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HELP WELDING CALCULATION - WELDING

The data calculated by this program are for information only and do not cover all details of a
welding procedure. Therefore, this program does not give an assurance in respect to the
properties of the welded joints. In any case the underlying welding and construction standards
have to be obeyed. Furthermore the description of fabrication properties of our material data
sheets should be taken into account and all necessary levels of a careful quality control be
respected.

CARBON EQUIVALENTS
The carbon equivalents are simplified parameters which try to estimate the influence of the
alloying content of steel by summarizing the content of the various alloying elements by a
particular averaging procedure. Plenty of carbon equivalents have been developed until now with
different suitability for a special welding situation and steel grade. The four carbon equivalents
the most common are calculated here (in weight- %):
CET := C + (Mn + Mo)/10 + (Cr + Cu)/20 + Ni/40

CE := C + Mn/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + (Ni+ Cu)/15

CEN := C + [ 0.75 + 0.25*tanh(20*(C - 0.12))] *


[Si/24 + Mn/6 + Cu/15 + Ni/20 + (Cr + Mo + V + Nb)/5 + 5*B]

Pcm := C + Si/30 + (Mn + Cu + Cr)/20 + Mo/15 + Ni/60 + V/10 + 5*B

Fill in the alloying contents given in your inspection certificate. The program will calculate the
various carbon equivalents.
For the CET-equivalent, which is a prerequisite for the following welding parameter calculation,
the range of validity is as follows (in weight %):

C: 0.05 - 0.32

Si: ≤ 0.80
Mn: 0.50 - 1.90

Cr: ≤ 1.50

Ni: ≤ 2.50

Mo: ≤ 0.75

Cu: ≤ 0.70

V: ≤ 0.18

Nb: ≤ 0.06

Ti: ≤ 0.12

B: ≤ 0.005

If an alloying content hurts this range of validity, this element as well as the CET-parameter is
marked in red.
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WELDING PARAMETERS / PREHEATING


The calculation of welding parameters is based on the method B in EN 1011-2 (Welding -
Recommendation for welding metallic materials - Part 2 Arc welding of ferritic steels) described
in annex C and D of this code.
This method describes how welding parameters should be selected in order to avoid especially
cold-cracking in the heat-affected zone (HAZ). In any case the fabrication properties
recommendations in our material data sheets should be taken into account for particular steel.
Furthermore, the user has to ensure that the relevant standards, such as EN 10 11, are fulfilled.
Preheating:
Preheating is very useful in order to avoid the phenomena of cold cracking as it decelerates the
cooling of the HAZ and enables the hydrogen induced during welding to escape. Furthermore
preheating improves the welding-induced constraints. Multi-layer welds can be begun without
preheating if a suitable welding sequence is chosen and the interpass temperature is sufficient.
The preheating temperature is the lowest temperature before the first welding pass which has not
to be fallen below in order to avoid cold-cracking. For multi-layer welds this term refers to the
temperature of the second and the subsequent weld passes and is also called interpass
temperature. In general the two temperatures are identical.
The preheating temperature depends on the following input data:

 Carbon equivalent CET (see above): The CET can be explicitly filled in here or be
calculated by the contents of the alloying elements in the menu carbon equivalent. The
CET is inserted in weight-%
 Plate thickness d: The plate thickness is inserted in mm. It should be considered that the
influence of the plate thickness is of minor importance for plate thicknesses above 60 mm
due to the three-dimensional heat flux.
 Hydrogen content HD: The hydrogen content H2 is inserted in ml/100g. Here either a
value between 1 and 20 ml/100g can be inserted directly or a typical value depending on
the weld process used can be selected:

Typical hydrogen content for welding consumables


Method Common hydrogen content
[ml/100 g]

Manual Metal Arc MMA 5

Gas Shielded Metal Arc 3


MIG/MAG

Flux Cored Arc Basic 5


FCAW

Submerged Arc Basic SAW 5

 Effective Heat Input: The effective heat input Q, which is given by the product of the
heat input E multiplied with an efficiency factor h , Q = h *E, is given here in kJ/mm.
There are two ways to take the influence of the effective heat input.
- The dependence between the preheating temperature and the weld energy is shown in
the weld parameter box which is shown after filling in all necessary data.
- Moreover, the preheating temperature can be explicitly calculated by inserting either the
effective heat input Q in kJ/mm or the heat input E in kJ/mm and the efficiency factor h
, which depends on the welding process used. The efficiency factor the explicitly explained
in the _next section_.

From the data above the minimum preheating temperature is calculated as follows:
Tp = 697*CET+ 160*tanh(d/35)+62*HD0,35 + (53*CET-32)*Q-328

The range of validity for this formula is:


CET: 0.2 % - 0.5 %

d: 10 mm - 90 mm

HD: 1 ml/100g - 20 ml/100 g


Q: 0.5 kJ/mm - 4.0 KJ/mm

Influence of the cooling time:


The temperature-time cycle is of major importance for the mechanical properties of the welded
joint after welding. It is influenced in particular by the welding geometry, the heat input applied,
the preheating temperature as well as the weld layer details. Normally the temperature-time cycle
during welding is expressed by the time t8/5 which is the time in which a cooling of the welding
layer from 800°C to 500°C occurs.

The maximum hardness in the HAZ normally decreases with growing cooling time t8/5. If a
given maximum hardness value is not to be exceeded for a particular steel, the welding
parameters have to the chosen in such a way that the cooling time t8/5 does not fall under a
particular value.

On the other hand, increasing cooling times cause a decrease of the toughness of the HAZ, that
means a decrease of the impact values measured in the Charpy-V-test or an increase of the
transition temperature of the Charpy-V-impact energy. Therefore the welding parameters have to
be selected in such a way, that the cooling time does not exceed a particular value.

In general, for weldable fine -grain structural steel grades the cooling time for filling and covering
weld layers should be in the time 10 s and 25 s dependant on the steel grade given here. After
corresponding verification, there is no problem to apply also other values of the cooling time
t8/5 under the condition that the quality demands on the structure to be welded are completely
fulfilled and suitable welding procedure qualification have been performed.

Furthermore you can calculate a welding parameter diagram which shows you the possible heat-
input - preheating temperatures for given maximum and minimum cooling times. If you want to
calculate explicit cooling times please use the next section (_Cooling time_).

The following parameters have got an influence on the cooling time, either on its calculation or
on its selection and can be inserted here in order to obtain optimised welding parameters:

 Plate thickness d: The plate thickness is inserted in mm. It should be considered that the
influence of the plate thickness is of minor importance for plate thicknesses above 60 mm
due to the three-dimensional heat flux. Welding geometry: The influence of the welding
geometry is taken into consideration by weld geometry factors F2 and F3 for two- and
three-dimensional heat flux. The values of the weld geometry factor for typical weld
geometries are:

Weld geometry F2 (two- F3 (three-


dimensional) dimensional)

Building-up weld 1.0 1.0


Filling passes of butt welds 0.9 0.9
Covering passes of butt welds 1.0 0.9 - 1.0
One-pass fillet weld (Corner 0.9 - 0.67* 0.69
joint)
One-pass fillet weld (T-joint) 0.45 - 0.67* 0.67
The welding geometry factor F2 depends on the relation effective heat input to plate thickness.
Approaching the three-dimensional heat flux F2 decreases for the case of a one-pass fillet weld
on a corner joint and increases for the one-pass fillet weld on a T-joint. Therefore an adaptive
calculation may be necessary here.

The factors given above can be selected here. Moreover a free input of the data in the range
between 0 and 1 is also possible.

 Effective Heat Input: The effective heat input Q, which is given by the product of the
heat input E multiplied with an efficiency factor h , Q = h *E, is given here in kJ/mm.
The influence of the effective heat input in dependence of the preheating/interpass
temperature and the minimum and maximum cooling time t8/5 is shown in the welding
parameter diagram which is built up after completion of the values needed.
 Preheating/Interpass-temperature: The influence of the preheating time is also expressed
in the welding parameter diagram.
 Maximum and minimum cooling time:
From the data given above the cooling time t8/5 can be calculated if a three-dimensional
heat flux is assumed:

t8/5 = (6700-5*TP)*Q* (1/(500-TP)-1/(800-TP))*F3

If the heat flux is two-dimensional the cooling time depends on the plate thickness and
the following formula is used:

t8/5 = (4300-4.3*TP)*105*Q2/d2* (1/(500-TP)2-1/(800-TP)2)*F2

Only the greater value obtained from the two formulas above is physically valid. Often,
a transition plate thickness dt is calculated, at which the transition between the two-
dimensional and the three-dimensional heat flux occurs. This transition plate thickness is:

dt = SQR(((4300-4.3*Tp)*105/(6700-5*Tp)*Q*(1/(500-TP)2-1/(800-TP)2)/ (1/(500-TP) -
1/(800-TP)))

The maximum and minimum cooling times depend on the steel grade which is to be
welded. The cooling times recommended by Dillinger brand products can be selected
here. As described above, other cooling times can be chosen under the condition that the
quality demands on the structure to be welded are completely fulfilled and suitable
welding procedure qualification have been performed. Therefore also a free input of the
cooling time is possible. In any case the recommendations given in our material data
sheets have to be taken into account too.

Welding parameter box


Form the above parameters a welding parameter box is created giving the possible combinations
of effective heat input Q and preheating/interpass temperature Tp fulfilling the following
conditions:

 sufficient preheating,
 Cooling time smaller than a maximum value defined above,
 Cooling time bigger than a minimum value defined above.

Moreover a direct calculation of the preheating temperature by specifying either the effective
heat input Q or the heat input E and the efficiency factor h is enabled.
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EFFECTIVE HEAT INPUT/ COOLING TIME


One determining parameter during the calculation of welding parameters is the effective heat
input. By the input data

 Electric Tension U [V]


 Electric Current I [A]
 Welding Speed v [mm/min]

first the heat input E [kJ/mm] is calculated by the formula


E = U*I/v * (60/1000) in KJ/mm.
The effective heat input Q results form the heat input by the multiplication with an energy
efficiency factor h which depends on the welding process applied.
Q=h*E
with the efficiency factor
Energy efficiency factor for various welding processes
Welding process Efficiency factor h

Manual Metal Arc 0.8

Submerged Arc 1.0

Metal Active Gas (MAG) 0.8

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) 0.7

Flux Cored Ard (FCAW) 0.9

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) 0.7

Cooling time
The cooling time between 800°C and 500°C t8/5 is the most important parameter in order to
determine the welding parameters applied during welding of fine-grain structural steels. The
underlying reasons are explicitly described above.
In this menu you can easily calculate this cooling time by specifying the following values:

 Effective Heat Input Q [in kJ/mm]


 Preheating temperature Tp [°C]
 Plate thickness d [mm]
 Welding geometry factors F2/F3: For the welding geometry factors the suitable welding
geometry has to be selected from a table, Moreover also a free input in the range 0 to 1.0
is possible.

From the data given above the cooling time t8/5 can be calculated if a three-dimensional heat
flux is assumed:
t8/5 = (6700-5*TP)*Q* (1/(500-TP)-1/(800-TP))*F3
If the heat flux is two-dimensional the cooling time depends on the plate thickness an the
following formula is used:
t8/5 = (4300-4.3*TP)*105*Q2/d2* (1/(500-TP)2-1/(800-TP)2)*F2
Only the greater values obtained from the two formulas above is physically valid. Often, a
transition plate thickness dt is calculated, at which the transition between the two-dimensional
and the three-dimensional heat flux occurs. This transition plate thickness is determined as
follows:
dt = SQR(((4300-4.3*Tp)*105/(6700-5*Tp)*Q*(1/(500-TP)2-1/(800-TP)2)/ (1/(500-TP) -1/(800-
TP))*F2/F3)
Moreover it is signed whether a two- or three-dimensional heat flux occurs.
It should be considered that the assumptions underlying the formulas for the cooling time are
often not perfectly fulfilled. Therefore the values calculated can deviate form the real values by
up to 10 %.
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PEAK HARDNESS IN THE HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE


The peak hardness in the heat affected zone (HAZ) is often to be considered to be a sign of the
fabrication quality of the weld joint and is therefore often measured during welding procedure
approvals and welding test. Upper limits for the HAZ hardness are determined in the welding
standards such as DIN EN ISO 15614-1.
Physically the maximum hardness depends on the cooling speed in the coarse-grain zone of the
HAZ. The faster the cooling speed the higher is the resulting hardness in the HAZ. A slower
cooling speed results in a smoother grain structure such as bainite and ferrite. Therefore also the
cooling time t8/5 is often used to evaluate the maximum hardness in the HAZ zone.
The second important influencing factor is the chemical composition of the steel because it
determines the quantity of the various grain structures which are formed during cooling.
Normally alloying elements such as carbon, molybdenum, manganese and chromium increase
the hardability and shift the hardness drop to longer cooling times. But also the hardness of the
various grain structures is influenced by the alloying composition.
Calculation of hardness values
The program offers two routines to evaluate the peak hardness in the HAZ, the formula of
Düren and the formula of Yurioka. Both formulas have been developed by systematically
performed investigations together with a regression analysis of the HAZ-hardness in dependence
of the chemical composition and the t8/5-cooling time.
Here the chemical composition can be entered and then the theoretical hardness according to
the Düren- respectively Yurioka-formula is calculated in dependence of the cooling time.
Moreover the value of the peak hardness for a special cooling time can be calculated by inserting
a cooling time.
The Düren-hardness is calculated according to the following formulas:

Martensite hardness HVM


HVM = 802 x C + 305
Bainite hardness HVB
HVB = 350 x CE* + 101
CE* = C +Si/11 +Mn/8 +Cu/9 +Cr/5 +Ni/17 +Mo/6 +V/3

Resulting hardness:
HV = 2019x[ C(1- 0,5 * log t8/5) + 0,3(CE*-C)] + 66x[1 - 0,8 x log t8/5 ]
If HV < HVM and HV > HVB, the Yurioka-hardness is calculated according to the formulas
HV = 0,5 (HVM + HVB) - 0,455 (HVM - HVB) arctan t*
with HVm := 884 x C (1 - 0,3 C²) + 294

HVb := 145 + 130 x tanh (2,65 CE2 - 0,69)


CE1 := C + Si/24 + Mn/6 + Cu/15 + Ni/12 + Cr/8 + Mo/4 + ΔH
CE2 := C+Si/24+Mn/5+Cu/10+Ni/18+Cr/5+Mo/2,5+Nb/3+V/5

CE3 := C + Mn/3,6 + Cu/20 + Cr/5 + Ni/9 + Mo/4

t* := 4 (ln t8/5 - ln tnb)/(ln tnm - ln tnb) -2

tnb := exp (10,6 x CE1 - 4,8)

tnm := exp (6,2 x CE3+ 0,74)


Note that ΔH is a term introduced to account for the strong hardening effect of boron, such
that;
ΔH = 0 when B ≤ 1ppm,

ΔH = 1.5 (0.02-N) when B ≤ 2ppm,

ΔH = 3.0 (0.02-N) when B ≤ 3ppm, and

ΔH = 4.5 (0.02-N) when B ≤ 4ppm,

Moreover the maximum hardness values admissible by DIN EN ISO 15614-1 can be called by
the button "Max. Hardness" and a maximum hardness value can be selected and inserted in the
hardness diagrams

Maximum admissible hardness values, HV 10 according to DIN EN ISO 15614-1.


Steel group CR ISO without heat with heat
15608 treatment treatment

1a , 2 380 320
3b 450 380
4, 5 380 320
6 — 350
9.1 350 300
9.2 450 350
9.3 450 350
a
If hardness tests are demanded
b
For steels with ReH, min > 890 MPa special agreements are required.
1) Steels with mind. ReH ≤ 460 MPa
2) Thermomechanically rolled steels with min. ReH > 360 MPa
3) Quenched and tempered steels with min. ReH > 360 MPa

Post-weld heat treatment (PWHT)


For welded joint which are treated by a post-weld heat treatment also the hardness decrease due
to this heat treatment can be calculated using the formula of Okumura :
DHV = [884C+177-197CE2+16,5(HP-21,5)]xMM-7CE2+26

+[ 18 ( HP-18)2 - 138 ] V1/2


+[ 20 ( HP-18)2 - 268 ] Nb1/2
+[ 25 ( HP-17,3)2 - 55 ] Mo1/2
with MM = martensite share = 0,5 - 0,455 arctan t*
CE2 and t* from the Yurioka formula
Herein HP is the so-called Hollomon-parameter HP = (T+273)/1000 x (20 + log t) with the
heat treatment temperature in °C and the annealing time t in hour. For the calculation this
parameter has to be entered or the annealing time and temperature can be input.
After entering the input data a diagram shows the dependence of the PWHT-induced hardness
drop from the cooling time as well as the difference function between Yurioka hardness and
Okumura hardness decrease. A special value can be evaluated by entering a cooling time.

Preheating for Welding Explained

Preheating involves heating the base metal, either in its entirety or just the region surrounding
the joint, to a specific desired temperature, called the preheat temperature, prior to welding.
Heating may be continued during the welding process, but frequently the heat from welding is
sufficient to maintain the desired temperature without a continuation of the external heat source.
The interpass temperature, defined as the base metal temperature between the first and last
welding passes, cannot fall below the preheat temperature. Interpass temperature will not be
discussed further here. Preheating can produce many beneficial effects; however, without a
working knowledge of the fundamentals involved, one risks wasting money, or even worse,
degrading the integrity of the weldment.

Why Preheat?
There are four primary reasons to utilize preheat: (1) it lowers the cooling rate in the weld metal
and base metal, producing a more ductile metallurgical structure with greater resistant to cracking
(2) the slower cooling rate provides an opportunity for any hydrogen that may be present to
diffuse out harmlessly without causing cracking (3) it reduces the shrinkage stresses in the weld
and adjacent base metal, which is especially important in highly restrained joints and (4) it raises
some steels above the temperature at which brittle fracture would occur in fabrication.
Additionally, preheat can be used to help ensure specific mechanical properties, such as notch
toughness.

When Should Preheat be Used?


In determining whether or not to preheat, the following array of factors should be considered:
code requirements, section thickness, base metal chemistry, restraint, ambient temperature, filler
metal hydrogen content and previous cracking problems. If a welding code must be followed,
then the code generally will specify the minimum preheat temperature for a given base metal,
welding process and section thickness. This minimum value must be attained regardless of the
restraint or variation in base metal chemistry; however, the minimum value may be increased if
necessary. An example is illustrated in the next section.

When there are no codes governing the welding, one must determine whether preheat is
required, and if so, what preheat temperature will be appropriate. In general, preheat usually is
not required on low carbon steels less than 1 in, (25 mm) thick. However, as the chemistry,
diffusible hydrogen level of the weld metal, restraint or section thickness increases, the demand
for preheat also increases. There are several methods to determine the required preheat
temperature for a given base metal and section thickness that will be discussed in the next
section.

What Preheat Temperature is Required?


Welding codes generally specify minimum values for the preheat temperature, which may or may
not be adequate to prohibit cracking in every application. For example, if a beam-to-column
connection is to be fabricated with a low-hydrogen electrode made of ASTM A572-Gr50 and
A36 jumbo sections (thickness ranging from 4 to 5 in.), then a minimum prequalified preheat of
225°F (107°C) is required (AWS D1.1-96, Table 3.2). However, for making butt splices in jumbo
sections, it is advisable to increase the preheat temperate beyond the minimum prequalified level
to that required by AISC for making butt splices in jumbo sections, namely 350°F (175°C) (AISC
LRFD J2.8). This conservative recommendation acknowledges that the minimum preheat
requirements prescribed by AWS D1.1 may not be adequate for these highly restrained
connections.

When no welding codes are specified, and the need for preheat has been established, how does
one determine an appropriate preheat temperature? As a basis for discussion, consider AWS
D1.1-96, Annex XI: "Guideline on Alternative Methods for Determining Preheat'' which
presents two procedures for establishing a preheat temperature developed primarily from
laboratory cracking tests. These techniques are beneficial when the risk of cracking is increased
due to composition, restraint, hydrogen level or lower welding heat input.

The two methods outlined in Annex XI of AWS D1.1-96 are: (1) heat affected zone (HAZ)
hardness control and (2) hydrogen control. The HAZ hardness control method, which is
restricted to fillet welds, is based on the assumption that cracking will not occur if the hardness
of the HAZ is kept below some critical value. This is achieved by controlling the cooling rate.
The critical cooling rate for a given hardness can be related to the carbon equivalent of the steel,
which is defined as:

CE = C + ((Mn + Si)/6) + ((Cr + Mo + V)/5) + ((Ni + Cu)/15)

From the critical cooling rate, a minimum preheat temperature can then be calculated. (Blodgett's
paper entitled "Calculating Cooling Rates by Computer Programming'' outlines a calculation
procedure based on cooling rate, heat input, plate thickness, temperature at which cooling rate is
critical, preheat temperature, thermal conductivity and specific heat.) It should be pointed out,
however, that "although the method can be used to determine a preheat level, its main value is in
determining the minimum heat input (and hence minimum weld size) that prevents excessive
hardening'' (Annex XI, paragraph 3.4,AWS D1.1-96.)

The hydrogen control method is based on the assumption that cracking will not occur if the
amount of hydrogen remaining in the joint after it has cooled down to about 120°F (50°C) does
not exceed a critical value dependent on the composition of the steel and the restraint. This
procedure is extremely useful for high strength, low-alloy steels that have high hardenability.
However, the calculated preheat may be too conservative for carbon steels.

The three basic steps of the hydrogen control method are: (1) Calculate a composition parameter
similar to the carbon equivalent; (2) Calculate a susceptibility index as a function of the
composition parameter and the filler metal diffusible hydrogen content; and (3) Determine the
minimum preheat temperature from the restraint level, material thickness, and susceptibility
index.

How is Preheat Applied?


The material thickness, size of the weldment and available heating equipment should be
considered when choosing a method for applying preheat. For example, small production
assemblies may be heated most effectively in a furnace. However, large structural components
often require banks of heating torches, electrical strip heaters, or induction or radiant heaters.

A high level of accuracy generally is not required for preheating carbon steels. Although it is
important that the work be heated to a minimum temperate, it is acceptable to exceed that
temperature by approximately 100°F (40°C). However, this is not the case for quenched and
tempered (Q&T) steels, since welding on overheated Q&T steels may be detrimental in the heat
affected zone. Therefore, Q&T steels require that maximum and minimum preheat temperatures
be established and closely followed.

When heating the joint to be welded, the AWS D1.1 code requires that the minimum preheat
temperature be established at a distance that is at least equal to the thickness of the thickest
member, but not less than 3 in. (75 mm) in all directions from the point of welding. To ensure
that the full material volume surrounding the joint is heated, it is recommended practice to heat
the side opposite of that which is to be welded and to measure the surface temperature adjacent
to the joint. Finally, the steel temperature should be checked to verify that the minimum preheat
temperature has been established just prior to initiating the arc for each pass.

Summary
Preheat can prevent cracking and/or ensure specific mechanical properties such as notch
toughness.

Preheat must be used whenever applicable codes so specify; when no codes apply to a given
situation, the welding engineer must determine whether or not preheat is needed, and what
temperature will be required for a given base metal and section thickness.

Annex XI of AWS D1.1-96 provides guidelines for alternative methods of determining proper
amounts of preheat: the HAZ hardness control method, or the hydrogen control method.

Preheat may be applied in a furnace, or by using heating torches, electrical strip heaters, or
induction or radiant heaters. Carbon steels do not require precise temperature accuracy, but
induction or radium heaters, maximum and minimum preheat temperatures must be followed
closely for quenched and tempered steels.

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