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The data calculated by this program are for information only and do not cover all details of a
welding procedure. Therefore, this program does not give an assurance in respect to the
properties of the welded joints. In any case the underlying welding and construction standards
have to be obeyed. Furthermore the description of fabrication properties of our material data
sheets should be taken into account and all necessary levels of a careful quality control be
respected.
CARBON EQUIVALENTS
The carbon equivalents are simplified parameters which try to estimate the influence of the
alloying content of steel by summarizing the content of the various alloying elements by a
particular averaging procedure. Plenty of carbon equivalents have been developed until now with
different suitability for a special welding situation and steel grade. The four carbon equivalents
the most common are calculated here (in weight- %):
CET := C + (Mn + Mo)/10 + (Cr + Cu)/20 + Ni/40
Fill in the alloying contents given in your inspection certificate. The program will calculate the
various carbon equivalents.
For the CET-equivalent, which is a prerequisite for the following welding parameter calculation,
the range of validity is as follows (in weight %):
C: 0.05 - 0.32
Si: ≤ 0.80
Mn: 0.50 - 1.90
Cr: ≤ 1.50
Ni: ≤ 2.50
Mo: ≤ 0.75
Cu: ≤ 0.70
V: ≤ 0.18
Nb: ≤ 0.06
Ti: ≤ 0.12
B: ≤ 0.005
If an alloying content hurts this range of validity, this element as well as the CET-parameter is
marked in red.
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Carbon equivalent CET (see above): The CET can be explicitly filled in here or be
calculated by the contents of the alloying elements in the menu carbon equivalent. The
CET is inserted in weight-%
Plate thickness d: The plate thickness is inserted in mm. It should be considered that the
influence of the plate thickness is of minor importance for plate thicknesses above 60 mm
due to the three-dimensional heat flux.
Hydrogen content HD: The hydrogen content H2 is inserted in ml/100g. Here either a
value between 1 and 20 ml/100g can be inserted directly or a typical value depending on
the weld process used can be selected:
Effective Heat Input: The effective heat input Q, which is given by the product of the
heat input E multiplied with an efficiency factor h , Q = h *E, is given here in kJ/mm.
There are two ways to take the influence of the effective heat input.
- The dependence between the preheating temperature and the weld energy is shown in
the weld parameter box which is shown after filling in all necessary data.
- Moreover, the preheating temperature can be explicitly calculated by inserting either the
effective heat input Q in kJ/mm or the heat input E in kJ/mm and the efficiency factor h
, which depends on the welding process used. The efficiency factor the explicitly explained
in the _next section_.
From the data above the minimum preheating temperature is calculated as follows:
Tp = 697*CET+ 160*tanh(d/35)+62*HD0,35 + (53*CET-32)*Q-328
d: 10 mm - 90 mm
The maximum hardness in the HAZ normally decreases with growing cooling time t8/5. If a
given maximum hardness value is not to be exceeded for a particular steel, the welding
parameters have to the chosen in such a way that the cooling time t8/5 does not fall under a
particular value.
On the other hand, increasing cooling times cause a decrease of the toughness of the HAZ, that
means a decrease of the impact values measured in the Charpy-V-test or an increase of the
transition temperature of the Charpy-V-impact energy. Therefore the welding parameters have to
be selected in such a way, that the cooling time does not exceed a particular value.
In general, for weldable fine -grain structural steel grades the cooling time for filling and covering
weld layers should be in the time 10 s and 25 s dependant on the steel grade given here. After
corresponding verification, there is no problem to apply also other values of the cooling time
t8/5 under the condition that the quality demands on the structure to be welded are completely
fulfilled and suitable welding procedure qualification have been performed.
Furthermore you can calculate a welding parameter diagram which shows you the possible heat-
input - preheating temperatures for given maximum and minimum cooling times. If you want to
calculate explicit cooling times please use the next section (_Cooling time_).
The following parameters have got an influence on the cooling time, either on its calculation or
on its selection and can be inserted here in order to obtain optimised welding parameters:
Plate thickness d: The plate thickness is inserted in mm. It should be considered that the
influence of the plate thickness is of minor importance for plate thicknesses above 60 mm
due to the three-dimensional heat flux. Welding geometry: The influence of the welding
geometry is taken into consideration by weld geometry factors F2 and F3 for two- and
three-dimensional heat flux. The values of the weld geometry factor for typical weld
geometries are:
The factors given above can be selected here. Moreover a free input of the data in the range
between 0 and 1 is also possible.
Effective Heat Input: The effective heat input Q, which is given by the product of the
heat input E multiplied with an efficiency factor h , Q = h *E, is given here in kJ/mm.
The influence of the effective heat input in dependence of the preheating/interpass
temperature and the minimum and maximum cooling time t8/5 is shown in the welding
parameter diagram which is built up after completion of the values needed.
Preheating/Interpass-temperature: The influence of the preheating time is also expressed
in the welding parameter diagram.
Maximum and minimum cooling time:
From the data given above the cooling time t8/5 can be calculated if a three-dimensional
heat flux is assumed:
If the heat flux is two-dimensional the cooling time depends on the plate thickness and
the following formula is used:
Only the greater value obtained from the two formulas above is physically valid. Often,
a transition plate thickness dt is calculated, at which the transition between the two-
dimensional and the three-dimensional heat flux occurs. This transition plate thickness is:
dt = SQR(((4300-4.3*Tp)*105/(6700-5*Tp)*Q*(1/(500-TP)2-1/(800-TP)2)/ (1/(500-TP) -
1/(800-TP)))
The maximum and minimum cooling times depend on the steel grade which is to be
welded. The cooling times recommended by Dillinger brand products can be selected
here. As described above, other cooling times can be chosen under the condition that the
quality demands on the structure to be welded are completely fulfilled and suitable
welding procedure qualification have been performed. Therefore also a free input of the
cooling time is possible. In any case the recommendations given in our material data
sheets have to be taken into account too.
sufficient preheating,
Cooling time smaller than a maximum value defined above,
Cooling time bigger than a minimum value defined above.
Moreover a direct calculation of the preheating temperature by specifying either the effective
heat input Q or the heat input E and the efficiency factor h is enabled.
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Cooling time
The cooling time between 800°C and 500°C t8/5 is the most important parameter in order to
determine the welding parameters applied during welding of fine-grain structural steels. The
underlying reasons are explicitly described above.
In this menu you can easily calculate this cooling time by specifying the following values:
From the data given above the cooling time t8/5 can be calculated if a three-dimensional heat
flux is assumed:
t8/5 = (6700-5*TP)*Q* (1/(500-TP)-1/(800-TP))*F3
If the heat flux is two-dimensional the cooling time depends on the plate thickness an the
following formula is used:
t8/5 = (4300-4.3*TP)*105*Q2/d2* (1/(500-TP)2-1/(800-TP)2)*F2
Only the greater values obtained from the two formulas above is physically valid. Often, a
transition plate thickness dt is calculated, at which the transition between the two-dimensional
and the three-dimensional heat flux occurs. This transition plate thickness is determined as
follows:
dt = SQR(((4300-4.3*Tp)*105/(6700-5*Tp)*Q*(1/(500-TP)2-1/(800-TP)2)/ (1/(500-TP) -1/(800-
TP))*F2/F3)
Moreover it is signed whether a two- or three-dimensional heat flux occurs.
It should be considered that the assumptions underlying the formulas for the cooling time are
often not perfectly fulfilled. Therefore the values calculated can deviate form the real values by
up to 10 %.
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Resulting hardness:
HV = 2019x[ C(1- 0,5 * log t8/5) + 0,3(CE*-C)] + 66x[1 - 0,8 x log t8/5 ]
If HV < HVM and HV > HVB, the Yurioka-hardness is calculated according to the formulas
HV = 0,5 (HVM + HVB) - 0,455 (HVM - HVB) arctan t*
with HVm := 884 x C (1 - 0,3 C²) + 294
Moreover the maximum hardness values admissible by DIN EN ISO 15614-1 can be called by
the button "Max. Hardness" and a maximum hardness value can be selected and inserted in the
hardness diagrams
1a , 2 380 320
3b 450 380
4, 5 380 320
6 — 350
9.1 350 300
9.2 450 350
9.3 450 350
a
If hardness tests are demanded
b
For steels with ReH, min > 890 MPa special agreements are required.
1) Steels with mind. ReH ≤ 460 MPa
2) Thermomechanically rolled steels with min. ReH > 360 MPa
3) Quenched and tempered steels with min. ReH > 360 MPa
Preheating involves heating the base metal, either in its entirety or just the region surrounding
the joint, to a specific desired temperature, called the preheat temperature, prior to welding.
Heating may be continued during the welding process, but frequently the heat from welding is
sufficient to maintain the desired temperature without a continuation of the external heat source.
The interpass temperature, defined as the base metal temperature between the first and last
welding passes, cannot fall below the preheat temperature. Interpass temperature will not be
discussed further here. Preheating can produce many beneficial effects; however, without a
working knowledge of the fundamentals involved, one risks wasting money, or even worse,
degrading the integrity of the weldment.
Why Preheat?
There are four primary reasons to utilize preheat: (1) it lowers the cooling rate in the weld metal
and base metal, producing a more ductile metallurgical structure with greater resistant to cracking
(2) the slower cooling rate provides an opportunity for any hydrogen that may be present to
diffuse out harmlessly without causing cracking (3) it reduces the shrinkage stresses in the weld
and adjacent base metal, which is especially important in highly restrained joints and (4) it raises
some steels above the temperature at which brittle fracture would occur in fabrication.
Additionally, preheat can be used to help ensure specific mechanical properties, such as notch
toughness.
When there are no codes governing the welding, one must determine whether preheat is
required, and if so, what preheat temperature will be appropriate. In general, preheat usually is
not required on low carbon steels less than 1 in, (25 mm) thick. However, as the chemistry,
diffusible hydrogen level of the weld metal, restraint or section thickness increases, the demand
for preheat also increases. There are several methods to determine the required preheat
temperature for a given base metal and section thickness that will be discussed in the next
section.
When no welding codes are specified, and the need for preheat has been established, how does
one determine an appropriate preheat temperature? As a basis for discussion, consider AWS
D1.1-96, Annex XI: "Guideline on Alternative Methods for Determining Preheat'' which
presents two procedures for establishing a preheat temperature developed primarily from
laboratory cracking tests. These techniques are beneficial when the risk of cracking is increased
due to composition, restraint, hydrogen level or lower welding heat input.
The two methods outlined in Annex XI of AWS D1.1-96 are: (1) heat affected zone (HAZ)
hardness control and (2) hydrogen control. The HAZ hardness control method, which is
restricted to fillet welds, is based on the assumption that cracking will not occur if the hardness
of the HAZ is kept below some critical value. This is achieved by controlling the cooling rate.
The critical cooling rate for a given hardness can be related to the carbon equivalent of the steel,
which is defined as:
From the critical cooling rate, a minimum preheat temperature can then be calculated. (Blodgett's
paper entitled "Calculating Cooling Rates by Computer Programming'' outlines a calculation
procedure based on cooling rate, heat input, plate thickness, temperature at which cooling rate is
critical, preheat temperature, thermal conductivity and specific heat.) It should be pointed out,
however, that "although the method can be used to determine a preheat level, its main value is in
determining the minimum heat input (and hence minimum weld size) that prevents excessive
hardening'' (Annex XI, paragraph 3.4,AWS D1.1-96.)
The hydrogen control method is based on the assumption that cracking will not occur if the
amount of hydrogen remaining in the joint after it has cooled down to about 120°F (50°C) does
not exceed a critical value dependent on the composition of the steel and the restraint. This
procedure is extremely useful for high strength, low-alloy steels that have high hardenability.
However, the calculated preheat may be too conservative for carbon steels.
The three basic steps of the hydrogen control method are: (1) Calculate a composition parameter
similar to the carbon equivalent; (2) Calculate a susceptibility index as a function of the
composition parameter and the filler metal diffusible hydrogen content; and (3) Determine the
minimum preheat temperature from the restraint level, material thickness, and susceptibility
index.
A high level of accuracy generally is not required for preheating carbon steels. Although it is
important that the work be heated to a minimum temperate, it is acceptable to exceed that
temperature by approximately 100°F (40°C). However, this is not the case for quenched and
tempered (Q&T) steels, since welding on overheated Q&T steels may be detrimental in the heat
affected zone. Therefore, Q&T steels require that maximum and minimum preheat temperatures
be established and closely followed.
When heating the joint to be welded, the AWS D1.1 code requires that the minimum preheat
temperature be established at a distance that is at least equal to the thickness of the thickest
member, but not less than 3 in. (75 mm) in all directions from the point of welding. To ensure
that the full material volume surrounding the joint is heated, it is recommended practice to heat
the side opposite of that which is to be welded and to measure the surface temperature adjacent
to the joint. Finally, the steel temperature should be checked to verify that the minimum preheat
temperature has been established just prior to initiating the arc for each pass.
Summary
Preheat can prevent cracking and/or ensure specific mechanical properties such as notch
toughness.
Preheat must be used whenever applicable codes so specify; when no codes apply to a given
situation, the welding engineer must determine whether or not preheat is needed, and what
temperature will be required for a given base metal and section thickness.
Annex XI of AWS D1.1-96 provides guidelines for alternative methods of determining proper
amounts of preheat: the HAZ hardness control method, or the hydrogen control method.
Preheat may be applied in a furnace, or by using heating torches, electrical strip heaters, or
induction or radiant heaters. Carbon steels do not require precise temperature accuracy, but
induction or radium heaters, maximum and minimum preheat temperatures must be followed
closely for quenched and tempered steels.