Combinatorial Group Theory", Dover (1976).
• P.J. Higgins, 1971, "Categories and Groupoids", van Nostrand, {New York}. Reprints in Theory and Applications
of Categories, 7 (2005) pp 1–195.
• Sela, Z. (2006). "Diophantine geometry over groups. VI. The elementary theory of a free group.". Geom. Funct.
Anal. 16 (3): 707–730. MR2238945
• J.-P. Serre, Trees, Springer (2003) (English translation of "arbres, amalgames, SL2", 3rd edition, astérisque 46
(1983))
• P.J. Higgins, "The fundamental groupoid of a graph of groups", J. London Math. Soc. (2) {13}, (1976) 145–149.
• Aluffi, Paolo (2009). Algebra: Chapter 0 (http://books.google.com/books?id=deWkZWYbyHQC&pg=PA70).
AMS Bookstore. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-821-84781-7.
• Grillet, Pierre (2007). Abstract algebra (http://books.google.com/books?id=LJtyhu8-xYwC&pg=PA27).
Springer. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-387-71567-4.
Tits group
The Tits group 2F4(2)′ is a finite simple group of order 17971200 = 211 · 33 · 52 · 13 found by Jacques Tits (1964).
The Ree groups 2F4(22n+1) were constructed by Ree (1961), who showed that they are simple if n≥1. The first
member of this series 2F4(2) is not simple. It was studied by Jacques Tits (1964) who showed that its derived
subgroup 2F4(2)′ of index 2 was a new simple group. The group 2F4(2) is a group of Lie type and has a BN pair, but
the Tits group does not, so is strictly speaking not a group of Lie type, though it is usually classed with the groups of
Lie type in lists of simple groups as it is so close to one.
Properties
The Schur multiplier of the Tits group is trivial and its outer automorphism group has order 2, with the full
automorphism group being the group 2F4(2).
The group 2F4(2) occurs as a maximal subgroup of the Rudvalis group, as the point stabilizer of the rank 3
permuation action on 4060 = 1+1755+2304 points.
Wilson (1984) and Tchakerian (1986) independently found the 8 classes of maximal subgroup of the Tits group.
The Tits group is one of the simple N-groups, and was overlooked in John Thompson's first announcement of the
classification of simple N-groups, as it had not been discovered at the time. It is also one of the thin finite groups.
The Tits group was characterized in various ways by Parrott (1972, 1973) and Stroth (1980).
Tits group 89
Presentation
The Tits group can be defined in terms of generators and relations by
where [a,b] is the commutator. It has an outer automorphism obtained by sending (a,b) to
(a,bbabababababbababababa).
References
• Parrott, David (1972), "A characterization of the Tits' simple group" [1], Canadian Journal of Mathematics 24:
672–685, MR0325757, ISSN 0008-414X
• Parrott, David (1973), "A characterization of the Ree groups 2F4(q)", Journal of Algebra 27: 341–357,
doi:10.1016/0021-8693(73)90109-9, MR0347965, ISSN 0021-8693
• Ree, Rimhak (1961), "A family of simple groups associated with the simple Lie algebra of type (F4)" [2], Bulletin
of the American Mathematical Society 67: 115–116, doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1961-10527-2, MR0125155,
ISSN 0002-9904
• Stroth, Gernot (1980), "A general characterization of the Tits simple group" [3], Journal of Algebra 64 (1):
140–147, doi:10.1016/0021-8693(80)90138-6, MR575787, ISSN 0021-8693
• Tchakerian, Kerope B. (1986), "The maximal subgroups of the Tits simple group", Pliska Studia Mathematica
Bulgarica 8: 85–93, MR866648, ISSN 0204-9805
• Tits, Jacques (1964), "Algebraic and abstract simple groups" [4], Annals of Mathematics. Second Series 80:
313–329, MR0164968, ISSN 0003-486X
• Wilson, Robert A. (1984), "The geometry and maximal subgroups of the simple groups of A. Rudvalis and J.
Tits" [5], Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. Third Series 48 (3): 533–563,
doi:10.1112/plms/s3-48.3.533, MR735227, ISSN 0024-6115
External links
• ATLAS of Group Representations — The Tits Group [6]
References
[1] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TY5tZCQcK1IC& pg=PA672
[2] http:/ / www. ams. org/ journals/ bull/ 1961-67-01/ S0002-9904-1961-10527-2/ home. html
[3] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0021-8693(80)90138-6
[4] http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1970394
[5] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1112/ plms/ s3-48. 3. 533
[6] http:/ / brauer. maths. qmul. ac. uk/ Atlas/ v3/ exc/ TF42/
Tits–Koecher construction 90
Tits–Koecher construction
In algebra, the Kantor–Koecher–Tits construction is a method of constructing a Lie algebra from a Jordan algebra,
introduced by Jacques Tits (1962), Kantor (1964), and Koecher (1967).
If J is a Jordan algebra, the Kantor–Koecher–Tits construction puts a Lie algebra structure on J + J + J + Inner(J),
the sum of 3 copies of J and the Lie algebra of inner derivations of J.
When applies to a 27-dimensional exceptional Jordan algebra it gives a Lie algebra of type E7 of dimension 133.
The Kantor–Koecher–Tits construction was used by Kac (1977) to classify the finite dimensional simple Jordan
superalgebras.
References
• Jacobson, Nathan (1968), Structure and representations of Jordan algebras, American Mathematical Society
Colloquium Publications, Vol. XXXIX, Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, MR0251099
• Kac, Victor G (1977), "Classification of simple Z-graded Lie superalgebras and simple Jordan superalgebras",
Communications in Algebra 5 (13): 1375–1400, doi:10.1080/00927877708822224, MR0498755,
ISSN 0092-7872
• Kantor, I. L. (1964), "Classification of irreducible transitive differential groups", Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR
158: 1271–1274, MR0175941, ISSN 0002-3264
• Koecher, Max (1967), "Imbedding of Jordan algebras into Lie algebras. I" [1], American Journal of Mathematics
89: 787–816, MR0214631, ISSN 0002-9327
• Tits, Jacques (1962), "Une classe d'algèbres de Lie en relation avec les algèbres de Jordan", Nederl. Akad.
Wetensch. Proc. Ser. A 65 = Indagationes Mathematicae 24: 530–535, MR0146231
References
[1] http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 2373242
Primitive group 91
Primitive group
In mathematics, a permutation group G acting on a set X is called primitive if G acts transitively on X and G
preserves no nontrivial partition of X. In the other case, G is imprimitive. An imprimitive permutation group is an
example of an induced representation; examples include coset representations G/H in cases where H is not a
maximal subgroup. When H is maximal, the coset representation is primitive.
If the set X is finite, its cardinality is called the "degree" of G. The numbers of primitive groups of small degree were
stated by Robert Carmichael in 1937:
Degree 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Number 1 2 2 5 4 7 7 11 9 8 6 9 4 6 22 10 4 8 4
Note the large number of primitive groups of degree 16. As Carmichael notes, all of these groups, except for the
symmetric and alternating group, are subgroups of the affine group on the 4-dimensional space over the 2-element
finite field.
The number of primitive permutation groups of degree n, for n = 0, 1, … , is recorded as sequence A000019 [1] in the
On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences.
While primitive permutation groups are transitive by definition, not all transitive permutation groups are primitive.
Examples
• Consider the symmetric group acting on the set and the permutation
The group generated by is not primitive, since the partition where and
is preserved under , i.e. and .
See also
• Block (permutation group theory)
References
• Roney-Dougal, Colva M. The primitive permutation groups of degree less than 2500, Journal of Algebra 292
(2005), no. 1, 154–183.
• The GAP [2] Data Library "Primitive Permutation Groups" [3].
• Carmichael, Robert D., Introduction to the Theory of Groups of Finite Order. Ginn, Boston, 1937. Reprinted by
Dover Publications, New York, 1956.
• Rowland, Todd; Primitive Group Action. MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource, created by Eric W. Weisstein.
[4]
Primitive group 92
References
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Oeis%3Aa000019
[2] http:/ / www. gap-system. org
[3] http:/ / www. gap-system. org/ Datalib/ prim. html
[4] http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ PrimitiveGroupAction. html
Historical background
Geometric group theory grew out of combinatorial group theory that largely studied properties of discrete groups
via analyzing group presentations, that describe groups as quotients of free groups; this field was first systematically
studied by Walther von Dyck, student of Felix Klein, in the early 1880s,[2] while an early form is found in the 1856
Icosian Calculus of William Rowan Hamilton, where he studied the icosahedral symmetry group via the edge graph
of the dodecahedron. Currently combinatorial group theory as an area is largely subsumed by geometric group
theory. Moreover, the term "geometric group theory" came to often include studying discrete groups using
probabilistic, measure-theoretic, arithmetic, analytic and other approaches that lie outside of the traditional
combinatorial group theory arsenal.
In the first half of the 20th century, pioneering work of Dehn, Nielsen, Reidemeister and Schreier, Whitehead, van
Kampen, amongst others, introduced some topological and geometric ideas into the study of discrete groups.[3] Other
precursors of geometric group theory include small cancellation theory and Bass–Serre theory. Small cancellation
theory was introduced by Martin Grindlinger in 1960s[4] [5] and further developed by Roger Lyndon and Paul
Schupp.[6] It studies van Kampen diagrams, corresponding to finite group presentations, via combinatorial curvature
conditions and derives algebraic and algorithmic properties of groups from such analysis. Bass–Serre theory,
introduced in the 1977 book of Serre,[7] derives structural algebraic information about groups by studying group
actions on simplicial trees. External precursors of geometric group theory include the study of lattices in Lie Groups,
especially Mostow rigidity theorem, the study of Kleinian groups, and the progress achieved in low-dimensional
topology and hyperbolic geometry in 1970s and early 1980s, spurred, in particular, by Thurston's Geometrization
Geometric group theory 93
program.
The emergence of geometric group theory as a distinct area of mathematics is usually traced to late 1980s and early
1990s. It was spurred by the 1987 monograph of Gromov "Hyperbolic groups"[8] that introduced the notion of a
hyperbolic group (also known as word-hyperbolic or Gromov-hyperbolic or negatively curved group), which
captures the idea of a finitely generated group having large-scale negative curvature, and by his subsequent
monograph Asymptotic Invariants of Inifinite Groups,[9] that outlined Gromov's program of understanding discrete
groups up to quasi-isometry. The work of Gromov had a transformative effect on the study of discrete groups[10] [11]
[12]
and the phrase "geometric group theory" started appearing soon afterwards. (see, e.g.,[13] ).
• Connections with geometric analysis, the study of -algebras associated with discrete groups and of the theory
of free probability. This theme is represented, in particular, by considerable progress on the Novikov conjecture
and the Baum-Connes conjecture and the development and study of related group-theoretic notions such as
topological amenability, asymptotic dimension, uniform embeddability into Hilbert spaces, rapid decay property,
and so on (see, for example,[34] [35] [36] ).
• Interactions with the theory of quasiconformal analysis on metric spaces, particularly in relation to Cannon's
Conjecture about characterization of hyperbolic groups with boundary homeomorphic to the 2-sphere.[37] [38] [39]
• Interactions with topological dynamics in the contexts of studying actions of discrete groups on various compact
spaces and group compactifications, particularly convergence group methods[40] [41]
• Development of the theory of group actions on -trees (particularly the Rips machine), and its applications.[42]
• The study of group actions on CAT(0) spaces and CAT(0) cubical complexes,[43] motivated by ideas from
Alexandrov geometry.
• Interactions with low-dimensional topology and hyperbolic geometry, particularly the study of 3-manifold groups
(see, e.g.,[44] ), mapping class groups of surfaces, braid groups and Kleinian groups.
• Introduction of probabilistic methods to study algebraic properties of "random" group theoretic objects (groups,
group elements, subgroups, etc.). A particularly important development here is the work of Gromov who used
probabilistic methods to prove[45] the existence of a finitely generated group that is not uniformly embeddable
into a Hilbert space. Other notable developments include introduction and study of the notion of generic-case
complexity[46] for group-theoretic and other mathematical algorithms and algebraic rigidity results for generic
groups.[47]
• The study of automata groups and iterated monodromy groups as groups of automorphisms of infinite rooted
trees. In particular, Grigorchuk's groups of intermediate growth, and their generalizations, appear in this
context.[48] [49]
• The study of measure-theoretic properties of group actions on measure spaces, particularly introduction and
development of the notions of measure equivalence and orbit equivalence, as well as measure-theoretic
generalizations of Mostow rigidity.[50] [51]
• The study of unitary representations of discrete groups and Kazhdan's property (T)[52]
• The study of Out(Fn) (the outer automorphism group of a free group of rank n) and of individual automorphisms
of free groups. Introduction and the study of Culler-Vogtmann's outer space[53] and of the theory of train
tracks[54] for free group automorphisms played a particularly prominent role here.
• Development of Bass–Serre theory, particularly various accessibility results[55] [56] [57] and the theory of tree
lattices.[58] Generalizations of Bass–Serre theory such as the theory of complexes of groups.[59]
• The study of random walks on groups and related boundary theory, particularly the notion of Poisson boundary
(see, e.g.,[60] ). The study of amenability and of groups whose amenability status is still unknown.
• Interactions with finite group theory, particularly progress in the study of subgroup growth.[61]
• Studying subgroups and lattices in linear groups, such as , and of other Lie Groups, via geometric
methods (e.g. buildings), algebro-geometric tools (e.g. algebraic groups and representation varieties), analytic
methods (e.g. unitary representations on Hilbert spaces) and arithmetic methods.
• Group cohomology, using algebraic and topological methods, particularly involving interaction with algebraic
topology and the use of morse-theoretic ideas in the combinatorial context; large-scale, or coarse (e.g. see [62] )
homological and cohomological methods.
• Progress on traditional combinatorial group theory topics, such as the Burnside problem,[63] [64] the study of
Coxeter groups and Artin groups, and so on (the methods used to study these questions currently are often
geometric and topological).
Geometric group theory 95
Examples
The following examples are often studied in geometric group theory:
• Amenable groups
• Free Burnside groups
• The infinite cyclic group Z
• Free groups
• Free products
• Outer automorphism groups Out(Fn) (via Outer space)
• Hyperbolic groups
• Mapping class groups (automorphisms of surfaces)
• Symmetric groups
• Braid groups
• Coxeter groups
• General Artin groups
• Thompson's group F
• CAT(0) groups
• Arithmetic groups
• Automatic groups
• Kleinian groups, and other lattices acting on symmetric spaces.
• Wallpaper groups
• Baumslag-Solitar groups
• Fundamental groups of graphs of groups
• Grigorchuk group
References
[1] P. de la Harpe, Topics in geometric group theory. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=60fTzwfqeQIC& pg=PP1& dq=de+ la+ Harpe,+
Topics+ in+ geometric+ group+ theory) Chicago Lectures in Mathematics. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 2000. ISBN
0-226-31719-6; 0-226-31721-8.
[2] Stillwell, John (2002), Mathematics and its history, Springer, p. 374 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WNjRrqTm62QC& pg=PA374),
ISBN 978-0-38795336-6
[3] Bruce Chandler and Wilhelm Magnus. The history of combinatorial group theory. A case study in the history of ideas. Studies in the History
of Mathematics and Physical Sciences, vo. 9. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1982.
[4] M. Greendlinger, Dehn's algorithm for the word problem. (http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ journal/ 113397463/
abstract?CRETRY=1& SRETRY=0) Communications in Pure and Applied Mathematics, vol. 13 (1960), pp. 67-83.
[5] M. Greendlinger, An analogue of a theorem of Magnus. Archiv der Mathematik, vol. 12 (1961), pp. 94-96.
[6] R. Lyndon and P. Schupp, Combinatorial Group Theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aiPVBygHi_oC& printsec=frontcover&
dq=lyndon+ and+ schupp), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1977. Reprinted in the "Classics in mathematics" series, 2000.
[7] J.-P. Serre, Trees. Translated from the 1977 French original by John Stillwell. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-New York, 1980. ISBN
3-540-10103-9.
[8] M. Gromov, Hyperbolic Groups, in "Essays in Group Theory" (G. M. Gersten, ed.), MSRI Publ. 8, 1987, pp. 75-263.
[9] M. Gromov, "Asymptotic invariants of infinite groups", in "Geometric Group Theory", Vol. 2 (Sussex, 1991), London Mathematical Society
Lecture Note Series, 182, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993, pp. 1-295.
[10] I. Kapovich and N. Benakli. Boundaries of hyperbolic groups. Combinatorial and geometric group theory (New York, 2000/Hoboken, NJ,
2001), pp. 39-93, Contemp. Math., 296, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, RI, 2002. From the Introduction:" In the last fifteen years geometric
group theory has enjoyed fast growth and rapidly increasing influence. Much of this progress has been spurred by remarkable work of M. L.
Gromov [in Essays in group theory, 75--263, Springer, New York, 1987; in Geometric group theory, Vol. 2 (Sussex, 1991), 1--295,
Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1993], who has advanced the theory of word-hyperbolic groups (also referred to as Gromov-hyperbolic or
negatively curved groups)."
[11] B. H. Bowditch, Hyperbolic 3-manifolds and the geometry of the curve complex. European Congress of Mathematics, pp. 103-115, Eur.
Math. Soc., Zürich, 2005. From the Introduction:" Much of this can be viewed in the context of geometric group theory. This subject has seen
very rapid growth over the last twenty years or so, though of course, its antecedents can be traced back much earlier. [...] The work of Gromov
Geometric group theory 96
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pioneering work on the geometry of discrete metric spaces and his quasi-isometry program became the locomotive of geometric group theory
from the early eighties."
[13] Geometric group theory. Vol. 1. Proceedings of the symposium held at Sussex University, Sussex, July 1991. Edited by Graham A. Niblo
and Martin A. Roller. London Mathematical Society Lecture Note Series, 181. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993. ISBN
0-521-43529-3.
[14] M. Gromov, Asymptotic invariants of infinite groups, in "Geometric Group Theory", Vol. 2 (Sussex, 1991), London Mathematical Society
Lecture Note Series, 182, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993, pp. 1-295.
[15] I. Kapovich and N. Benakli. Boundaries of hyperbolic groups. Combinatorial and geometric group theory (New York, 2000/Hoboken, NJ,
2001), pp. 39-93, Contemp. Math., 296, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, RI, 2002.
[16] T. R. Riley, Higher connectedness of asymptotic cones. (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL&
_udi=B6V1J-48173YV-2& _user=10& _rdoc=1& _fmt=& _orig=search& _sort=d& view=c& _acct=C000050221& _version=1&
_urlVersion=0& _userid=10& md5=836106f8cf958990dfd27ab111c1286a) Topology, vol. 42 (2003), no. 6, pp. 1289-1352.
[17] L. Kramer, S. Shelah, K. Tent and S. Thomas. Asymptotic cones of finitely presented groups. (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6W9F-4CSG3HS-1& _user=10& _rdoc=1& _fmt=& _orig=search& _sort=d& view=c&
_acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=10& md5=6ba86760e3a9331e0b330a291a0cf444) Advances in Mathematics,
vol. 193 (2005), no. 1, pp. 142-173.
[18] R. E. Richard. The quasi-isometry classification of rank one lattices. Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques. Publications Mathématiques.
No. 82 (1995), pp. 133-168.
[19] B. Farb and L. Mosher. A rigidity theorem for the solvable Baumslag-Solitar groups. With an appendix by Daryl Cooper. Inventiones
Mathematicae, vol. 131 (1998), no. 2, pp. 419-451.
[20] Z. Sela, The isomorphism problem for hyperbolic groups. I. (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 2118520) Annals of Mathematics (2), vol. 141
(1995), no. 2, pp. 217-283.
[21] B. Farb. Relatively hyperbolic groups. Geometric and Functional Analysis, vol. 8 (1998), no. 5, pp. 810-840.
[22] B. H. Bowditch. Treelike structures arising from continua and convergence groups. Memoirs American Mathematical Society vol. 139
(1999), no. 662.
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Congress of Mathematicians, Vol. II (Beijing, 2002), pp. 87-92, Higher Ed. Press, Beijing, 2002.
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(1999), no. 4, pp. 1103-1118.
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[31] P. Scott and G. A. Swarup. Regular neighbourhoods and canonical decompositions for groups. Electronic Research Announcements of the
American Mathematical Society, vol. 8 (2002), pp. 20-28.
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Principles of Mathematical Sciences], vol. 319. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1999.
[44] M. Kapovich, Hyperbolic manifolds and discrete groups. Progress in Mathematics, 183. Birkhäuser Boston, Inc., Boston, MA, 2001.
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91-119.
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176. Birkhäuser Boston, Inc., Boston, MA, 2001. ISBN 0-8176-4120-3.
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Principles of Mathematical Sciences], vol. 319. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1999. ISBN 3-540-64324-9.
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659-692.
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[62] M. Bestvina, M. Kapovich and B. Kleiner. Van Kampen's embedding obstruction for discrete groups. Inventiones Mathematicae, vol. 150
(2002), no. 2, pp. 219-235.
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1-2.
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(1996), no. 3, pp. 3-224; translation in Izvestiya. Mathematics vol. 60 (1996), no. 3, pp. 453-654.
• M. Gromov, Asymptotic invariants of infinite groups, in "Geometric Group Theory", Vol. 2 (Sussex, 1991),
London Mathematical Society Lecture Note Series, 182, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993,
pp. 1–295
• M. Kapovich, Hyperbolic manifolds and discrete groups. Progress in Mathematics, 183. Birkhäuser Boston, Inc.,
Boston, MA, 2001
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"Classics in mathematics" series, 2000. ISBN 3-540-41158-5
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A. Bakhturin. Mathematics and its Applications (Soviet Series), 70. Kluwer Academic Publishers Group,
Dordrecht, 1991
• J. Roe, Lectures on coarse geometry. University Lecture Series, 31. American Mathematical Society, Providence,
RI, 2003. ISBN 0-8218-3332-4
External links
• John McCammond's Geometric Group Theory Page (http://www.math.ucsb.edu/~mccammon/
geogrouptheory/)
• What is Geometric Group Theory? By Daniel Wise (http://www.math.mcgill.ca/wise/ggt/cayley.html)
• Open Problems in combinatorial and geometric group theory (http://zebra.sci.ccny.cuny.edu/web/nygtc/
problems/)
• Geometric group theory Theme on arxiv.org (http://xstructure.inr.ac.ru/x-bin/theme3.py?level=1&
index1=-98867)
Hyperbolic group
In group theory, a hyperbolic group, also known as a word hyperbolic group, Gromov hyperbolic group, negatively
curved group is a finitely generated group equipped with a word metric satisfying certain properties characteristic of
hyperbolic geometry. The notion of a hyperbolic group was introduced and developed by Mikhail Gromov in the
early 1980s. He noticed that many results of Max Dehn concerning the fundamental group of a hyperbolic Riemann
surface do not rely either on it having dimension two or even on being a manifold and hold in much more general
context. In a very influential paper from 1987, Gromov proposed a wide-ranging research program. Ideas and
foundational material in the theory of hyperbolic groups also stem from the work of George Mostow, William
Thurston, James W. Cannon, Eliyahu Rips, and many others.
Definitions
Hyperbolic groups can be defined in several different ways. All definitions use the Cayley graph of the group and
involve a choice of a positive constant and first define a -hyperbolic group. A group is called hyperbolic if it is
-hyperbolic for some . When translating between different definitions of hyperbolicity, the particular value of
may change, but the resulting notions of a hyperbolic group turn out to be equivalent.
Let G be a finitely generated group, and T be its Cayley graph with respect to some finite set S of generators. By
identifying each edge isometrically with the unit interval in R, the Cayley graph becomes a metric space. The group
G acts on T by isometries and this action is simply transitive on the vertices. A path in T of minimal length that
connects points x and y is called a geodesic segment and is denoted [x,y]. A geodesic triangle in T consists of three
points x, y, z, its vertices, and three geodesic segments [x,y], [y,z], [z,x], its sides.
The first approach to hyperbolicity is based on the slim triangles condition and is generally credited to Rips. Let
be fixed. A geodesic triangle is -slim if each side is contained in a -neighborhood of the other two
sides:
The Cayley graph T is -hyperbolic if all geodesic triangles are -slim, and in this case G is a -hyperbolic
group. Although a different choice of a finite generating set will lead to a different Cayley graph and hence to a
different condition for G to be -hyperbolic, it is known that the notion of hyperbolicity, for some value of is
actually independent of the generating set. In the language of metric geometry, it is invariant under quasi-isometries.
Therefore, the property of being a hyperbolic group depends only on the group itself.
Remark
By imposing the slim triangles condition on geodesic metric spaces in general, one arrives at the more general notion
of -hyperbolic space. Hyperbolic groups can be characterized as groups G which admit an isometric properly
discontinuous action on a proper geodesic Δ-hyperbolic space X such that the factor-space X/G has finite diameter.
Homological characterization
In 2002, I. Mineyev showed that hyperbolic groups are exactly those finitely generated groups for which the
comparison map between the bounded cohomology and ordinary cohomology is surjective in all degrees, or
equivalently, in degree 2.
Hyperbolic group 100
Properties
Hyperbolic groups have a soluble word problem. They are biautomatic and automatic.[2] : indeed, they are strongly
geodesically automatic, that is, there is an automatic structure on the group, where the language accepted by the
word acceptor is the set of all geodesic words.
In a 2010 paper[3] , it was shown that hyperbolic groups have a decidable marked isomorphism problem. It is notable
that this means that the isomorphism problem, orbit problems (in particular the conjugacy problem) and Whitehead's
problem are all decidable.
Generalizations
An important generalization of hyperbolic groups in geometric group theory is the notion of a relatively hyperbolic
group. Motivating examples for this generalization are given by the fundamental groups of non-compact hyperbolic
manifolds of finite volume, in particular, the fundamental groups of hyperbolic knots, which are not hyperbolic in
the sense of Gromov.
A group G is relatively hyperbolic with respect to a subgroup H if, after contracting the Cayley graph of G along
H-cosets, the resulting graph equipped with the usual graph metric is a δ-hyperbolic space and, moreover, it satisfies
an additional technical condition which implies that quasi-geodesics with common endpoints travel through
approximately the same collection of cosets and enter and exit these cosets in approximately the same place.
Notes
[1] Ghys and de la Harpe, Ch. 8, Th. 37; Bridson and Haefliger, Chapter 3.Γ, Corollary 3.10.
[2] Charney, Ruth (1992), "Artin groups of finite type are biautomatic", Mathematische Annalen 292: 671–683, doi:10.1007/BF01444642
[3] Dahmani, F.; Guirardel, V. - On the Isomorphism Problem in all Hyperbolic Groups, arXiV: 1002.2590 (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 1002. 2590)
References
• Mikhail Gromov, Hyperbolic groups. Essays in group theory, 75--263, Math. Sci. Res. Inst. Publ., 8, Springer,
New York, 1987.
• Bridson, Martin R.; Haefliger, André (1999). Metric spaces of non-positive curvature. Grundlehren der
Mathematischen Wissenschaften 319. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. xxii+643. ISBN 3-540-64324-9. MR1744486
• Igor Mineyev, Bounded cohomology characterizes hyperbolic groups., Quart. J. Math. Oxford Ser., 53(2002),
59-73.
Further reading
• É. Ghys and P. de la Harpe (editors), Sur les groupes hyperboliques d'après Mikhael Gromov. Progress in
Mathematics, 83. Birkhäuser Boston, Inc., Boston, MA, 1990. xii+285 pp. ISBN 0-8176-3508-4
• Michel Coornaert, Thomas Delzant, Athanase Papadopoulos, "Géométrie et théorie des groupes : les groupes
hyperboliques de Gromov", Lecture Notes in Mathematics, vol. 1441, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1990, MR
92f:57003, ISBN 3-540-52977-2
Automatic group 101
Automatic group
In mathematics, an automatic group is a finitely generated group equipped with several finite-state automata. These
automata can tell if a given word representation of a group element is in a "canonical form" and can tell if two
elements given in canonical words differ by a generator.
More precisely, let G be a group and A be a finite set of generators. Then an automatic structure of G with respect to
A is a set of finite-state automata:
• the word-acceptor, which accepts for every element of G at least one word in A representing it
• multipliers, one for each , which accept a pair (w1, w2), for words wi accepted by the
word-acceptor, precisely when in G.
The property of being automatic does not depend on the set of generators.
The concept of automatic groups generalizes naturally to automatic semigroups.
Properties
• Automatic groups have word problem solvable in quadratic time. A given word can actually be put into canonical
form in quadratic time.
Biautomatic groups
A group is biautomatic if it has two multipler automata, for left and right multiplication by elements of the
generating set respectively. A biautomatic group is clearly automatic.[2]
Examples include:
• A hyperbolic group.[3]
• An Artin group of finite type.[3]
Automatic group 102
References
[1] Brink and Howlett (1993), "A finiteness property and an automatic structure for Coxeter groups", Mathematische Annalen (Springer Berlin /
Heidelberg), ISSN 0025-5831.
[2] Birget, Jean-Camille (2000), Algorithmic problems in groups and semigroups, Trends in mathematics, Birkhäuser, p. 82, ISBN 0817641300
[3] Charney, Ruth (1992), "Artin groups of finite type are biautomatic", Mathematische Annalen 292: 671–683, doi:10.1007/BF01444642
• Epstein, David B. A.; Cannon, James W.; Holt, Derek F.; Levy, Silvio V. F.; Paterson, Michael S.; Thurston,
William P. (1992), Word Processing in Groups, Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0-86720-244-0.
• Chiswell, Ian (2008), A Course in Formal Languages, Automata and Groups, Springer,
ISBN 978-1-84800-939-4.
Discrete group 103
Discrete group
Concepts in group theory
category of groups
Types of groups
discrete, continuous
multiplicative, additive
nilpotent, solvable
In mathematics, a discrete group is a group G equipped with the discrete topology. With this topology G becomes a
topological group. A discrete subgroup of a topological group G is a subgroup H whose relative topology is the
discrete one. For example, the integers, Z, form a discrete subgroup of the reals, R (with the standard metric
topology), but the rational numbers, Q, do not.
Any group can be given the discrete topology. Since every map from a discrete space is continuous, the topological
homomorphisms between discrete groups are exactly the group homomorphisms between the underlying groups.
Hence, there is an isomorphism between the category of groups and the category of discrete groups. Discrete groups
can therefore be identified with their underlying (non-topological) groups. With this in mind, the term discrete
group theory is used to refer to the study of groups without topological structure, in contradistinction to topological
or Lie group theory. It is divided, logically but also technically, into finite group theory, and infinite group theory.
There are some occasions when a topological group or Lie group is usefully endowed with the discrete topology,
'against nature'. This happens for example in the theory of the Bohr compactification, and in group cohomology
theory of Lie groups.
Properties
Since topological groups are homogeneous, one need only look at a single point to determine if the topological group
is discrete. In particular, a topological group is discrete if and only if the singleton containing the identity is an open
set.
A discrete group is the same thing as a zero-dimensional Lie group (uncountable discrete groups are not
second-countable so authors who require Lie groups to satisfy this axiom do not regard these groups as Lie groups).
The identity component of a discrete group is just the trivial subgroup while the group of components is isomorphic
to the group itself.
Since the only Hausdorff topology on a finite set is the discrete one, a finite Hausdorff topological group must
necessarily be discrete. It follows that every finite subgroup of a Hausdorff group is discrete.
A discrete subgroup H of G is cocompact if there is a compact subset K of G such that HK = G.
Discrete group 104
Discrete normal subgroups play an important role in the theory of covering groups and locally isomorphic groups. A
discrete normal subgroup of a connected group G necessarily lies in the center of G and is therefore abelian.
Other properties:
• every discrete group is totally disconnected
• every subgroup of a discrete group is discrete.
• every quotient of a discrete group is discrete.
• the product of a finite number of discrete groups is discrete.
• a discrete group is compact if and only if it is finite.
• every discrete group is locally compact.
• every discrete subgroup of a Hausdorff group is closed.
• every discrete subgroup of a compact Hausdorff group is finite.
Examples
• Frieze groups and wallpaper groups are discrete subgroups of the isometry group of the Euclidean plane.
Wallpaper groups are cocompact, but Frieze groups are not.
• A space group is a discrete subgroup of the isometry group of Euclidean space of some dimension.
• A crystallographic group usually means a cocompact, discrete subgroup of the isometries of some Euclidean
space. Sometimes, however, a crystallographic group can be a cocompact discrete subgroup of a nilpotent or
solvable Lie group.
• Every triangle group T is a discrete subgroup of the isometry group of the sphere (when T is finite), the Euclidean
plane (when T has a Z + Z subgroup of finite index), or the hyperbolic plane.
• Fuchsian groups are, by definition, discrete subgroups of the isometry group of the hyperbolic plane.
• A Fuchsian group that preserves orientation and acts on the upper half-plane model of the hyperbolic plane is a
discrete subgroup of the Lie group PSL(2,R), the group of orientation preserving isometries of the upper
half-plane model of the hyperbolic plane.
• A Fuchsian group is sometimes considered as a special case of a Kleinian group, by embedding the hyperbolic
plane isometrically into three dimensional hyperbolic space and extending the group action on the plane to the
whole space.
• The modular group is PSL(2,Z), thought of as a discrete subgroup of PSL(2,R). The modular group is a lattice
in PSL(2,R), but it is not cocompact.
• Kleinian groups are, by definition, discrete subgroups of the isometry group of hyperbolic 3-space. These include
quasi-Fuchsian groups.
• A Kleinian group that preserves orientation and acts on the upper half space model of hyperbolic 3-space is a
discrete subgroup of the Lie group PSL(2,C), the group of orientation preserving isometries of the upper
half-space model of hyperbolic 3-space.
• A lattice in a Lie group is a discrete subgroup such that the Haar measure of the quotient space is finite.
Discrete group 105
References
• Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Discrete group of transformations" [1], Encyclopaedia of Mathematics,
Springer, ISBN 978-1556080104
• Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Discrete subgroup" [2], Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, Springer,
ISBN 978-1556080104
References
[1] http:/ / eom. springer. de/ d/ d033080. htm
[2] http:/ / eom. springer. de/ d/ d033150. htm
Todd–Coxeter algorithm
In group theory, the Todd–Coxeter algorithm, discovered by J.A. Todd and H.S.M. Coxeter in 1936, is an
algorithm for solving the coset enumeration problem. Given a presentation of a group G by generators and relations
and a subgroup H of G, the algorithm enumerates the cosets of H on G and describes the permutation representation
of G on the space of the cosets. If the order of a group G is relatively small and the subgroup H is known to be
uncomplicated (for example, a cyclic group), then the algorithm can be carried out by hand and gives a reasonable
description of the group G. Using their algorithm, Coxeter and Todd showed that certain systems of relations
between generators of known groups are complete, i.e. constitute systems of defining relations.
The Todd–Coxeter algorithm can be applied to infinite groups and is known to terminate in a finite number of steps,
provided that the index of H in G is finite. On the other hand, for a general pair consisting of a group presentation
and a subgroup, its running time is not bounded by any computable function of the index of the subgroup and the
size of the input data.
See also
• Coxeter group
References
• J.A. Todd, H.S.M. Coxeter, A practical method for enumerating cosets of a finite abstract group. Proc. Edinb.
Math. Soc., II. Ser. 5, 26-34 (1936). Zbl: 0015.10103, JFM 62.1094.02
• H.S.M. Coxeter, W.O.J. Moser, Generators and relations for discrete groups. Fourth edition. Ergebnisse der
Mathematik und ihrer Grenzgebiete [Results in Mathematics and Related Areas], 14. Springer-Verlag,
Berlin-New York, 1980. ix+169 pp. ISBN 3-540-09212-9 MR0562913
• Seress, A. "An Introduction to Computational Group Theory" Notices of the AMS, June/July 1997.
Frobenius group 107
Frobenius group
In mathematics, a Frobenius group is a transitive permutation group on a finite set, such that no non-trivial element
fixes more than one point and some non-trivial element fixes a point. They are named after F. G. Frobenius.
Structure
The subgroup H of a Frobenius group G fixing a point of the set X is called the Frobenius complement. The identity
element together with all elements not in any conjugate of H form a normal subgroup called the Frobenius kernel K.
(This is a theorem due to Frobenius.) The Frobenius group G is the semidirect product of K and H:
.
Both the Frobenius kernel and the Frobenius complement have very restricted structures. J. G. Thompson (1960)
proved that the Frobenius kernel K is a nilpotent group. If H has even order then K is abelian. The Frobenius
complement H has the property that every subgroup whose order is the product of 2 primes is cyclic; this implies that
its Sylow subgroups are cyclic or generalized quaternion groups. Any group such that all Sylow subgroups are cyclic
is called a Z-group, and in particular must be a metacyclic group: this means it is the extension of two cyclic groups.
If a Frobenius complement H is not solvable then Zassenhaus showed that it has a normal subgroup of index 1 or 2
that is the product of SL2(5) and a metacyclic group of order coprime to 30. In particular, if a Frobenius complement
coincides with its derived subgroup, then it is isomorphic with SL(2,5). If a Frobenius complement H is solvable
then it has a normal metacyclic subgroup such that the quotient is a subgroup of the symmetric group on 4 points. A
finite group is a Frobenius complement if and only if it has a faithful, finite-dimensional representation over a finite
field in which non-identity group elements correspond to linear transformations without nonzero fixed points.
The Frobenius kernel K is uniquely determined by G as it is the Fitting subgroup, and the Frobenius complement is
uniquely determined up to conjugacy by the Schur-Zassenhaus theorem. In particular a finite group G is a Frobenius
group in at most one way.
Examples
• The smallest example is the symmetric group on 3 points, with 6 elements. The
Frobenius kernel K has order 3, and the complement H has order 2.
• For every finite field Fq with q (> 2) elements, the group of invertible affine transformations ,
acting naturally on Fq is a Frobenius group. The preceding example corresponds to the case F3, the field
with three elements.
• Another example is provided by the subgroup of order 21 of the collineation group of the Fano plane generated by
a 3-fold symmetry σ fixing a point and a cyclic permutation τ of all 7 points, satisfying στ =τ²σ. Identifying F8*
with the Fano plane, σ can be taken to be the restriction of the Frobenius automorphism σ(x)=x² of F8 and τ to be
multiplication by any element not in the prime field F2 (i.e. a generator of the cyclic multiplicative group of F8).
This Frobenius group acts simply transitively on the 21 flags in the Fano plane, i.e. lines with marked points.
Frobenius group 108
• The dihedral group of order 2n with n odd is a Frobenius group with complement of order 2. More generally if K
is any abelian group of odd order and H has order 2 and acts on K by inversion, then the semidirect product K.H is
a Frobenius group.
• Many further examples can be generated by the following constructions. If we replace the Frobenius complement
of a Frobenius group by a non-trivial subgroup we get another Frobenius group. If we have two Frobenius groups
K1.H and K2.H then (K1 × K2).H is also a Frobenius group.
• If K is the non-abelian group of order 73 with exponent 7, and H is the cyclic group of order 3, then there is a
Frobenius group G that is an extension K.H of H by K. This gives an example of a Frobenius group with
non-abelian kernel. This was the first example of Frobenius group with nonabelian kernel (it was constructed by
Otto Schmidt).
• If H is the group SL2(F5) of order 120, it acts fixed point freely on a 2-dimensional vector space K over the field
with 11 elements. The extension K.H is the smallest example of a non-solvable Frobenius group.
• The subgroup of a Zassenhaus group fixing a point is a Frobenius group.
• Frobenius groups whose Fitting subgroup has arbitrarily large nilpotency class were constructed by Ito: Let q be a
prime power, d a positive integer, and p a prime divisor of q −1 with d ≤ p. Fix some field F of order q and some
element z of this field of order p. The Frobenius complement H is the cyclic subgroup generated by the diagonal
matrix whose i,i'th entry is zi. The Frobenius kernel K is the Sylow q-subgroup of GL(d,q) consisting of upper
triangular matrices with ones on the diagonal. The kernel K has nilpotency class d −1, and the semidirect product
KH is a Frobenius group.
Representation theory
The irreducible complex representations of a Frobenius group G can be read off from those of H and K. There are
two types of irreducible representations of G:
• Any irreducible representation R of H gives an irreducible representation of G using the quotient map from G to
H (that is, as a restricted representation). These give the irreducible representations of G with K in their kernel.
• If S is any non-trivial irreducible representation of K, then the corresponding induced representation of G is also
irreducible. These give the irreducible representations of G with K not in their kernel.
Alternative definitions
There are a number of group theoretical properties which are interesting on their own right, but which happen to be
equivalent to the group possessing a permutation representation that makes it a Frobenius group.
• G is a Frobenius group if and only if G has a proper, nonidentity subgroup H such that H ∩ Hg is the identity
subgroup for every g ∈ G − H.
This definition is then generalized to the study of trivial intersection sets which allowed the results on Frobenius
groups used in the classification of CA groups to be extended to the results on CN groups and finally the odd order
theorem.
Assuming that is the semidirect product of the normal subgroup K and complement H, then the
following restrictions on centralizers are equivalent to G being a Frobenius group with Frobenius complement H:
• The centralizer CG(k) is a subgroup of K for every nonidentity k in K.
• CH(k) = 1 for every nonidentity k in K.
• CG(h) ≤ H for every nonidentity h in H.
Frobenius group 109
References
• B. Huppert, Endliche Gruppen I, Springer 1967
• I. M. Isaacs, Character theory of finite groups, AMS Chelsea 1976
• D. S. Passman, Permutation groups, Benjamin 1968
• Thompson, John G. (1960), "Normal p-complements for finite groups", Mathematische Zeitschrift 72: 332–354,
doi:10.1007/BF01162958, MR0117289, ISSN 0025-5874
Zassenhaus group
In mathematics, a Zassenhaus group, named after Hans Julius Zassenhaus, is a certain sort of doubly transitive
permutation group very closely related to rank-1 groups of Lie type.
Definition
A Zassenhaus group is a permutation group G on a finite set X with the following three properties:
• G is doubly transitive.
• Non-trivial elements of G fix at most two points.
• G has no regular normal subgroup. ("Regular" means that non-trivial elements do not fix any points of X; compare
free action.)
The degree of a Zassenhaus group is the number of elements of X.
Some authors omit the third condition that G has no regular normal subgroup. This condition is put in to eliminate
some "degenerate" cases. The extra examples one gets by omitting it are either Frobenius groups or certain groups of
degree 2p and order 2p(2p − 1)p for a prime p, that are generated by all semilinear mappings and Galois
automorphisms of a field of order 2p.
Examples
We let q = pf be a power of a prime p, and write Fq for the finite field of order q. Suzuki proved that any Zassenhaus
group is of one of the following four types:
• The projective special linear group PSL2(Fq) for q > 3 odd, acting on the q + 1 points of the projective line. It has
order (q + 1)q(q − 1)/2.
• The projective general linear group PGL2(Fq) for q > 3. It has order (q + 1)q(q − 1).
• A certain group containing PSL2(Fq) with index 2, for q an odd square. It has order (q + 1)q(q − 1).
• The Suzuki group Suz(Fq) for q a power of 2 that is at least 8 and not a square. The order is (q2 + 1)q2(q − 1)
The degree of these groups is q + 1 in the first three cases, q2 + 1 in the last case.
Further reading
• Finite Groups III (Grundlehren Der Mathematischen Wissenschaften Series, Vol 243) by B. Huppert, N.
Blackburn, ISBN 0-387-10633-2
Regular ''p''-group 110
Regular p-group
In mathematical finite group theory, the concept of regular p-group captures some of the more important properties
of abelian p-groups, but is general enough to include most "small" p-groups. Regular p-groups were introduced by
Phillip Hall (1933).
Definition
A finite p-group G is said to be regular if any of the following equivalent (Hall 1959, Ch. 12.4), (Huppert 1967,
Kap. III §10) conditions are satisfied:
• For every a, b in G, there is a c in the derived subgroup H′ of the subgroup H of G generated by a and b, such that
ap · bp = (ab)p · cp.
• For every a, b in G, there are elements ci in the derived subgroup of the subgroup generated by a and b, such that
ap · bp = (ab)p · c1p ⋯ ckp.
• For every a, b in G and every positive integer n, there are elements ci in the derived subgroup of the subgroup
generated by a and b such that aq · bq = (ab)q · c1q ⋯ ckq, where q = pn.
Examples
Many familiar p-groups are regular:
• Every abelian p-group is regular.
• Every p-group of nilpotency class strictly less than p is regular.
• Every p-group of order at most pp is regular.
• Every finite group of exponent p is regular.
However, many familiar p-groups are not regular:
• Every nonabelian 2-group is irregular.
• The Sylow p-subgroup of the symmetric group on p2 points is irregular and of order pp+1.
Properties
A p-group is regular if and only if every subgroup generated by two elements is regular.
Every subgroup and quotient group of a regular group is regular, but the direct product of regular groups need not be
regular.
A 2-group is regular if and only if it is abelian. A 3-group with two generators is regular if and only if its derived
subgroup is cyclic. Every p-group of odd order with cyclic derived subgroup is regular.
The subgroup of a p-group G generated by the elements of order dividing pk is denoted Ωk(G) and regular groups are
well-behaved in that Ωk(G) is precisely the set of elements of order dividing pk. The subgroup generated by all pk-th
powers of elements in G is denoted ℧k(G). In a regular group, the index [G:℧k(G)] is equal to the order of Ωk(G). In
fact, commutators and powers interact in particularly simple ways (Huppert 1967, Kap III §10, Satz 10.8). For
example, given normal subgroups M and N of a regular p-group G and nonnegative integers m and n, one has
[℧m(M),℧n(N)] = ℧m+n([M,N]).
• Philip Hall's criteria of regularity of a p-group G: G is regular, if one of the following hold:
1. [G:℧1(G)] < pp
2. [G′:℧1(G′)| < pp−1
3. |Ω1(G)| < pp−1
Regular ''p''-group 111
Generalizations
• Powerful p-group
• power closed p-group
References
• Hall, Marshall (1959), The theory of groups, Macmillan, MR0103215
• Hall, Philip (1933), "A contribution to the theory of groups of prime-power order", Proceedings of the London
Mathematical Society, second series 36: 29–95, doi:10.1112/plms/s2-36.1.29
• Huppert, B. (1967) (in German), Endliche Gruppen, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 90–93, MR0224703,
ISBN 978-3-540-03825-2, OCLC 527050
Isoclinism of groups
In mathematics, specifically group theory, isoclinism is an equivalence relation on groups that is broader than
isomorphism, that is, any two groups that are isomorphic are isoclinic, but two isoclinic groups may not be
isomorphic. The concept of isoclinism was introduced by Hall (1940) to help classify and understand p-groups,
although applicable to all groups. Isoclinism remains an important part of the study of p-groups, and for instance §29
of Berkovich (2008) and §21.2 of Blackburn, Neumann & Venkataraman (2007) are devoted to it. Isoclinism also
has vital consequences for the Schur multiplier and the associated aspects of character theory, as described in Suzuki
(1982, p. 256) and Conway et al. (1985, Ch. 6.7).
Definition
According to Struik (1960), two groups G and G' are isoclinic if the following three conditions hold: (1) G mod Z is
isomorphic to G' mod Z', where Z is the center of G and Z' is the center of G', (2) the commutator subgroup of G is
isomorphic to the commutator subgroup of G', and (3) "the isomorphisms of (1) and (2) can be selected in such a
way that whenever aZ and bZ correspond respectively to a'Z' and b'Z' under 1), then (a, b) = a−1b−1ab corresponds to
(a',b') under 2)."
Examples
All Abelian groups are isoclinic since they are equal to their centers and their commutator subgroups are always the
identity subgroup. Indeed, a group is isoclinic to an abelian group if and only if it is itself abelian, and G is isoclinic
with G×A if and only if A is abelian. The dihedral, quasidihedral, and quaternion groups of order 2n are isoclinic for
n≥3, Berkovich (2008, p. 285).
Isoclinism divides p-groups into families, and the smallest members of each family are called stem groups. A group
is a stem group if and only if Z(G) ≤ [G,G], that is, if and only if every element of the center of the group is
contained in the derived subgroup (also called the commutator subgroup), Berkovich (2008, p. 287). Some
enumeration results on isoclinism families are given in Blackburn, Neumann & Venkataraman (2007, p. 226).
Another textbook treatment of isoclinism is given in Suzuki (1986, pp. 92–95), which describes in more detail the
isomorphisms induced by an isoclinism. Isoclinism is important in theory of projective representations of finite
groups, as all Schur covering groups of a group are isoclinic, a fact already hinted at by Hall according to Suzuki
(1982, p. 256). This is important in describing the character tables of the finite simple groups, and so is described in
some detail in Conway et al. (1985, Ch. 6.7).
Isoclinism of groups 112
References
• Berkovich, Yakov (2008), Groups of prime power order. Vol. 1, de Gruyter Expositions in Mathematics, 46,
Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin, doi:10.1515/9783110208221.285, MR2464640,
ISBN 978-3-11-020418-6
• Blackburn, Simon R.; Neumann, Peter M.; Venkataraman, Geetha (2007) (in English), Enumeration of finite
groups, Cambridge Tracts in Mathematics no 173 (1st ed.), Cambridge University Press,
ISBN 978-0-521-88217-0, OCLC 154682311
• Conway, John Horton; Curtis, R. T.; Norton, S. P.; Parker, R. A.; Wilson, R. A. (1985), Atlas of finite groups,
Oxford University Press, MR827219, ISBN 978-0-19-853199-9
• Hall, Philip (1940), "The classification of prime-power groups" [1], Journal für die reine und angewandte
Mathematik 182: 130–141, doi:10.1515/crll.1940.182.130, MR0003389, ISSN 0075-4102
• Struik, Ruth Rebekka (1960), "A note on prime-power groups" [2], Canadian Mathematical Bulletin 3: 27–30,
MR0148744, ISSN 0008-4395
• Suzuki, Michio (1982), Group theory. I, Grundlehren der Mathematischen Wissenschaften [Fundamental
Principles of Mathematical Sciences], 247, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, MR648772,
ISBN 978-3-540-10915-0
• Suzuki, Michio (1986), Group theory. II, Grundlehren der Mathematischen Wissenschaften [Fundamental
Principles of Mathematical Sciences], 248, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, MR815926,
ISBN 978-0-387-10916-9
References
[1] http:/ / resolver. sub. uni-goettingen. de/ purl?GDZPPN00217491X
[2] http:/ / math. ca/ cmb/ v3/ p27
Variety (universal algebra) 113
Birkhoff's theorem
Garrett Birkhoff proved equivalent the two definitions of variety given above, a result of fundamental importance to
universal algebra and known as Birkhoff's theorem or as the HSP theorem. H, S, and P stand, respectively, for the
closure operations of homomorphism, subalgebra, and product.
An equational class for some signature Σ is the collection of all models, in the sense of model theory, that satisfy
some set E of equations, asserting equality between terms. A model satisfies these equations if they are true in the
model for any valuation of the variables. The equations in E are then said to be identities of the model. Examples of
such identities are the commutative law, characterizing commutative algebras, and the absorption law, characterizing
lattices.
It is simple to see that the class of algebras satisfying some set of equations will be closed under the HSP operations.
Proving the converse —classes of algebras closed under the HSP operations must be equational— is much harder.
Examples
The class of all semigroups forms a variety of algebras of signature (2). A sufficient defining equation is the
associative law:
It satisfies the HSP closure requirement, since any homomorphic image, any subset closed under multiplication and
any direct product of semigroups is also a semigroup.
The class of groups forms a class of algebras of signature (2,1,0), the three operations being respectively
multiplication, inversion and identity. Any subset of a group closed under multiplication, under inversion and under
identity (i.e. containing the identity) forms a subgroup. Likewise, the collection of groups is closed under
homomorphic image and under direct product. Applying Birkhoff's theorem, this is sufficient to tell us that the
groups form a variety, and so it should be defined by a collection of identities. In fact, the familiar axioms of
associativity, inverse and identity form one suitable set of identities:
A subvariety is a subclass of a variety, closed under the operations H, S, P. Notice that although every group is a
semigroup, the class of groups does not form a subvariety of the variety of semigroups. This is because not every
subsemigroup of a group is a group.
Variety (universal algebra) 114
The class of abelian groups, considered again with signature (2,1,0), also has the HSP closure properties. It forms a
subvariety of the variety of groups, and can be defined equationally by the three group axioms above together with
the commutativity law:
Category theory
If A is a finitary algebraic category, then the forgetful functor
See also
• Quasivariety
Notes
[1] Saunders Mac Lane, Categories for the Working Mathematician, Springer. (See p. 152)
References
Two monographs available free online:
• Burris, Stanley N., and H.P. Sankappanavar, H. P., 1981. A Course in Universal Algebra. (http://www.thoralf.
uwaterloo.ca/htdocs/ualg.html) Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-90578-2.
• Jipsen, Peter, and Henry Rose, 1992. Varieties of Lattices (http://www1.chapman.edu/~jipsen/
JipsenRoseVoL.html), Lecture Notes in Mathematics 1533. Springer Verlag. ISBN 0-387-56314-8.
Reflection group 115
Reflection group
In group theory and geometry, a reflection group is a discrete group which is generated by a set of reflections of a
finite-dimensional Euclidean space. The symmetry group of a regular polytope or of a tiling of the Euclidean space
by congruent copies of a regular polytope is necessarily a reflection group. Reflection groups also include Weyl
groups and crystallographic Coxeter groups. While the orthogonal group is generated by reflections (by the
Cartan–Dieudonné theorem), it is a continuous group (indeed, Lie group), not a discrete group, and is generally
considered separately.
Definition
Let E be a finite-dimensional Euclidean space. A finite reflection group is a subgroup of the general linear group of
E which is generated by a set of orthogonal reflections across hyperplanes passing through the origin. An affine
reflection group is a discrete subgroup of the affine group of E that is generated by a set of affine reflections of E
(without the requirement that the reflection hyperplanes pass through the origin).
The corresponding notions can be defined over other fields, leading to complex reflection groups and analogues of
reflection groups over a finite field.
Examples
Plane
In two dimensions, the finite reflection groups are the dihedral groups, which are generated by reflection in two lines
that form an angle of and correspond to the Coxeter diagram Conversely, the cyclic point groups in
two dimensions are not generated by reflections, and indeed contain no reflections – they are however subgroups of
index 2 of a dihedral group.
Infinite reflection groups include the frieze groups and and the wallpaper groups pmm, p3m1, p4m,
and p6m. If the angle between two lines is an irrational multiple of pi, the group generated by reflections in these
lines is infinite and non-discrete, hence, it is not a reflection group.
Space
Finite reflection groups are the point groups Cnv, Dnh, and the symmetry groups of the five Platonic solids. Dual
regular polyhedra (cube and octahedron, as well as dodecahedron and icosahedron) give rise to isomorphic
symmetry groups. The classification of finite reflection groups of R3 is an instance of the ADE classification.
Kaleidoscopes
Reflection groups have deep relations with kaleidoscopes, as discussed in (Goodman 2004).
expressing the fact that the product of the reflections ri and rj in two hyperplanes Hi and Hj meeting at an angle
is a rotation by the angle fixing the subspace Hi ∩ Hj of codimension 2. Thus, viewed as an abstract
group, every reflection group is a Coxeter group.
Reflection group 116
Finite fields
When working over finite fields, one defines a "reflection" as a map that fixes a hyperplane (otherwise for example
there would be no reflections in characteristic 2, as so reflections are the identity). Geometrically, this
amounts to including shears in a hyperplane. Reflection groups over finite fields of characteristic not 2 were
classified in (Zalesskiĭ & Serežkin 1981).
Generalizations
Discrete isometry groups of more general Riemannian manifolds generated by reflections have also been considered.
The most important class arises from Riemannian symmetric spaces of rank 1: the n-sphere Sn, corresponding to
finite reflection groups, the Euclidean space Rn, corresponding to affine reflection groups, and the hyperbolic space
Hn, where the corresponding groups are called hyperbolic reflection groups. In two dimensions, triangle groups
include reflection groups of all three kinds.
See also
• Hyperplane arrangement
• Chevalley–Shephard–Todd theorem
References
Standard references include (Humphreys 1992) and (Grove & Benson 1996).
• Coxeter, H.S.M. (1934), "Discrete groups generated by reflections", Ann. of Math. 35: 588–621
• Coxeter, H.S.M. (1935), "The complete enumeration of finite groups of the form ", J.
London Math. Soc. 10: 21–25
• Goodman, Roe (April 2004), "The Mathematics of Mirrors and Kaleidoscopes" (http://www.math.rutgers.edu/
~goodman/pub/monthly.pdf), American Mathematical Monthly
• Humphreys, James E. (1992), Reflection groups and Coxeter groups, Cambridge University Press,
ISBN 978-0-521-43613-7
• Zalesskiĭ, A E; Serežkin, V N (1981), "Finite Linear Groups Generated by Reflections", Math. USSR Izv. 17 (3):
477–503, doi:10.1070/IM1981v017n03ABEH001369
• Kane, Richard, Reflection groups and invariant theory (review) (http://www.cms.math.ca/Publications/
Reviews/2003/rev4.pdf)
• Hartmann, Julia; Shepler, Anne V., Jacobians of reflection groups (http://arxiv.org/abs/math/0405135)
• Dolgachev, Igor V., Reflection groups in algebraic geometry (http://arxiv.org/abs/math.AG/0610938)
External links
• E. B. Vinberg (2001), "Reflection group" (http://eom.springer.de/R/r080520.htm), in Hazewinkel, Michiel,
Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 978-1556080104
Fundamental group 117
Fundamental group
In mathematics, more specifically algebraic topology, the fundamental group (discovered by Henri Poincaré who
gave the definition in his article Analysis Situs, published in 1895) is a group associated to any given pointed
topological space that provides a way of determining when two paths, starting and ending at a fixed base point, can
be continuously deformed into each other. Intuitively, it records information about the basic shape, or holes, of the
topological space. The fundamental group is the first and simplest of the homotopy groups.
Fundamental groups can be studied using the theory of covering spaces, since a fundamental group coincides with
the group of deck transformations of the associated universal covering space. Its abelianisation can be identified with
the first homology group of the space. When the topological space is homeomorphic to a simplicial complex, its
fundamental group can be described explicitly in terms of generators and relations.
Historically, the concept of fundamental group first emerged in the theory of Riemann surfaces, in the work of
Bernhard Riemann, Henri Poincaré and Felix Klein, where it describes the monodromy properties of complex
functions, as well as providing a complete topological classification of closed surfaces.
Intuition
Start with a space (e.g. a surface), and some point in it, and all the loops both starting and ending at this point —
paths that start at this point, wander around and eventually return to the starting point. Two loops can be combined
together in an obvious way: travel along the first loop, then along the second. Two loops are considered equivalent if
one can be deformed into the other without breaking. The set of all such loops with this method of combining and
this equivalence between them is the fundamental group.
For the precise definition, let X be a topological space, and let x0 be a point of X. We are interested in the set of
continuous functions f : [0,1] → X with the property that f(0) = x0 = f(1). These functions are called loops with base
point x0. Any two such loops, say f and g, are considered equivalent if there is a continuous function
h : [0,1] × [0,1] → X with the property that, for all 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, h(t, 0) = f(t), h(t, 1) = g(t) and h(0, t) = x0 = h(1, t). Such
an h is called a homotopy from f to g, and the corresponding equivalence classes are called homotopy classes.
The product f ∗ g of two loops f and g is defined by setting (f ∗ g)(t) := f(2t) if 0 ≤ t ≤ 1/2 and (f ∗ g)(t) := g(2t − 1) if
1/2 ≤ t ≤ 1. Thus the loop f ∗ g first follows the loop f with "twice the speed" and then follows g with twice the
speed. The product of two homotopy classes of loops [f] and [g] is then defined as [f ∗ g], and it can be shown that
this product does not depend on the choice of representatives.
With the above product, the set of all homotopy classes of loops with base point x0 forms the fundamental group of
X at the point x0 and is denoted
or simply π(X, x0). The identity element is the constant map at the basepoint, and the inverse of a loop f is the loop g
defined by g(t) = f(1 − t). That is, g follows f backwards.
Although the fundamental group in general depends on the choice of base point, it turns out that, up to isomorphism,
this choice makes no difference so long as the space X is path-connected. For path-connected spaces, therefore, we
can write π1(X) instead of π1(X, x0) without ambiguity whenever we care about the isomorphism class only.
Fundamental group 118
Examples
Trivial fundamental group. In Euclidean space Rn, or any convex subset of Rn, there is only one homotopy class of
loops, and the fundamental group is therefore the trivial group with one element. A path-connected space with a
trivial fundamental group is said to be simply connected.
Infinite cyclic fundamental group. The circle. Each homotopy class consists of all loops which wind around the
circle a given number of times (which can be positive or negative, depending on the direction of winding). The
product of a loop which winds around m times and another that winds around n times is a loop which winds around
m + n times. So the fundamental group of the circle is isomorphic to , the additive group of integers. This
fact can be used to give proofs of the Brouwer fixed point theorem and the Borsuk–Ulam theorem in dimension 2.
Since the fundamental group is a homotopy invariant, the theory of the winding number for the complex plane minus
one point is the same as for the circle.
Free groups of higher rank: Graphs. Unlike the homology groups and higher homotopy groups associated to a
topological space, the fundamental group need not be abelian. For example, the fundamental group of the figure
eight is the free group on two letters. More generally, the fundamental group of any graph G is a free group. Here the
rank of the free group is equal to 1 − χ(G): one minus the Euler characteristic of G, when G is connected.
Knot theory. A somewhat more sophisticated example of a space with a non-abelian fundamental group is the
complement of a trefoil knot in R3.
Functoriality
If f : X → Y is a continuous map, x0 ∈ X and y0 ∈ Y with f(x0) = y0, then every loop in X with base point x0 can be
composed with f to yield a loop in Y with base point y0. This operation is compatible with the homotopy equivalence
relation and with composition of loops. The resulting group homomorphism, called the induced homomorphism, is
written as π(f) or, more commonly,
We thus obtain a functor from the category of topological spaces with base point to the category of groups.
It turns out that this functor cannot distinguish maps which are homotopic relative to the base point: if f and g : X →
Y are continuous maps with f(x0) = g(x0) = y0, and f and g are homotopic relative to {x0}, then f* = g*. As a
consequence, two homotopy equivalent path-connected spaces have isomorphic fundamental groups:
As an important special case, if X is path-connected then any two basepoints give isomorphic fundamental groups,
with isomorphism given by a choice of path between the given basepoints.
The fundamental group functor takes products to products and coproducts to coproducts. That is, if X and Y are path
connected, then
and
(In the latter formula, denotes the wedge sum of topological spaces, and * the free product of groups.) Both
formulas generalize to arbitrary products. Furthermore the latter formula is a special case of the Seifert–van Kampen
theorem which states that the fundamental group functor takes pushouts along inclusions to pushouts.
Fundamental group 119
Fibrations
A generalization of a product of spaces is given by a fibration,
Here the total space E is a sort of "twisted product" of the base space B and the fiber F. In general the fundamental
groups of B, E and F are terms in a long exact sequence involving higher homotopy groups. When all the spaces are
connected, this has the following consequences for the fundamental groups:
• π1(B) and π1(E) are isomorphic if F is simply connected
• πn+1(B) and πn(F) are isomorphic if E is contractible
The latter is often applied to the situation E = path space of B, F = loop space of B or B = classifying space BG of a
topological group G, E = universal G-bundle EG.
Examples
Let G be a connected, simply connected compact Lie group, for example the special unitary group SUn, and let Γ be
a finite subgroup of G. Then the homogeneous space X = G/Γ has fundamental group Γ, which acts by right
multiplication on the universal covering space G. Among the many variants of this construction, one of the most
important is given by locally symmetric spaces X = Γ\G/K, where
• G is a non-compact simply connected, connected Lie group (often semisimple),
• K is a maximal compact subgroup of G
• Γ is a discrete countable torsion-free subgroup of G.
In this case the fundamental group is Γ and the universal covering space G/K is actually contractible (by the Cartan
decomposition for Lie groups).
As an example take G = SL2(R), K = SO2 and Γ any torsion-free congruence subgroup of the modular group SL2(Z).
An even simpler example is given by G = R (so that K is trivial) and Γ = Z: in this case X=R/Z = S1.
From the explicit realization, it also follows that the universal covering space of a path connected topological group
H is again a path connected topological group G. Moreover the covering map is a continuous open homomorphism
of G onto H with kernel Γ, a closed discrete normal subgroup of G:
Since G is a connected group with a continuous action by conjugation on a discrete group Γ, it must act trivially, so
that Γ has to be a subgroup of the center of G. In particular π1(H) = Γ is an Abelian group; this can also easily be
Fundamental group 120
seen directly without using covering spaces. The group G is called the universal covering group of H.
As the universal covering group suggests, there is an analogy between the fundamental group of a topological group
and the center of a group; this is elaborated at Lattice of covering groups.
Realizability
• Every group can be realized as the fundamental group of a connected CW-complex of dimension 2 (or higher). As
noted above, though, only free groups can occur as fundamental groups of 1-dimensional CW-complexes (that is,
graphs).
• Every finitely presented group can be realized as the fundamental group of a compact, connected, smooth
manifold of dimension 4 (or higher). But there are severe restrictions on which groups occur as fundamental
groups of low-dimensional manifolds. For example, no free abelian group of rank 4 or higher can be realized as
the fundamental group of a manifold of dimension 3 or less.
Fundamental group 121
Related concepts
The fundamental group measures the 1-dimensional hole structure of a space. For studying "higher-dimensional
holes", the homotopy groups are used. The elements of the n-th homotopy group of X are homotopy classes of
(basepoint-preserving) maps from Sn to X.
The set of loops at a particular base point can be studied without regarding homotopic loops as equivalent. This
larger object is the loop space.
For topological groups, a different group multiplication may be assigned to the set of loops in the space, with
pointwise multiplication rather than concatenation. The resulting group is the loop group.
Fundamental groupoid
Rather than singling out one point and considering the loops based at that point up to homotopy, one can also
consider all paths in the space up to homotopy (fixing the initial and final point). This yields not a group but a
groupoid, the fundamental groupoid of the space.
References
• Joseph J. Rotman, An Introduction to Algebraic Topology, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-96678-1
• Isadore Singer and John A. Thorpe, Lecture Notes on Elementary Geometry and Topology, Springer-Verlag
(1967) ISBN 0-387-90202-3
• Allen Hatcher, Algebraic Topology [1], Cambridge University Press (2002) ISBN 0-521-79540-0
• Peter Hilton and Shaun Wylie, Homology Theory, Cambridge University Press (1967) [warning: these authors use
contrahomology for cohomology]
• Richard Maunder, Algebraic Topology, Dover (1996) ISBN 0486691314
• Deane Montgomery and Leo Zippin, Topological Transformation Groups, Interscience Publishers (1955)
• James Munkres, Topology, Prentice Hall (2000) ISBN 0131816292
• Herbert Seifert and William Threlfall, A Textbook of Topology (translated from German by Wofgang Heil),
Academic Press (1980), ISBN 0126348502
• Edwin Spanier, Algebraic Topology, Springer-Verlag (1966) ISBN 0-387-94426-5
• André Weil, On discrete subgroups of Lie groups, Ann. of Math. 72 (1960), 369-384.
• Fundamental group [2] on PlanetMath
• Fundamental groupoid [3] on PlanetMath
Notes
[1] http:/ / www. math. cornell. edu/ ~hatcher/ AT/ ATpage. html
[2] http:/ / planetmath. org/ ?op=getobj& amp;from=objects& amp;id=849
[3] http:/ / planetmath. org/ ?op=getobj& amp;from=objects& amp;id=3941
External links
• Dylan G.L. Allegretti, Simplicial Sets and van Kampen's Theorem (http://www.math.uchicago.edu/~may/
VIGRE/VIGREREU2008.html) (An elementary discussion of the fundamental groupoid of a topological space
and the fundamental groupoid of a simplicial set).
• Animations to introduce to the fundamental group by Nicolas Delanoue (http://www.istia.univ-angers.fr/
~delanoue/topo_alg/)
Classical group 122
Classical group
In mathematics, the classical Lie groups are four infinite families of Lie groups closely related to the symmetries of
Euclidean spaces. Their finite analogues are the classical groups of Lie type. The term was coined by Hermann
Weyl (as seen in the title of his 1939 monograph The Classical Groups).
Contrasting with the classical Lie groups are the exceptional Lie groups, which share their abstract properties, but
not their familiarity.
Sometimes classical groups are discussed in the restricted setting of compact groups, a formulation which makes
their representation theory and algebraic topology easiest to handle. It does however exclude the general linear
group.[1]
Unitary groups
The unitary group Un(R) is a group preserving a sesquilinear form on a module. There is a subgroup, the special
unitary group SUn(R) and their quotients the projective unitary group PUn(R) = Un(R)/Z(Un(R)) and the projective
special unitary group PSUn(R) = SUn(R)/Z(SUn(R))
Symplectic groups
The symplectic group Sp2n(R) preserves a skew symmetric form on a module. It has a quotient, the projective
symplectic group PSp2n(R). The general symplectic group GSp2n(R) consists of the automorphisms of a module
multiplying a skew symmetric form by some invertible scalar. The projective symplectic group PSp2n(R) over a
finite field R is simple for n≥1, except for the 2 cases when n=1 and the field has order 2 or 3.
Orthogonal groups
The orthogonal group On(R) preserves a non-degenerate quadratic form on a module. There is a subgroup, the
special orthogonal group SOn(R) and quotients, the projective orthogonal group POn(R), and the projective special
orthogonal group PSOn(R). (In characteristic 2 the determinant is always 1, so the special orthogonal group is often
defined as the subgroup of elements of Dickson invariant 1.)
There is a nameless group often denoted by Ωn(R) consisting of the elements of the orthogonal group of elements of
spinor norm 1, with corresponding subgroup and quotient groups SΩn(R), PΩn(R), PSΩn(R). (For positive definite
quadratic forms over the reals, the group Ω happens to be the same as the orthogonal group, but in general it is
smaller.) There is also a double cover of Ωn(R), called the pin group Pinn(R), and it has a subgroup called the spin
group Spinn(R). The general orthogonal group GOn(R) consists of the automorphisms of a module multiplying a
quadratic form by some invertible scalar.
Notes
[1] Historically, in Klein's time, the most obvious example would have been the complex projective linear group, because it was the symmetry
group of complex projective space, the dominant geometric concept of the nineteenth century. Vector spaces came later (indeed at the hands of
Weyl, as an abstract algebraic notion), referring attention to their symmetry groups, the general linear groups. These groups are algebraic
groups. In the development of the Langlands program, the general linear groups became central as the simplest and most universal cases.
References
• E. Artin, Geometric algebra , Interscience (1957)
• Dieudonné, Jean (1955), La géométrie des groupes classiques (http://books.google.com/
books?id=AfYZAQAAIAAJ), Ergebnisse der Mathematik und ihrer Grenzgebiete (N.F.), Heft 5, Berlin, New
York: Springer-Verlag, MR0072144, ISBN 978-0-387-05391-2
• V. L. Popov (2001), "Classical group" (http://eom.springer.de/C/c022410.htm), in Hazewinkel, Michiel,
Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 978-1556080104
• Weyl, The classical groups, ISBN 0691057567
• R.Slansky, Group theory for unified model building, Physics Reports, Volume 79, Issue 1, p. 1-128
Unitary group 124
Unitary group
In mathematics, the unitary group of degree n, denoted U(n), is the group of n×n unitary matrices, with the group
operation that of matrix multiplication. The unitary group is a subgroup of the general linear group GL(n, C).
Hyperorthogonal group is an archaic name for the unitary group, especially over finite fields.
In the simple case n = 1, the group U(1) corresponds to the circle group, consisting of all complex numbers with
absolute value 1 under multiplication. All the unitary groups contain copies of this group.
The unitary group U(n) is a real Lie group of dimension n2. The Lie algebra of U(n) consists of complex n×n
skew-Hermitian matrices, with the Lie bracket given by the commutator.
The general unitary group (also called the group of unitary similitudes) consists of all matrices such that
is a nonzero multiple of the identity matrix, and is just the product of the unitary group with the group of all
positive multiples of the identity matrix.
Properties
Since the determinant of a unitary matrix is a complex number with norm 1, the determinant gives a group
homomorphism
The kernel of this homomorphism is the set of unitary matrices with unit determinant. This subgroup is called the
special unitary group, denoted SU(n). We then have a short exact sequence of Lie groups:
This short exact sequence splits so that U(n) may be written as a semidirect product of SU(n) by U(1). Here the U(1)
subgroup of U(n) consists of matrices of the form diag(eiθ, 1, 1, ..., 1).
The unitary group U(n) is nonabelian for n > 1. The center of U(n) is the set of scalar matrices λI with λ ∈ U(1). This
follows from Schur's lemma. The center is then isomorphic to U(1). Since the center of U(n) is a 1-dimensional
abelian normal subgroup of U(n), the unitary group is not semisimple.
Topology
The unitary group U(n) is endowed with the relative topology as a subset of Mn(C), the set of all n×n complex
matrices, which is itself homeomorphic to a 2n2-dimensional Euclidean space.
As a topological space, U(n) is both compact and connected. The compactness of U(n) follows from the Heine-Borel
theorem and the fact that it is a closed and bounded subset of Mn(C). To show that U(n) is connected, recall that any
unitary matrix A can be diagonalized by another unitary matrix S. Any diagonal unitary matrix must have complex
numbers of absolute value 1 on the main diagonal. We can therefore write
The unitary group is not simply connected; the fundamental group of U(n) is infinite cyclic for all n:
The first unitary group U(1) is topologically a circle, which is well known to have a fundamental group isomorphic
to Z, and the inclusion map is an isomorphism on . (It has quotient the Stiefel manifold.)
The determinant map induces an isomorphism of fundamental groups, with the splitting
inducing the inverse.
Unitary group 125
Related groups
2-out-of-3 property
The unitary group is the 3-fold intersection of the orthogonal, symplectic, and complex groups:
Thus a unitary structure can be seen as an orthogonal structure, a complex structure, and a symplectic structure,
which are required to be compatible (meaning that one uses the same J in the complex structure and the symplectic
form, and that this J is orthogonal; writing all the groups as matrix groups fixes a J (which is orthogonal) and ensures
compatibility).
In fact, it is the intersection of any two of these three; thus a compatible orthogonal and complex structure induce a
symplectic structure, and so forth. [1] [2]
At the level of equations, this can be seen as follows:
Symplectic:
Complex:
Orthogonal:
Any two of these equations implies the third.
At the level of forms, this can be seen by decomposing a Hermitian form into its real and imaginary parts: the real
part is symmetric (orthogonal), and the imaginary part is skew-symmetric (symplectic)—and these are related by the
complex structure (which is the compatibility). On an almost Kähler manifold, one can write this decomposition as
, where h is the Hermitian form, g is the Riemannian metric, i is the almost complex structure, and
is the almost symplectic structure.
From the point of view of Lie groups, this can partly be explained as follows: is the maximal compact
subgroup of , and is the maximal compact subgroup of both and . Thus
the intersection of or is the maximal compact subgroup of both of these,
so . From this perspective, what is unexpected is the intersection .
Just as the orthogonal group has the special orthogonal group SO(n) as subgroup and the projective orthogonal group
PO(n) as quotient, and the projective special orthogonal group PSO(n) as subquotient, the unitary group has
associated to it the special unitary group SU(n), the projective unitary group PU(n), and the projective special unitary
group PSU(n). These are related as by the commutative diagram at right; notably, both projective groups are equal:
.
The above is for the classical unitary group (over the complex numbers) – for unitary groups over finite fields, one
similarly obtains special unitary and projective unitary groups, but in general .
Unitary group 126
Generalizations
From the point of view of Lie theory, the classical unitary group is a real form of the Steinberg group , which is
an algebraic group that arises from the combination of the diagram automorphism of the general linear group
(reversing the Dynkin diagram , which corresponds to transpose inverse) and the field automorphism of the
extension (namely complex conjugation). Both these automorphisms are automorphisms of the algebraic
group, have order 2, and commute, and the unitary group is the fixed points of the product automorphism, as an
algebraic group. The classical unitary group is a real form of this group, corresponding to the standard Hermitian
form , which is positive definite.
This can be generalized in a number of ways:
• generalizing to other Hermitian forms yields indefinite unitary groups ;
• the field extension can be replaced by any degree 2 separable algebra, most notably a degree 2 extension of a
finite field;
• generalizing to other diagrams yields other groups of Lie type, namely the other Steinberg groups
(in addition to ) and Suzuki-Ree groups
• considering a generalized unitary group as an algebraic group, one can take its points over various algebras.
Indefinite forms
Analogous to the indefinite orthogonal groups, one can define an indefinite unitary group, by considering the
transforms that preserve a given Hermitian form, not necessarily positive definite (but generally taken to be
non-degenerate). Here one is working with a vector space over the complex numbers.
Given a Hermitian form on a complex vector space , the unitary group is the group of transforms that
preserve the form: the transform such that for all . In terms of
matrices, representing the form by a matrix denoted , this says that .
Just as for symmetric forms over the reals, Hermitian forms are determined by signature, and are all unitarily
congruent to a diagonal form with entries of 1 on the diagonal and entries of . The non-degenerate
assumption is equivalent to . In a standard basis, this is represented as a quadratic form as:
Finite fields
Over the finite field with elements, , there is a unique degree 2 extension field, , with order 2
automorphism (the th power of the Frobenius automorphism). This allows one to define a Hermitian
form on an vector space , as an -bilinear map such that
and for . Further, all non-degenerate Hermitian forms on a vector space over a
finite field are unitarily congruent to the standard one, represented by the identity matrix, that is, any Hermitian form
is unitarily equivalent to
Unitary group 127
where represent the coordinates of in some particular -basis of the -dimensional space
(Grove 2002, Thm. 10.3).
Thus one can define a (unique) unitary group of dimension for the extension , denoted either as
or depending on the author. The subgroup of the unitary group consisting of matrices of
determinant 1 is called the special unitary group and denoted or . For convenience, this
article will use the convention. The center of has order and consists of the scalar
matrices which are unitary, that is those matrices with . The center of the special unitary group has
order and consists of those unitary scalars which also have order dividing . The quotient of the
unitary group by its center is called the projective unitary group, , and the quotient of the special
unitary group by its center is the projective special unitary group . In most cases ( and
), is a perfect group and is a finite simple
group, (Grove 2002, Thm. 11.22 and 11.26).
Degree-2 separable algebras
More generally, given a field k and a degree-2 separable k-algebra K (which may be a field extension but need not
be), one can define unitary groups with respect to this extension.
First, there is a unique k-automorphism of K which is an involution and fixes exactly ( if and
[3]
only if ) . This generalizes complex conjugation and the conjugation of degree 2 finite field extensions,
and allows one to define Hermitian forms and unitary groups as above.
Algebraic groups
The equations defining a unitary group are polynomial equations over (but not over ): for the standard form
the equations are given in matrices as , where is the conjugate transpose. Given a
different form, they are . The unitary group is thus an algebraic group, whose points over a
-algebra are given by:
For the field extension and the standard (positive definite) Hermitian form, these yield an algebraic group
with real and complex points given by:
Polynomial invariants
The unitary groups are the automorphisms of two polynomials in real non-commutative variables:
These are easily seen to be the real and imginary parts of the complex form . The two invariants separately are
invariants of O(2n) and Sp(2n,R). Combined they make the invariants of U(n) which is a subgroup of both these
groups. The variables must be non-commutative in these invariants otherwise the second polynomial is identically
zero.
Unitary group 128
Classifying space
The classifying space for U(n) is described in the article classifying space for U(n).
See also
• projective unitary group
• orthogonal group
• symplectic group
Notes
[1] This is discussed in Arnold, "Mathematical Methods of Classical Mechanics".
[2] symplectic (http:/ / www. math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ symplectic. html)
[3] Milne, Algebraic Groups and Arithmetic Groups (http:/ / www. jmilne. org/ math/ CourseNotes/ aag. html), p. 103
References
• Grove, Larry C. (2002), Classical groups and geometric algebra, Graduate Studies in Mathematics, 39,
Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, MR1859189, ISBN 978-0-8218-2019-3
Character theory
This article refers to the use of the term character theory in mathematics, for the media studies definition see
Character theory (Media).
In mathematics, more specifically in group theory, the character of a group representation is a function on the group
which associates to each group element the trace of the corresponding matrix. The character carries the essential
information about the representation in a more condensed form. Georg Frobenius initially developed representation
theory of finite groups entirely based on the characters, and without any explicit matrix realization of representations
themselves. This is possible because a complex representation of a finite group is determined (up to isomorphism) by
its character. The situation with representations over a field of positive characteristic, so-called "modular
representations", is more delicate, but Richard Brauer developed a powerful theory of characters in this case as well.
Many deep theorems on the structure of finite groups use characters of modular representations.
Applications
Characters of irreducible representations encode many important properties of a group and can thus be used to study
its structure. Character theory is an essential tool in the classification of finite simple groups. Close to half of the
proof of the Feit–Thompson theorem involves intricate calculations with character values. Easier, but still essential,
results that use character theory include the Burnside theorem (a purely group-theoretic proof of the Burnside
theorem does exist, however), and a theorem of Richard Brauer and Michio Suzuki stating that a finite simple group
cannot have a generalized quaternion group as its Sylow 2 subgroup.
Character theory 129
Definitions
Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space over a field F and let ρ:G → GL(V) be a representation of a group G on V.
The character of ρ is the function χρ: G → F given by
where χρ(1) is the value of χρ on the group identity. If ρ is a representation of G of dimension k and 1 is the identity
of G then
Unlike the situation with the character group, the characters of a group do not, in general, form a group themselves.
Properties
• Characters are class functions, that is, they each take a constant value on a given conjugacy class.
• Isomorphic representations have the same characters. Over a field of characteristic 0, representations are
isomorphic if and only if they have the same character.
• If a representation is the direct sum of subrepresentations, then the corresponding character is the sum of the
characters of those subrepresentations.
• If a character of the finite group G is restricted to a subgroup H, then the result is also a character of H.
• Every character value is a sum of n mth roots of unity, where n is the degree (that is, the dimension of the
associated vector space) of the representation with character χ and m is the order of g. In particular, when F is the
field of complex numbers, every such character value is an algebraic integer.
• If F is the field of complex numbers, and is irreducible, then is an algebraic integer for
each x in G.
• If F is algebraically closed and char(F) does not divide |G|, then the number of irreducible characters of G is equal
to the number of conjugacy classes of G. Furthermore, in this case, the degrees of the irreducible characters are
divisors of the order of G.
Arithmetic properties
Let ρ and σ be representations of G. Then the following identities hold:
Character theory 130
where is the direct sum, is the tensor product, denotes the conjugate transpose of ρ, and Alt2 is
the alternating product Alt2 (ρ) = and Sym2 is the symmetric square, which is determined by
.
Character tables
The irreducible complex characters of a finite group form a character table which encodes much useful information
about the group G in a compact form. Each row is labelled by an irreducible character and the entries in the row are
the values of that character on the representatives of the respective conjugacy class of G. The columns are labelled
by (representatives of) the conjugacy classes of G. It is customary to label the first row by the trivial character, and
the first column by (the conjugacy class of) the identity. The entries of the first column are the values of the
irreducible characters at the identity, the degrees of the irreducible characters. Characters of degree 1 are known as
linear characters.
Here is the character table of , the cyclic group with three elements and generator u:
1 1 1 1
χ1 1 ω ω2
χ2 1 ω2 ω
Orthogonality relations
The space of complex-valued class functions of a finite group G has a natural inner-product:
where means the complex conjugate of the value of on g. With respect to this inner product, the irreducible
characters form an orthonormal basis for the space of class-functions, and this yields the orthogonality relation for
the rows of the character table:
where the sum is over all of the irreducible characters of G and the symbol denotes the order of the
centralizer of .
The orthogonality relations can aid many computations including:
• Decomposing an unknown character as a linear combination of irreducible characters.
• Constructing the complete character table when only some of the irreducible characters are known.
• Finding the orders of the centralizers of representatives of the conjugacy classes of a group.
Character theory 131
for each irreducible character of G (the leftmost inner product is for class functions of G and the rightmost inner
product is for class functions of H). Since the restriction of a character of G to the subgroup H is again a character of
H, this definition makes it clear that is a non-negative integer combination of irreducible characters of G, so is
indeed a character of G. It is known as the character of G induced from θ. The defining formula of Frobenius
reciprocity can be extended to general complex-valued class functions.
Given a matrix representation ρ of H, Frobenius later gave an explicit way to construct a matrix representation of G,
known as the representation induced from ρ, and written analogously as . This led to an alternative description
of the induced character . This induced character vanishes on all elements of G which are not conjugate to any
element of H. Since the induced character is a class function of G, it is only now necessary to describe its values on
elements of H. Writing G as a disjoint union of right cosets of H, say
and given an element h of H, the value is precisely the sum of those for which the conjugate
is also in H. Because θ is a class function of H, this value does not depend on the particular choice of coset
representatives.
This alternative description of the induced character sometimes allows explicit computation from relatively little
information about the embedding of H in G, and is often useful for calculation of particular character tables. When θ
Character theory 132
is the trivial character of H, the induced character obtained is known as the permutation character of G (on the
cosets of H).
The general technique of character induction and later refinements found numerous applications in finite group
theory and elsewhere in mathematics, in the hands of mathematicians such as Emil Artin, Richard Brauer, Walter
Feit and Michio Suzuki, as well as Frobenius himself.
Mackey decomposition
Mackey decomposition was defined and explored by George Mackey in the context of Lie groups, but is a powerful
tool in the character theory and representation theory of finite groups. Its basic form concerns the way a character (or
module) induced from a subgroup H of a finite group G behaves on restriction back to a (possibly different)
subgroup K of G, and makes use of the decomposition of G into (H,K)-double cosets.
If
is a disjoint union, and is a complex class function of H, then Mackey's formula states that
(where T is a full set of (H,K)- double coset representatives, as before). This formula is often used when θ and ψ are
linear characters, in which case all the inner products appearing in the right hand sum are either 1 or 0, depending on
whether or not the linear characters θt and ψ have the same restriction to . If θ and ψ are both trivial
characters, then the inner product simplifies to |T|.
"Twisted" dimension
One may interpret the character of a representation as the "twisted" dimension of a vector space[1] – that is, a
function parametrized by the group whose value on the identity is the dimension of the space, since
Accordingly, one can view the other values of the character as "twisted" dimensions, and find analogs or
generalizations of statements about dimensions to statements about characters or representations. A sophisticated
example of this occurs in the theory of monstrous moonshine: the j-invariant is the graded dimension of an
infinite-dimensional graded representation of the Monster group, and replacing the dimension with the character
gives the McKay–Thompson series for each element of the Monster group.[1]
Character theory 133
References
[1] (Gannon 2006)
• Lecture 2 of Fulton, William; Harris, Joe (1991), Representation theory. A first course, Graduate Texts in
Mathematics, Readings in Mathematics, 129, New York: Springer-Verlag, MR1153249, ISBN
978-0-387-97527-6, ISBN 978-0-387-97495-8
• Isaacs, I.M. (1994). Character Theory of Finite Groups (Corrected reprint of the 1976 original, published by
Academic Press. ed.). Dover. ISBN 0-486-68014-2.
• Gannon, Terry (2006). Moonshine beyond the Monster: The Bridge Connecting Algebra, Modular Forms and
Physics. ISBN 0-521-83531-3
• James, Gordon; Liebeck, Martin (2001). Representations and Characters of Groups (2nd ed.). Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-00392-X.
• Serre, Jean-Pierre (1977). Linear Representations of Finite Groups. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-90190-6.
External links
• Character (http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Character.html) at PlanetMath.
Sylow theorem
In mathematics, specifically in the field of finite group theory, the Sylow theorems are a collection of theorems
named after the Norwegian mathematician L. Sylow (1872) that give detailed information about the number of
subgroups of fixed order that a given finite group contains. The Sylow theorems form a fundamental part of finite
group theory and have very important applications in the classification of finite simple groups.
For a prime number p, a Sylow p-subgroup (sometimes p-Sylow subgroup) of a group G is a maximal p-subgroup
of G, i.e., a subgroup of G which is a p-group (so that the order of any group element is a power of p), and which is
not a proper subgroup of any other p-subgroup of G. The set of all Sylow p-subgroups for a given prime p is
sometimes written Sylp(G).
The Sylow theorems assert a partial converse to Lagrange's theorem that for any finite group G the order (number of
elements) of every subgroup of G divides the order of G. For any prime factor p of the order of a finite group G,
there exists a Sylow p-subgroup of G. The order of a Sylow p-subgroup of a finite group G is pn, where n is the
multiplicity of p in the order of G, and any subgroup of order pn is a Sylow p-subgroup of G. The Sylow p-subgroups
of a group (for fixed prime p) are conjugate to each other. The number of Sylow p-subgroups of a group for fixed
prime p is congruent to 1 mod p.
Sylow theorems
Collections of subgroups which are each maximal in one sense or another are common in group theory. The
surprising result here is that in the case of Sylp(G), all members are actually isomorphic to each other and have the
largest possible order: if |G| = pnm with where p does not divide m, then any Sylow p-subgroup P has order
|P| = pn. That is, P is a p-group and gcd(|G:P|, p) = 1. These properties can be exploited to further analyze the
structure of G.
The following theorems were first proposed and proven by Ludwig Sylow in 1872, and published in Mathematische
Annalen.
Theorem 1: For any prime factor p with multiplicity n of the order of a finite group G, there exists a Sylow
p-subgroup of G, of order pn.
The following weaker version of theorem 1 was first proved by Cauchy.
Sylow theorem 134
Corollary: Given a finite group G and a prime number p dividing the order of G, then there exists an element of
order p in G .
Theorem 2: Given a finite group G and a prime number p, all Sylow p-subgroups of G are conjugate (and therefore
isomorphic) to each other, i.e. if H and K are Sylow p-subgroups of G, then there exists an element g in G with
g−1Hg = K.
Theorem 3: Let p be a prime factor with multiplicity n of the order of a finite group G, so that the order of G can be
written as pn · m, where n > 0 and p does not divide m. Let np be the number of Sylow p-subgroups of G. Then the
following hold:
• np divides m, which is the index of the Sylow p-subgroup in G.
• np ≡ 1 mod p.
• np = |G : NG(P)|, where P is any Sylow p-subgroup of G and NG denotes the normalizer.
Consequences
The Sylow theorems imply that for a prime number p every Sylow p-subgroup is of the same order, pn. Conversely,
if a subgroup has order pn, then it is a Sylow p-subgroup, and so is isomorphic to every other Sylow p-subgroup. Due
to the maximality condition, if H is any p-subgroup of G, then H is a subgroup of a p-subgroup of order pn
A very important consequence of Theorem 2 is that the condition np = 1 is equivalent to saying that the Sylow
p-subgroup of G is a normal subgroup. (There are groups which have normal subgroups but no normal Sylow
subgroups, such as S4.)
Examples
A simple illustration of Sylow subgroups and the Sylow theorems are
the dihedral group of the n-gon, For n odd, is the
higher power of 2 dividing the order, and thus subgroups of order 2 are
Sylow subgroups. These are the groups generated by a reflection, of
which there are n, and they are all conjugate under rotations;
geometrically the axes of symmetry pass through a vertex and a side.
By contrast, if n is even, then 4 divides the order of the group, and
these are no longer Sylow subgroups, and in fact they fall into two
conjugacy classes, geometrically according to whether they pass
through two vertices or two faces. These are related by an outer
automorphism, which can be represented by rotation through In all reflections are conjugate, as
half the minimal rotation in the dihedral group. reflections correspond to Sylow 2-subgroups.
Example applications
Sylow theorem 135
Fusion results
Frattini's argument shows that a Sylow subgroup of a normal subgroup provides a factorization of a finite group. A
slight generalization known as Burnside's fusion theorem states that if G is a finite group with Sylow p-subgroup P
and two subsets A and B normalized by P, then A and B are G-conjugate if and only if they are NG(P)-conjugate. The
proof is a simple application of Sylow's theorem: If B=Ag, then the normalizer of B contains not only P but also Pg
(since Pg is contained in the normalizer of Ag). By Sylow's theorem P and Pg are conjugate not only in G, but in the
normalizer of B. Hence gh−1 normalizes P for some h that normalizes B, and then Agh−1 = Bh−1 = B, so that A and B
are NG(P)-conjugate. Burnside's fusion theorem can be used to give a more power factorization called a semidirect
product: if G is a finite group whose Sylow p-subgroup P is contained in the center of its normalizer, then G has a
normal subgroup K of order coprime to P, G = PK and P∩K = 1, that is, G is p-nilpotent.
Less trivial applications of the Sylow theorems include the focal subgroup theorem, which studies the control a
Sylow p-subgroup of the derived subgroup has on the structure of the entire group. This control is exploited at
several stages of the classification of finite simple groups, and for instance defines the case divisions used in the
Alperin–Brauer–Gorenstein theorem classifying finite simple groups whose Sylow 2-subgroup is a quasi-dihedral
group. These rely on J. L. Alperin's strengthening of the conjugacy portion of Sylow's theorem to control what sorts
of elements are used in the conjugation.
and no power of p remains in any of the factors inside the product on the right. Hence νp(|Ω|) = νp(m) = r. Let R ⊆ Ω
be a complete representation of all the equivalence classes under the action of G. Then,
Thus, there exists an element ω ∈ R such that s := νp(|Gω|) ≤ νp(|Ω|) = r. Hence |Gω| = psv where p does not divide v.
By the stabilizer-orbit-theorem we have |Gω| = |G| / |Gω| = pk+r-su / v. Therefore pk | |Gω|, so pk ≤ |Gω| and Gω is
the desired subgroup.
Sylow theorem 137
Lemma: Let G be a finite p-group, let G act on a finite set Ω, and let Ω0 denote the set of points of Ω
that are fixed under the action of G. Then |Ω| ≡ |Ω0| mod p.
Proof: Write Ω as a disjoint sum of its orbits under G. Any element x ∈ Ω not fixed by G will lie in an orbit of order
|G|/|Gx| (where Gx denotes the stabilizer), which is a multiple of p by assumption. The result follows immediately.
Theorem 2: If H is a p-subgroup of G and P is a Sylow p-subgroup of G, then there exists an element g
in G such that g−1Hg ≤ P. In particular, all Sylow p-subgroups of G are conjugate to each other (and
therefore isomorphic), i.e. if H and K are Sylow p-subgroups of G, then there exists an element g in G
with g−1Hg = K.
Proof: Let Ω be the set of left cosets of P in G and let H act on Ω by left multiplication. Applying the Lemma to H on
Ω, we see that |Ω0| ≡ |Ω| = [G : P] mod p. Now p [G : P] by definition so p |Ω0|, hence in particular |Ω0| ≠ 0 so
there exists some gP ∈ Ω0. It follows that for some g ∈ G and ∀ h ∈ H we have hgP = gP so g−1hgP ⊆ P and
therefore g−1Hg ≤ P. Now if H is a Sylow p-subgroup, |H| = |P| = |gPg−1| so that H = gPg−1 for some g ∈ G.
Theorem 3: Let q denote the order of any Sylow p-subgroup of a finite group G. Then np | |G|/q and np
≡ 1 mod p.
Proof: By Theorem 2, np = [G : NG(P)], where P is any such subgroup, and NG(P) denotes the normalizer of P in G,
so this number is a divisor of |G|/q. Let Ω be the set of all Sylow p-subgroups of G, and let P act on Ω by
conjugation. Let Q ∈ Ω0 and observe that then Q = xQx−1 for all x ∈ P so that P ≤ NG(Q). By Theorem 2, P and Q
are conjugate in NG(Q) in particular, and Q is normal in NG(Q), so then P = Q. It follows that Ω0 = {P} so that, by
the Lemma, |Ω| ≡ |Ω0| = 1 mod p.
Algorithms
The problem of finding a Sylow subgroup of a given group is an important problem in computational group theory.
One proof of the existence of Sylow p-subgroups is constructive: if H is a p-subgroup of G and the index [G:H] is
divisible by p, then the normalizer N = NG(H) of H in G is also such that [N:H] is divisible by p. In other words, a
polycyclic generating system of a Sylow p-subgroup can be found by starting from any p-subgroup H (including the
identity) and taking elements of p-power order contained in the normalizer of H but not in H itself. The algorithmic
version of this (and many improvements) is described in textbook form in (Butler 1991, Chapter 16), including the
algorithm described in (Cannon 1971). These versions are still used in the GAP computer algebra system.
In permutation groups, it has been proven in (Kantor 1985a, 1985b, 1988, 1990) that a Sylow p-subgroup and its
normalizer can be found in polynomial time of the input (the degree of the group times the number of generators).
These algorithms are described in textbook form in (Seress 2003), and are now becoming practical as the
constructive recognition of finite simple groups becomes a reality. In particular, versions of this algorithm are used
in the Magma computer algebra system.
Sylow theorem 138
See also
• Frattini's argument
• Hall subgroup
• Maximal subgroup
Notes
References
• Sylow, L. (1872), "Théorèmes sur les groupes de substitutions", Mathematische Annalen 5: 584–594,
doi:10.1007/BF01442913
Proofs
• Casadio, Giuseppina; Zappa, Guido (1990), "History of the Sylow theorem and its proofs", Bollettino di Storia
delle Scienze Matematiche 10 (1): 29–75, MR1096350, ISSN 0392-4432
• Gow, Rod (1994), "Sylow's proof of Sylow's theorem", Irish Mathematical Society Bulletin (33): 55–63,
MR1313412, ISSN 0791-5578
• Kammüller, Florian; Paulson, Lawrence C. (1999), "A formal proof of Sylow's theorem. An experiment in
abstract algebra with Isabelle HOL" (http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/users/lcp/papers/Kammueller/sylow.pdf),
Journal of Automated Reasoning 23 (3): 235–264, doi:10.1023/A:1006269330992, MR1721912,
ISSN 0168-7433
• Meo, M. (2004), "The mathematical life of Cauchy's group theorem", Historia Mathematica 31 (2): 196–221,
doi:10.1016/S0315-0860(03)00003-X, MR2055642, ISSN 0315-0860
• Scharlau, Winfried (1988), "Die Entdeckung der Sylow-Sätze", Historia Mathematica 15 (1): 40–52,
doi:10.1016/0315-0860(88)90048-1, MR931678, ISSN 0315-0860
• Waterhouse, William C. (1979), "The early proofs of Sylow's theorem", Archive for History of Exact Sciences 21
(3): 279–290, doi:10.1007/BF00327877, MR575718, ISSN 0003-9519
• Wielandt, Helmut (1959), "Ein Beweis für die Existenz der Sylowgruppen", Archiv der Mathematik 10: 401–402,
doi:10.1007/BF01240818, MR0147529, ISSN 0003-9268
Algorithms
• Butler, G. (1991), Fundamental algorithms for permutation groups, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 559,
Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, MR1225579, ISBN 978-3-540-54955-0
• Cannon, John J. (1971), "Computing local structure of large finite groups", Computers in algebra and number
theory (Proc. SIAM-AMS Sympos. Appl. Math., New York, 1970), Providence, R.I.: Amer. Math. Soc.,
pp. 161–176, MR0367027
• Kantor, William M. (1985), "Polynomial-time algorithms for finding elements of prime order and Sylow
subgroups", Journal of Algorithms 6 (4): 478–514, MR813589, ISSN 0196-6774
• Kantor, William M. (1985), "Sylow's theorem in polynomial time", Journal of Computer and System Sciences 30
(3): 359–394, doi:10.1016/0022-0000(85)90052-2, MR805654, ISSN 1090-2724
• Kantor, William M.; Taylor, Donald E. (1988), "Polynomial-time versions of Sylow's theorem", Journal of
Algorithms 9 (1): 1–17, MR925595, ISSN 0196-6774
• Kantor, William M. (1990), "Finding Sylow normalizers in polynomial time", Journal of Algorithms 11 (4):
523–563, MR1079450, ISSN 0196-6774
• Seress, Ákos (2003), Permutation group algorithms, Cambridge Tracts in Mathematics, 152, Cambridge
University Press, MR1970241, ISBN 978-0-521-66103-4
Lie algebra 139
Lie algebra
In mathematics, a Lie algebra (pronounced /ˈliː/ ("lee"), not /ˈlaɪ/ ("lye")) is an algebraic structure whose main use is
in studying geometric objects such as Lie groups and differentiable manifolds. Lie algebras were introduced to study
the concept of infinitesimal transformations. The term "Lie algebra" (after Sophus Lie) was introduced by Hermann
Weyl in the 1930s. In older texts, the name "infinitesimal group" is used.
for all x in . This implies anticommutativity, or skew-symmetry (in fact the conditions are equivalent for any
Lie algebra over any field whose characteristic is not 2):
for all x, y, z in .
For any associative algebra A with multiplication , one can construct a Lie algebra L(A). As a vector space, L(A) is
the same as A. The Lie bracket of two elements of L(A) is defined to be their commutator in A:
The associativity of the multiplication * in A implies the Jacobi identity of the commutator in L(A). In particular, the
associative algebra of n × n matrices over a field F gives rise to the general linear Lie algebra The
associative algebra A is called an enveloping algebra of the Lie algebra L(A). It is known that every Lie algebra can
be embedded into one that arises from an associative algebra in this fashion. See universal enveloping algebra.
then I is called an ideal in the Lie algebra .[1] A Lie algebra in which the commutator is not identically zero and
which has no proper ideals is called simple. A homomorphism between two Lie algebras (over the same ground
field) is a linear map that is compatible with the commutators:
Lie algebra 140
for all elements x and y in . As in the theory of associative rings, ideals are precisely the kernels of
homomorphisms, given a Lie algebra and an ideal I in it, one constructs the factor algebra , and the first
isomorphism theorem holds for Lie algebras. Given two Lie algebras and , their direct sum is the vector space
consisting of the pairs , with the operation
Examples
• Any vector space V endowed with the identically zero Lie bracket becomes a Lie algebra. Such Lie algebras are
called abelian, cf. below. Any one-dimensional Lie algebra over a field is abelian, by the antisymmetry of the Lie
bracket.
• The three-dimensional Euclidean space R3 with the Lie bracket given by the cross product of vectors becomes a
three-dimensional Lie algebra.
• The Heisenberg algebra is a three-dimensional Lie algebra with generators (see also the definition at Generating
set):
for all real numbers t. The Lie bracket of is given by the commutator of matrices. As a concrete example,
consider the special linear group SL(n,R), consisting of all n × n matrices with real entries and determinant 1.
This is a matrix Lie group, and its Lie algebra consists of all n × n matrices with real entries and trace 0.
• The real vector space of all n × n skew-hermitian matrices is closed under the commutator and forms a real Lie
algebra denoted . This is the Lie algebra of the unitary group U(n).
• An important class of infinite-dimensional real Lie algebras arises in differential topology. The space of smooth
vector fields on a differentiable manifold M forms a Lie algebra, where the Lie bracket is defined to be the
commutator of vector fields. One way of expressing the Lie bracket is through the formalism of Lie derivatives,
which identifies a vector field X with a first order partial differential operator LX acting on smooth functions by
letting LX(f) be the directional derivative of the function f in the direction of X. The Lie bracket [X,Y] of two
vector fields is the vector field defined through its action on functions by the formula:
becomes zero eventually. By Engel's theorem, a Lie algebra is nilpotent if and only if for every u in the adjoint
endomorphism
is nilpotent.
More generally still, a Lie algebra is said to be solvable if the derived series:
Classification
In many ways, the classes of semisimple and solvable Lie algebras are at the opposite ends of the full spectrum of
the Lie algebras. The Levi decomposition expresses an arbitrary Lie algebra as a semidirect sum of its solvable
radical and a semisimple Lie algebra, almost in a canonical way. Semisimple Lie algebras over an algebraically
closed field have been completely classified through their root systems. The classification of solvable Lie algebras is
a 'wild' problem, and cannot be accomplished in general.
Cartan's criterion gives conditions for a Lie algebra to be nilpotent, solvable, or semisimple. It is based on the notion
of the Killing form, a symmetric bilinear form on defined by the formula
where tr denotes the trace of a linear operator. A Lie algebra is semisimple if and only if the Killing form is
nondegenerate. A Lie algebra is solvable if and only if
lifts uniquely to a representation of the corresponding connected, simply connected Lie group, and conversely every
representation of any Lie group induces a representation of the group's Lie algebra; the representations are in one to
one correspondence. Therefore, knowing the representations of a Lie algebra settles the question of representations
of the group. As for classification, it can be shown that any connected Lie group with a given Lie algebra is
isomorphic to the universal cover mod a discrete central subgroup. So classifying Lie groups becomes simply a
matter of counting the discrete subgroups of the center, once the classification of Lie algebras is known (solved by
Cartan et al. in the semisimple case).
Notes
[1] Due to the anticommutativity of the commutator, the notions of a left and right ideal in a Lie algebra coincide.
[2] Humphreys p.2
References
• Hall, Brian C. Lie Groups, Lie Algebras, and Representations: An Elementary Introduction, Springer, 2003. ISBN
0-387-40122-9
• Erdmann, Karin & Wildon, Mark. Introduction to Lie Algebras, 1st edition, Springer, 2006. ISBN 1-84628-040-0
• Humphreys, James E. Introduction to Lie Algebras and Representation Theory, Second printing, revised.
Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 9. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1978. ISBN 0-387-90053-5
• Jacobson, Nathan, Lie algebras, Republication of the 1962 original. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1979.
ISBN 0-486-63832-4
• Kac, Victor G. et al. Course notes for MIT 18.745: Introduction to Lie Algebras, http://www-math.mit.edu/
~lesha/745lec/
• O'Connor, J. J. & Robertson, E.F. Biography of Sophus Lie, MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, http://
www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Lie.html
• O'Connor, J. J. & Robertson, E.F. Biography of Wilhelm Killing, MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive,
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Killing.html
• Steeb, W.-H. Continuous Symmetries, Lie Algebras, Differential Equations and Computer Algebra, second
edition, World Scientific, 2007, ISBN 978-981-270-809-0
• Varadarajan, V. S. Lie Groups, Lie Algebras, and Their Representations, 1st edition, Springer, 2004. ISBN
0-387-90969-9
Class group 144
Class group
In mathematics, the extent to which unique factorization fails in the ring of integers of an algebraic number field (or
more generally any Dedekind domain) can be described by a certain group known as an ideal class group (or class
group). If this group is finite (as it is in the case of the ring of integers of a number field), then the order of the group
is called the class number. The multiplicative theory of a Dedekind domain is intimately tied to the structure of its
class group. For example, the class group of a Dedekind domain is trivial if and only if the ring is a unique
factorization domain.
Technical development
If R is an integral domain, define a relation ~ on nonzero fractional ideals of R by I ~ J whenever there exist nonzero
elements a and b of R such that (a)I = (b)J. (Here the notation (a) means the principal ideal of R consisting of all the
multiples of a.) It is easily shown that this is an equivalence relation. The equivalence classes are called the ideal
classes of R. Ideal classes can be multiplied: if [I] denotes the equivalence class of the ideal I, then the multiplication
[I][J] = [IJ] is well-defined and commutative. The principal ideals form the ideal class [R] which serves as an
identity element for this multiplication. Thus a class [I] has an inverse [J] if and only if there is an ideal J such that IJ
is a principal ideal. In general, such a J may not exist and consequently the set of ideal classes of R may only be a
monoid.
However, if R is the ring of algebraic integers in an algebraic number field, or more generally a Dedekind domain,
the multiplication defined above turns the set of fractional ideal classes into an abelian group, the ideal class group
of R. The group property of existence of inverse elements follows easily from the fact that, in a Dedekind domain,
every non-zero ideal (except R) is a product of prime ideals.
Class group 145
Properties
The ideal class group is trivial (i.e. has only one element) if and only if all ideals of R are principal. In this sense, the
ideal class group measures how far R is from being a principal ideal domain, and hence from satisfying unique prime
factorization (Dedekind domains are unique factorization domains if and only if they are principal ideal domains).
The number of ideal classes (the class number of R) may be infinite in general. In fact, every abelian group is
isomorphic to the ideal class group of some Dedekind domain.[1] But if R is in fact a ring of algebraic integers, then
the class number is always finite. This is one of the main results of classical algebraic number theory.
Computation of the class group is hard, in general; it can be done by hand for the ring of integers in an algebraic
number field of small discriminant, using Minkowski's bound. This result gives a bound, depending on the ring, such
that every ideal class contains an ideal of norm less than the bound. In general the bound is not sharp enough to make
the calculation practical for fields with large discriminant, but computers are well suited to the task.
The mapping from rings of integers R to their corresponding class groups is functorial, and the class group can be
subsumed under the heading of algebraic K-theory, with K0(R) being the functor assigning to R its ideal class group;
more precisely, K0(R) = Z×C(R), where C(R) is the class group. Higher K groups can also be employed and
interpreted arithmetically in connection to rings of integers.
See also
• Class number formula
• Class number problem
• List of number fields with class number one
• Principal ideal domain
• Algebraic K-theory
• Galois theory
• Fermat's last theorem
• Narrow class group
• Picard group—a generalisation of the class group appearing in algebraic geometry
Class group 147
Notes
[1] Claborn 1966
[2] Neukirch 1999
[3] Fröhlich & Taylor 1993, Theorem 58
References
• Claborn, Luther (1966), "Every abelian group is a class group" (http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS?verb=Display&
version=1.0&service=UI&handle=euclid.pjm/1102994263&page=record), Pacific Journal of Mathematics
18: 219–222
• Fröhlich, Albrecht; Taylor, Martin (1993), Algebraic number theory, Cambridge Studies in Advanced
Mathematics, 27, Cambridge University Press, MR1215934, ISBN 978-0-521-43834-6
• Neukirch, Jürgen (1999), Algebraic Number Theory, Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften, 322,
Berlin: Springer-Verlag, MR1697859, ISBN 978-3-540-65399-8
Abelian group 148
Abelian group
Concepts in group theory
category of groups
Types of groups
discrete, continuous
multiplicative, additive
nilpotent, solvable
An abelian group, also called a commutative group, is a group in which the result of applying the group operation
to two group elements does not depend on their order (the axiom of commutativity). Abelian groups generalize the
arithmetic of addition of integers. They are named after Niels Henrik Abel.[1]
The concept of an abelian group is one of the first concepts encountered in undergraduate abstract algebra, with
many other basic objects, such as a module and a vector space, being its refinements. The theory of abelian groups is
generally simpler than that of their non-abelian counterparts, and finite abelian groups are very well understood. On
the other hand, the theory of infinite abelian groups is an area of current research.
Definition
An abelian group is a set, A, together with an operation "•" that combines any two elements a and b to form another
element denoted a • b. The symbol "•" is a general placeholder for a concretely given operation. To qualify as an
abelian group, the set and operation, (A, •), must satisfy five requirements known as the abelian group axioms:
Closure
For all a, b in A, the result of the operation a • b is also in A.
Associativity
For all a, b and c in A, the equation (a • b) • c = a • (b • c) holds.
Identity element
There exists an element e in A, such that for all elements a in A, the equation e • a = a • e = a holds.
Inverse element
For each a in A, there exists an element b in A such that a • b = b • a = e, where e is the identity element.
Commutativity
For all a, b in A, a • b = b • a.
More compactly, an abelian group is a commutative group. A group in which the group operation is not commutative
is called a "non-abelian group" or "non-commutative group".
Abelian group 149
Facts
Notation
There are two main notational conventions for abelian groups — additive and multiplicative.
Addition x+y 0 nx −x
Multiplication x * y or xy e or 1 xn x −1
Generally, the multiplicative notation is the usual notation for groups, while the additive notation is the usual
notation for modules. The additive notation may also be used to emphasize that a particular group is abelian,
whenever both abelian and non-abelian groups are considered.
Multiplication table
To verify that a finite group is abelian, a table (matrix) - known as a Cayley table - can be constructed in a similar
fashion to a multiplication table. If the group is G = {g1 = e, g2, ..., gn} under the operation ⋅, the (i, j)'th entry of this
table contains the product gi ⋅ gj. The group is abelian if and only if this table is symmetric about the main diagonal
(i.e. if the matrix is a symmetric matrix).
This is true since if the group is abelian, then gi ⋅ gj = gj ⋅ gi. This implies that the (i, j)'th entry of the table equals the
(j, i)'th entry - i.e. the table is symmetric about the main diagonal.
Examples
• For the integers and the operation addition "+", denoted (Z,+), the operation + combines any two integers to form
a third integer, addition is associative, zero is the additive identity, every integer n has an additive inverse, −n, and
the addition operation is commutative since m + n = n + m for any two integers m and n.
• Every cyclic group G is abelian, because if x, y are in G, then xy = aman = am + n = an + m = anam = yx. Thus the
integers, Z, form an abelian group under addition, as do the integers modulo n, Z/nZ.
• Every ring is an abelian group with respect to its addition operation. In a commutative ring the invertible
elements, or units, form an abelian multiplicative group. In particular, the real numbers are an abelian group under
addition, and the nonzero real numbers are an abelian group under multiplication.
• Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal, so each subgroup gives rise to a quotient group. Subgroups,
quotients, and direct sums of abelian groups are again abelian.
In general, matrices, even invertible matrices, do not form an abelian group under multiplication because matrix
multiplication is generally not commutative. However, some groups of matrices are abelian groups under matrix
multiplication - one example is the group of 2x2 rotation matrices.
Abelian group 150
Historical remarks
Abelian groups were named for Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel by Camille Jordan because Abel found
that the commutativity of the group of an equation implies its roots are solvable by radicals. See Section 6.5 of Cox
(2004) for more information on the historical background.
Properties
If n is a natural number and x is an element of an abelian group G written additively, then nx can be defined as x + x
+ ... + x (n summands) and (−n)x = −(nx). In this way, G becomes a module over the ring Z of integers. In fact, the
modules over Z can be identified with the abelian groups.
Theorems about abelian groups (i.e. modules over the principal ideal domain Z) can often be generalized to theorems
about modules over an arbitrary principal ideal domain. A typical example is the classification of finitely generated
abelian groups which is a specialization of the structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal
domain. In the case of finitely generated abelian groups, this theorem guarantees that an abelian group splits as a
direct sum of a torsion group and a free abelian group. The former may be written as a direct sum of finitely many
groups of the form Z/pkZ for p prime, and the latter is a direct sum of finitely many copies of Z.
If f, g : G → H are two group homomorphisms between abelian groups, then their sum f + g, defined by (f + g)(x) =
f(x) + g(x), is again a homomorphism. (This is not true if H is a non-abelian group.) The set Hom(G, H) of all group
homomorphisms from G to H thus turns into an abelian group in its own right.
Somewhat akin to the dimension of vector spaces, every abelian group has a rank. It is defined as the cardinality of
the largest set of linearly independent elements of the group. The integers and the rational numbers have rank one, as
well as every subgroup of the rationals.
Classification
The fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups states that every finite abelian group G can be expressed as the
direct sum of cyclic subgroups of prime-power order. This is a special case of the fundamental theorem of finitely
generated abelian groups when G has zero rank.
The cyclic group of order mn is isomorphic to the direct sum of and if and only if m and n are
coprime. It follows that any finite abelian group G is isomorphic to a direct sum of the form
For another example, every abelian group of order 8 is isomorphic to either (the integers 0 to 7 under addition
modulo 8), (the odd integers 1 to 15 under multiplication modulo 16), or .
See also list of small groups for finite abelian groups of order 16 or less.
Automorphisms
One can apply the fundamental theorem to count (and sometimes determine) the automorphisms of a given finite
abelian group G. To do this, one uses the fact (which will not be proved here) that if G splits as a direct sum H K
of subgroups of coprime order, then Aut(H K) Aut(H) Aut(K).
Given this, the fundamental theorem shows that to compute the automorphism group of G it suffices to compute the
automorphism groups of the Sylow p-subgroups separately (that is, all direct sums of cyclic subgroups, each with
order a power of p). Fix a prime p and suppose the exponents ei of the cyclic factors of the Sylow p-subgroup are
arranged in increasing order:
One special case is when n = 1, so that there is only one cyclic prime-power factor in the Sylow p-subgroup P. In this
case the theory of automorphisms of a finite cyclic group can be used. Another special case is when n is arbitrary but
ei = 1 for 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Here, one is considering P to be of the form
so elements of this subgroup can be viewed as comprising a vector space of dimension n over the finite field of p
elements . The automorphisms of this subgroup are therefore given by the invertible linear transformations, so
where GL is the appropriate general linear group. This is easily shown to have order
In the most general case, where the ei and n are arbitrary, the automorphism group is more difficult to determine. It is
known, however, that if one defines
and
One can check that this yields the orders in the previous examples as special cases (see [Hillar,Rhea]).
Abelian group 152
Torsion groups
An abelian group is called periodic or torsion if every element has finite order. A direct sum of finite cyclic groups
is periodic. Although the converse statement is not true in general, some special cases are known. The first and
second Prüfer theorems state that if A is a periodic group and either it has bounded exponent, i.e. nA = 0 for some
natural number n, or if A is countable and the p-heights of the elements of A are finite for each p, then A is
isomorphic to a direct sum of finite cyclic groups.[3] The cardinality of the set of direct summands isomorphic to
Z/pmZ in such a decomposition is an invariant of A. These theorems were later subsumed in the Kulikov criterion.
In a different direction, Helmut Ulm found an extension of the second Prüfer theorem to countable abelian p-groups
with elements of infinite height: those groups are completely classified by means of their Ulm invariants.
The classification theorems for finitely generated, divisible, countable periodic, and rank 1 torsion-free abelian
groups explained above were all obtained before 1950 and form a foundation of the classification of more general
infinite abelian groups. Important technical tools used in classification of infinite abelian groups are pure and basic
subgroups. Introduction of various invariants of torsion-free abelian groups has been one avenue of further progress.
See the books by Irving Kaplansky, László Fuchs, Phillip Griffiths, and David Arnold, as well as the proceedings of
the conferences on Abelian Group Theory published in Lecture Notes in Mathematics for more recent results.
See also
• Abelianization
• Class field theory
• Commutator subgroup
• Elementary abelian group
• Pontryagin duality
• Pure injective module
• Pure projective module
Notes
[1] Jacobson (2009), p. 41
[2] For example, Q/Z ≅ ∑p Qp/Zp.
[3] Countability assumption in the second Prüfer theorem cannot be removed: the torsion subgroup of the direct product of the cyclic groups
Z/pmZ for all natural m is not a direct sum of cyclic groups.
[4] Abel Prize Awarded: The Mathematicians' Nobel (http:/ / www. maa. org/ devlin/ devlin_04_04. html)
References
• Cox, David (2004) Galois Theory. Wiley-Interscience. Hoboken, NJ. xx+559 pp. MR2119052
• Fuchs, László (1970) Infinite abelian groups, Vol. I. Pure and Applied Mathematics, Vol. 36. New York–London:
Academic Press. xi+290 pp. MR0255673
• ------ (1973) Infinite abelian groups, Vol. II. Pure and Applied Mathematics. Vol. 36-II. New York–London:
Academic Press. ix+363 pp. MR0349869
• Griffith, Phillip A. (1970). Infinite Abelian group theory. Chicago Lectures in Mathematics. University of
Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-30870-7.
• I.N. Herstein (1975), Topics in Algebra, 2nd edition (John Wiley and Sons, New York) ISBN 0-471-02371-X
• Hillar, Christopher and Rhea, Darren (2007), Automorphisms of finite abelian groups. Amer. Math. Monthly 114,
no. 10, 917-923. arXiv:0605185.
• Jacobson, Nathan (2009). Basic algebra. 1 (2nd ed.). Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-47189-1..
• Szmielew, Wanda (1955) "Elementary properties of abelian groups," Fundamenta Mathematica 41: 203-71.
Lie group 155
Lie group
In mathematics, a Lie group (pronounced /ˈliː/: similar to "Lee") is a group which is also a differentiable manifold,
with the property that the group operations are compatible with the smooth structure. Lie groups are named after
Sophus Lie, who laid the foundations of the theory of continuous transformation groups.
Lie groups represent the best-developed theory of continuous symmetry of mathematical objects and structures,
which makes them indispensable tools for many parts of contemporary mathematics, as well as for modern
theoretical physics. They provide a natural framework for analysing the continuous symmetries of differential
equations (Differential Galois theory), in much the same way as permutation groups are used in Galois theory for
analysing the discrete symmetries of algebraic equations. An extension of Galois theory to the case of continuous
symmetry groups was one of Lie's principal motivations.
Overview
Lie groups are smooth manifolds and, therefore, can be studied using
differential calculus, in contrast with the case of more general
topological groups. One of the key ideas in the theory of Lie groups,
from Sophus Lie, is to replace the global object, the group, with its
local or linearized version, which Lie himself called its "infinitesimal
group" and which has since become known as its Lie algebra.
In the 1940s–1950s, Ellis Kolchin, Armand Borel and Claude Chevalley realised that many foundational results
concerning Lie groups can be developed completely algebraically, giving rise to the theory of algebraic groups
defined over an arbitrary field. This insight opened new possibilities in pure algebra, by providing a uniform
construction for most finite simple groups, as well as in algebraic geometry. The theory of automorphic forms, an
important branch of modern number theory, deals extensively with analogues of Lie groups over adele rings; p-adic
Lie groups play an important role, via their connections with Galois representations in number theory.
Lie group 156
means that μ is a smooth mapping of the product manifold G×G into G. These two requirements can be combined to
the single requirement that the mapping
First examples
• The 2×2 real invertible matrices form a group under multiplication, denoted by GL2(R):
This is a four-dimensional noncompact real Lie group. This group is disconnected; it has two connected
components corresponding to the positive and negative values of the determinant.
• The rotation matrices form a subgroup of GL2(R), denoted by SO2(R). It is a Lie group in its own right:
specifically, a one-dimensional compact connected Lie group which is diffeomorphic to the circle. Using the
rotation angle as a parameter, this group can be parametrized as follows:
Addition of the angles corresponds to multiplication of the elements of SO2(R), and taking the opposite angle
corresponds to inversion. Thus both multiplication and inversion are differentiable maps.
• The orthogonal group also forms an interesting example of a Lie group.
All of the previous examples of Lie groups fall within the class of classical groups
Related concepts
A complex Lie group is defined in the same way using complex manifolds rather than real ones (example: SL2(C)),
and similarly one can define a p-adic Lie group over the p-adic numbers. Hilbert's fifth problem asked whether
replacing differentiable manifolds with topological or analytic ones can yield new examples. The answer to this
question turned out to be negative: in 1952, Gleason, Montgomery and Zippin showed that if G is a topological
manifold with continuous group operations, then there exists exactly one analytic structure on G which turns it into a
Lie group (see also Hilbert–Smith conjecture). If the underlying manifold is allowed to be infinite dimensional (for
example, a Hilbert manifold) then one arrives at the notion of an infinite-dimensional Lie group. It is possible to
define analogues of many Lie groups over finite fields, and these give most of the examples of finite simple groups.
The language of category theory provides a concise definition for Lie groups: a Lie group is a group object in the
category of smooth manifolds. This is important, because it allows generalization of the notion of a Lie group to Lie
supergroups.
Lie group 157
Examples
• Euclidean space Rn with ordinary vector addition as the group operation becomes an n-dimensional noncompact
abelian Lie group.
• The circle group S1 consisting of angles mod 2π under addition or, alternately, the complex numbers with
absolute value 1 under multiplication. This is a one-dimensional compact connected abelian Lie group.
• The group GLn(R) of invertible matrices (under matrix multiplication) is a Lie group of dimension n2, called the
general linear group. It has a closed connected subgroup SLn(R), the special linear group, consisting of matrices
of determinant 1 which is also a Lie group.
• The orthogonal group On(R), consisting of all n × n orthogonal matrices with real entries is an n(n −
1)/2-dimensional Lie group. This group is disconnected, but it has a connected subgroup SOn(R) of the same
dimension consisting of orthogonal matrices of determinant 1, called the special orthogonal group (for n = 3, the
rotation group).
• The Euclidean group En(R) is the Lie group of all Euclidean motions, i.e., isometric affine maps, of
n-dimensional Euclidean space Rn.
• The unitary group U(n) consisting of n × n unitary matrices (with complex entries) is a compact connected Lie
group of dimension n2. Unitary matrices of determinant 1 form a closed connected subgroup of dimension n2 − 1
denoted SU(n), the special unitary group.
• Spin groups are double covers of the special orthogonal groups, used for studying fermions in quantum field
theory (among other things).
• The symplectic group Sp2n(R) consists of all 2n × 2n matrices preserving a nondegenerate skew-symmetric
bilinear form on R2n (the symplectic form). It is a connected Lie group of dimension 2n2 + n. The fundamental
group of the symplectic group is Z and this fact is related to the theory of Maslov index.
• The 3-sphere S3 forms a Lie group by identification with the set of quaternions of unit norm, called versors. The
only other spheres that admit the structure of a Lie group are the 0-sphere S0 (real numbers with absolute value 1)
and the circle S1 (complex numbers with absolute value 1). For example, for even n > 1, Sn is not a Lie group
because it does not admit a nonvanishing vector field and so a fortiori cannot be parallelizable as a differentiable
manifold. Of the spheres only S0, S1, S3, and S7 are parallelizable. The latter carries the structure of a Lie
quasigroup (a nonassociative group), which can be identified with the set of unit octonions.
• The group of upper triangular n by n matrices is a solvable Lie group of dimension n(n + 1)/2.
• The Lorentz group and the Poincare group are the groups of linear and affine isometries of the Minkowski space
(interpreted as the spacetime of the special relativity). They are Lie groups of dimensions 6 and 10.
• The Heisenberg group is a connected nilpotent Lie group of dimension 3, playing a key role in quantum
mechanics.
• The group U(1)×SU(2)×SU(3) is a Lie group of dimension 1+3+8=12 that is the gauge group of the Standard
Model in particle physics. The dimensions of the factors correspond to the 1 photon + 3 vector bosons + 8 gluons
of the standard model.
• The (3-dimensional) metaplectic group is a double cover of SL2(R) playing an important role in the theory of
modular forms. It is a connected Lie group that cannot be faithfully represented by matrices of finite size, i.e., a
nonlinear group.
• The exceptional Lie groups of types G2, F4, E6, E7, E8 have dimensions 14, 52, 78, 133, and 248. There is also a
group E7½ of dimension 190.
Lie group 158
Constructions
There are several standard ways to form new Lie groups from old ones:
• The product of two Lie groups is a Lie group.
• Any topologically closed subgroup of a Lie group is a Lie group. This is known as Cartan's theorem.
• The quotient of a Lie group by a closed normal subgroup is a Lie group.
• The universal cover of a connected Lie group is a Lie group. For example, the group R is the universal cover of
the circle group S1. In fact any covering of a differentiable manifold is also a differentiable manifold, but by
specifying universal cover, one guarantees a group structure (compatible with its other structures).
Related notions
Some examples of groups that are not Lie groups (except in the trivial sense that any group can be viewed as a
0-dimensional Lie group, with the discrete topology), are:
• Infinite dimensional groups, such as the additive group of an infinite dimensional real vector space. These are not
Lie groups as they are not finite dimensional manifolds
• Some totally disconnected groups, such as the Galois group of an infinite extension of fields, or the additive group
of the p-adic numbers. These are not Lie groups because their underlying spaces are not real manifolds. (Some of
these groups are "p-adic Lie groups"). In general, only topological groups having similar local properties to Rn for
some positive integer n can be Lie groups (of course they must also have a differentiable structure)
Early history
According to the most authoritative source on the early history of Lie groups (Hawkins, p. 1), Sophus Lie himself
considered the winter of 1873–1874 as the birth date of his theory of continuous groups. Hawkins, however,
suggests that it was "Lie's prodigious research activity during the four-year period from the fall of 1869 to the fall of
1873" that led to the theory's creation (ibid). Some of Lie's early ideas were developed in close collaboration with
Felix Klein. Lie met with Klein every day from October 1869 through 1872: in Berlin from the end of October 1869
to the end of February 1870, and in Paris, Göttingen and Erlangen in the subsequent two years (ibid, p. 2). Lie stated
that all of the principal results were obtained by 1884. But during the 1870s all his papers (except the very first note)
were published in Norwegian journals, which impeded recognition of the work throughout the rest of Europe (ibid,
p. 76). In 1884 a young German mathematician, Friedrich Engel, came to work with Lie on a systematic treatise to
expose his theory of continuous groups. From this effort resulted the three-volume Theorie der
Transformationsgruppen, published in 1888, 1890, and 1893.
Lie's ideas did not stand in isolation from the rest of mathematics. In fact, his interest in the geometry of differential
equations was first motivated by the work of Carl Gustav Jacobi, on the theory of partial differential equations of
first order and on the equations of classical mechanics. Much of Jacobi's work was published posthumously in the
1860s, generating enormous interest in France and Germany (Hawkins, p. 43). Lie's idée fixe was to develop a theory
of symmetries of differential equations that would accomplish for them what Évariste Galois had done for algebraic
equations: namely, to classify them in terms of group theory. Lie and other mathematicians showed that the most
important equations for special functions and orthogonal polynomials tend to arise from group theoretical
symmetries. Additional impetus to consider continuous groups came from ideas of Bernhard Riemann, on the
foundations of geometry, and their further development in the hands of Klein. Thus three major themes in 19th
century mathematics were combined by Lie in creating his new theory: the idea of symmetry, as exemplified by
Galois through the algebraic notion of a group; geometric theory and the explicit solutions of differential equations
of mechanics, worked out by Poisson and Jacobi; and the new understanding of geometry that emerged in the works
of Plücker, Möbius, Grassmann and others, and culminated in Riemann's revolutionary vision of the subject.
Lie group 159
Although today Sophus Lie is rightfully recognized as the creator of the theory of continuous groups, a major stride
in the development of their structure theory, which was to have a profound influence on subsequent development of
mathematics, was made by Wilhelm Killing, who in 1888 published the first paper in a series entitled Die
Zusammensetzung der stetigen endlichen Transformationsgruppen (The composition of continuous finite
transformation groups) (Hawkins, p. 100). The work of Killing, later refined and generalized by Élie Cartan, led to
classification of semisimple Lie algebras, Cartan's theory of symmetric spaces, and Hermann Weyl's description of
representations of compact and semisimple Lie groups using highest weights.
Weyl brought the early period of the development of the theory of Lie groups to fruition, for not only did he classify
irreducible representations of semisimple Lie groups and connect the theory of groups with quantum mechanics, but
he also put Lie's theory itself on firmer footing by clearly enunciating the distinction between Lie's infinitesimal
groups (i.e., Lie algebras) and the Lie groups proper, and began investigations of topology of Lie groups (Borel
(2001), ). The theory of Lie groups was systematically reworked in modern mathematical language in a monograph
by Claude Chevalley.
Properties
• The diffeomorphism group of a Lie group acts transitively on the Lie group
• Every Lie group is parallelizable, and hence an orientable manifold (there is a bundle isomorphism between its
tangent bundle and the product of itself with the tangent space at the identity)
• Simple Lie groups are sometimes defined to be those that are simple as abstract groups, and sometimes defined to
be connected Lie groups with a simple Lie algebra. For example, SL2(R) is simple according to the second
definition but not according to the first. They have all been classified (for either definition).
• Semisimple Lie groups are Lie groups whose Lie algebra is a product of simple Lie algebras.[1] They are central
extensions of products of simple Lie groups.
The identity component of any Lie group is an open normal subgroup, and the quotient group is a discrete group.
The universal cover of any connected Lie group is a simply connected Lie group, and conversely any connected Lie
group is a quotient of a simply connected Lie group by a discrete normal subgroup of the center. Any Lie group G
can be decomposed into discrete, simple, and abelian groups in a canonical way as follows. Write
Gcon for the connected component of the identity
Gsol for the largest connected normal solvable subgroup
Gnil for the largest connected normal nilpotent subgroup
so that we have a sequence of normal subgroups
1 ⊆ Gnil ⊆ Gsol ⊆ Gcon ⊆ G.
Then
G/Gcon is discrete
Gcon/Gsol is a central extension of a product of simple connected Lie groups.
Gsol/Gnil is abelian. A connected abelian Lie group is isomorphic to a product of copies of R and the circle
group S1.
Gnil/1 is nilpotent, and therefore its ascending central series has all quotients abelian.
This can be used to reduce some problems about Lie groups (such as finding their unitary representations) to the
same problems for connected simple groups and nilpotent and solvable subgroups of smaller dimension.
obvious that the Lie algebra is independent of the representation we use. To get round these problems we give the
general definition of the Lie algebra of any Lie group (in 4 steps):
1. Vector fields on any smooth manifold M can be thought of as derivations X of the ring of smooth functions on the
manifold, and therefore form a Lie algebra under the Lie bracket [X, Y] = XY − YX, because the Lie bracket of any
two derivations is a derivation.
2. If G is any group acting smoothly on the manifold M, then it acts on the vector fields, and the vector space of
vector fields fixed by the group is closed under the Lie bracket and therefore also forms a Lie algebra.
3. We apply this construction to the case when the manifold M is the underlying space of a Lie group G, with G
acting on G = M by left translations Lg(h) = gh. This shows that the space of left invariant vector fields (vector
fields satisfying Lg*Xh = Xgh for every h in G, where Lg* denotes the differential of Lg) on a Lie group is a Lie
algebra under the Lie bracket of vector fields.
4. Any tangent vector at the identity of a Lie group can be extended to a left invariant vector field by left translating
the tangent vector to other points of the manifold. Specifically, the left invariant extension of an element v of the
tangent space at the identity is the vector field defined by v^g = Lg*v. This identifies the tangent space Te at the
identity with the space of left invariant vector fields, and therefore makes the tangent space at the identity into a
Lie algebra, called the Lie algebra of G, usually denoted by a Fraktur Thus the Lie bracket on is given
explicitly by [v, w] = [v^, w^]e.
This Lie algebra is finite-dimensional and it has the same dimension as the manifold G. The Lie algebra of G
determines G up to "local isomorphism", where two Lie groups are called locally isomorphic if they look the same
near the identity element. Problems about Lie groups are often solved by first solving the corresponding problem for
the Lie algebras, and the result for groups then usually follows easily. For example, simple Lie groups are usually
classified by first classifying the corresponding Lie algebras.
We could also define a Lie algebra structure on Te using right invariant vector fields instead of left invariant vector
fields. This leads to the same Lie algebra, because the inverse map on G can be used to identify left invariant vector
fields with right invariant vector fields, and acts as −1 on the tangent space Te.
The Lie algebra structure on Te can also be described as follows: the commutator operation
(x, y) → xyx−1y−1
on G × G sends (e, e) to e, so its derivative yields a bilinear operation on TeG. This bilinear operation is actually the
zero map, but the second derivative, under the proper identification of tangent spaces, yields an operation that
satisfies the axioms of a Lie bracket, and it is equal to twice the one defined through left-invariant vector fields.
property.
If we require that the Lie group be simply connected, then the global structure is determined by its Lie algebra: for
every finite dimensional Lie algebra over F there is a simply connected Lie group G with as Lie algebra, unique
up to isomorphism. Moreover every homomorphism between Lie algebras lifts to a unique homomorphism between
the corresponding simply connected Lie groups.
for matrices A. If G is any subgroup of GLn(R), then the exponential map takes the Lie algebra of G into G, so we
have an exponential map for all matrix groups.
The definition above is easy to use, but it is not defined for Lie groups that are not matrix groups, and it is not clear
that the exponential map of a Lie group does not depend on its representation as a matrix group. We can solve both
problems using a more abstract definition of the exponential map that works for all Lie groups, as follows.
Every vector v in determines a linear map from R to taking 1 to v, which can be thought of as a Lie algebra
homomorphism. Because R is the Lie algebra of the simply connected Lie group R, this induces a Lie group
homomorphism c : R → G so that
for all s and t. The operation on the right hand side is the group multiplication in G. The formal similarity of this
formula with the one valid for the exponential function justifies the definition
This is called the exponential map, and it maps the Lie algebra into the Lie group G. It provides a diffeomorphism
between a neighborhood of 0 in and a neighborhood of e in G. This exponential map is a generalization of the
exponential function for real numbers (because R is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of positive real numbers with
multiplication), for complex numbers (because C is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of non-zero complex numbers
with multiplication) and for matrices (because Mn(R) with the regular commutator is the Lie algebra of the Lie group
GLn(R) of all invertible matrices).
Because the exponential map is surjective on some neighbourhood N of e, it is common to call elements of the Lie
algebra infinitesimal generators of the group G. The subgroup of G generated by N is the identity component of G.
The exponential map and the Lie algebra determine the local group structure of every connected Lie group, because
of the Baker–Campbell–Hausdorff formula: there exists a neighborhood U of the zero element of , such that for u,
v in U we have
exp(u) exp(v) = exp(u + v + 1/2 [u, v] + 1/12 [[u, v], v] − 1/12 [[u, v], u] − ...)
where the omitted terms are known and involve Lie brackets of four or more elements. In case u and v commute, this
formula reduces to the familiar exponential law exp(u) exp(v) = exp(u + v).
The exponential map from the Lie algebra to the Lie group is not always onto, even if the group is connected (though
it does map onto the Lie group for connected groups that are either compact or nilpotent). For example, the
exponential map of SL2(R) is not surjective.
Lie group 163
Notes
[1] Sigurdur Helgason, "Differential Geometry, Lie Groups, and Symmetric Spaces", Academic Press, 1978, page 131.
References
• Adams, John Frank (1969), Lectures on Lie Groups, Chicago Lectures in Mathematics, Chicago: Univ. of
Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-00527-5.
• Borel, Armand (2001), Essays in the history of Lie groups and algebraic groups (http://books.google.com/
books?isbn=0821802887), History of Mathematics, 21, Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society,
MR1847105, ISBN 978-0-8218-0288-5
• Bourbaki, Nicolas, Elements of mathematics: Lie groups and Lie algebras. Chapters 1–3 ISBN 3-540-64242-0,
Chapters 4–6 ISBN 3-540-42650-7, Chapters 7–9 ISBN 3-540-43405-4
• Chevalley, Claude (1946), Theory of Lie groups, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-04990-4.
• Fulton, William; Harris, Joe (1991), Representation theory. A first course, Graduate Texts in Mathematics,
Readings in Mathematics, 129, New York: Springer-Verlag, MR1153249, ISBN 978-0-387-97527-6,
ISBN 978-0-387-97495-8
• Hall, Brian C. (2003), Lie Groups, Lie Algebras, and Representations: An Elementary Introduction, Springer,
ISBN 0-387-40122-9.
• Hawkins, Thomas (2000), Emergence of the theory of Lie groups (http://books.google.com/
books?isbn=978-0-387-98963-1), Sources and Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences,
Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, MR1771134, ISBN 978-0-387-98963-1 Borel's review (http://www.jstor.
org/stable/2695575)
• Knapp, Anthony W. (2002), Lie Groups Beyond an Introduction, Progress in Mathematics, 140 (2nd ed.), Boston:
Birkhäuser, ISBN 0-8176-4259-5.
• Rossmann, Wulf (2001), Lie Groups: An Introduction Through Linear Groups, Oxford Graduate Texts in
Mathematics, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198596837. The 2003 reprint corrects several typographical
Lie group 164
mistakes.
• Serre, Jean-Pierre (1965), Lie Algebras and Lie Groups: 1964 Lectures given at Harvard University, Lecture
notes in mathematics, 1500, Springer, ISBN 3-540-55008-9.
• Steeb, Willi-Hans (2007), Continuous Symmetries, Lie algebras, Differential Equations and Computer Algebra:
second edition, World Scientific Publishing, ISBN 981-270-809-X.
Galois group
In mathematics, more specifically in the area of modern algebra known as Galois theory, the Galois group of a
certain type of field extension is a specific group associated with the field extension. The study of field extensions
(and polynomials which give rise to them) via Galois groups is called Galois theory, so named in honor of Évariste
Galois who first discovered them.
For a more elementary discussion of Galois groups in terms of permutation groups, see the article on Galois theory.
Definition
Suppose that E is an extension of the field F (written as E/F and read E over F). Consider the set of all
automorphisms of E/F (that is, isomorphisms α from E to itself such that α(x) = x for every x in F). This set of
automorphisms with the operation of function composition forms a group, sometimes denoted by Aut(E/F).
If E/F is a Galois extension, then Aut(E/F) is called the Galois group of (the extension) E over F, and is usually
denoted by Gal(E/F).[1]
Examples
In the following examples F is a field, and C, R, Q are the fields of complex, real, and rational numbers,
respectively. The notation F(a) indicates the field extension obtained by adjoining an element a to the field F.
• Gal(F/F) is the trivial group that has a single element, namely the identity automorphism.
• Gal(C/R) has two elements, the identity automorphism and the complex conjugation automorphism.
• Aut(R/Q) is trivial. Indeed it can be shown that any Q-automorphism must preserve the ordering of the real
numbers and hence must be the identity.
• Aut(C/Q) is an infinite group.
• Gal(Q(√2)/Q) has two elements, the identity automorphism and the automorphism which exchanges √2 and −√2.
• Consider the field K = Q(³√2). The group Aut(K/Q) contains only the identity automorphism. This is because K is
not a normal extension, since the other two cube roots of 2 (both complex) are missing from the extension — in
other words K is not a splitting field.
• Consider now L = Q(³√2, ω), where ω is a primitive third root of unity. The group Gal(L/Q) is isomorphic to S3,
the dihedral group of order 6, and L is in fact the splitting field of x3 − 2 over Q.
• If q is a prime power, and if F = GF(q) and E = GF(qn) denote the Galois fields of order q and qn respectively,
then Gal(E/F) is cyclic of order n.
Galois group 165
Properties
The significance of an extension being Galois is that it obeys the fundamental theorem of Galois theory: the closed
(with respect to the Krull topology below) subgroups of the Galois group correspond to the intermediate fields of the
field extension.
If E/F is a Galois extension, then Gal(E/F) can be given a topology, called the Krull topology, that makes it into a
profinite group.
Notes
[1] Some authors refer to Aut(E/F) as the Galois group for arbitrary extensions E/F and use the corresponding notation, e.g. Jacobson 2009.
References
• Jacobson, Nathan (2009) [1985], Basic algebra I (Second ed.), Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-47189-1
• Lang, Serge (2002), Algebra, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 211 (Revised third ed.), New York:
Springer-Verlag, MR1878556, ISBN 978-0-387-95385-4
External links
• Galois Groups (http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath290/kmath290.htm) at MathPages
for some constants ajk in F; the matrix corresponding to T is then just the matrix with entries given by the ajk.
In a similar way, for a commutative ring R the group GL(n, R) may be interpreted as the group of automorphisms of
a free R-module M of rank n. One can also define GL(M) for any R-module, but in general this is not isomorphic to
GL(n, R) (for any n).
In terms of determinants
Over a field F, a matrix is invertible if and only if its determinant is nonzero. Therefore an alternative definition of
GL(n, F) is as the group of matrices with nonzero determinant.
Over a commutative ring R, one must be slightly more careful: a matrix over R is invertible if and only if its
determinant is a unit in R, that is, if its determinant is invertible in R. Therefore GL(n, R) may be defined as the
group of matrices whose determinants are units.
Over a non-commutative ring R, determinants are not at all well behaved. In this case, GL(n, R) may be defined as
the unit group of the matrix ring M(n, R).
As a Lie group
Real case
The general linear group GL(n,R) over the field of real numbers is a real Lie group of dimension n2. To see this, note
that the set of all n×n real matrices, Mn(R), forms a real vector space of dimension n2. The subset GL(n,R) consists
of those matrices whose determinant is non-zero. The determinant is a polynomial map, and hence GL(n,R) is a open
affine subvariety of Mn(R) (a non-empty open subset of Mn(R) in the Zariski topology), and therefore[2] a smooth
manifold of the same dimension.
The Lie algebra of GL(n,R), denoted consists of all n×n real matrices with the commutator serving as the Lie
bracket.
As a manifold, GL(n,R) is not connected but rather has two connected components: the matrices with positive
determinant and the ones with negative determinant. The identity component, denoted by GL+(n, R), consists of the
real n×n matrices with positive determinant. This is also a Lie group of dimension n2; it has the same Lie algebra as
GL(n,R).
The group GL(n,R) is also noncompact. "The"[3] maximal compact subgroup of GL(n, R) is the orthogonal group
O(n), while "the" maximal compact subgroup of GL+(n, R) is the special orthogonal group SO(n). As for SO(n), the
group GL+(n, R) is not simply connected (except when n=1), but rather has a fundamental group isomorphic to Z for
n=2 or Z2 for n>2.
General linear group 167
Complex case
The general linear GL(n,C) over the field of complex numbers is a complex Lie group of complex dimension n2. As
a real Lie group it has dimension 2n2. The set of all real matrices forms a real Lie subgroup.
The Lie algebra corresponding to GL(n,C) consists of all n×n complex matrices with the commutator serving as the
Lie bracket.
Unlike the real case, GL(n,C) is connected. This follows, in part, since the multiplicative group of complex numbers
C× is connected. The group manifold GL(n,C) is not compact; rather its maximal compact subgroup is the unitary
group U(n). As for U(n), the group manifold GL(n,C) is not simply connected but has a fundamental group
isomorphic to Z.
History
The general linear group over a prime field, GL(ν,p), was constructed and its order computed by Évariste Galois in
1832, in his last letter (to Chevalier) and second (of three) attached manuscripts, which he used in the context of
studying the Galois group of the general equation of order pν.[4]
The kernel of the map is just the special linear group. By the first isomorphism theorem we see that GL(n,F)/SL(n,F)
is isomorphic to F×. In fact, GL(n, F) can be written as a semidirect product of SL(n, F) by F×:
GL(n, F) = SL(n, F) ⋊ F×
When F is R or C, SL(n) is a Lie subgroup of GL(n) of dimension n2 − 1. The Lie algebra of SL(n) consists of all
n×n matrices over F with vanishing trace. The Lie bracket is given by the commutator.
The special linear group SL(n, R) can be characterized as the group of volume and orientation preserving linear
transformations of Rn.
The group SL(n, C) is simply connected while SL(n, R) is not. SL(n, R) has the same fundamental group as GL+(n,
R), that is, Z for n=2 and Z2 for n>2.
Other subgroups
Diagonal subgroups
The set of all invertible diagonal matrices forms a subgroup of GL(n, F) isomorphic to (F×)n. In fields like R and C,
these correspond to rescaling the space; the so called dilations and contractions.
A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix which is a constant times the identity matrix. The set of all nonzero scalar
matrices forms a subgroup of GL(n, F) isomorphic to F× . This group is the center of GL(n, F). In particular, it is a
normal, abelian subgroup.
The center of SL(n, F) is simply the set of all scalar matrices with unit determinant, and is isomorphic to the group of
nth roots of unity in the field F.
Classical groups
The so-called classical groups are subgroups of GL(V) which preserve some sort of bilinear form on a vector space
V. These include the
• orthogonal group, O(V), which preserves a non-degenerate quadratic form on V,
• symplectic group, Sp(V), which preserves a symplectic form on V (a non-degenerate alternating form),
• unitary group, U(V), which, when F = C, preserves a non-degenerate hermitian form on V.
These groups provide important examples of Lie groups.
Related groups
Affine group
The affine group Aff(n,F) is an extension of GL(n,F) by the group of translations in Fn. It can be written as a
semidirect product:
Aff(n, F) = GL(n, F) ⋉ Fn
where GL(n, F) acts on Fn in the natural manner. The affine group can be viewed as the group of all affine
transformations of the affine space underlying the vector space Fn.
One has analogous constructions for other subgroups of the general linear group: for instance, the special affine
group is the subgroup defined by the semidirect product, SL(n, F) ⋉ Fn, and the Poincaré group is the affine group
General linear group 169
See also
• List of finite simple groups
• SL2(R)
• Representation theory of SL2(R)
Notes
[1] Here rings are assumed to be associative and unital.
[2] Since the Zariski topology is coarser than the metric topology; equivalently, polynomial maps are continuous.
[3] A maximal compact subgroup is not unique, but is essentially unique, hence one often refers to "the" maximal compact subgroup.
[4] Galois, Évariste (1846). "Lettre de Galois à M. Auguste Chevalier" (http:/ / visualiseur. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ cb343487840/ date1846). Journal
des mathématiques pures et appliquées XI: 408–415. . Retrieved 2009-02-04, GL(ν,p) discussed on p. 410.
External links
• "GL(2,p) and GL(3,3) Acting on Points" (http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/GL2PAndGL33ActingOnPoints/
) by Ed Pegg, Jr., Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007.
Representation theory 170
Representation theory
Representation theory is a branch of mathematics that studies abstract algebraic structures by representing their
elements as linear transformations of vector spaces.[1] In essence, a representation makes an abstract algebraic object
more concrete by describing its elements by matrices and the algebraic operations in terms of matrix addition and
matrix multiplication. The algebraic objects amenable to such a description include groups, associative algebras and
Lie algebras. The most prominent of these (and historically the first) is the representation theory of groups, in which
elements of a group are represented by invertible matrices in such a way that the group operation is matrix
multiplication.[2]
Representation theory is a powerful tool because it reduces problems in abstract algebra to problems in linear
algebra, a subject which is well understood.[3] Furthermore, the vector space on which a group (for example) is
represented can be infinite dimensional, and by allowing it to be, for instance, a Hilbert space, methods of analysis
can be applied to the theory of groups.[4] Representation theory is also important in physics because, for example, it
describes how the symmetry group of a physical system affects the solutions of equations describing that system.[5]
A striking feature of representation theory is its pervasiveness in mathematics. There are two sides to this. First, the
applications of representation theory are diverse:[6] in addition to its impact on algebra, representation theory
illuminates and vastly generalizes Fourier analysis via harmonic analysis,[7] is deeply connected to geometry via
invariant theory and the Erlangen program,[8] and has a profound impact in number theory via automorphic forms
and the Langlands program.[9] The second aspect is the diversity of approaches to representation theory. The same
objects can be studied using methods from algebraic geometry, module theory, analytic number theory, differential
geometry, operator theory and topology.[10]
The success of representation theory has led to numerous generalizations. One of the most general is a categorical
one.[11] The algebraic objects to which representation theory applies can be viewed as particular kinds of categories,
and the representations as functors from the object category to the category of vector spaces. This description points
to two obvious generalizations: first, the algebraic objects can be replaced by more general categories; second the
target category of vector spaces can be replaced by other well-understood categories.
Definition
There are two ways to say what a representation is.[13] The first uses the idea of an action, generalizing the way that
matrices act on column vectors by matrix multiplication. A representation of a group G or (associative or Lie)
algebra A on a vector space V is a map
with two properties. First, for any g in G (or a in A), the map
is linear (over F), and similarly in the algebra cases. Second, if we introduce the notation g · v for Φ (g, v), then for
any g1, g2 in G and v in V:
where e is the identity element of G and g1g2 is product in G. The requirement for associative algebras is analogous,
except that associative algebras do not always have an identity element, in which case equation (1) is ignored.
Equation (2) is an abstract expression of the associativity of matrix multiplication. This doesn't hold for the matrix
commutator and also there is no identity element for the commutator. Hence for Lie algebras, the only requirement is
that for any x1, x2 in A and v in V:
where [x1, x2] is the Lie bracket, which generalizes the matrix commutator MN − NM.
The second way to define a representation focuses on the map φ sending g in G to φ(g): V → V, which satisfies
and similarly in the other cases. This approach is both more concise and more abstract.
• A representation of a group G on a vector space V is a group homomorphism φ: G → GL(V,F).
• A representation of an associative algebra A on a vector space V is an algebra homomorphism φ: A → EndF(V).
• A representation of a Lie algebra a on a vector space V is a Lie algebra homomorphism φ: a → gl(V,F).
Terminology
The vector space V is called the representation space of φ and its dimension (if finite) is called the dimension of
the representation. It is also common practice to refer to V itself as the representation when the homomorphism φ is
clear from the context; otherwise the notation (V,φ) can be used to denote a representation.
When V is of finite dimension n, one can choose a basis for V to identify V with Fn and hence recover a matrix
representation with entries in the field F.
An effective or faithful representation is a representation (V,φ) for which the homomorphism φ is injective.
Representation theory 172
for all g in G.
Equivariant maps for representations of an associative or Lie algebra are defined similarly. If α is invertible, then it is
said to be an isomorphism, in which case V and W (or, more precisely, φ and ψ) are isomorphic representations.
Isomorphic representations are, for all practical purposes, "the same": they provide the same information about the
group or algebra being represented. Representation theory therefore seeks to classify representations "up to
isomorphism".
The direct sum of two representations carries no more information about the group G than the two representations do
individually. If a representation is the direct sum of two proper nontrivial subrepresentations, it is said to be
decomposable. Otherwise, it is said to be indecomposable.
In favourable circumstances, every representation is a direct sum of irreducible representations: such representations
are said to be semisimple. In this case, it suffices to understand only the irreducible representations. In other cases,
one must understand how indecomposable representations can be built from irreducible representations as extensions
of a quotient by a subrepresentation.
Representation theory 173
Finite groups
Group representations are a very important tool in the study of finite groups.[15] They also arise in the applications of
finite group theory to geometry and crystallography.[16] Representations of finite groups exhibit many of the features
of the general theory and point the way to other branches and topics in representation theory.
Over a field of characteristic zero, the representation theory of a finite group G has a number of convenient
properties. First, the representations of G are semisimple (completely reducible). This is a consequence of Maschke's
theorem, which states that any subrepresentation V of a G-representation W has a G-invariant complement. One
proof is to choose any projection π from W to V and replace it by its average πG defined by
Modular representations
Modular representations of a finite group G are representations over a field whose characteristic is not coprime to
|G|, so that Maschke's theorem no longer holds (because |G| is not invertible in F and so one cannot divide by it).[17]
Nevertheless, Richard Brauer extended much of character theory to modular representations, and this theory played
an important role in early progress towards the classification of finite simple groups, especially for simple groups
whose characterization was not amenable to purely group-theoretic methods because their Sylow 2-subgroups were
"too small".[18]
As well as having applications to group theory, modular representations arise naturally in other branches of
mathematics, such as algebraic geometry, coding theory, combinatorics and number theory.
Unitary representations
A unitary representation of a group G is a linear representation φ of G on a real or (usually) complex Hilbert space V
such that φ(g) is a unitary operator for every g ∈ G. Such representations have been widely applied in quantum
mechanics since the 1920s, thanks in particular to the influence of Hermann Weyl,[19] and this has inspired the
development of the theory, most notably through the analysis of representations of the Poincare group by Eugene
Wigner.[20] One of the pioneers in constructing a general theory of unitary representations (for any group G rather
than just for particular groups useful in applications) was George Mackey, and an extensive theory was developed by
Harish-Chandra and others in the 1950s and 1960s.[21]
A major goal is to describe the "unitary dual", the space of irreducible unitary representations of G.[22] The theory is
most well-developed in the case that G is a locally compact (Hausdorff) topological group and the representations
are strongly continuous.[7] For G abelian, the unitary dual is just the space of characters, while for G compact, the
Peter-Weyl theorem shows that the irreducible unitary representations are finite dimensional and the unitary dual is
discrete.[23] For example, if G is the circle group S1, then the characters are given by integers, and the unitary dual is
Z.
For non-compact G, the question of which representations are unitary is a subtle one. Although irreducible unitary
representations must be "admissible" (as Harish-Chandra modules) and it is easy to detect which admissible
representations have a nondegenerate invariant sesquilinear form, it is hard to determine when this form is positive
definite. An effective description of the unitary dual, even for relatively well-behaved groups such as real reductive
Lie groups (discussed below), remains an important open problem in representation theory. It has been solved for
many particular groups, such as SL(2,R) and the Lorentz group.[24]
Representation theory 175
Harmonic analysis
The duality between the circle group S1 and the integers Z, or more generally, between a torus Tn and Zn is well
known in analysis as the theory of Fourier series, and the Fourier transform similarly expresses the fact that the space
of characters on a real vector space is the dual vector space. Thus unitary representation theory and harmonic
analysis are intimately related, and abstract harmonic analysis exploits this relationship, by developing the analysis
of functions on locally compact topological groups and related spaces.[7]
A major goal is to provide a general form of the Fourier transform and the Plancherel theorem. This is done by
constructing a measure on the unitary dual and an isomorphism between the regular representation of G on the space
L2(G) of square integrable functions on G and its representation on the space of L2 functions on the unitary dual.
Pontrjagin duality and the Peter-Weyl theorem achieve this for abelian and compact G respectively.[23] [25]
Another approach involves considering all unitary representations, not just the irreducible ones. These form a
category, and Tannaka-Krein duality provides a way to recover a compact group from its category of unitary
representations.
If the group is neither abelian nor compact, no general theory is known with an analogue of the Plancherel theorem
or Fourier inversion, although Alexander Grothendieck extended Tannaka-Krein duality to a relationship between
linear algebraic groups and tannakian categories.
Harmonic analysis has also been extended from the analysis of functions on a group G to functions on homogeneous
spaces for G. The theory is particularly well developed for symmetric spaces and provides a theory of automorphic
forms (discussed below).
Lie groups
A Lie group is a group which is also a smooth manifold. Many classical groups of matrices over the real or complex
numbers are Lie groups.[26] Many of the groups important in physics and chemistry are Lie groups, and their
representation theory is crucial to the application of group theory in those fields.[5]
The representation theory of Lie groups can be developed first by considering the compact groups, to which results
of compact representation theory apply.[22] This theory can be extended to finite dimensional representations of
semisimple Lie groups using Weyl's unitary trick: each semisimple real Lie group G has a complexification, which is
a complex Lie group Gc, and this complex Lie group has a maximal compact subgroup K. The finite dimensional
representations of G closely correspond to those of K.
A general Lie group is a semidirect product of a solvable Lie group and a semisimple Lie group (the Levi
decomposition).[27] The classification of representations of solvable Lie groups is intractable in general, but often
easy in practical cases. Representations of semidirect products can then be analysed by means of general results
called Mackey theory, which is a generalization of the methods used in Wigner's classification of representations of
the Poincaré group.
Lie algebras
A Lie algebra over a field F is a vector space over F equipped with a skew-symmetric bilinear operation called the
Lie bracket, which satisfies the Jacobi identity. Lie algebras arise in particular as tangent spaces to Lie groups at the
identity element, leading to their interpretation as "infinitesimal symmetries".[27] An important approach to the
representation theory of Lie groups is to study the corresponding representation theory of Lie algebras, but
representations of Lie algebras also have an intrinsic interest.[28]
Lie algebras, like Lie groups, have a Levi decomposition into semisimple and solvable parts, with the representation
theory of solvable Lie algebras being intractable in general. In contrast, the finite dimensional representations of
semisimple Lie algebras are completely understood, after work of Elie Cartan. A representation of a semisimple Lie
algebra g is analysed by choosing a Cartan subalgebra, which is essentially a generic maximal subalgebra h of g on
Representation theory 176
which the Lie bracket is zero ("abelian"). The representation of g can be decomposed into weight spaces which are
eigenspaces for the action of h and the infinitesimal analogue of characters. The structure of semisimple Lie algebras
then reduces the analysis of representations to easily understood combinatorics of the possible weights which can
occur.[27]
Lie superalgebras
Lie superalgebras are generalizations of Lie algebras in which the underlying vector space has a Z2-grading, and
skew-symmetry and Jacobi identity properties of the Lie bracket are modified by signs. Their representation theory is
similar to the representation theory of Lie algebras.[30]
Invariant theory
Invariant theory studies actions on algebraic varieties from the point of view of their effect on functions, which form
representations of the group. Classically, the theory dealt with the question of explicit description of polynomial
functions that do not change, or are invariant, under the transformations from a given linear group. The modern
approach analyses the decomposition of these representations into irreducibles.[32]
Invariant theory of infinite groups is inextricably linked with the development of linear algebra, especially, the
theories of quadratic forms and determinants. Another subject with strong mutual influence is projective geometry,
where invariant theory can be used to organize the subject, and during the 1960s, new life was breathed into the
subject by David Mumford in the form of his geometric invariant theory.[33]
The representation theory of semisimple Lie groups has its roots in invariant theory[26] and the strong links between
representation theory and algebraic geometry have many parallels in differential geometry, beginning with Felix
Klein's Erlangen program and Elie Cartan's connections, which place groups and symmetry at the heart of
geometry.[34] Modern developments link representation theory and invariant theory to areas as diverse as holonomy,
differential operators and the theory of several complex variables.
Representation theory 177
Associative algebras
In one sense, associative algebra representations generalize both representations of groups and Lie algebras. A
representation of a group induces a representation of a corresponding group ring or group algebra, while
representations of a Lie algebra correspond bijectively to representations of its universal enveloping algebra.
However, the representation theory of general associative algebras does not have all of the nice properties of the
representation theory of groups and Lie algebras.
Module theory
When considering representations of an associative algebra, one can forget the underlying field, and simply regard
the associative algebra as a ring, and its representations as modules. This approach is surprisingly fruitful: many
results in representation theory can be interpreted as special cases of results about modules over a ring.
Generalizations
Set-theoretical representations
A set-theoretic representation (also known as a group action or permutation representation) of a group G on a set X
is given by a function ρ from G to XX, the set of functions from X to X, such that for all g1, g2 in G and all x in X:
This condition and the axioms for a group imply that ρ(g) is a bijection (or permutation) for all g in G. Thus we may
equivalently define a permutation representation to be a group homomorphism from G to the symmetric group SX of
X.
Representations of categories
Since groups are categories, one can also consider representation of other categories. The simplest generalization is
to monoids, which are categories with one object. Groups are monoids for which every morphism is invertible.
General monoids have representations in any category. In the category of sets, these are monoid actions, but monoid
representations on vector spaces and other objects can be studied.
More generally, one can relax the assumption that the category being represented has only one object. In full
generality, this is simply the theory of functors between categories, and little can be said.
One special case has had a significant impact on representation theory, namely the representation theory of
quivers.[11] A quiver is simply a directed graph (with loops and multiple arrows allowed), but it can be made into a
category (and also an algebra) by considering paths in the graph. Representations of such categories/algebras have
illuminated several aspects of representation theory, for instance by allowing non-semisimple representation theory
questions about a group to be reduced in some cases to semisimple representation theory questions about a quiver.
Representation theory 179
Notes
[1] Classic texts on representation theory include Curtis & Reiner (1962) and Serre (1977). Other excellent sources are Fulton & Harris (1991)
and Goodman & Wallach (1998).
[2] For the history of the representation theory of finite groups, see Lam (1998). For algebraic and Lie groups, see Borel (2001).
[3] There are many textbooks on vector spaces and linear algebra. For an advanced treatment, see Kostrikin & Manin (1997).
[4] Sally & Vogan 1989.
[5] Sternberg 1994.
[6] Lam 1998, p. 372.
[7] Folland 1995.
[8] Goodman & Wallach 1998, Olver 1999, Sharpe 1997.
[9] Borel & Casselman 1979, Gelbert 1984.
[10] See the previous footnotes and also Borel (2001).
[11] Simson, Skowronski & Assem 2007.
[12] Fulton & Harris 1991, Simson, Skowronski & Assem 2007, Humphreys 1972.
[13] This material can be found in standard textbooks, such as Curtis & Reiner (1962), Fulton & Harris (1991), Goodman & Wallach (1998),
Gordon & Liebeck (1993), Humphreys (1972), Jantzen (2003), Knapp (2001) and Serre (1977).
[14] The representation {0} of dimension zero is considered to be neither reducible nor irreducible, just like the number 1 is considered to be
neither composite nor prime.
[15] Alperin 1986, Lam 1998, Serre 1977.
[16] Kim 1999.
[17] Serre 1977, Part III
[18] Alperin 1986.
[19] See Weyl 1928.
[20] Wigner 1939.
[21] Borel 2001.
[22] Knapp 2001.
[23] Peter & Weyl 1927.
[24] Bargmann 1947.
[25] Pontrjagin 1934.
[26] Weyl 1946.
[27] Fulton & Harris 1991.
[28] Humphreys 1972a.
[29] Kac 1990.
[30] Kac 1977.
[31] Humphreys 1972b, Jantzen 2003.
[32] Olver 1999.
[33] Mumford, Fogarty & Kirwan 1994.
[34] Sharpe 1997.
[35] Borel & Casselman 1979.
[36] Gelbart 1984.
References
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Representation Theory of Finite Groups, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521449267.
• Bargmann, V. (1947), "Irreducible unitary representations of the Lorenz group" (http://jstor.org/stable/
1969129), Annals of Mathematics (Annals of Mathematics) 48 (3): 568–640, doi:10.2307/1969129.
• Borel, Armand (2001), Essays in the History of Lie Groups and Algebraic Groups, American Mathematical
Society, ISBN 978-0821802885.
• Borel, Armand; Casselman, W. (1979), Automorphic Forms, Representations, and L-functions, American
Mathematical Society, ISBN 978-0821814352.
• Curtis, Charles W.; Reiner, Irving (1962), Representation Theory of Finite Groups and Associative Algebras,
John Wiley & Sons (Reedition 2006 by AMS Bookstore), ISBN 978-0470189757 (ISBN 978-0821840665).
• Gelbart, Stephen (1984), "An Elementary Introduction to the Langlands Program" (http://www.ams.org/bull/
1984-10-02/S0273-0979-1984-15237-6/home.html), Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 10 (2):
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• Folland, Gerald B. (1995), A Course in Abstract Harmonic Analysis, CRC Press, ISBN 978-0849384905.
• Fulton, William; Harris, Joe (1991), Representation theory. A first course, Graduate Texts in Mathematics,
Readings in Mathematics, 129, New York: Springer-Verlag, MR1153249, ISBN 978-0-387-97527-6,
ISBN 978-0-387-97495-8.
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Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-44590-0.
• Helgason, Sigurdur (1978), Differential Geometry, Lie groups and Symmetric Spaces, Academic Press, ISBN
978-0-12-338460-7
• Humphreys, James E. (1972a), Introduction to Lie Algebras and Representation Theory, Birkhäuser,
ISBN 978-0387900537.
• Humphreys, James E. (1972b), Linear Algebraic Groups, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 21, Berlin, New York:
Springer-Verlag, MR0396773, ISBN 978-0-387-90108-4
• Jantzen, Jens Carsten (2003), Representations of Algebraic Groups, American Mathematical Society,
ISBN 978-0821835272.
• Kac, Victor G. (1977), "Lie superalgebras", Advances in Mathematics 26 (1): 8–96,
doi:10.1016/0001-8708(77)90017-2.
• Kac, Victor G. (1990), Infinite Dimensional Lie Algebras (3rd ed.), Cambridge University Press,
ISBN 978-0521466936.
• Knapp, Anthony W. (2001), Representation Theory of Semisimple Groups: An Overview Based on Examples,
Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691090894.
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Applications to Molecules and Crystals, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521640626.
• Kostrikin, A. I.; Manin, Yuri I. (1997), Linear Algebra and Geometry, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-9056990497.
• Lam, T. Y. (1998), "Representations of finite groups: a hundred years", Notices of the AMS (American
Mathematical Society) 45 (3,4): 361–372 (Part I) (http://www.ams.org/notices/199803/lam.pdf), 465–474
(Part II) (http://www.ams.org/notices/199804/lam2.pdf).
• Yurii I. Lyubich. Introduction to the Theory of Banach Representations of Groups. Translated from the 1985
Russian-language edition (Kharkov, Ukraine). Birkhäuser Verlag. 1988.
• Mumford, David; Fogarty, J.; Kirwan, F. (1994), Geometric invariant theory, Ergebnisse der Mathematik und
ihrer Grenzgebiete (2) [Results in Mathematics and Related Areas (2)], 34 (3rd ed.), Berlin, New York:
Springer-Verlag, MR0214602(1st ed. 1965) MR0719371 (2nd ed.) MR1304906(3rd ed.),
ISBN 978-3-540-56963-3
• Olver, Peter J. (1999), Classical invariant theory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-55821-2.
• Peter, F.; Weyl, Hermann (1927), "Die Vollständigkeit der primitiven Darstellungen einer geschlossenen
kontinuierlichen Gruppe", Mathematische Annalen 97: 737–755, doi:10.1007/BF01447892.
• Pontrjagin, Lev S. (1934), "The theory of topological commutative groups" (http://jstor.org/stable/1968438),
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Springer, ISBN 978-0387947327.
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Associative Algebras, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521882187.
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translated H.P. Robertson, 1931 ed.), S. Hirzel, Leipzig (reprinted 1950, Dover), ISBN 978-0486602691.
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University Press (reprinted 1997), ISBN 978-0691057569.
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Symmetry in physics
In physics, symmetry includes all features of a physical system that exhibit the property of symmetry—that is, under
certain transformations, aspects of these systems are "unchanged", according to a particular observation. A
symmetry of a physical system is a physical or mathematical feature of the system (observed or intrinsic) that is
"preserved" under some change.
The transformations may be continuous (such as rotation of a circle) or discrete (e.g., reflection of a bilaterally
symmetric figure, or rotation of a regular polygon). Continuous and discrete transformations give rise to
corresponding types of symmetries. Continuous symmetries can be described by Lie groups while discrete
symmetries are described by finite groups (see Symmetry group). Symmetries are frequently amenable to
mathematical formulation and can be exploited to simplify many problems.
An important example of such symmetry is the invariance of the form of physical laws under arbitrary differentiable
coordinate transformations.
Symmetry as invariance
Invariance is specified mathematically by transformations that leave some quantity unchanged. This idea can apply
to basic real-world observations. For example, temperature may be constant throughout a room. Since the
temperature is independent of position within the room, the temperature is invariant under a shift in the measurer's
position.
Similarly, a uniform sphere rotated about its center will appear exactly as it did before the rotation. The sphere is
said to exhibit spherical symmetry. A rotation about any axis of the sphere will preserve how the sphere "looks".
Invariance in force
The above ideas lead to the useful idea of invariance when discussing observed physical symmetry; this can be
applied to symmetries in forces as well.
For example, an electrical wire is said to exhibit cylindrical symmetry, because the electric field strength at a given
distance r from an electrically charged wire of infinite length will have the same magnitude at each point on the
surface of a cylinder (whose axis is the wire) with radius r. Rotating the wire about its own axis does not change its
position, hence it will preserve the field. The field strength at a rotated position is the same, but its direction is
rotated accordingly. These two properties are interconnected through the more general property that rotating any
system of charges causes a corresponding rotation of the electric field.
In Newton's theory of mechanics, given two bodies, each with mass m, starting from rest at the origin and moving
along the x-axis in opposite directions, one with speed v1 and the other with speed v2 the total kinetic energy of the
system (as calculated from an observer at the origin) is 1⁄2m(v12 + v22) and remains the same if the velocities are
interchanged. The total kinetic energy is preserved under a reflection in the y-axis.
Symmetry in physics 182
The last example above illustrates another way of expressing symmetries, namely through the equations that describe
some aspect of the physical system. The above example shows that the total kinetic energy will be the same if v1 and
v2 are interchanged.
Continuous symmetries
The two examples of rotational symmetry described above - spherical and cylindrical - are each instances of
continuous symmetry. These are characterised by invariance following a continuous change in the geometry of the
system. For example, the wire may be rotated through any angle about its axis and the field strength will be the same
on a given cylinder. Mathematically, continuous symmetries are described by continuous or smooth functions. An
important subclass of continuous symmetries in physics are spacetime symmetries.
Spacetime symmetries
Continuous spacetime symmetries are symmetries involving transformations of space and time. These may be further
classified as spatial symmetries, involving only the spatial geometry associated with a physical system; temporal
symmetries, involving only changes in time; or spatio-temporal symmetries, involving changes in both space and
time.
• Time translation: A physical system may have the same features over a certain interval of time ; this is
expressed mathematically as invariance under the transformation for any real numbers t and a in the
interval. For example, in classical mechanics, a particle solely acted upon by gravity will have gravitational
potential energy when suspended from a height above the Earth's surface. Assuming no change in the
height of the particle, this will be the total gravitational potential energy of the particle at all times. In other
words, by considering the state of the particle at some time (in seconds) and also at , say, the particle's
total gravitational potential energy will be preserved.
• Spatial translation: These spatial symmetries are represented by transformations of the form and
describe those situations where a property of the system does not change with a continuous change in location.
For example, the temperature in a room may be independent of where the thermometer is located in the room.
• Spatial rotation: These spatial symmetries are classified as proper rotations and improper rotations. The former
are just the 'ordinary' rotations; mathematically, they are represented by square matrices with unit determinant.
The latter are represented by square matrices with determinant -1 and consist of a proper rotation combined with a
spatial reflection (inversion). For example, a sphere has proper rotational symmetry. Other types of spatial
rotations are described in the article Rotation symmetry.
• Poincaré transformations: These are spatio-temporal symmetries which preserve distances in Minkowski
spacetime, i.e. they are isometries of Minkowski space. They are studied primarily in special relativity. Those
isometries that leave the origin fixed are called Lorentz transformations and give rise to the symmetry known as
Lorentz covariance.
• Projective symmetries: These are spatio-temporal symmetries which preserve the geodesic structure of spacetime.
They may be defined on any smooth manifold, but find many applications in the study of exact solutions in
general relativity.
Symmetry in physics 183
• Inversion transformations: These are spatio-temporal symmetries which generalise Poincaré transformations to
include other conformal one-to-one transformations on the space-time coordinates. Lengths are not invariant
under inversion transformations but there is a cross-ratio on four points that is invariant.
Mathematically, spacetime symmetries are usually described by smooth vector fields on a smooth manifold. The
underlying local diffeomorphisms associated with the vector fields correspond more directly to the physical
symmetries, but the vector fields themselves are more often used when classifying the symmetries of the physical
system.
Some of the most important vector fields are Killing vector fields which are those spacetime symmetries that
preserve the underlying metric structure of a manifold. In rough terms, Killing vector fields preserve the distance
between any two points of the manifold and often go by the name of isometries. The article Isometries in physics
discusses these symmetries in more detail.
Discrete symmetries
A discrete symmetry is a symmetry that describes non-continuous changes in a system. For example, a square
possesses discrete rotational symmetry, as only rotations by multiples of right angles will preserve the square's
original appearance. Discrete symmetries sometimes involve some type of 'swapping', these swaps usually being
called reflections or interchanges.
• Time reversal: Many laws of physics describe real phenomena when the direction of time is reversed.
Mathematically, this is represented by the transformation, . For example, Newton's second law of
motion still holds if, in the equation , is replaced by . This may be illustrated by describing the
motion of a particle thrown up vertically (neglecting air resistance). For such a particle, position is symmetric
with respect to the instant that the object is at its maximum height. Velocity at reversed time is reversed.
• Spatial inversion: These are represented by transformations of the form and indicate an invariance
property of a system when the coordinates are 'inverted'.
• Glide reflection: These are represented by a composition of a translation and a reflection. These symmetries occur
in some crystals and in some planar symmetries, known as wallpaper symmetries.
C, P, and T symmetries
The Standard model of particle physics has three related natural near-symmetries. These state that the actual universe
about us is indistinguishable from one where:
• Every particle is replaced with its antiparticle. This is C-symmetry (charge symmetry);
• Everything appears as if reflected in a mirror. This is P-symmetry (parity symmetry);
• The direction of time is reversed. This is T-symmetry (time symmetry).
T-symmetry is counterintuitive (surely the future and the past are not symmetrical) but explained by the fact that the
Standard model describes local properties, not global ones like entropy. To properly reverse the direction of time,
one would have to put the big bang and the resulting low-entropy state in the "future." Since we perceive the "past"
("future") as having lower (higher) entropy than the present (see perception of time), the inhabitants of this
hypothetical time-reversed universe would perceive the future in the same way as we perceive the past.
These symmetries are near-symmetries because each is broken in the present-day universe. However, the Standard
Model predicts that the combination of the three (that is, the simultaneous application of all three transformations)
must be a symmetry, called CPT symmetry. CP violation, the violation of the combination of C- and P-symmetry, is
necessary for the presence of significant amounts of baryonic matter in the universe and thus is a prerequisite for the
existence of life. CP violation is a fruitful area of current research in particle physics.
Symmetry in physics 184
Supersymmetry
A type of symmetry known as supersymmetry has been used to try to make theoretical advances in the standard
model. Supersymmetry is based on the idea that there is another physical symmetry beyond those already developed
in the standard model, specifically a symmetry between bosons and fermions. Supersymmetry asserts that each type
of boson has, as a supersymmetric partner, a fermion, called a superpartner, and vice versa. Supersymmetry has not
yet been experimentally verified: no known particle has the correct properties to be a superpartner of any other
known particle. If superpartners exist they must have masses greater than current particle accelerators can generate.
PxSU(2) G-parity
References
General readers
• Leon Lederman and Christopher T. Hill (2005) Symmetry and the Beautiful Universe. Amherst NY: Prometheus
Books.
• Schumm, Bruce (2004) Deep Down Things. Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
• Victor J. Stenger (2000) Timeless Reality: Symmetry, Simplicity, and Multiple Universes. Buffalo NY:
Prometheus Books. Chpt. 12 is a gentle introduction to symmetry, invariance, and conservation laws.
• Anthony Zee (2007) Fearful Symmetry: The search for beauty in modern physics, [1] 2nd ed. Princeton University
Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00946-9. 1986 1st ed. published by Macmillan.
Symmetry in physics 186
Technical
• Brading, K., and Castellani, E., eds. (2003) Symmetries in Physics: Philosophical Reflections. Cambridge Univ.
Press.
• -------- (2007) "Symmetries and Invariances in Classical Physics" in Butterfield, J., and John Earman, eds.,
Philosophy of Physic Part B. North Holland: 1331-68.
• Debs, T. and Redhead, M. (2007) Objectivity, Invariance, and Convention: Symmetry in Physical Science.
Harvard Univ. Press.
• John Earman (2002) "Laws, Symmetry, and Symmetry Breaking: Invariance, Conservations Principles, and
Objectivity. [2]" Address to the 2002 meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association.
• Mainzer, K. (1996) Symmetries of nature. Berlin: De Gruyter.
• Thompson, William J. (1994) Angular Momentum: An Illustrated Guide to Rotational Symmetries for Physical
Systems. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-55264.
• Bas Van Fraassen (1989) Laws and symmetry. Oxford Univ. Press.
• Eugene Wigner (1967) Symmetries and Reflections. Indiana Univ. Press.
External links
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Symmetry [3]" -- by K. Brading and E. Castellani.
References
[1] http:/ / press. princeton. edu/ titles/ 8509. html
[2] http:/ / philsci-archive. pitt. edu/ archive/ 00000878/ 00/ PSA2002. pdf
[3] http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ symmetry-breaking/
Space group
In crystallography, the space group (or crystallographic group, or Fedorov group) of a crystal is a description of
the symmetry of the crystal, and can have one of 230 types. In mathematics space groups are also studied in
dimensions other than 3 where they are sometimes called Bieberbach groups, and are discrete cocompact groups of
isometries of an oriented Euclidean space.
A definitive source regarding 3-dimensional space groups is the International Tables for Crystallography (Hahn
(2002)).
History
The space groups in 3 dimensions were first enumerated by Fyodorov (1891), and shortly afterwards were
independently enumerated by Barlow (1894) and Schönflies (1891). These first enumerations all contained several
minor mistakes, and the correct list of 230 space groups was found during correspondence between Fyodorov and
Schönflies.
Space groups in 2 dimensions are the 17 wallpaper groups which have been known for several centuries.
Space group 187
Translations
The translations form a normal abelian subgroup of rank 3, called the Bravais lattice. There are 14 possible types of
Bravais lattice. The quotient of the space group by the Bravais lattice is a finite group which is one of the 32 possible
point groups.
Glide planes
A glide plane is a reflection in a plane, followed by a translation parallel with that plane. This is noted by a, b or c,
depending on which axis the glide is along. There is also the n glide, which is a glide along the half of a diagonal of a
face, and the d glide, which is a fourth of the way along either a face or space diagonal of the unit cell. The latter is
called the diamond glide plane as it features in the diamond structure.
Screw axes
A screw axis is a rotation about an axis, followed by a translation along the direction of the axis. These are noted by
a number, n, to describe the degree of rotation, where the number is how many operations must be applied to
complete a full rotation (e.g., 3 would mean a rotation one third of the way around the axis each time). The degree of
translation is then added as a subscript showing how far along the axis the translation is, as a portion of the parallel
lattice vector. So, 21 is a twofold rotation followed by a translation of 1/2 of the lattice vector.
trigonal).
In the international short symbol the first symbol (31 in this example) denotes the symmetry along the major
axis (c-axis in trigonal cases), the second (2 in this case) along axes of secondary importance (a and b) and the
third symbol the symmetry in another direction. In the trigonal case there also exists a space group P3112. In
this space group the twofold axes are not along the a and b-axes but in a direction rotated by 30o.
The international symbols and international short symbols for some of the space groups were changed slightly
between 1935 and 2002, so several space groups have 4 different international symbols in use.
• Hall notation. Space group notation with an explicit origin. Rotation, translation and axis-direction symbols are
clearly separated and inversion centers are explicitly defined. The construction and format of the notation make it
particularly suited to computer generation of symmetry information. For example, group number 3 has three Hall
symbols: P 2y (P 1 2 1), P 2 (P 1 1 2), P 2x (P 2 1 1).
• Schönflies notation. The space groups with given point group are numbered by 1, 2, 3, ... (in the same order as
their international number) and this number is added as a superscript to the Schönflies symbol for the point group.
For example, groups numbers 3 to 5 whose point group is C2 have Schönflies symbols C12, C22, C32.
• Shubnikov symbol
• 2D:Orbifold notation and 3D:Fibrifold notation. As the name suggests, the orbifold notation describes the
orbifold, given by the quotient of Euclidean space by the space group, rather than generators of the space group. It
was introduced by Conway and Thurston, and is not used much outside mathematics. Some of the space groups
have several different fibrifolds associated to them, so have several different fibrifold symbols.
(Crystallographic) space group types (230 in three dimensions). Two space groups, considered as subgroups of the group of affine
transformations of space, have the same space group type if they are conjugate by an orientation-preserving affine transformation. In three
dimensions,for 11 of the affine space groups, there is no orientation-preserving map from the group to its mirror image, so if one distinguishes
groups from their mirror images these each split into two cases. So there are 54+11=65 space group types that preserve orientation.
Affine space group types (219 in three dimensions). Two space groups, considered as subgroups of the group of affine transformations of space,
have the same affine space group type if they are conjugate under an affine transformation. The affine space group type is determined by the
underlying abstract group of the space group. In three dimensions there are 54 affine space group types that preserve orientation.
Arithmetic crystal classes (73 in three dimensions). These are determined by the point group together with the action of the point group on the
subgroup of translations. In other words the arithmetic crystal classes correspond to conjugacy classes of finite subgroup of the general linear group
GLn(Z) over the integers. A space group is called symmorphic (or split) if there is a point such that all symmetries are the product of asymmetry
fixing this point and a translation. Equivalently, a space group is symmorphic if it is a semidirect product of its point group with its translation
subgroup. There are 73 symmorphic space groups, with exactly one in each arithmetic crystal class. There are also 157 nonsymmorphic space group
types with varying numbers in the arithmetic crystal classes.
(geometric) Crystal classes (32 in three dimensions). The crystal class of a space Bravais flocks (14 in three dimensions). These are determined
group is determined by its point group: the quotient by the subgroup of by the underlying Bravais lattice type. These correspond to
translations, acting on the lattice. Two space groups are in the same crystal class conjugacy classes of lattice point groups in GL2(Z), where the
if and only if their point groups, which are subgroups of GL2(Z), are conjugate in lattice point group is the group of symmetries of the underlying
the larger group GL2(Q). lattice that fix a point of the lattice, and contains the point
group.
Space group 189
Crystal systems. (7 in three dimensions) Crystal systems are an ad hoc Lattice systems (7 in three dimensions). The lattice system of a
modification of the lattice systems to make them compatible with the space group is determined by the conjugacy class of the lattice
classification according to point groups. They differ from crystal families in that point group (a subgroup of GL2(Z)) in the larger group GL2(Q).
the hexagonal crystal family is split into two subsets, called the trigonal and In three dimensions the lattice point group can have one of the 7
hexagonal crystal systems. The trigonal crystal system is larger than the different orders 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 24, or 48. The hexagonal crystal
rhombohedral lattice system, the hexagonal crystal system is smaller than the family is split into two subsets, called the rhombohedral and
hexagonal lattice system, and the remaining crystal systems and lattice systems hexagonal lattice systems.
are the same.
Crystal families (6 in three dimensions). The point group of a space group does not quite determine its lattice system, because occasionally two
space groups with the same point group may be in different lattice systems. Crystal families are formed from lattice systems by merging the two
lattice systems whenever this happens, so that the crystal family of a space group is determined by either its lattice system or its point group. In 3
dimensions the only two lattice families that get merged in this way are the hexagonal and rhombohedral lattice systems, which are combined into
the hexagonal crystal family. The 6 crystal families in 3 dimensions are called triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombal, tetragonal, hexagonal, and cubic.
Crystal families are commonly used in popular books on crystals, where they are sometimes called crystal systems.
Conway, Delgado Friedrichs, and Huson et al. (2001) gave another classification of the space groups, according to
the fibrifold structures on the corresponding orbifold. They divided the 219 affine space groups into reducible and
irreducible groups. The reducible groups fall into 17 classes corresponding to the 17 wallpaper groups, and the
remaining 35 irreducible groups are the same as the cubic groups and are classified separately.
Bieberbach's theorems
In n dimensions, an affine space group, or Bieberbach group, is a discrete subgroup of isometries of n-dimensional
Euclidean space with a compact fundamental domain. Bieberbach (1911, 1912) proved that the subgroup of
translations of any such group contains n linearly independent translations, and is a free abelian subgroup of finite
index, and is also the unique maximal normal abelian subgroup. He also showed that in any dimension n there are
only a finite number of possibilities for the isomorphism class of the underlying group of a space group, and
moreover the action of the group on Euclidean space is unique up to conjugation by affine transformations. This
answers part of Hilbert's 18th problem. Zassenhaus (1948) showed that conversely any group that is the extension of
Zn by a finite group acting faithfully is an affine space group. Combining these results shows that classifying space
groups in n dimensions up to conjugation by affine transformations is essentially the same as classifying
isomorphism classes for groups that are extensions of Zn by a finite group acting faithfully.
It is essential in Bieberbach's theorems to assume that the group acts as isometries; the theorems do not generalize to
discrete cocompact groups of affine transformations of Euclidean space. A counter-example is given by the
3-dimensional Heisenberg group of the integers acting by translations on the Heisenberg group of the reals,
identified with 3-dimensional Euclidean space. This is a discrete cocompact group of affine transformations of space,
but does not contain a subgroup Z3.
0 1 1 1 1 Trivial group
5 189 955 222018 Plesken & Schulz (2000) enumerated the ones of
dimension 5
6 7104 28934974 28927922 Plesken & Schulz (2000) enumerated the ones of
dimension 6
Hermann-Mauguin Schönflies
Triclinic (2) 1 C1 1 P1
1 Ci 2 P1
Orthorhombic 222 D2 16-24 P222, P2221, P21212, P212121, C2221, C222, F222, I222, I212121
(59)
mm2 C2v 25-46 Pmm2, Pmc21, Pcc2, Pma2, Pca21, Pnc2, Pmn21, Pba2, Pna21, Pnn2, Cmm2,
Cmc21, Ccc2, Amm2, Aem2, Ama2, Aea2, Fmm2, Fdd2, Imm2, Iba2, Ima2
mmm D2h 47-74 Pmmm, Pnnn, Pccm, Pban, Pmma, Pnna, Pmna, Pcca, Pbam, Pccn, Pbcm, Pnnm,
Pmmn, Pbcn, Pbca, Pnma, Cmcm, Cmce, Cmmm, Cccm, Cmme, Ccce, Fmmm,
Fddd, Immm, Ibam, Ibca, Imma
4 S4 81-82 P4, I4
422 D4 89-98 P422, P4212, P4122, P41212, P4222, P42212, P4322, P43212, I422, I4122
4mm C4v 99-110 P4mm, P4bm, P42cm, P42nm, P4cc, P4nc, P42mc, P42bc, I4mm, I4cm, I41md, I41cd
42m D2d 111-122 P42m, P42c, P421m, P421c, P4m2, P4c2, P4b2, P4n2, I4m2, I4c2, I42m, I42d
4/mmm D4h 123-142 P4/mmm, P4/mcc, P4/nbm, P4/nnc, P4/mbm, P4/mnc, P4/nmm, P4/ncc, P42/mmc,
P42/mcm, P42/nbc, P42/nnm, P42/mbc, P42/mnm, P42/nmc, P42/ncm, I4/mmm,
I4/mcm, I41/amd, I41/acd
3 S6 147-148 P3, R3
6 C3h 174 P6
432 O 207-214 P432, P4232, F432, F4132, I432, P4332, P4132, I4132
m3m Oh 221-230 Pm3m, Pn3n, Pm3n, Pn3m, Fm3m, Fm3c, Fd3m, Fd3c, Im3m, Ia3d
Note. An e plane is a double glide plane, one having glides in two different directions. They are found in five space
groups, all in the orthorhombic system and with a centered lattice. The use of the symbol e became official with
Hahn (2002).
The lattice system can be found as follows. If the crystal system is not trigonal then the lattice system is of the same
type. If the crystal system is trigonal, then the lattice system is hexagonal unless the space group is one of the seven
in the rhombohedral lattice system consisting of the 7 trigonal space groups in the table above whose name begins
with R. (The term rhombohedral system is also sometimes used as an alternative name for the whole trigonal
system.) The hexagonal lattice system is larger than the hexagonal crystal system, and consists of the hexagonal
crystal system together with the 18 groups of the trigonal crystal system other than the seven whose names begin
with R.
Space group 192
The Bravais lattice of the space group is determined by the lattice system together with the initial letter of its name,
which for the non-rhombohedral groups is P, I, F, or C, standing for the principal, body centered, face centered, or
C-face centered lattices.
References
• Barlow, W (1894), "Über die geometrischen Eigenschaften starrer Strukturen und ihre Anwendung auf Kristalle",
Z. Kristallogr. 23: 1–63
• Bieberbach, Ludwig (1911), "Über die Bewegungsgruppen der Euklidischen Räume", Mathematische Annalen 70
(3): 297–336, doi:10.1007/BF01564500, ISSN 0025-5831
• Bieberbach, Ludwig (1912), "Über die Bewegungsgruppen der Euklidischen Räume (Zweite Abhandlung.) Die
Gruppen mit einem endlichen Fundamentalbereich", Mathematische Annalen 72 (3): 400–412,
doi:10.1007/BF01456724, ISSN 0025-5831
• Brown, Harold; Bülow, Rolf; Neubüser, Joachim; Wondratschek, Hans; Zassenhaus, Hans (1978),
Crystallographic groups of four-dimensional space, New York: Wiley-Interscience [John Wiley & Sons],
MR0484179, ISBN 978-0-471-03095-9
• Burckhardt, Johann Jakob (1947), Die Bewegungsgruppen der Kristallographie, Lehrbücher und Monographien
aus dem Gebiete der exakten Wissenschaften, 13, Verlag Birkhäuser, Basel, MR0020553
• Conway, John Horton; Delgado Friedrichs, Olaf; Huson, Daniel H.; Thurston, William P. (2001), "On
three-dimensional space groups" [5], Beiträge zur Algebra und Geometrie. Contributions to Algebra and
Geometry 42 (2): 475–507, MR1865535, ISSN 0138-4821
• Fedorov, E. S. (1891), "Symmetry of Regular Systems of Figures", Zap. Mineral. Obch. 28 (2): 1–146
• Fedorov, E. S. (1971), Symmetry of crystals, ACA Monograph, 7, American Crystallographic Association
• Hahn, Th. (2002), Hahn, Theo, ed., International Tables for Crystallography, Volume A: Space Group Symmetry
[6]
, A (5th ed.), Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, doi:10.1107/97809553602060000100,
ISBN 978-0-7923-6590-7
• Hall, S.R. (1981), "Space-Group Notation with an Explicit Origin", Acta Cryst. A37: 517–525
• Kim, Shoon K. (1999), Group theoretical methods and applications to molecules and crystals, Cambridge
University Press, MR1713786, ISBN 978-0-521-64062-6
• Plesken, Wilhelm; Schulz, Tilman (2000), "Counting crystallographic groups in low dimensions" [7],
Experimental Mathematics 9 (3): 407–411, MR1795312, ISSN 1058-6458
• Schönflies, Arthur Moritz (1891), "Theorie der Kristallstruktur", Gebr. Bornträger, Berlin.
• Vinberg, E. (2001), "Crystallographic group" [8], in Hazewinkel, Michiel, Encyclopaedia of Mathematics,
Springer, ISBN 978-1556080104
• Zassenhaus, Hans (1948), "Über einen Algorithmus zur Bestimmung der Raumgruppen" [9], Commentarii
Mathematici Helvetici 21: 117–141, doi:10.1007/BF02568029, MR0024424, ISSN 0010-2571
External links
• International Union of Crystallography [10]
• Point Groups and Bravais Lattices [11]
• Bilbao Crystallographic Server [12]
• Space Group Info (old) [13]
• Space Group Info (new) [14]
• Crystal Lattice Structures: Index by Space Group [15]
• Full list of 230 crystallographic space groups [16]
• Interactive 3D visualization of all 230 crystallographic space groups [17]
• Huson, Daniel H. (1999), The Fibrifold Notation and Classification for 3D Space Groups [18]
Space group 193
References
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Oeis%3Aa004030
[2] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Oeis%3Aa004028
[3] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Oeis%3Aa006227
[4] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Oeis%3Aa004029
[5] http:/ / www. emis. de/ journals/ BAG/ vol. 42/ no. 2/ 17. html
[6] http:/ / it. iucr. org/ A/
[7] http:/ / projecteuclid. org/ euclid. em/ 1045604675
[8] http:/ / eom. springer. de/ C/ c027190. htm
[9] http:/ / www. digizeitschriften. de/ index. php?id=166& ID=380406
[10] http:/ / www. iucr. org
[11] http:/ / neon. mems. cmu. edu/ degraef/ pointgroups/
[12] http:/ / www. cryst. ehu. es/
[13] http:/ / cci. lbl. gov/ sginfo/
[14] http:/ / cci. lbl. gov/ cctbx/ explore_symmetry. html
[15] http:/ / cst-www. nrl. navy. mil/ lattice/ spcgrp/
[16] http:/ / img. chem. ucl. ac. uk/ sgp/ mainmenu. htm
[17] http:/ / www. spacegroup. info/ html/ space_groups. html
[18] http:/ / www-ab. informatik. uni-tuebingen. de/ talks/ pdfs/ Fibrifolds-Princeton%201999. pdf
Molecular symmetry
Molecular symmetry in chemistry describes the symmetry present in molecules and the classification of molecules
according to their symmetry. Molecular symmetry is a fundamental concept in chemistry, as it can predict or explain
many of a molecule's chemical properties, such as its dipole moment and its allowed spectroscopic transitions (based
on selection rules such as the Laporte rule). Virtually every university level textbook on physical chemistry, quantum
chemistry, and inorganic chemistry devotes a chapter to symmetry.[1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
While various frameworks for the study of molecular symmetry exist, group theory is the predominant one. This
framework is also useful in studying the symmetry of molecular orbitals, with applications such as the Hückel
method, ligand field theory, and the Woodward-Hoffmann rules. Another framework on a larger scale is the use of
crystal systems to describe crystallographic symmetry in bulk materials.
Many techniques exist for the practical assessment of molecular symmetry, including X-ray crystallography and
various forms of spectroscopy. Spectroscopic notation is based on symmetry considerations.
Symmetry concepts
The study of symmetry in molecules is an adaptation of mathematical group theory.
Elements
The symmetry of a molecule can be described by 5 types of symmetry elements.
• Symmetry axis: an axis around which a rotation by results in a molecule indistinguishable from the original.
This is also called an n-fold rotational axis and abbreviated Cn. Examples are the C2 in water and the C3 in
ammonia. A molecule can have more than one symmetry axis; the one with the highest n is called the principal
axis, and by convention is assigned the z-axis in a Cartesian coordinate system.
• Plane of symmetry: a plane of reflection through which an identical copy of the original molecule is given. This
is also called a mirror plane and abbreviated σ. Water has two of them: one in the plane of the molecule itself and
one perpendicular to it. A symmetry plane parallel with the principal axis is dubbed vertical (σv) and one
perpendicular to it horizontal (σh). A third type of symmetry plane exists: if a vertical symmetry plane
additionally bisects the angle between two 2-fold rotation axes perpendicular to the principal axis, the plane is
Molecular symmetry 194
dubbed dihedral (σd). A symmetry plane can also be identified by its Cartesian orientation, e.g., (xz) or (yz).
• Center of symmetry or inversion center, abbreviated i. A molecule has a center of symmetry when, for any
atom in the molecule, an identical atom exists diametrically opposite this center an equal distance from it. There
may or may not be an atom at the center. Examples are xenon tetrafluoride (XeF4) where the inversion center is at
the Xe atom, and benzene (C6H6) where the inversion center is at the center of the ring.
• Rotation-reflection axis: an axis around which a rotation by , followed by a reflection in a plane
perpendicular to it, leaves the molecule unchanged. Also called an n-fold improper rotation axis, it is
abbreviated Sn, with n necessarily even. Examples are present in tetrahedral silicon tetrafluoride, with three S4
axes, and the staggered conformation of ethane with one S6 axis.
• Identity, abbreviated to E, from the German 'Einheit' meaning Unity.[6] This symmetry element simply consists
of no change: every molecule has this element. While this element seems physically trivial, its consideration is
necessary for the group-theoretical machinery to work properly. It is so called because it is analogous to
multiplying by one (unity).
Operations
The 5 symmetry elements have associated with them 5 symmetry operations. They are often, although not always,
distinguished from the respective elements by a caret. Thus Ĉn is the rotation of a molecule around an axis and Ê is
the identity operation. A symmetry element can have more than one symmetry operation associated with it. Since C1
is equivalent to E, S1 to σ and S2 to i, all symmetry operations can be classified as either proper or improper
rotations.
Point groups
A point group is a set of symmetry operations forming a mathematical group, for which at least one point remains
fixed under all operations of the group. A crystallographic point group is a point group which is compatible with
translational symmetry in three dimensions. There are a total of 32 crystallographic point groups, 30 of which are
relevant to chemistry. Their classification is based on the Schoenflies notation.
Group theory
A set of symmetry operations form a group, with operator the application of the operations itself, when:
• the result of consecutive application (composition) of any two operations is also a member of the group (closure).
• the application of the operations is associative: A(BC) = AB(C)
• the group contains the identity operation, denoted E, such that AE = EA = A for any operation A in the group.
• For every operation A in the group, there is an inverse element A-1 in the group, for which AA-1 = A-1A = E
The order of a group is the number of symmetry operations for that group.
For example, the point group for the water molecule is C2v, with symmetry operations E, C2, σv and σv'. Its order is
thus 4. Each operation is its own inverse. As an example of closure, a C2 rotation followed by a σv reflection is seen
to be a σv' symmetry operation: σv*C2 = σv'. (Note that "Operation A followed by B to form C" is written BA = C).
Another example is the ammonia molecule, which is pyramidal and contains a three-fold rotation axis as well as
three mirror planes at an angle of 120° to each other. Each mirror plane contains an N-H bond and bisects the H-N-H
bond angle opposite to that bond. Thus ammonia molecule belongs to the C3v point group which has order 6: an
identity element E, two rotation operations C3 and C32, and three mirror reflections σv, σv' and σv".
Molecular symmetry 195
D∞h E 2C∞ ∞σi i 2S∞ ∞C2 linear with inversion center dihydrogen, azide anion, carbon dioxide
C2v E C2 σv(xz) σv'(yz) angular (H2O) or see-saw (SF4) water, sulfur tetrafluoride, sulfuryl fluoride
D2h E C2(z) C2(y) C2(x) i σ(xy) σ(xz) σ(yz) planar with inversion center ethylene, dinitrogen tetroxide, diborane
D3h E 2C3 3C2 σh 2S3 3σv trigonal planar or trigonal boron trifluoride, phosphorus pentachloride
bipyramidal
D4h E 2C4 C2 2C2' 2C2 i 2S4 σh 2σv 2σd square planar xenon tetrafluoride
D2d E 2S4 C2 2Ch 2C2' 2σd 90° twist allene, tetrasulfur tetranitride
D3d E 2C3 3C2 i 2S6 3σd 60° twist ethane (staggered rotamer), cyclohexane (chair
conformer)
Oh E 8C3 6C2 6C4 3C2 i 6S4 8S6 3σh 6σd octahedral or cubic cubane, sulfur hexafluoride
Ih icosahedral
E 12C5 12C52 20C3 15C2 i 12S10 12S103 C60, B12H122-
20S6 15σ
Molecular symmetry 196
Representations
The symmetry operations can be represented in many ways. A convenient representation is by matrices. For any
vector representing a point in Cartesian coordinates, left-multiplying it gives the new location of the point
transformed by the symmetry operation. Composition of operations corresponds to matrix multiplication. In the C2v
example this is:
Although an infinite number of such representations exist, the irreducible representations (or "irreps") of the group
are commonly used, as all other representations of the group can be described as a linear combination of the
irreducible representations.
Character tables
For each point group, a character table summarizes information on its symmetry operations and on its irreducible
representations. As there are always equal numbers of irreducible representations and classes of symmetry
operations, the tables are square.
The table itself consists of characters which represent how a particular irreducible representation transforms when a
particular symmetry operation is applied. Any symmetry operation in a molecule's point group acting on the
molecule itself will leave it unchanged. But for acting on a general entity, such as a vector or an orbital, this need not
be the case. The vector could change sign or direction, and the orbital could change type. For simple point groups,
the values are either 1 or −1: 1 means that the sign or phase (of the vector or orbital) is unchanged by the symmetry
operation (symmetric) and −1 denotes a sign change (asymmetric).
The representations are labeled according to a set of conventions:
• A, when rotation around the principal axis is symmetrical
• B, when rotation around the principal axis is asymmetrical
• E and T are doubly and triply degenerate representations, respectively
• when the point group has an inversion center, the subscript g (German: gerade or even) signals no change in sign,
and the subscript u (ungerade or uneven) a change in sign, with respect to inversion.
• with point groups C∞v and D∞h the symbols are borrowed from angular momentum description: Σ, Π, Δ.
The tables also capture information about how the Cartesian basis vectors, rotations about them, and quadratic
functions of them transform by the symmetry operations of the group, by noting which irreducible representation
transforms in the same way. These indications are conventionally on the right hand side of the tables. This
information is useful because chemically important orbitals (in particular p and d orbitals) have the same symmetries
as these entities.
The character table for the C2v symmetry point group is given below:
Molecular symmetry 197
A1 1 1 1 1 z x2, y2, z2
A2 1 1 −1 −1 Rz xy
B1 1 −1 1 −1 x, Ry xz
B2 1 −1 −1 1 y, Rx yz
Consider the example of water (H2O) which has the C2v symmetry described above. The 2px orbital of oxygen is
oriented perpendicular to the plane of the molecule and switches sign with a C2 and a σv'(yz) operation, but remains
unchanged with the other two operations (obviously, the character for the identity operation is always +1). This
orbital's character set is thus {1, −1, 1, −1}, corresponding to the B1 irreducible representation. Similarly, the 2pz
orbital is seen to have the symmetry of the A1 irreducible representation, 2py B2, and the 3dxy orbital A2. These
assignments and others are noted in the rightmost two columns of the table.
Historical background
Hans Bethe used characters of point group operations in his study of ligand field theory in 1929, and Eugene Wigner
used group theory to explain the selection rules of atomic spectroscopy[7] . The first character tables were compiled
by László Tisza (1933), in connection to vibrational spectra. Robert Mulliken was the first to publish character tables
in English (1933), and E. Bright Wilson used them in 1934 to predict the symmetry of vibrational normal modes.[8]
The complete set of 32 crystallographic point groups was published in 1936 by Rosenthal and Murphy.[9]
References
[1] Quantum Chemistry, Third Edition John P. Lowe, Kirk Peterson ISBN 0124575510
[2] Physical Chemistry: A Molecular Approach by Donald A. McQuarrie, John D. Simon ISBN 0935702997
[3] The chemical bond 2nd Ed. J.N. Murrell, S.F.A. Kettle, J.M. Tedder ISBN 0471907600
[4] Physical Chemistry P. W. Atkins ISBN 0716728710
[5] G. L. Miessler and D. A. Tarr “Inorganic Chemistry” 3rd Ed, Pearson/Prentice Hall publisher, ISBN 0-13-035471-6.
[6] LEO Ergebnisse für "einheit" (http:/ / dict. leo. org/ ende?lp=ende& lang=de& searchLoc=0& cmpType=relaxed& sectHdr=on&
spellToler=on& search=einheit& relink=on)
[7] Group Theory and its application to the quantum mechanics of atomic spectra, E. P. Wigner, Academic Press Inc. (1959)
[8] Correcting Two Long-Standing Errors in Point Group Symmetry Character Tables Randall B. Shirts J. Chem. Educ. 2007, 84, 1882. Abstract
(http:/ / jchemed. chem. wisc. edu/ Journal/ Issues/ 2007/ Nov/ abs1882. html)
[9] Group Theory and the Vibrations of Polyatomic Molecules Jenny E. Rosenthal and G. M. Murphy Rev. Mod. Phys. 8, 317 - 346 (1936)
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.8.317
External links
• Molecular symmetry @ University of Exeter Link (http://www.phys.ncl.ac.uk/staff/njpg/symmetry/)
• Molecular symmetry @ Imperial College London Link (http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/local/symmetry/)
• Molecular Point Group Symmetry Tables (http://www.webqc.org/symmetry.php)
Applications of group theory 198
History
Group theory has three main historical sources: number theory, the theory of algebraic equations, and geometry. The
number-theoretic strand was begun by Leonhard Euler, and developed by Gauss's work on modular arithmetic and
additive and multiplicative groups related to quadratic fields. Early results about permutation groups were obtained
by Lagrange, Ruffini, and Abel in their quest for general solutions of polynomial equations of high degree. Évariste
Galois coined the term “group” and established a connection, now known as Galois theory, between the nascent
theory of groups and field theory. In geometry, groups first became important in projective geometry and, later,
non-Euclidean geometry. Felix Klein's Erlangen program famously proclaimed group theory to be the organizing
principle of geometry.
Galois, in the 1830s, was the first to employ groups to determine the solvability of polynomial equations. Arthur
Cayley and Augustin Louis Cauchy pushed these investigations further by creating the theory of permutation group.
The second historical source for groups stems from geometrical situations. In an attempt to come to grips with
possible geometries (such as euclidean, hyperbolic or projective geometry) using group theory, Felix Klein initiated
the Erlangen programme. Sophus Lie, in 1884, started using groups (now called Lie groups) attached to analytic
problems. Thirdly, groups were (first implicitly and later explicitly) used in algebraic number theory.
The different scope of these early sources resulted in different notions of groups. The theory of groups was unified
starting around 1880. Since then, the impact of group theory has been ever growing, giving rise to the birth of
abstract algebra in the early 20th century, representation theory, and many more influential spin-off domains. The
classification of finite simple groups is a vast body of work from the mid 20th century, classifying all the finite
simple groups.
Permutation groups
The first class of groups to undergo a systematic study was permutation groups. Given any set X and a collection G
of bijections of X into itself (known as permutations) that is closed under compositions and inverses, G is a group
acting on X. If X consists of n elements and G consists of all permutations, G is the symmetric group Sn; in general,
G is a subgroup of the symmetric group of X. An early construction due to Cayley exhibited any group as a
permutation group, acting on itself (X = G) by means of the left regular representation.
Applications of group theory 199
In many cases, the structure of a permutation group can be studied using the properties of its action on the
corresponding set. For example, in this way one proves that for n ≥ 5, the alternating group An is simple, i.e. does not
admit any proper normal subgroups. This fact plays a key role in the impossibility of solving a general algebraic
equation of degree n ≥ 5 in radicals.
Matrix groups
The next important class of groups is given by matrix groups, or linear groups. Here G is a set consisting of
invertible matrices of given order n over a field K that is closed under the products and inverses. Such a group acts
on the n-dimensional vector space Kn by linear transformations. This action makes matrix groups conceptually
similar to permutation groups, and geometry of the action may be usefully exploited to establish properties of the
group G.
Transformation groups
Permutation groups and matrix groups are special cases of transformation groups: groups that act on a certain space
X preserving its inherent structure. In the case of permutation groups, X is a set; for matrix groups, X is a vector
space. The concept of a transformation group is closely related with the concept of a symmetry group:
transformation groups frequently consist of all transformations that preserve a certain structure.
The theory of transformation groups forms a bridge connecting group theory with differential geometry. A long line
of research, originating with Lie and Klein, considers group actions on manifolds by homeomorphisms or
diffeomorphisms. The groups themselves may be discrete or continuous.
Abstract groups
Most groups considered in the first stage of the development of group theory were "concrete", having been realized
through numbers, permutations, or matrices. It was not until the late nineteenth century that the idea of an abstract
group as a set with operations satisfying a certain system of axioms began to take hold. A typical way of specifying
an abstract group is through a presentation by generators and relations,
A significant source of abstract groups is given by the construction of a factor group, or quotient group, G/H, of a
group G by a normal subgroup H. Class groups of algebraic number fields were among the earliest examples of
factor groups, of much interest in number theory. If a group G is a permutation group on a set X, the factor group
G/H is no longer acting on X; but the idea of an abstract group permits one not to worry about this discrepancy.
The change of perspective from concrete to abstract groups makes it natural to consider properties of groups that are
independent of a particular realization, or in modern language, invariant under isomorphism, as well as the classes of
group with a given such property: finite groups, periodic groups, simple groups, solvable groups, and so on. Rather
than exploring properties of an individual group, one seeks to establish results that apply to a whole class of groups.
The new paradigm was of paramount importance for the development of mathematics: it foreshadowed the creation
of abstract algebra in the works of Hilbert, Emil Artin, Emmy Noether, and mathematicians of their school.
Applications of group theory 200
are compatible with this structure, i.e. are continuous, smooth or regular (in the sense of algebraic geometry) maps
then G becomes a topological group, a Lie group, or an algebraic group.[1]
The presence of extra structure relates these types of groups with other mathematical disciplines and means that
more tools are available in their study. Topological groups form a natural domain for abstract harmonic analysis,
whereas Lie groups (frequently realized as transformation groups) are the mainstays of differential geometry and
unitary representation theory. Certain classification questions that cannot be solved in general can be approached and
resolved for special subclasses of groups. Thus, compact connected Lie groups have been completely classified.
There is a fruitful relation between infinite abstract groups and topological groups: whenever a group Γ can be
realized as a lattice in a topological group G, the geometry and analysis pertaining to G yield important results about
Γ. A comparatively recent trend in the theory of finite groups exploits their connections with compact topological
groups (profinite groups): for example, a single p-adic analytic group G has a family of quotients which are finite
p-groups of various orders, and properties of G translate into the properties of its finite quotients.
Representation of groups
Saying that a group G acts on a set X means that every element defines a bijective map on a set in a way compatible
with the group structure. When X has more structure, it is useful to restrict this notion further: a representation of G
on a vector space V is a group homomorphism:
ρ : G → GL(V),
where GL(V) consists of the invertible linear transformations of V. In other words, to every group element g is
assigned an automorphism ρ(g) such that ρ(g) ∘ ρ(h) = ρ(gh) for any h in G.
This definition can be understood in two directions, both of which give rise to whole new domains of mathematics.[4]
On the one hand, it may yield new information about the group G: often, the group operation in G is abstractly given,
but via ρ, it corresponds to the multiplication of matrices, which is very explicit.[5] On the other hand, given a
well-understood group acting on a complicated object, this simplifies the study of the object in question. For
example, if G is finite, it is known that V above decomposes into irreducible parts. These parts in turn are much more
easily manageable than the whole V (via Schur's lemma).
Given a group G, representation theory then asks what representations of G exist. There are several settings, and the
employed methods and obtained results are rather different in every case: representation theory of finite groups and
representations of Lie groups are two main subdomains of the theory. The totality of representations is governed by
the group's characters. For example, Fourier polynomials can be interpreted as the characters of U(1), the group of
complex numbers of absolute value 1, acting on the L2-space of periodic functions.
has the two solutions , and . In this case, the group that exchanges the two roots is the Galois
group belonging to the equation. Every polynomial equation in one variable has a Galois group, that is a
certain permutation group on its roots.
The axioms of a group formalize the essential aspects of symmetry. Symmetries form a group: they are closed
because if you take a symmetry of an object, and then apply another symmetry, the result will still be a symmetry.
The identity keeping the object fixed is always a symmetry of an object. Existence of inverses is guaranteed by
undoing the symmetry and the associativity comes from the fact that symmetries are functions on a space, and
composition of functions are associative.
Frucht's theorem says that every group is the symmetry group of some graph. So every abstract group is actually the
symmetries of some explicit object.
The saying of "preserving the structure" of an object can be made precise by working in a category. Maps preserving
the structure are then the morphisms, and the symmetry group is the automorphism group of the object in question.
benefit from the flexibility of the geometric objects, hence their group
structures, together with the complicated structure of these groups, which
make the discrete logarithm very hard to calculate. One of the earliest
encryption protocols, Caesar's cipher, may also be interpreted as a (very easy)
group operation. In another direction, toric varieties are algebraic varieties
The cyclic group Z26 underlies Caesar's
cipher. acted on by a torus. Toroidal embeddings have recently led to advances in
algebraic geometry, in particular resolution of singularities.[8]
Algebraic number theory is a special case of group theory, thereby following the rules of the latter. For example,
Euler's product formula
captures the fact that any integer decomposes in a unique way into primes. The failure of this statement for more
general rings gives rise to class groups and regular primes, which feature in Kummer's treatment of Fermat's Last
Theorem.
• The concept of the Lie group (named after mathematician Sophus Lie) is important in the study of differential
equations and manifolds; they describe the symmetries of continuous geometric and analytical structures.
Analysis on these and other groups is called harmonic analysis. Haar measures, that is integrals invariant under
the translation in a Lie group, are used for pattern recognition and other image processing techniques.[9]
• In combinatorics, the notion of permutation group and the concept of group action are often used to simplify the
counting of a set of objects; see in particular Burnside's lemma.
• The presence of the 12-periodicity in the circle of fifths yields applications
of elementary group theory in musical set theory.
• In physics, groups are important because they describe the symmetries
which the laws of physics seem to obey. Physicists are very interested in
group representations, especially of Lie groups, since these representations
often point the way to the "possible" physical theories. Examples of the
use of groups in physics include the Standard Model, gauge theory, the
Lorentz group, and the Poincaré group.
See also
• Group (mathematics)
• Glossary of group theory
• List of group theory topics
Notes
[1] This process of imposing extra structure has been formalized through the notion of a group object in a suitable category. Thus Lie groups are
group objects in the category of differentiable manifolds and affine algebraic groups are group objects in the category of affine algebraic
varieties.
[2] Schupp & Lyndon 2001
[3] La Harpe 2000
[4] Such as group cohomology or equivariant K-theory.
[5] In particular, if the representation is faithful.
[6] For example the Hodge conjecture (in certain cases).
[7] See the Birch-Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture, one of the millennium problems
[8] Abramovich, Dan; Karu, Kalle; Matsuki, Kenji; Wlodarczyk, Jaroslaw (2002), "Torification and factorization of birational maps", Journal of
the American Mathematical Society 15 (3): 531–572, doi:10.1090/S0894-0347-02-00396-X, MR1896232
[9] Lenz, Reiner (1990), Group theoretical methods in image processing (http:/ / webstaff. itn. liu. se/ ~reile/ LNCS413/ index. htm), Lecture
Notes in Computer Science, 413, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, doi:10.1007/3-540-52290-5, ISBN 978-0-387-52290-6,
References
• Borel, Armand (1991), Linear algebraic groups, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 126 (2nd ed.), Berlin, New
York: Springer-Verlag, MR1102012, ISBN 978-0-387-97370-8
• Carter, Nathan C. (2009), Visual group theory (http://web.bentley.edu/empl/c/ncarter/vgt/), Classroom
Resource Materials Series, Mathematical Association of America, MR2504193, ISBN 978-0-88385-757-1
• Cannon, John J. (1969), "Computers in group theory: A survey", Communications of the Association for
Computing Machinery 12: 3–12, doi:10.1145/362835.362837, MR0290613
• Frucht, R. (1939), "Herstellung von Graphen mit vorgegebener abstrakter Gruppe" (http://www.numdam.org/
numdam-bin/fitem?id=CM_1939__6__239_0), Compositio Mathematica 6: 239–50, ISSN 0010-437X
• Golubitsky, Martin; Stewart, Ian (2006), "Nonlinear dynamics of networks: the groupoid formalism", Bull. Amer.
Math. Soc. (N.S.) 43: 305–364, doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-06-01108-6, MR2223010 Shows the advantage of
generalising from group to groupoid.
• Judson, Thomas W. (1997), Abstract Algebra: Theory and Applications (http://abstract.ups.edu) An
introductory undergraduate text in the spirit of texts by Gallian or Herstein, covering groups, rings, integral
domains, fields and Galois theory. Free downloadable PDF with open-source GFDL license.
• Kleiner, Israel (1986), "The evolution of group theory: a brief survey" (http://jstor.org/stable/2690312),
Mathematics Magazine 59 (4): 195–215, doi:10.2307/2690312, MR863090, ISSN 0025-570X
• La Harpe, Pierre de (2000), Topics in geometric group theory, University of Chicago Press,
ISBN 978-0-226-31721-2
• Livio, M. (2005), The Equation That Couldn't Be Solved: How Mathematical Genius Discovered the Language of
Symmetry, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-7432-5820-7 Conveys the practical value of group theory by explaining
how it points to symmetries in physics and other sciences.
• Mumford, David (1970), Abelian varieties, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-560528-0, OCLC 138290
• Ronan M., 2006. Symmetry and the Monster. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280722-6. For lay readers.
Describes the quest to find the basic building blocks for finite groups.
• Rotman, Joseph (1994), An introduction to the theory of groups, New York: Springer-Verlag,
ISBN 0-387-94285-8 A standard contemporary reference.
Applications of group theory 205
• Schupp, Paul E.; Lyndon, Roger C. (2001), Combinatorial group theory, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag,
ISBN 978-3-540-41158-1
• Scott, W. R. (1987) [1964], Group Theory, New York: Dover, ISBN 0-486-65377-3 Inexpensive and fairly
readable, but somewhat dated in emphasis, style, and notation.
• Shatz, Stephen S. (1972), Profinite groups, arithmetic, and geometry, Princeton University Press, MR0347778,
ISBN 978-0-691-08017-8
• Weibel, Charles A. (1994), An introduction to homological algebra, Cambridge Studies in Advanced
Mathematics, 38, Cambridge University Press, MR1269324, ISBN 978-0-521-55987-4, OCLC 36131259
External links
• History of the abstract group concept (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/
Abstract_groups.html)
• Higher dimensional group theory (http://www.bangor.ac.uk/r.brown/hdaweb2.htm) This presents a view of
group theory as level one of a theory which extends in all dimensions, and has applications in homotopy theory
and to higher dimensional nonabelian methods for local-to-global problems.
• Plus teacher and student package: Group Theory (http://plus.maths.org/issue48/package/index.html) This
package brings together all the articles on group theory from Plus, the online mathematics magazine produced by
the Millennium Mathematics Project at the University of Cambridge, exploring applications and recent
breakthroughs, and giving explicit definitions and examples of groups.
• US Naval Academy group theory guide (http://www.usna.edu/Users/math/wdj/tonybook/gpthry/node1.
html) A general introduction to group theory with exercises written by Tony Gaglione.
Examples of groups
Some elementary examples of groups in mathematics are given on Group (mathematics). Further examples are
listed here.
Consider three colored blocks (red, green, and blue), initially placed in
the order RGB. Let a be the operation "swap the first block and the
second block", and b be the operation "swap the second block and the
third block".
We can write xy for the operation "first do y, then do x"; so that ab is
the operation RGB → RBG → BRG, which could be described as
"move the first two blocks one position to the right and put the third
block into the first position". If we write e for "leave the blocks as they
are" (the identity operation), then we can write the six permutations of
the three blocks as follows:
• e : RGB → RGB
Cycle graph for S3 (or D6). A loop specifies a
• a : RGB → GRB
series of powers of any element connected to the
• b : RGB → RBG identity element (1). For example, the e-ba-ab
• ab : RGB → BRG loop reflects the fact that ba2=ab and ba3=e, as
• ba : RGB → GBR well as the fact that ab2=ba and ab3=e The other
"loops" are roots of unity so that, for example
• aba : RGB → BGR
a2=e.
Note that aa has the effect RGB → GRB → RGB; so we can write aa
= e. Similarly, bb = (aba)(aba) = e; (ab)(ba) = (ba)(ab) = e; so every element has an inverse.
By inspection, we can determine associativity and closure; note in particular that (ba)b = aba = b(ab).
Since it is built up from the basic operations a and b, we say that the set {a,b} generates this group. The group,
called the symmetric group S3, has order 6, and is non-abelian (since, for example, ab ≠ ba).
For any two elements in the group, the table records what their composition is. Note how every element appears in
every row and every column exactly once; this is not a coincidence. You may want to verify some entries. Here we
wrote "R3T" as a short hand for R3 ∘ T.
Mathematicians know this group as the dihedral group of order 8, and call it either D4 or D8 depending on what
notation they use for dihedral groups. This was an example of a non-abelian group: the operation ∘ here is not
commutative, which you can see from the table; the table is not symmetrical about the main diagonal.
The dihedral group of order 8 is isomorphic to the permutation group generated by (1234) and (13).
Matrix groups
If n is some positive integer, we can consider the set of all invertible n by n matrices over the reals, say. This is a
group with matrix multiplication as operation. It is called the general linear group, GL(n). Geometrically, it
contains all combinations of rotations, reflections, dilations and skew transformations of n-dimensional Euclidean
space that fix a given point (the origin).
If we restrict ourselves to matrices with determinant 1, then we get another group, the special linear group, SL(n).
Geometrically, this consists of all the elements of GL(n) that preserve both orientation and volume of the various
geometric solids in Euclidean space.
If instead we restrict ourselves to orthogonal matrices, then we get the orthogonal group O(n). Geometrically, this
consists of all combinations of rotations and reflections that fix the origin. These are precisely the transformations
which preserve lengths and angles.
Finally, if we impose both restrictions, then we get the special orthogonal group SO(n), which consists of rotations
only.
These groups are our first examples of infinite non-abelian groups. They are also happen to be Lie groups. In fact,
most of the important Lie groups (but not all) can be expressed as matrix groups.
If this idea is generalised to matrices with complex numbers as entries, then we get further useful Lie groups, such as
the unitary group U(n). We can also consider matrices with quaternions as entries; in this case, there is no
well-defined notion of a determinant (and thus no good way to define a quaternionic "volume"), but we can still
define a group analogous to the orthogonal group, the symplectic group Sp(n).
Furthermore, the idea can be treated purely algebraically with matrices over any field, but then the groups are not Lie
groups.
For example, we have the general linear groups over finite fields. The group theorist J. L. Alperin has written that
"The typical example of a finite group is GL(n,q), the general linear group of n dimensions over the field with q
Examples of groups 209
elements. The student who is introduced to the subject with other examples is being completely misled." (Bulletin
(New Series) of the American Mathematical Society, 10 (1984) 121)
History
The earliest work on representation theory over finite fields is by Dickson (1902) who showed that when p does not
divide the order of the group then the representation theory is similar to that in characteristic 0. He also investigated
modular invariants of some finite groups. The systematic study of modular representations, when the characteristic
divides the order of the group, was started by Brauer (1935) and continued by him for the next few decades.
Example
Finding a representation of the cyclic group of two elements over F2 is equivalent to the problem of finding matrices
whose square is the identity matrix. Over every field of characteristic other than 2, there is always a basis such that
the matrix can be written as a diagonal matrix with only 1 or −1 occurring on the diagonal, such as
Over an algebraically closed field of positive characteristic, the representation theory of a finite cyclic group is fully
explained by the theory of the Jordan normal form. Non-diagonal Jordan forms occur when the characteristic divides
the order of the group.
Modular representation theory 211
Brauer characters
Modular representation theory was developed by Richard Brauer from about 1940 onwards to study in greater depth
the relationships between the characteristic p representation theory, ordinary character theory and structure of G,
especially as the latter relates to the embedding of, and relationships between, its p-subgroups. Such results can be
applied in group theory to problems not directly phrased in terms of representations.
Brauer introduced the notion now known as the Brauer character. When K is algebraically closed of positive
characteristic p, there is a bijection between roots of unity in K and complex roots of unity of order prime to p. Once
a choice of such a bijection is fixed, the Brauer character of a representation assigns to each group element of order
coprime to p the sum of complex roots of unity corresponding to the eigenvalues (including multiplicities) of that
element in the given representation.
The Brauer character of a representation determines its composition factors but not, in general, its equivalence type.
The irreducible Brauer characters are those afforded by the simple modules. These are integral ( though not
necessarily non-negative) combinations of the restrictions to elements of order coprime to p of the ordinary
irreducible characters. Conversely, the restriction to the elements of order prime to p of each ordinary irreducible
character is uniquely expressible as a non-negative integer combination of irreducible Brauer characters.
Reduction (mod p)
In the theory initially developed by Brauer, the link between ordinary representation theory and modular
representation theory is best exemplified by considering the group algebra of the group G over a complete discrete
valuation ring R with residue field K of positive characteristic p and field of fractions F of characteristic 0. The
structure of R[G] is closely related both to the structure of the group algebra K[G] and to the structure of the
semisimple group algebra F[G], and there is much interplay between the module theory of the three algebras.
Each R[G]-module naturally gives rise to an F[G]-module, and, by a process often known informally as reduction
(mod p), to a K[G]-module. On the other hand, since R is a principal ideal domain, each finite-dimensional
F[G]-module arises by extension of scalars from an R[G]-module. In general, however, not all K[G]-modules arise as
reductions (mod p) of R[G]-modules. Those that do are liftable.
Modular representation theory 212
Projective modules
In ordinary representation theory, every indecomposable module is irreducible, and so every module is projective.
However, the simple modules with characteristic dividing the group order are rarely projective. Indeed, if a simple
module is projective, then it is the only simple module in its block, which is then isomorphic to the endomorphism
algebra of the underlying vector space, a full matrix algebra. In that case, the block is said to have 'defect 0'.
Generally, the structure of projective modules is difficult to determine.
For the group algebra of a finite group, the (isomorphism types of) projective indecomposable modules are in a
one-to-one correspondence with the (isomorphism types of) simple modules: the socle of each projective
indecomposable is simple (and isomorphic to the top), and this affords the bijection, as non-isomorphic projective
indecomposables have non-isomorphic socles. The multiplicity of a projective indecomposable module as a
summand of the group algebra (viewed as the regular module) is the dimension of its socle (for large enough fields
of characteristic zero, this recovers the fact that each simple module occurs with multiplicity equal to its dimension
as a direct summand of the regular module).
Each projective indecomposable module (and hence each projective module) in positive characteristic p may be
lifted to a module in characteristic 0. Using the ring R as above, with residue field K, the identity element of G may
be decomposed as a sum of mutually orthogonal primitive idempotents ( not necessarily central) of K[G]. Each
projective indecomposable K[G]-module is isomorphic to e.K[G] for a primitive idempotent e that occurs in this
decomposition. The idempotent e lifts to a primitive idempotent, say E, of R[G], and the left module E.R[G] has
reduction (mod p) isomorphic to e.K[G].
Modular representation theory 213
Defect groups
To each block B of the group algebra K[G], Brauer associated a certain p-subgroup, known as its defect group
(where p is the characteristic of K). Formally, it is the largest p-subgroup D of G for which there is a Brauer
correspondent of B for the subgroup .
The defect group of a block is unique up to conjugacy and has a strong influence on the structure of the block. For
example, if the defect group is trivial, then the block contains just one simple module, just one ordinary character,
the ordinary and Brauer irreducible characters agree on elements of order prime to the relevant characteristic p, and
the simple module is projective. At the other extreme, when K has characteristic p, the Sylow p-subgroup of the
finite group G is a defect group for the principal block of K[G].
The order of the defect group of a block has many arithmetical characterizations related to representation theory. It is
the largest invariant factor of the Cartan matrix of the block, and occurs with multiplicity one. Also, the power of p
dividing the index of the defect group of a block is the greatest common divisor of the powers of p dividing the
dimensions of the simple modules in that block, and this coincides with the greatest common divisor of the powers
of p dividing the degrees of the ordinary irreducible characters in that block.
Other relationships between the defect group of a block and character theory include Brauer's result that if no
conjugate of the p-part of a group element g is in the defect group of a given block, then each irreducible character in
that block vanishes at g. This is a one of many consequences of Brauer's second main theorem.
The defect group of a block also has several characterizations in the more module-theoretic approach to block theory,
building on the work of J. A. Green, which associates a p-subgroup known as the vertex to an indecomposable
module, defined in terms of relative projectivity of the module. For example, the vertex of each indecomposable
module in a block is contained (up to conjugacy) in the defect group of the block, and no proper subgroup of the
Modular representation theory 214
References
• Brauer, R. (1935), Über die Darstellung von Gruppen in Galoisschen Feldern [1], Actualités Scientifiques et
Industrielles,, 195, Hermann et cie, Paris ., pp. 1–15, review [2]
• Dickson, Leonard Eugene (1902), "On the Group Defined for any Given Field by the Multiplication Table of Any
Given Finite Group" [3] (in English), Transactions of the American Mathematical Society (Providence, R.I.:
American Mathematical Society) 3 (3): 285–301, ISSN 0002-9947
• Jean-Pierre Serre (1977). Linear Representations of Finite Groups. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-90190-6.
• Walter Feit (1982). The representation theory of finite groups. North-Holland Mathematical Library. 25.
Amsterdam-New York: North-Holland Publishing. ISBN 0-444-86155-6.
References
[1] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=hkexAAAAIAAJ
[2] http:/ / projecteuclid. org/ euclid. bams/ 1183499883
[3] http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1986379
Conway group 215
Conway group
In mathematics, the Conway groups Co1, Co2, and Co3 are three sporadic groups discovered by John Horton
Conway.
The largest of the Conway groups, Co1, of order
4,157,776,806,543,360,000,
is obtained as the quotient of Co0 (automorphism group of Λ) by its center, which consists of the scalar matrices ±1.
The groups Co2 (of order 42,305,421,312,000) and Co3 (of order 495,766,656,000) consist of the automorphisms of
Λ fixing a lattice vector of type 2 and a vector of type 3 respectively. (The type of a vector is half of its square norm,
v·v.) As the scalar −1 fixes no non-zero vector, these two groups are isomorphic to subgroups of Co1.
History
Thomas Thompson relates how John Leech about 1964 investigated close packings of spheres in Euclidean spaces of
large dimension. One of Leech's discoveries was a lattice packing in 24-space, based on what came to be called the
Leech lattice Λ. He wondered whether his lattice's symmetry group contained an interesting simple group, but felt he
needed the help of someone better acquainted with group theory. He had to do much asking around because the
mathematicians were pre-occupied with agendas of their own. John Conway agreed to look at the problem. John G.
Thompson said he would be interested if he were given the order of the group. Conway expected to spend months or
years on the problem, but found results in just a few sessions.
The chain ends with 6.Suz:2 (Suz=Suzuki group) , which, as mentioned above, respects a complex representaion of
the Leech Lattice.
References
[1] Atlas, both versions 2 & 3.
[2] Robert A. Wilson, 'The Finite Simple Groups', Springer-Verlag (2009), p. 219 ff.
• Conway, John Horton (1968), "A perfect group of order 8,315,553,613,086,720,000 and the sporadic simple
groups", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 61: 398–400,
doi:10.1073/pnas.61.2.398, MR0237634
• Richard Brauer and Chih-Han Shah, Theory of Finite Groups: A Symposium, W. A. Benjamin (1969)
• Conway, J. H.: A group of order 8,315,553,613,086,720,000. Bull. London Math. Soc. 1 (1969), 79-88, the
first-ever article on the group .0
• Conway, J. H.: Three lectures on exceptional groups, in Finite Simple Groups, M. B. Powell and G. Higman
(editors), Academic Press, (1971), 215-247. Reprinted in J. H. Conway & N. J. A. Sloane, Sphere Packings,
Lattices and Groups, Springer (1988), 267-298.
• Thompson, Thomas M.: From Error Correcting Codes through Sphere Packings to Simple Groups, Carus
Mathematical Monographs, Mathematical Association of America (1983).
• Conway, J. H.; Curtis, R. T.; Norton, S. P.; Parker, R. A.; Wilson, R. A., Atlas of finite groups. Maximal
subgroups and ordinary characters for simple groups. With computational assistance from J. G. Thackray.
Eynsham: Oxford University Press (1985), ISBN 0-19-853199-0
• Griess, Robert L. Jr. (1998), Twelve sporadic groups, Springer Monographs in Mathematics, Berlin, New York:
Springer-Verlag, MR1707296, ISBN 978-3-540-62778-4
• Atlas of Finite Group Representations: Co1 (http://web.mat.bham.ac.uk/atlas/v2.0/spor/Co1/) version 2
• Atlas of Finite Group Representations: Co1 (http://brauer.maths.qmul.ac.uk/Atlas/v3/spor/Co1/) version 3
• Robert A. Wilson, 'The Finite Simple Groups', Springer-Verlag (2009).
Mathieu group 219
Mathieu group
In the mathematical field of group theory, the Mathieu groups, named after the French mathematician Émile
Léonard Mathieu, are five finite simple groups he discovered and reported in papers in 1861 and 1873; these were
the first sporadic simple groups discovered. They are usually denoted by the symbols M11, M12, M22, M23, M24, and
can be thought of respectively as permutation groups on sets of 11, 12, 22, 23 or 24 objects (or points).
Sometimes the notation M7, M8, M9, M10, M19, M20 and M21 is used for related groups (which act on sets of 7, 8, 9,
10, 19, 20, and 21 points, respectively), namely the stabilizers of points in the larger groups. While these are not
sporadic simple groups, they are important subgroups of the larger groups and can be used to construct the larger
ones.[1] Conversely, John Conway has suggested that one can extend this sequence up by generalizing the fifteen
puzzle, obtaining a subset of the symmetric group on 13 points denoted M13.[2] [3]
M24, the largest of the groups, and which contains all the others, is contained within the symmetry group of the
binary Golay code, which has practical uses. Moreover, the Mathieu groups are fascinating to many group theorists
as mathematical anomalies.
History
Simple groups are defined as having no nontrivial proper normal subgroups. Intuitively this means they cannot be
broken down in terms of smaller groups. For many years group theorists struggled to classify the simple groups and
had found all of them by about 1980. Simple groups belong to a number of infinite families except for 26 groups
including the Mathieu groups, called sporadic simple groups. After the Mathieu groups no new sporadic groups were
found until 1965, when the group J1 was discovered.
Permutation groups
M12 has a simple subgroup of order 660, a maximal subgroup. That subgroup can be represented as a linear
fractional group on the field F11 of 11 elements. With -1 written as a and infinity as b , two standard generators are
(0123456789a) and (0b)(1a)(25)(37)(48)(69). A third generator giving M12 sends an element x of F11 to 4x2-3x7; as
a permutation that is (26a7)(3945). The stabilizer of 4 points is a quaternion group.
Likewise M24 has a maximal simple subgroup of order 6072 and this can be represented as a linear fractional group
on the field F23. One generator adds 1 to each element (leaving the point N at infinity fixed), i. e.
(0123456789ABCDEFGHIJKLM)(N), and the other is the order reversing permutation,
(0N)(1M)(2B)(3F)(4H)(59)(6J)(7D)(8K)(AG)(CL)(EI). A third generator giving M24 sends an element x of F23 to
4x4-3x15; unexciting computation shows that as a permutation this is (2G968)(3CDI4)(7HABM)(EJLKF).
These constructions were cited by Carmichael [5] ; Dixon and Mortimer ascribe the permutations to Mathieu. [6]
Mathieu group 221
W12
W12 can be constructed from the affine geometry on the vector space F3xF3, an S(2,3,9) system.
An alternative construction of W12 is the 'Kitten' of R.T. Curtis.[9]
Computer programs
There have been notable computer programs written to generate Steiner systems. An introduction to a construction of
W24 via the Miracle Octad Generator of R. T. Curtis and Conway's analog for W12, the miniMOG, can be found in
the book by Conway and Sloane.
Dessins d'enfants
The Mathieu groups can be constructed via dessins d'enfants, with the dessin associated to M12 suggestively called
"Monsieur Mathieu".[10]
Polyhedral symmetries
M24 can be constructed starting from the symmetries of the Klein
quartic (the symmetries of a tessellation of the genus three surface),
which is PSL(2,7), which can be augmented by an additional
permutation. This permutation can be described by starting with the
tiling of the Klein quartic by 20 triangles (with 24 vertices – the 24
points on which the group acts), then forming squares of out some of
the 2 triangles, and octagons out of 6 triangles, with the added
permutation being "interchange the two endpoints of the lines bisecting
the squares and octagons". This can be visualized by coloring the
triangles [11] – the corresponding tiling is topologically but not
geometrically the t0,1{4, 3, 3} tiling, and can be (polyhedrally)
immersed in Euclidean 3-space as the small cubicuboctahedron (which M24 can be constructed from symmetries of the
also has 24 vertices).[12] Klein quartic, augmented by a (non-geometric)
symmetry of its immersion as the small
cubicuboctahedron.
Properties
The Mathieu groups have fascinating properties; these groups happen because of a confluence of several anomalies
of group theory.
For example, M12 contains a copy of the exceptional outer automorphism of S6. M12 contains a subgroup isomorphic
to S6 acting differently on 2 sets of 6. In turn M12 has an outer automorphism of index 2 and, as a subgroup of M24,
acts differently on 2 sets of 12.
Note also that M10 is a non-split extension of the form A6.2 (an extension of the group of order 2 by A6), and
accordingly A6 may be denoted M10′ as it is an index 2 subgroup of M10.
The linear group GL(4,2) has an exceptional isomorphism to the alternating group A8; this isomorphism is important
to the structure of M24. The pointwise stabilizer O of an octad is an abelian group of order 16, exponent 2, each of
whose involutions moves all 16 points outside the octad. The stabilizer of the octad is a split extension of O by A8[13]
. There are 759 (= 3·11·23) octads. Hence the order of M24 is 759*16*20160.
Mathieu group 223
Subgroup structure
M24 contains non-abelian simple subgroups of 13 isomorphism types: five classes of A5, four classes of PSL(3,2),
two classes of A6, two classes of PSL(2,11), one class each of A7, PSL(2,23), M11, PSL(3,4), A8, M12, M22, M23,
and M24.
3=3 1 class
440 = 23 · 5 · 11
1 class
4 = 22 990 = 2 · 32 · 5 · 11
5=5 1 class
1584 = 24 · 32 · 11
6 = 2 · 3 1320 = 23 · 3 · 5 · 11 1 class
The maximum order of any element in M12 is 11. The conjugacy class orders and sizes are found in the ATLAS[17].
Mathieu group 227
5=5 1 class
9504 = 25 · 33 · 11
10 = 2 · 5 9504 = 25 · 33 · 11 1 class
3=3 1 class
12320 = 25 · 5 · 7 · 11
4 = 22 13860 = 22 · 32 · 5 · 7 · 11 1 class
27720 = 23 · 32 · 5 · 7 · 11 1 class
5=5 1 class
88704 = 27 · 32 · 7 · 11
6 = 2 · 3 36960 = 25 · 3 · 5 · 7 · 11 1 class
8 = 23 55440 = 24 · 32 · 5 · 7 · 11 1 class
3=3 1 class
56672 = 25 · 7 · 11 · 23
1 class
4 = 22 318780 = 22 · 32 · 5 · 7 · 11 · 23
5=5 1 class
680064 = 27 · 3 · 7 · 11 · 23
6=2·3 1 class
850080 = 25 · 3 · 5 · 7 · 11 · 23
8 = 23 1275120 = 24 · 32 · 5 · 7 · 11 · 23 1 class
Mathieu group 228
The maximum order of any element in M24 is 23. There are 26 conjugacy classes.
1=1 1 1 class
Notes
[1] M7 is the trivial group, while M19 does not act transitively on 19 points and 19 does not divide its order, so this sequence cannot be extended
further down.
[2] John H. Conway, "Graphs and Groups and M13", Notes from New York Graph Theory Day XIV (1987), pp. 18–29.
[3] Conway, John Horton; Elkies, Noam D.; Martin, Jeremy L. (2006), "The Mathieu group M12 and its pseudogroup extension M13" (http:/ /
nrs. harvard. edu/ urn-3:HUL. InstRepos:2794826), Experimental Mathematics 15 (2): 223–236, MR2253008, ISSN 1058-6458,
[4] M19 acts non-trivially but intransitively on 19 points, and has order 3·16; note that In fact, it has 2 orbits: one of order 16,
one of order 3 (the Sylow 2-subgroup acts regularly on 16 points, fixing the other 3, while the Sylow 3-subgroup permutes the 3 points, fixing
the order 16 orbit). See (Choi 1972a, p. 4) for details.
[5] Carmichael (1937): pp.151, 164, 263.
[6] Dixon and Mortimer (1996): p. 209.
[7] (Dixon & Mortimer 1996, pp. 192–205)
[8] (Griess 1998, p. 55 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Ue2pJaegL50C& pg=PA55))
[9] (Curtis 1984)
[10] le Bruyn, Lieven (01 March 2007), Monsieur Mathieu (http:/ / www. neverendingbooks. org/ index. php/ monsieur-mathieu. html), .
[11] http:/ / homepages. wmich. edu/ ~drichter/ images/ mathieu/ hypercolors. jpg
[12] (Richter)
[13] Thomas Thompson (1983), pp. 197-208.
[14] http:/ / nickerson. org. uk/ groups/ moggie/
[15] (Griess 1998, p. 54 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Ue2pJaegL50C& pg=PA54))
[16] ATLAS: Mathieu group M11 (http:/ / brauer. maths. qmul. ac. uk/ Atlas/ spor/ M11/ )
[17] http:/ / brauer. maths. qmul. ac. uk/ Atlas/ spor/ M12/
References
• Mathieu E., Mémoire sur l'étude des fonctions de plusieurs quantités, sur la manière de les former et sur les
substitutions qui les laissent invariables J. Math. Pures Appl. (Liouville) (2) VI, 1861, pp. 241-323.
• Mathieu E., Sur la fonction cinq fois transitive de 24 quantités, Liouville Journ., (2) XVIII., 1873, pp. 25-47.
• Carmichael, Robert D. Groups of Finite Order, Dover (1937, reprint 1956).
• Conway, J.H.; Sloane N.J.A. Sphere Packings, Lattices and Groups: v. 290 (Grundlehren Der Mathematischen
Wissenschaften.) Springer Verlag. ISBN 0-387-98585-9
• Choi, C. (May 1972a), "On Subgroups of M24. I: Stabilizers of Subsets" (http://jstor.org/stable/1996123),
Transactions of the American Mathematical Society (American Mathematical Society) 167: 1–27,
doi:10.2307/1996123, JSTOR 1996123
• Choi, C. (May 1972b). "On Subgroups of M24. II: the Maximal Subgroups of M24" (http://jstor.org/stable/
1996124). Transactions of the American Mathematical Society (American Mathematical Society) 167: 29–47.
doi:10.2307/1996124. JSTOR 1996124.
• Curtis, R. T. A new combinatorial approach to M24. Math. Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 79 (1976) 25-42.
• Curtis, R. T. The maximal subgroups of M24. Math. Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 81 (1977) 185-192.
• Thompson, Thomas M.: From Error Correcting Codes through Sphere Packings to Simple Groups, Carus
Mathematical Monographs, Mathematical Association of America, 1983.
• Curtis, R. T. The Steiner System S(5,6,12), the Mathieu Group M12 and the 'Kitten', Computational Group
Theory, Academic Press, London, 1984
• Cuypers, Hans, The Mathieu groups and their geometries (http://www.win.tue.nl/~hansc/mathieu.pdf)
• Conway, J. H.; Curtis, R. T.; Norton, S. P.; Parker, R. A.; Wilson, R. A. (1985). Atlas of finite groups. Maximal
subgroups and ordinary characters for simple groups. With computational assistance from J. G. Thackray.
Eynsham: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-853199-0
• ATLAS: Mathieu group M10 (http://brauer.maths.qmul.ac.uk/Atlas/v3/group/M10/)
• ATLAS: Mathieu group M11 (http://brauer.maths.qmul.ac.uk/Atlas/v3/group/M11/)
• ATLAS: Mathieu group M12 (http://brauer.maths.qmul.ac.uk/Atlas/v3/group/M12/)
• ATLAS: Mathieu group M20 (http://brauer.maths.qmul.ac.uk/Atlas/v3/group/M20/)
Mathieu group 230
External links
• Moggie (http://nickerson.org.uk/groups/moggie/) Java applet for studying the Curtis MOG construction
• Scientific American (http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=puzzles-simple-groups-at-play) A set of puzzles
based on the mathematics of the Mathieu groups
• Sporadic M12 (http://itunes.apple.com/us/app/sporadic-m12/id322438247) An iPhone app that implements
puzzles based on M12, presented as one "spin" permutation and a selectable "swap" permutation
• Octad of the week (http://igor.gold.ac.uk/~mas01rwb/octad.html)
Sporadic groups
In the mathematical field of group theory, a sporadic group is one of the 26 exceptional groups in the classification
of finite simple groups. A simple group is a group G that does not have any normal subgroups except for the
subgroup consisting only of the identity element, and G itself. The classification theorem states that the list of finite
simple groups consists of 18 countably infinite families, plus 26 exceptions that do not follow such a systematic
pattern. These are the sporadic groups. They are also known as the sporadic simple groups, or the sporadic finite
groups. Sometimes the Tits group is regarded as a sporadic group (because it is not strictly a group of Lie type), in
which case there are 27 sporadic groups.
The Monster group is the largest of the sporadic groups and contains all but six of the other sporadic groups as
subgroups or subquotients.
Sporadic groups 231
Organization
Of the 26 sporadic groups, 20 can be seen inside the Monster group as subgroups or quotients of subgroups. The six
exceptions are J1, J3, J4, O'N, Ru and Ly. These six groups are sometimes known as the pariahs.
The remaining twenty groups have been called the Happy Family by Robert Griess, and can be organized into three
generations.
Ly 51765179004000000 ≈ 28 · 37 · 56 · 7 · 11 · 31 · 37 · 67
5×1016
F5 or HN 273030912000000 ≈ 214 · 36 · 56 · 7 · 11 · 19
3×1014
O'N 460815505920 ≈ 29 · 34 · 5 · 73 · 11 · 19 · 31
5×1011
Ru 145926144000 ≈ 214 · 33 · 53 · 7 · 13 · 29
1×1011
HS 44352000 ≈ 4×107 29 · 32 · 53 · 7 · 11
J2 or HJ 604800 ≈ 6×105 27 · 33 · 52 · 7
J1 175560 ≈ 2×105 23 · 3 · 5 · 7 · 11 · 19
References
• Burnside, William (1911), Theory of groups of finite order, pp. 504 (note N), ISBN 0486495752 (2004 reprinting)
• Conway, J. H.: A perfect group of order 8,315,553,613,086,720,000 and the sporadic simple groups, Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 61 (1968), 398–400.
• Conway, J. H.: Curtis, R. T.; Norton, S. P.; Parker, R. A.; Wilson, R. A., Atlas of finite groups. Maximal
subgroups and ordinary characters for simple groups. With computational assistance from J. G. Thackray.
Eynsham: Oxford University Press, 1985, ISBN 0-19-853199-0
• Daniel Gorenstein, Richard Lyons, Ronald Solomon The Classification of the Finite Simple Groups (volume 1)
[2]
, AMS, 1994 (volume 2) [3], AMS.
• Griess, Robert L.: "Twelve Sporadic Groups", Springer-Verlag, 1998.
• Ronan, Mark (2006), Symmetry and the Monster, Oxford, ISBN 978-0-19-280722-9
External links
• Weisstein, Eric W., "Sporadic Group [4]" from MathWorld.
• Atlas of Finite Group Representations: Sporadic groups [5]
References
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Oeis%3Aa001228
[2] http:/ / www. ams. org/ online_bks/ surv401/
[3] http:/ / www. ams. org/ online_bks/ surv402/
[4] http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ SporadicGroup. html
[5] http:/ / brauer. maths. qmul. ac. uk/ Atlas/ v3/ spor/
Janko group J1
In mathematics, the smallest Janko group, J1, of order 175560, was first described by Zvonimir Janko (1965), in a
paper which described the first new sporadic simple group to be discovered in over a century and which launched the
modern theory of sporadic simple groups.
Properties
J1 can be characterized abstractly as the unique simple group with abelian 2-Sylow subgroups and with an involution
whose centralizer is isomorphic to the direct product of the group of order two and the alternating group A5 of order
60, which is to say, the rotational icosahedral group. That was Janko's original conception of the group. In fact Janko
and Thompson were investigating groups similar to the Ree groups 2G2(32n+1), and showed that if a simple group G
has abelian Sylow 2-subgroups and a centralizer of an involution of the form Z/2Z×PSL2(q) for q a prime power at
least 3, then either q is a power of 3 and G has the same order as a Ree group (it was later shown that G must be a
Ree group in this case) or q is 4 or 5. Note that PSL2(4)=PSL2(5)=A5. This last exceptional case led to the Janko
group J1.
J1 has no outer automorphisms and its Schur multiplier is trivial.
J1 is the smallest of the 6 sporadic simple groups called the pariahs, because they are not found within the Monster
group. J1 is contained in the O'Nan group as the subgroup of elements fixed by an outer automorphism of order 2.
Janko group J<sub>1</sub> 235
Construction
Janko found a modular representation in terms of 7 × 7 orthogonal matrices in the field of eleven elements, with
generators given by
and
Y has order 7 and Z has order 5. Janko (1966) credited W. A. Coppel for recognizing this representation as an
embedding into Dickson's simple group G2(11) (which has a 7 dimensional representation over the field with 11
elements).
There is also a pair of generators a, b such that
a2=b3=(ab)7=(abab−1)19=1
J1 is thus a Hurwitz group, a finite homomorphic image of the (2,3,7) triangle group.
Maximal subgroups
Janko (1966) enumerated all 7 conjugacy classes of maximal subgroups (see also the Atlas webpages cited below).
Maximal simple subgroups of order 660 afford J1 a permutation representation of degree 266. He found that there are
2 conjugacy classes of subgroups isomorphic to the alternating group A5, both found in the simple subgroups of
order 660. J1 has non-abelian simple proper subgroups of only 2 isomorphism types.
Here is a complete list of the maximal subgroups.
The notation A.B means a group with a normal subgroup A with quotient B, and D2n is the dihedral group of order
2n.
Janko group J<sub>1</sub> 236
3=3 1 class
5852 = 22 · 7 · 11 · 19
11 = 11 1 class
15960 = 23 · 3 · 5 · 7 · 19
References
• Zvonimir Janko, A new finite simple group with abelian Sylow subgroups, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 53 (1965)
657-658.
• Zvonimir Janko, A new finite simple group with abelian Sylow subgroups and its characterization, Journal of
Algebra 3: 147-186, (1966) doi:10.1016/0021-8693(66)90010-X
• Zvonimir Janko and John G. Thompson, On a Class of Finite Simple Groups of Ree, Journal of Algebra, 4 (1966),
274-292.
• Robert A. Wilson, Is J1 a subgroup of the monster?, Bull. London Math. Soc. 18, no. 4 (1986), 349-350.
• Atlas of Finite Group Representations: J1 [1] version 2
• Atlas of Finite Group Representations: J1 [2] version 3
References
[1] http:/ / web. mat. bham. ac. uk/ atlas/ v2. 0/ spor/ J1/
[2] http:/ / brauer. maths. qmul. ac. uk/ Atlas/ v3/ spor/ J1/
Janko group J2 237
Janko group J2
In mathematics, the Hall-Janko group HJ, is a finite simple sporadic group of order 604800. It is also called the
second Janko group J2, or the Hall-Janko-Wales group, since it was predicted by Janko and constructed by Hall
and Wales. It is a subgroup of index two of the group of automorphisms of the Hall-Janko graph, leading to a
permutation representation of degree 100.
It has a modular representation of dimension six over the field of four elements; if in characteristic two we have
w2 + w + 1 = 0, then J2 is generated by the two matrices
and
J2 is thus a Hurwitz group, a finite homomorphic image of the (2,3,7) triangle group.
The matrix representation given above constitutes an embedding into Dickson's group G2(4). There are two
conjugacy classes of HJ in G2(4), and they are equivalent under the automorphism on the field F4. Their intersection
(the "real" subgroup) is simple of order 6048. G2(4) is in turn isomorphic to a subgroup of the Conway group Co1.
J2 is the only one of the 4 Janko groups that is a section of the Monster group; it is thus part of what Robert Griess
calls the Happy Family. Since it is also found in the Conway group Co1, it is therefore part of the second
generation of the Happy Family.
Griess relates [p. 123] how Marshall Hall, as editor of The Journal of Algebra, received a very short paper entitled
"A simple group of order 604801." Yes, 604801 is prime.
J2 has 9 conjugacy classes of maximal subgroups. Some are here described in terms of action on the Hall-Janko
graph.
• U3(3) order 6048 - one-point stabilizer, with orbits of 36 and 63
Simple, containing 36 simple subgroups of order 168 and 63 involutions, all conjugate, each moving 80 points.
A given involution is found in 12 168-subgroups, thus fixes them under conjugacy. Its centralizer has structure
4.S4, which contains 6 additional involutions.
• 3.PGL(2,9) order 2160 - has a subquotient A6
• 21+4:A5 order 1920 - centralizer of involution moving 80 points
• 22+4:(3 × S3) order 1152
• A4 × A5 order 720
Containing 22 × A5 (order 240), centralizer of 3 involutions each moving 100 points
Janko group J2 238
References
• Robert L. Griess, Jr., "Twelve Sporadic Groups", Springer-Verlag, 1998.
• Marshall Hall, Jr. and David Wales, "The Simple Group of Order 604,800", Journal of Algebra, 9 (1968),
417-450.
• Wales, David B., "The uniqueness of the simple group of order 604800 as a subgroup of SL(6,4)", Journal of
Algebra 11 (1969), 455 - 460.
• Wales, David B., "Generators of the Hall-Janko group as a subgroup of G2(4)", Journal of Algebra 13 (1969),
513–516, doi:10.1016/0021-8693(69)90113-6, MR0251133, ISSN 0021-8693
• Z. Janko, Some new finite simple groups of finite order, 1969 Symposia Mathematica (INDAM, Rome, 1967/68),
Vol. 1 pp. 25-64 Academic Press, London MR0244371
• Atlas of Finite Group Representations: J2 [1]
Janko group J2 239
References
[1] http:/ / web. mat. bham. ac. uk/ atlas/ v2. 0/ spor/ J2/
Janko group J3
In mathematics, the third Janko group J3, also known as the Higman-Janko-McKay group, is a finite simple
sporadic group of order 50232960. Evidence for its existence was uncovered by Zvonimir Janko (1969), and it was
shown to exist by Graham Higman and John McKay (1969). Janko predicted both J3 and J2 as simple groups having
21+4:A5 as a centralizer of an involution.
J3 has an outer automorphism group of order 2 and a Schur multiplier of order 3, and its triple cover has a unitary 9
dimensional representation over the field with 4 elements. Weiss (1982) constructed it via an underlying geometry.
and it has a modular representation of dimension eighteen over the finite field of nine elements.
J3 is one of the 6 sporadic simple groups called the pariahs, because (Greiss 1982) showed that it is not found within
the Monster group.
Presentations
In terms of generators a, b, c, and d its automorphism group J3:2 can be presented as
Maximal subgroups
Finkelstein & Rudvalis (1974) showed that J3 has 9 conjugacy classes of maximal subgroups:
• PSL(2,16):2, order 8160
• PSL(2,19), order 3420
• PSL(2,19), conjugate to preceding class in J3:2
• 24:(3 × A5), order 2880
• PSL(2,17), order 2448
• (3 × A6):22, order 2160 - normalizer of subgroup of order 3
• 32+1+2:8, order 1944 - normalizer of Sylow 3-subgroup
• 21+4:A5, order 1920 - centralizer of involution
• 22+4:(3 × S3), order 1152
References
• Finkelstein, L.; Rudvalis, A. (1974), "The maximal subgroups of Janko's simple group of order 50,232,960",
Journal of Algebra 30: 122–143, doi:10.1016/0021-8693(74)90196-3, MR0354846, ISSN 0021-8693
• R. L. Griess, Jr., The Friendly Giant, Inventiones Mathematicae 69 (1982), 1-102. p. 93: proof that J3 is a pariah.
• Higman, Graham; McKay, John (1969), "On Janko's simple group of order 50,232,960", Bull. London Math. Soc.
1: 89–94; correction p. 219, doi:10.1112/blms/1.1.89, MR0246955
• Z. Janko, Some new finite simple groups of finite order, 1969 Symposia Mathematica (INDAM, Rome, 1967/68),
Vol. 1 pp. 25-64 Academic Press, London, and in The theory of finite groups (Editied by Brauer and Sah) p.
63-64, Benjamin, 1969.MR0244371
• Richard Weiss, "A Geometric Construction of Janko's Group J3", Math. Zeitung 179 pp 91-95 (1982)
Janko group J<sub>3</sub> 240
External links
• Atlas of Finite Group Representations: J3 [1] version 2
• Atlas of Finite Group Representations: J3 [2] version 3
References
[1] http:/ / web. mat. bham. ac. uk/ atlas/ v2. 0/ spor/ J3/
[2] http:/ / brauer. maths. qmul. ac. uk/ Atlas/ v3/ spor/ J3/
Janko group J4
In mathematics, the fourth Janko group J4 is the sporadic finite simple group of order 221 · 33 · 5 · 7 · 113 · 23 · 29 ·
31 · 37 · 43 = 86775571046077562880 whose existence was suggested by Zvonimir Janko (1976). Its existence and
uniqueness was shown by Simon Norton and others in 1980. Janko found it by studying groups with an involution
centralizer of the form 21+12.3.(M22:2). It has a modular representation of dimension 112 over the finite field of two
elements and is the stabilizer of a certain 4995 dimensional subspace of the exterior square, a fact which Norton used
to construct it, and which is the easiest way to deal with it computationally. The Schur multiplier and the outer
automorphism group are both trivial. Ivanov (2004) has given a proof of existence and uniqueness that does not rely
on computer calculations.
J4 is one of the 6 sporadic simple groups called the pariahs, because they are not found within the Monster group.
The order of the monster group is not divisible by 37 or 43.
Presentation
It has a presentation in terms of three generators a, b, and c as
Maximal subgroups
Kleidman & Wilson (1988) showed that J4 has 13 conjugacy classes of maximal subgroups.
• 211:M24 - containing Sylow 2-subgroups and Sylow 3-subgroups; also containing 211:(M22:2), centralizer of
involution of class 2B
• 21+12.3.(M22:2) - centralizer of involution of class 2A - containing Sylow 2-subgroups and Sylow 3-subgroups
• 210:PSL(5,2)
• 23+12.(S5 × PSL(3,2)) - containing Sylow 2-subgroups
• U3(11):2
• M22:2
• 111+2:(5 × GL(2,3)) - normalizer of Sylow 11-subgroup
• PSL(2,32):5
• PGL(2,23)
• U3(3) - containing Sylow 3-subgroups
• 29:28 = F812
• 43:14 = F602
Janko group J<sub>4</sub> 241
• 37:12 = F444
A Sylow 3-subgroup is a Heisenberg group: order 27, non-abelian, all non-trivial elements of order 3
References
• D.J. Benson The simple group J4, PhD Thesis, Cambridge 1981, http://www.maths.abdn.ac.uk/~bensondj/
papers/b/benson/the-simple-group-J4.pdf
• Ivanov, A. A. The fourth Janko group. Oxford Mathematical Monographs. The Clarendon Press, Oxford
University Press, Oxford, 2004. xvi+233 pp. ISBN 0-19-852759-4 MR2124803
• Z. Janko, A new finite simple group of order 86,775,570,046,077,562,880 which possesses M24 and the full
covering group of M22 as subgroups, J. Algebra 42 (1976) 564-596.doi:10.1016/0021-8693(76)90115-0 (The title
of this paper is incorrect, as the full covering group of M22 was later discovered to be larger: center of order 12,
not 6.)
• Kleidman, Peter B.; Wilson, Robert A. (1988), "The maximal subgroups of J4" [1], Proceedings of the London
Mathematical Society. Third Series 56 (3): 484–510, doi:10.1112/plms/s3-56.3.484, MR931511, ISSN 0024-6115
• S. P. Norton The construction of J4 in The Santa Cruz conference on finite groups (Ed. Cooperstein, Mason)
Amer. Math. Soc 1980.
• Atlas of Finite Group Representations: J4 [2]
References
[1] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1112/ plms/ s3-56. 3. 484
[2] http:/ / web. mat. bham. ac. uk/ atlas/ v2. 0/ spor/ J4/
Fischer group
In mathematics, the Fischer groups are the three sporadic simple groups Fi22, Fi23,Fi24' introduced by Bernd
Fischer (1971).
3-transposition groups
The Fischer groups are named after Bernd Fischer who discovered them while investigating 3-transposition groups.
These are groups G with the following properties:
• G is generated by a conjugacy class of elements of order 2, called 'Fischer transpositions' or 3-transpositions.
• The product of any two distinct transpositions has order 2 or 3.
The typical example of a 3-transposition group is a symmetric group, where the Fischer transpositions are genuinely
transpositions. The symmetric group Sn can be generated by n-1 transpositions: (12) ,(23), ..., (n-1,n).
Fischer was able to classify 3-transposition groups that satisfy certain extra technical conditions. The groups he
found fell mostly into several infinite classes (besides symmetric groups: certain classes of symplectic, unitary, and
orthogonal groups), but he also found 3 very large new groups. These groups are usually referred to as Fi22, Fi23 and
Fi24. The first two of these are simple groups, and the third contains the simple group Fi24' of index 2.
A starting point for the Fischer groups is the unitary group PSU6(2), which could be thought of as a group Fi21 in the
series of Fischer groups, of order 9,196,830,720 = 215.36.5.7.11. Actually it is the double cover 2.PSU6(2) that
becomes a subgroup of the new group. This is the stabilizer of one vertex in a graph of 3510 (=2.33.5.13). These
vertices become identified as conjugate 3-transpositions in the symmetry group Fi22 of the graph.
The Fischer groups are named by analogy with the large Mathieu groups. In Fi22 a maximal set of 3-transpositions
all commuting with one another has size 22 and is called a basic set. There are 1024 3-transpositions, called
Fischer group 242
anabasic that do not commute with any in the particular basic set. Any one of other 2364, called hexadic, commutes
with 6 basic ones. The sets of 6 form an S(3,6,22) Steiner system, whose symmetry group is M22. A basic set
generates an abelian group of order 210, which extends in Fi22 to a subgroup 210:M22.
The next Fischer group comes by regarding 2.Fi22 as a one-point stabilizer for a graph of 31671 (=34.17.23) vertices,
and treating these vertices as the 3-transpositions in a group Fi23. The 3-transpositions come in basic sets of 23, 7 of
which commute with a given outside 3-transposition.
Next one takes Fi23 and treats it as a one-point stabilizer for a graph of 306936 (=23.33.72.29) vertices to make a
group Fi24. The 3-transpositions come in basic sets of 24, 8 of which commute with a given outside 3-transposition.
The group Fi24 is not simple, but its derived subgroup has index 2 and is a sporadic simple group.
Orders
The order of a group is the number of elements in the group.
Fi22 has order 217.39.52.7.11.13 = 64561751654400.
Fi23 has order 218.313.52.7.11.13.17.23 = 4089470473293004800.
Fi24' has order 221.316.52.73.11.13.17.23.29 = 1255205709190661721292800. It is the 3rd largest of the sporadic
groups (after the Monster group and Baby Monster group).
Notation
There is no uniformly accepted notation for these groups. Some authors use F in place of Fi (F22, for example).
Fischer's notation for the them was M(22), M(23) and M(24)', which emphasised their close relationship with the
three largest Mathieu groups, M22, M23 and M24.
One particular source of confusion is that Fi24 is sometimes used to refer to the simple group Fi24', and is sometimes
used to refer to the full 3-transposition group (which is twice the size).
References
• Aschbacher, Michael (1997), 3-transposition groups (http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.
jsf?bid=CBO9780511759413), Cambridge Tracts in Mathematics, 124, Cambridge University Press,
MR1423599, ISBN 978-0-521-57196-8 contains a complete proof of Fischer's theorem.
• Fischer, Bernd (1971), "Finite groups generated by 3-transpositions. I", Inventiones Mathematicae 13: 232–246,
doi:10.1007/BF01404633, MR0294487, ISSN 0020-9910 This is the first part of Fischer's preprint on the
construction of his groups. The remainder of the paper is unpublished (as of 2010).
• Wilson, Robert A. (2009) (in English), The finite simple groups., Graduate Texts in Mathematics 251, Berlin,
New York: Springer-Verlag, doi:10.1007/978-1-84800-988-2, Zbl: 05622792, ISBN 978-1-84800-987-5
• Wilson, R. A. "ATLAS of Finite Group Representation."
http://for.mat.bham.ac.uk/atlas/html/contents.html#spo
Baby Monster group 243
References
[1] (Gorenstein 1993)
[2] Leon, Jeffrey S.; Sims, Charles C. (1977). "The existence and uniqueness of a simple group generated by {3,4}-transpositions" (http:/ /
projecteuclid. org/ euclid. bams/ 1183539473). Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 83 (5): 1039–1040. .
[3] Ronan, Mark (2006). Symmetry and the Monster. Oxford University Press. pp. 178–179. ISBN 0-19-280722-6.
• Gorenstein, D. (1993), "A brief history of the sporadic simple groups" (http://books.google.de/
books?id=W1TyAdpZsh8C&pg=PA141&dq=baby+monster+gruppe&hl=de&
ei=l0fJTLr7BsXQ4ga62rC1Ag&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&
ved=0CE8Q6AEwCDgU#v=onepage&q&f=false), in Corwin, L.; Gelfand, I. M.; Lepowsky, James, The
Gelʹfand Mathematical Seminars, 1990–1992, Boston, MA: Birkhäuser Boston, pp. 137–143, MR1247286,
ISBN 978-0-8176-3689-0
• Höhn, Gerald (1996), Selbstduale Vertexoperatorsuperalgebren und das Babymonster (http://arxiv.org/abs/
0706.0236), Bonner Mathematische Schriften [Bonn Mathematical Publications], 286, Bonn: Universität Bonn
Mathematisches Institut, MR1614941
• Ryba, Alexander J. E. (2007), "A natural invariant algebra for the Baby Monster group" (http://dx.doi.org/10.
1515/JGT.2007.006), Journal of Group Theory 10 (1): 55–69, doi:10.1515/JGT.2007.006, MR2288459,
ISSN 1433-5883
• Wilson, Robert A. (1999), "The maximal subgroups of the Baby Monster. I" (http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jabr.
1998.7601), Journal of Algebra 211 (1): 1–14, doi:10.1006/jabr.1998.7601, MR1656568, ISSN 0021-8693
Baby Monster group 244
External links
• MathWorld: Baby monster group (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BabyMonsterGroup.html)
• Atlas of Finite Group Representations: Baby Monster group (http://brauer.maths.qmul.ac.uk/Atlas/v3/spor/
B/)
Monster group
In the mathematical field of group theory, the Monster group M or F1 (also known as the Fischer-Griess Monster, or
the Friendly Giant) is a group of finite order
246 · 320 · 59 · 76 · 112 · 133 · 17 · 19 · 23 · 29 · 31 · 41 · 47 · 59 · 71
= 808017424794512875886459904961710757005754368000000000
≈ 8 · 1053.
It is a simple group, meaning it does not have any normal subgroups except for the subgroup consisting only of the
identity element, and M itself.
The finite simple groups have been completely classified (the classification of finite simple groups). The list of finite
simple groups consists of 18 countably infinite families, plus 26 sporadic groups that do not follow such a systematic
pattern. The Monster group is the largest of these sporadic groups and contains all but six of the other sporadic
groups as subquotients. Robert Griess has called these six exceptions pariahs, and refers to the others as the happy
family.
Moonshine
The Monster group is one of two principal constituents in the Monstrous moonshine conjecture by Conway and
Norton, which relates discrete and non-discrete mathematics and was finally proved by Richard Borcherds in 1992.
In this setting, the Monster group is visible as the automorphism group of the Monster module, a vertex operator
algebra, an infinite dimensional algebra containing the Griess algebra, and acts on the Monster Lie algebra, a
generalized Kac-Moody algebra.
McKay's E8 observation
There are also connections between the monster and the extended Dynkin diagrams specifically between the
nodes of the diagram and certain conjugacy classes in the monster, known as McKay's E8 observation.[1] [2] This is
then extended to a relation between the extended diagrams and the groups 3.Fi24', 2.B, and M, where
these are (3/2/1-fold central extensions) of the Fischer group, baby monster group, and monster. These are the
sporadic groups associated with centralizers of elements of type 1A, 2A, and 3A in the monster, and the order of the
extension corresponds to the symmetries of the diagram. See ADE classification: trinities for further connections (of
McKay correspondence type), including (for the monster) with the rather small simple group PSL(2,11) and with the
120 tritangent planes of a canonic sextic curve of genus 4.
A computer construction
Robert A. Wilson has found explicitly (with the aid of a computer) two 196882 by 196882 matrices (with elements
in the field of order 2) which together generate the Monster group; note that this is dimension 1 lower than the
196883-dimensional representation in characteristic 0. However, performing calculations with these matrices is
prohibitively expensive in terms of time and storage space. Wilson with collaborators has found a method of
performing calculations with the Monster that is considerably faster.
Let V be a 196882 dimensional vector space over the field with 2 elements. A large subgroup H (preferably a
maximal subgroup) of the Monster is selected in which it is easy to perform calculations. The subgroup H chosen is
31+12.2.Suz.2, where Suz is the Suzuki group. Elements of the Monster are stored as words in the elements of H and
an extra generator T. It is reasonably quick to calculate the action of one of these words on a vector in V. Using this
action, it is possible to perform calculations (such as the order of an element of the Monster). Wilson has exhibited
vectors u and v whose joint stabilizer is the trivial group. Thus (for example) one can calculate the order of an
element g of the Monster by finding the smallest i > 0 such that giu = u and giv = v.
This and similar constructions (in different characteristics) have been used to prove some interesting properties of
the Monster (for example, to find some of its non-local maximal subgroups).
Subgroup structure
Monster group 246
Occurrence
The monster can be realized as a Galois group over the rational numbers (Thompson 1984, p. 443), and as a Hurwitz
group (Wilson 2004).
Notes
[1] Arithmetic groups and the affine E8 Dynkin diagram (http:/ / arxiv4. library. cornell. edu/ abs/ 0810. 1465), by John F. Duncan, in Groups
and symmetries: from Neolithic Scots to John McKay
[2] le Bruyn, Lieven (22 April 2009), the monster graph and McKay’s observation (http:/ / www. neverendingbooks. org/ index. php/
the-monster-graph-and-mckays-observation. html),
References
• J. H. Conway and S. P. Norton, Monstrous Moonshine, Bull. London Math. Soc. 11 (1979), no. 3, 308—339.
• Conway, J. H.; Curtis, R. T.; Norton, S. P.; Parker, R. A.; and Wilson, R. A.: Atlas of Finite Groups: Maximal
Subgroups and Ordinary Characters for Simple Groups. Oxford, England 1985.
• Griess, Robert L. (1976), "The structure of the monster simple group", in Scott, W. Richard; Gross, Fletcher,
Proceedings of the Conference on Finite Groups (Univ. Utah, Park City, Utah, 1975), Boston, MA: Academic
Press, pp. 113–118, MR0399248, ISBN 978-0-12-633650-4
• Griess, Robert L. (1982), "The friendly giant", Inventiones Mathematicae 69 (1): 1–102,
doi:10.1007/BF01389186, MR671653, ISSN 0020-9910
• Griess, Robert L; Meierfrankenfeld, Ulrich; Segev, Yoav (1989), "A uniqueness proof for the Monster" (http://
jstor.org/stable/1971455), Annals of Mathematics. Second Series 130 (3): 567–602, doi:10.2307/1971455,
MR1025167, ISSN 0003-486X
• Harada, Koichiro (2001), "Mathematics of the Monster", Sugaku Expositions 14 (1): 55–71, MR1690763,
ISSN 0898-9583
• P. E. Holmes and R. A. Wilson, A computer construction of the Monster using 2-local subgroups, J. London
Math. Soc. 67 (2003), 346—364.
• Ivanov, A. A., The Monster Group and Majorana Involutions, Cambridge tracts in mathematics, 176, Cambridge
University Press, ISBN 978-0521889940
• S. A. Linton, R. A. Parker, P. G. Walsh and R. A. Wilson, Computer construction of the Monster, J. Group
Theory 1 (1998), 307-337.
• S. P. Norton, The uniqueness of the Fischer-Griess Monster, Finite groups---coming of age (Montreal, Que.,
1982), 271—285, Contemp. Math., 45, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, RI, 1985.
• M. Ronan, Symmetry and the Monster, Oxford University Press, 2006, ISBN 0192807226 (concise introduction
for the lay reader).
Monster group 247
• M. du Sautoy, Finding Moonshine, Fourth Estate, 2008, ISBN 978-0-00-721461-7 (another introduction for the
lay reader; published in the US by HarperCollins as Symmetry, ISBN 978-0060789404).
• Thompson, John G. (1984), "Some finite groups which appear as Gal L/K, where K ⊆ Q(μn)", Journal of Algebra
89 (2): 437–499, doi:10.1016/0021-8693(84)90228-X, MR751155.
• Wilson, Robert A. (2001), "The Monster is a Hurwitz group" (http://web.mat.bham.ac.uk/R.A.Wilson/pubs/
MHurwitz.ps), Journal of Group Theory 4 (4): 367–374, doi:10.1515/jgth.2001.027, MR1859175
External links
• MathWorld: Monster Group (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/MonsterGroup.html)
• Atlas of Finite Group Representations: Monster group (http://brauer.maths.qmul.ac.uk/Atlas/v3/spor/M/)
• Abstruse Goose: Fischer-Griess Monster (http://abstrusegoose.com/96)
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Reverendgraham, Rich Farmbrough, RobinK, Romaioi, Siddhant, Silly rabbit, Sir Vicious, Snags, Stevenj, Stevertigo, Sverdrup, Tamfang, Tarquin, TheLimbicOne, TimBentley, Tobias
Bergemann, Tokek, Wikipedist, 43 anonymous edits
Symmetric group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=408788612 Contributors: A8UDI, Akriasas, Am.hussein, Andre Engels, AnnaFrance, Arcfrk, AxelBoldt, BjornPoonen,
CBM, CRGreathouse, Charles Matthews, Conversion script, Damian Yerrick, Doctorhook, Dogah, Dysprosia, Eighthdimension, Erud, Ezrakilty, Fredrik, Giftlite, Goochelaar, GraemeMcRae,
Graham87, Grubber, Hayabusa future, Helder.wiki, Huppybanny, Icekiss, JackSchmidt, Jim.belk, Jirka62, Kingpin13, LarryLACa, Linas, Looxix, MFH, MSchmahl, Mandarax, Marc van
Leeuwen, Mhym, Michael Hardy, Michael Slone, Mpatel, Mzamora2, NatusRoma, Nbarth, Ojigiri, Paradoxsociety, Patrick, Paul August, Paul Matthews, Pcap, Pcgomes, Phys, PierreAbbat, Pred,
Rayk1212, Rubybrian, Salix alba, Sandrobt, Simetrical, SirJective, Stifle, Tamfang, Tobias Bergemann, Tosha, Wohingenau, Wshun, Zero0000, Zundark, 62 anonymous edits
Combinatorial group theory Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=366117538 Contributors: CBM, Cambyses, Charles Matthews, Gvozdet, JackSchmidt, Nbarth
Algebraic group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=393322595 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Bprsolt Qaoddz, Charles Matthews, Cronholm144, David Eppstein,
DeaconJohnFairfax, Dysprosia, Fropuff, Giftlite, Hesam7, JackSchmidt, Jakob.scholbach, Jim.belk, Joerg Winkelmann, Krasnoludek, Linas, LokiClock, Michael Hardy, Michael Kinyon, Nbarth,
Paul August, Ppntori, R.e.b., TakuyaMurata, Turgidson, Vivacissamamente, Waltpohl, 8 anonymous edits
Solvable group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=406524716 Contributors: 99 Willys on Wheels on the wall, 99 Willys on Wheels..., AxelBoldt, Badanedwa, Bird of paradox,
Charles Matthews, Chas zzz brown, Cícero, DYLAN LENNON, Dogah, Dogaroon, Dr Zimbu, Dysprosia, ElNuevoEinstein, Fibonacci, Fropuff, Gandalfxviv, Gfis, Giftlite, Golbez, JackSchmidt,
Jakob.scholbach, Jeni, Jim.belk, Jweimar, Kilva, Lausailuk, Lifthrasir1, Lupin, Malcolm Farmer, MathMartin, Michael Hardy, Mlpearc, Nbarth, Paddles, Patrick, Phys, R.e.b., RadioActive,
Schildt.a, Seb35, Stewartadcock, Tobias Bergemann, Tosha, Turgidson, Vaughan Pratt, Vipul, Weregerbil, Zundark, 38 anonymous edits
Solvable subgroup Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=17229888 Contributors: 99 Willys on Wheels on the wall, 99 Willys on Wheels..., AxelBoldt, Badanedwa, Bird of
paradox, Charles Matthews, Chas zzz brown, Cícero, DYLAN LENNON, Dogah, Dogaroon, Dr Zimbu, Dysprosia, ElNuevoEinstein, Fibonacci, Fropuff, Gandalfxviv, Gfis, Giftlite, Golbez,
JackSchmidt, Jakob.scholbach, Jeni, Jim.belk, Jweimar, Kilva, Lausailuk, Lifthrasir1, Lupin, Malcolm Farmer, MathMartin, Michael Hardy, Mlpearc, Nbarth, Paddles, Patrick, Phys, R.e.b.,
RadioActive, Schildt.a, Seb35, Stewartadcock, Tobias Bergemann, Tosha, Turgidson, Vaughan Pratt, Vipul, Weregerbil, Zundark, 38 anonymous edits
Tits building Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=158816238 Contributors: Arcfrk, Charles Matthews, Chenxlee, D6, David Eppstein, DavidCBryant, Delirium, Giftlite,
J.delanoy, Jon Awbrey, Joseph Myers, Julyo, KRS, Lantonov, MSGJ, Mathsci, Mhym, Michael Hardy, Mr Adequate, N5iln, Oleg Alexandrov, Omg wtf lol stfu noob, Omnipaedista, R.e.b.,
RUL3R, Rjwilmsi, Rror, Sdfgtsryedry124214, Stwitzel, Tango, Tide rolls, Trovatore, 13 anonymous edits
Finite group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=408239689 Contributors: ABCD, Alberto da Calvairate, Andi5, AxelBoldt, Baccyak4H, Charles Matthews, Ciphers, Cullinane,
D3, DHN, Dreadstar, Geometry guy, Giftlite, HenryLi, JackSchmidt, Kilva, LGB, Loren Rosen, Messagetolove, Mhym, Michael Hardy, Oleg Alexandrov, Patrick, Phys, R.e.b., Radagast3,
Rgdboer, Schneelocke, Schutz, Silverfish, SparsityProblem, TakuyaMurata, Thehotelambush, Vipul, Zundark, 42 anonymous edits
p-adic number Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=402961522 Contributors: 130.182.125.xxx, A5, Adam majewski, Arthur Rubin, AxelBoldt, Ben Standeven, Bender235,
Bluap, Brentt, Bryan Derksen, CRGreathouse, Charles Matthews, Chas zzz brown, Chinju, Chowbok, Chris the speller, Ciphergoth, Classicalecon, Codygunton, Conversion script, Coopercc,
CryptoDerk, DFRussia, Damian Yerrick, David Eppstein, Dcoetzee, DeaconJohnFairfax, Dharma6662000, Dnas, Dominus, Dratman, Drusus 0, Dysprosia, Długosz, E.V.Krishnamurthy, Eequor,
ElNuevoEinstein, Emurphy42, Eric Drexler, Eric Kvaalen, Fropuff, Gandalf61, Gauge, Gene Ward Smith, Giftlite, Graham87, H00kwurm, Hairchrm, Hans Adler, Haziel, Heptadecagon, Ideyal,
Ilanpi, Iseeaboar, Isnow, JackSchmidt, Jafet, Jallotta, Jbolden1517, JeffBurdges, KSmrq, Keith Edkins, Kier07, Kusma, Lambiam, Lethe, Linas, Looxix, MFH, MarSch, Marozols, MathMartin,
Mav, Maxal, Melchoir, Michael Hardy, Miguel, Mikolt, Minesweeper, Mon4, Nbarth, Oleg Alexandrov, Oli Filth, Patrick, Paul August, PaulTanenbaum, PierreAbbat, Pjacobi, Populus, Qpt,
ReiVaX, Revolver, Rill2503456, Rotem Dan, RxS, Singingwolfboy, SirJective, Sligocki, Stephen Bain, Tachyon², Taejo, TakuyaMurata, Thatcher, The Anome, TheBlueWizard, Toby Bartels,
Tosha, Trovatore, Wadems, Waltpohl, Zundark, 118 anonymous edits
Tits alternative Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=402301072 Contributors: Charles Matthews, DavidCBryant, JackSchmidt, Jim.belk, Nsk92, Sdfgsgedy454, Snigbrook, 3
anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 249
Finitely generated group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=54295413 Contributors: ArnoldReinhold, Artem M. Pelenitsyn, AxelBoldt, CRGreathouse, Charles Matthews,
Chas zzz brown, Chinju, Dbenbenn, Dcoetzee, Dr.enh, Dysprosia, Emperorbma, Eyal0, Fibonacci, Giftlite, Herbee, JackSchmidt, Lenthe, Mhss, Michael Hardy, Michael Slone, Optimisteo,
RobHar, Romanm, Tomo, Vp loreta, Zundark, 14 anonymous edits
Linear group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=246251120 Contributors: 3children, Anterior1, Arcfrk, AxelBoldt, Charles Matthews, Ikh, JackSchmidt, KSmrq, Keyi,
Malcolmxl5, MatrixHugh, Michael Hardy, NarrabundahMan, Ndbrian1, R.e.b., RHB, Salix alba, TooMuchMath, Vanished User 0001, Zaslav, 5 anonymous edits
Finite index Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=280259017 Contributors: 4pq1injbok, AxelBoldt, Danramras, Doody.parizada, Druiffic, Giftlite, JackSchmidt, Jim.belk, Koavf,
Mathsci, Nbarth, Quotient group, Si biskuit, Tobias Bergemann, 5 anonymous edits
Free subgroup Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=71154285 Contributors: ATC2, Altenmann, Archelon, AxelBoldt, C S, Charles Matthews, Chris Pressey, Dbenbenn,
Dysprosia, Fadereu, Giftlite, HenrikRueping, Hyginsberg, Iorsh, JackSchmidt, Jim.belk, Kapitolini, Kidburla, LachlanA, Larsbars, Laurentius, Linas, Marozols, MathMartin, Mathsci, Mct mht,
Michael Hardy, Mikeblas, Mohan ravichandran, Punainen Nörtti, R.e.b., Ralamosm, Reedy, Rjwilmsi, Robert Illes, RonnieBrown, Sam nead, Tiphareth, Tobias Bergemann, Tomo, Tosha,
Trovatore, Turgidson, Vipul, Virginia-American, ZeroOne, Ziyuang, Zundark, Мыша, 31 anonymous edits
Tits group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397111631 Contributors: Alchemist Jack, Alison, Baseball Bugs, Bishi Bosche, Bkell, Boemmels, Buster79, Catgut, Charles
Matthews, Chzz, David.Monniaux, Edman1959, Frehley, Gene Ward Smith, Ginsengbomb, Grafen, Huppybanny, Imo1234, JackSchmidt, Jmmuguerza, Michael Hardy, Michael Slone,
MuZemike, Oleg Alexandrov, Pyrop, R.e.b., Sietse Snel, Silverfish, Smjg, SoSaysChappy, Srd2005, ThanksForTheFish, 47 anonymous edits
Primitive group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=23861834 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Cullinane, Dvorak729, Dysprosia, Keenan Pepper, Michael Kinyon, Paul
August, R.e.b., Richard L. Peterson, Stefan Kohl, Turgidson, 3 anonymous edits
Geometric group theory Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=394978510 Contributors: Artem M. Pelenitsyn, C S, Cambyses, Charles Matthews, Chris the speller, Dancter,
Dbenbenn, Frazzydee, Fropuff, Giftlite, JackSchmidt, Jevansen, Jheald, Jim.belk, Juan Marquez, LarRan, MathMartin, Mboverload, Michael Hardy, Nbarth, Nsk92, Oleg Alexandrov, Reiner
Martin, Rjwilmsi, Silverfish, Staecker, SunCreator, Turgidson, Wireader, 12 anonymous edits
Hyperbolic group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=401515762 Contributors: Arcfrk, C S, Ceyockey, Charles Matthews, Charvest, Dbenbenn, Gauge, Giftlite, Haroldsultan,
Ikapovitch, JackSchmidt, Jevansen, LarRan, Mad2Physicist, Ptreth, Quotient group, TheAstonishingBadger, Thefrettinghand, Tosha, Turgidson, Yottie, Zundark, 13 anonymous edits
Automatic group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=384649636 Contributors: AutomatonTheorist, C S, Charles Matthews, Charvest, David Eppstein, Dysprosia, Gauge, Jka02,
JoshuaZ, Michael Hardy, NawlinWiki, Quotient group, Rjwilmsi, Samuel Blanning, Vipul, 5 anonymous edits
Discrete group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=399469544 Contributors: Arcfrk, Cambyses, Charles Matthews, Dreadstar, Fropuff, Giftlite, Jakob.scholbach, Jim.belk,
JoergenB, Linas, Maksim-e, Mhss, Michael Hardy, Mosher, RDBury, Topology Expert, Zundark, 9 anonymous edits
Todd–Coxeter algorithm Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=396543603 Contributors: Andreas Kaufmann, Arcfrk, Bkonrad, Booyabazooka, CBM, Calliopejen1, Charles
Matthews, Dtrebbien, Dysprosia, JackSchmidt, Rswarbrick, Superninja, Taxiarchos228, 4 anonymous edits
Frobenius group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397433656 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Fropuff, Giftlite, I dream of horses, JackSchmidt, Jdgilbey, Jim.belk, Mathsci,
Michael Hardy, R.e.b., Rl, 15 anonymous edits
Zassenhaus group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=356315687 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Everyking, JackSchmidt, Jim.belk, Michael Hardy, Nbarth, R.e.b., 1
anonymous edits
Regular p-group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=399150318 Contributors: JackSchmidt, Jim.belk, Michael Hardy, R.e.b., Wikiadamg, Zundark, 4 anonymous edits
Isoclinism of groups Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=402483364 Contributors: JackSchmidt, Michael Hardy, Richard L. Peterson, 1 anonymous edits
Variety (universal algebra) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=390624927 Contributors: Backslash Forwardslash, Cambyses, Charles Matthews, Chuunen Baka, Dorchard,
Giftlite, Hans Adler, JMK, JackSchmidt, Jesper Carlstrom, LilHelpa, Linas, Livajo, Michael Hardy, Nbarth, Pascal.Tesson, Pavel Jelinek, Smimram, Taeshadow, Thorwald, Tobias Bergemann,
Trovatore, Uncle G, Untalker, Vaughan Pratt, Woohookitty, Zoz, 9 anonymous edits
Reflection group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=363727802 Contributors: Arcfrk, Biruitorul, Charles Matthews, Chuckrocks, Cullinane, EagleFan, Frankchn, Giftlite,
Jim.belk, Johnpseudo, KSmrq, Kuru, Melchoir, Mxn, Nbarth, Nopetro, Oleg Alexandrov, Patrick, Pseudomonas, R.e.b., Riana, Sławomir Biały, Vyznev Xnebara, 14 anonymous edits
Fundamental group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=393898587 Contributors: Akriasas, Alksentrs, Andi5, Archelon, AxelBoldt, Blotwell, Cbigorgne, Charles Matthews,
Conversion script, Cruccone, Dan Gardner, Dpv, Dr Dec, Dysprosia, ElNuevoEinstein, Fropuff, Gauge, Giftlite, Haiviet, Hans Adler, HiDrNick, Hirak 99, Ht686rg90, JackSchmidt,
Jakob.scholbach, Jim.belk, Klausness, KonradVoelkel, Lethe, Linas, Mathsci, Michael Hardy, Msh210, Myasuda, Nbarth, OdedSchramm, Oerjan, Orthografer, Patrick, Phys, Point-set topologist,
Poor Yorick, R.e.b., Ranicki, Raven in Orbit, Rgrizza, Ringspectrum, Rjwilmsi, Sam nead, Senouf, Silly rabbit, Staecker, TakuyaMurata, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tobias Bergemann,
Tosha, Turgidson, Wlod, Zundark, 39 anonymous edits
Classical group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=401841571 Contributors: Arcfrk, Charles Matthews, Gareth McCaughan, Krasnoludek, Nbarth, Pt, R.e.b., RobHar,
Semorrison, 6 anonymous edits
Unitary group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=404556311 Contributors: Aghitza, AxelBoldt, CXCV, Charles Matthews, Dr Zimbu, Drschawrz, Fropuff, Giftlite,
HappyCamper, JATerg, JackSchmidt, JarahE, Jjalexand, Keyi, KnightRider, Linas, Looxix, MarSch, Michael Hardy, Nbarth, Niout, R.e.b., RobHar, Ruud Koot, Silly rabbit, Winston365, Yartsa,
Zundark, 18 anonymous edits
Character theory Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=398197335 Contributors: Alan smithee, Alecobbe, Arcfrk, Ashsong, BlackFingolfin, Bobo192, Charles Matthews, Crink,
Cweaton, Eric Kvaalen, FelixP, Francs2000, Frau Holle, Fropuff, Geffrey, Giftlite, Grubber, Hesam7, Hillman, Icairns, Jim.belk, Jtwdog, Kilva, Lethe, Linas, MathMartin, Messagetolove,
Michael Kinyon, MultimediaGuru, Nbarth, Numenorean7, Oleg Alexandrov, PROUDKEEP, Paul Matthews, Phys, Point-set topologist, Qutezuce, R'n'B, R.e.b., Ringspectrum, Rjwilmsi, RobHar,
Snags, Sullivan.t.j, Swift chlr, Tesseran, Xiaodai, 16 anonymous edits
Sylow theorem Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=98222564 Contributors: 01001, Aholtman, Amitushtush, Ams80, Ank0ku, AxelBoldt, BenF, BeteNoir, CZeke, Charles
Matthews, Chas zzz brown, Chochopk, Conversion script, Crisófilax, Cwkmail, David Eppstein, Derek Ross, Dominus, Druiffic, EmilJ, Eramesan, Functor salad, GTBacchus, Gauge, Geometry
guy, Giftlite, Goochelaar, Graham87, Grubber, Haham hanuka, Hank hu, Hesam7, JackSchmidt, Japanese Searobin, Joelsims80, Jonathanzung, Kilva, Lzur, MathMartin, Mav, Michael Hardy,
Nbarth, Ossido, PierreAbbat, Pladdin, Pmanderson, Point-set topologist, Pyrop, R.e.b., Reedy, Schutz, Siroxo, Sl, Spoon!, Stove Wolf, Superninja, TakuyaMurata, Tarquin, Tobias Bergemann,
Twilsonb, WLior, Welsh, Zundark, Zvika, 75 anonymous edits
Lie algebra Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=392789870 Contributors: Adam cohenus, AlainD, Arcfrk, Arthena, Asimy, AxelBoldt, BenFrantzDale, Bogey97, CSTAR,
Chameleon, Charles Matthews, Conversion script, CryptoDerk, Curps, Dachande, David Gerard, DefLog, Drbreznjev, Drorata, Dysprosia, Englebert, Foobaz, Freiddie, Fropuff, Gauge, Geometry
guy, Giftlite, Grendelkhan, Grokmoo, Grubber, Gvozdet, Hairy Dude, Harold f, Hesam7, Iorsh, Isnow, JackSchmidt, Jason Quinn, Jason Recliner, Esq., Jeremy Henty, Jkock, Joel Koerwer,
Jrw@pobox.com, Juniuswikiae, Kaoru Itou, Kragen, Kwamikagami, Lenthe, Lethe, Linas, Loren Rosen, MarSch, Masnevets, Michael Hardy, Michael Larsen, Michael Slone, Miguel, Msh210,
NatusRoma, Nbarth, Ndbrian1, Niout, Noegenesis, Oleg Alexandrov, Paolo.dL, Phys, Pizza1512, Pj.de.bruin, Prtmrz, Pt, Pyrop, Python eggs, R'n'B, Reinyday, RexNL, Rossami, Sbyrnes321,
Shirulashem, Silly rabbit, Spangineer, StevenJohnston, Suisui, Supermanifold, TakuyaMurata, Thomas Bliem, Tobias Bergemann, Tosha, Twri, Vanish2, Veromies, Wavelength, Weialawaga,
Wood Thrush, Wshun, Zundark, 84 anonymous edits
Class group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=16844210 Contributors: Alodyne, AxelBoldt, CRGreathouse, Charles Matthews, Danpovey, DeaconJohnFairfax, Dmharvey,
Dyss, Gauge, Gene Ward Smith, Georg Muntingh, Giftlite, Grubber, Hesam7, Ilion2, Michael Hardy, Mon4, Nbarth, Pmanderson, PoolGuy, RobHar, Roentgenium111, Smjwilson,
TakuyaMurata, Timwi, Tobias Bergemann, Virginia-American, Vivacissamamente, Waltpohl, Wshun, Zundark, 18 anonymous edits
Abelian group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=403828404 Contributors: 128.111.201.xxx, Aeons, Amire80, Andres, Andyparkerson, Arcfrk, AxelBoldt, Brighterorange,
Brona, Bryan Derksen, CRGreathouse, Charles Matthews, Chas zzz brown, Chowbok, Ciphers, Coleegu, Conversion script, DHN, DL144, Dcoetzee, Doradus, Dr Caligari, Drbreznjev,
Article Sources and Contributors 250
Drgruppenpest, Drilnoth, Dysprosia, Fibonacci, Fropuff, GB fan, Gandalf61, Gauge, Geschichte, Giftlite, Gregbard, Grubber, Helder.wiki, Isnow, JackSchmidt, Jdforrester, Jitse Niesen, Jlaire,
Joe Campbell, Johnuniq, Jonathans, Jorend, Kaoru Itou, Karada, Keenan Pepper, Konradek, Lagelspeil, Leonard G., Lethe, Lovro, Madmath789, Magic in the night, Mathisreallycool, Mets501,
Michael Hardy, Michael Slone, Mikael V, Namwob0, Negi(afk), Newone, Oleg Alexandrov, Oli Filth, Pakaran, Patrick, Philosophygeek, Pmanderson, Poor Yorick, Quotient group, R.e.b.,
Recognizance, Revolver, Rickterp, Romanm, Salix alba, Saxbryn, Schneelocke, SetaLyas, Shenme, Silly rabbit, SirJective, Ste4k, Stevertigo, Stifle, TakuyaMurata, Tango, Theresa knott, Tobias
Bergemann, Topology Expert, Trhaynes, Vanish2, Vaughan Pratt, Vipul, Waltpohl, Warut, Zabadooken, Zundark, 90 anonymous edits
Lie group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=408761117 Contributors: 212.29.241.xxx, Abdull, Akriasas, Alex Varghese, AnmaFinotera, Anterior1, Arcfrk, Archelon,
Arkapravo, AxelBoldt, BMF81, Badger014, Barak, Bears16, Beastinwith, Beland, BenFrantzDale, Benjamin.friedrich, Bobblewik, Bongwarrior, Borat fan, Brian Huffman, Buster79, CBM,
CRGreathouse, Cacadril, Charles Matthews, Cherlin, ChrisJ, Cmelby, Conversion script, Dablaze, Darkfight, Davewild, David Eppstein, David Shay, DefLog, Dorftrottel, Dr.enh, Drorata,
Dysprosia, Dzordzm, Ekeb, Eubulides, FlashSheridan, Fropuff, GTBacchus, Genuine0legend, Geometry guy, Giftlite, Graham87, HappyCamper, Headbomb, Hesam7, Hillman, Homeworlds,
Ht686rg90, Inquisitus, Isnow, Itai, JDspeeder1, JackSchmidt, James.r.a.gray, JamesMLane, Jason Quinn, Jesper Carlstrom, Jim.belk, Jitse Niesen, Joriki, Josh Cherry, Josh Grosse, JustAGal,
KSmrq, Kaoru Itou, KbReZiE 12, KeithB, Kier07, Krasnoludek, Kwamikagami, Len Raymond, Leontios, Lethe, Linas, Lockeownzj00, Logical2u, Looxix, Lseixas, MarSch, Marc van Leeuwen,
Masnevets, Mathchem271828, Mhss, Michael Hardy, Michael Kinyon, Michael Slone, Miguel, MotherFunctor, Msh210, MuDavid, Myasuda, NatusRoma, Ndbrian1, Ninte, Niout, Oleg
Alexandrov, Orthografer, Oscarbaltazar, Ozob, PAR, Paul August, Phys, Pidara, Pmanderson, Porcher, Pred, R.e.b., Rgdboer, RichardVeryard, RobHar, Rocket71048576, RodVance,
S2000magician, Saaska, Salgueiro, Salix alba, Shanes, Sidiropo, Silly rabbit, Siva1979, Smaines, Smylei, Stevertigo, Sullivan.t.j, Suslindisambiguator, Sławomir Biały, Tanath, Tide rolls, Tobias
Bergemann, Tom Lougheed, Tompw, TomyDuby, Topology Expert, Tosha, Trevorgoodchild, Ulner, Unifey, VKokielov, Weialawaga, Wgmccallum, WhatamIdoing, XJamRastafire, Xantharius,
Xavic69, Yggdrasil014, Zoicon5, Zundark, 111 anonymous edits
Galois group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=389520137 Contributors: Alro, AugPi, AxelBoldt, Charles Matthews, Chowbok, Conversion script, Cwkmail, Dan Gardner,
Daniel Mahu, Dmharvey, Dyaa, Dysprosia, EmilJ, Fredrik, Giftlite, Grubber, Helder.wiki, Hesam7, JackSchmidt, Jakob.scholbach, Keyi, Lagelspeil, Loren Rosen, MattTait, Michael Hardy,
Moxmalin, Point-set topologist, RobHar, TakuyaMurata, TomyDuby, Unyoyega, Vivacissamamente, Zundark, 16 anonymous edits
General linear group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=399571821 Contributors: A5, Albmont, AxelBoldt, Charles Matthews, Chas zzz brown, Cullinane, Dmharvey,
Drschawrz, Dysprosia, EmilJ, Franp9am, Fropuff, Gaius Cornelius, Gauge, Giftlite, Goudzovski, Greenfernglade, Gwaihir, HappyCamper, Harryboyles, Ht686rg90, Huppybanny, JackSchmidt,
Jeepday, Jim.belk, Jitse Niesen, KSmrq, KnightRider, Linas, Llanowan, MSGJ, Marconet, Mhss, Michael Hardy, Michael Slone, Msh210, Nbarth, Niout, Oleg Alexandrov, Patrick, Paul August,
Pleasantville, R.e.b., Salix alba, Silly rabbit, Spvo, Sullivan.t.j, Topology Expert, Weialawaga, Zero sharp, Zhaoway, Zundark, 41 anonymous edits
Representation theory Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=407178563 Contributors: Andresswift, BenFrantzDale, CBM, Cyfal, Frau Holle, Geometry guy, Giftlite, Hugh16,
KathrynLybarger, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, Mild Bill Hiccup, PaulTanenbaum, Pred, R'n'B, RobHar, The Thing That Should Not Be, Unfree, Wavelength, Zundark, 18 anonymous edits
Symmetry in physics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=328220556 Contributors: 8af4bf06611c, A. di M., AndrewHowse, Archelon, BenFrantzDale, Bloodshedder, Bradv,
Brews ohare, Christian75, Commander Keane, Complexica, Danski14, Divey, Email4mobile, Fratrep, Giftlite, Heron, Homunq, Hotbody, JRSpriggs, Janus Shadowsong, Joshua P. Schroeder,
Manganite, Mattpickman, Mets501, Michael C Price, Michael Hardy, Mpatel, Netoholic, Oleg Alexandrov, Ottre, PV=nRT, Paradoctor, Patrick, Paul D. Anderson, PhilKnight, Physicistjedi,
Point-set topologist, Quodfui, Reaverdrop, Rorro, Rror, Sbyrnes321, Stevertigo, StradivariusTV, Stylus881, Thamuzino, The Anome, Woohookitty, X42bn6, YK Times, 45 anonymous edits
Space group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=395242094 Contributors: 2over0, Ambarsande, Asrghasrhiojadrhr, Baccyak4H, Bwmodular, Cbup, Charles Matthews,
DeadEyeArrow, Dmb000006, Egalegal, Encephalon, Felipe Gonçalves Assis, Giftlite, Hetar, Jaccos, JackSchmidt, Jcwf, Jimduck, Joseph Myers, KSmrq, Michael Hardy, Mpatel, Nikai, Oleg
Alexandrov, Oysteinp, Patrick, Polyamorph, R.e.b., Rifleman 82, Rjwilmsi, Rossami, Soc8675309, Syntax, Tagishsimon, Tantalate, Template namespace initialisation script, That Guy, From
That Show!, Tomruen, Tosha, Truelight, Vespristiano, Vsmith, Warp0009, Wik, WikHead, Yhshin, Սահակ, 68 anonymous edits
Molecular symmetry Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=401210282 Contributors: Baccyak4H, Bdevill, Benjah-bmm27, Benjaminruggill, Bit Lordy, Bobby1011, Crystal
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Applications of group theory Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=200345224 Contributors: Adan, Adgjdghjdety, Alberto da Calvairate, Ale jrb, Alksentrs, Alpha Beta Epsilon,
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Examples of groups Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=377324328 Contributors: 01001, AxelBoldt, Charles Matthews, Chas zzz brown, Cullinane, Dominus, Doradus,
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Thehotelambush, TimothyRias, Toby Bartels, Tosha, 7 anonymous edits
Modular representation theory Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405964506 Contributors: Altosax456, Arcfrk, CRGreathouse, Charles Matthews, Davcrav, Dicklyon,
Gauge, Geffrey, Hillman, Magmi, Messagetolove, Michael Hardy, R'n'B, R.e.b., Ringspectrum, Rjwilmsi, Silly rabbit, Vanish2, Waltpohl, 63 anonymous edits
Conway group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=395314551 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Drschawrz, Geometry guy, Giftlite, JackSchmidt, Jemebius, Kevin Lamoreau,
Kwamikagami, Michael Larsen, R.e.b., RFBailey, Radagast3, Schneelocke, Scott Tillinghast, Houston TX, Trovatore, Turgidson, 8 anonymous edits
Mathieu group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=387765792 Contributors: BenF, Calcyman, Cullinane, Cyp, Dr. Submillimeter, Drschawrz, EagleFan, Fropuff, FvdP,
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RJChapman, Schneelocke, Scott Tillinghast, Houston TX, The Anome, Topbanana, Tosha, Vanish2, WinoWeritas, 22 anonymous edits
Sporadic groups Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=119491563 Contributors: Almit39, ArnoldReinhold, CRGreathouse, Dominus, Drschawrz, Gaius Cornelius, Geometry guy,
Giftlite, Jac16888, JackSchmidt, John of Reading, Kidburla, Michael Hardy, Puffin, R.e.b., Radagast3, Schneelocke, Tobias Bergemann, WinoWeritas, 20 anonymous edits
Janko group J1 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=370682041 Contributors: Cyp, JackSchmidt, Jemebius, Jim.belk, R.e.b., Remember the dot, Scott Tillinghast, Houston TX,
Thomaso, Woohookitty, 1 anonymous edits
Janko group J2 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=124392814 Contributors: Cyp, DavidCBryant, Giftlite, JackSchmidt, Jim.belk, R.e.b., Scott Tillinghast, Houston TX, 2
anonymous edits
Janko group J3 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=394978277 Contributors: JackSchmidt, Lexein, R.e.b., Remember the dot, Scott Tillinghast, Houston TX, 2 anonymous edits
Janko group J4 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=394981293 Contributors: Giftlite, JackSchmidt, Karam.Anthony.K, R.e.b., Remember the dot, Scott Tillinghast, Houston
TX, 3 anonymous edits
Fischer group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=403610240 Contributors: Carlmckie, Dcoetzee, DroEsperanto, Giftlite, Gro-Tsen, Huppybanny, JackSchmidt, Jiang, Jim.belk,
Onebyone, R.e.b., Schneelocke, Scott Tillinghast, Houston TX, 3 anonymous edits
Baby Monster group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=398664220 Contributors: Bmonster28, Drschawrz, Farosdaughter, Geometry guy, Gro-Tsen, Huppybanny, Michael
Hardy, R.e.b., Schneelocke, 3 anonymous edits
Monster group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405497262 Contributors: 800km3rk, Army1987, AxelBoldt, B.d.mills, BenF, Calabraxthis, Drschawrz, Fredrik, Fuzheado,
Gene Ward Smith, Geometry guy, Giftlite, Huppybanny, JackSchmidt, Jemebius, Jitse Niesen, Kevin Lamoreau, Kidburla, Lethe, Linas, Loren Rosen, Michael Hardy, Nbarth, Patrick, Protasis,
Qloop, R.e.b., Rjwilmsi, RobHar, Roger Hui, Schneelocke, Schnolle, Scott Tillinghast, Houston TX, Sligocki, Tobias Bergemann, Tomruen, WJBscribe, WinoWeritas, Zundark, 29 anonymous
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