References…

Routing Protocols y H.
H Karl and A.
A Willing.
Willing Protocols and Architectures for Wireless
Sensor Networks. John Wiley & Sons, 2005. (Chapter 11)
y K. Sohraby, D. Minoli, and T. Znati. Wireless Sensor Networks:
Technology, Protocols, and Applications. John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
(Chapter 6)
y E.
E MM. Royer and C.C -K
K. Toh.
Toh A Review of Current Routing Protocols for
Ad-Hoc Mobile Wireless Networks. IEEE Personal Communications.
Vol. 6, No. 2, pp 46–55, April 1999
y X.
X HHong, KK. Xu,
X and dMM. Gerla.
G l Scalable
S l bl R
Routing
ti PProtocols
t l ffor M
Mobile
bil Ad
Hoc Networks. IEEE Network, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 11–21, July/August
2006

Introduction... Forwarding…
g
3 4

y WSNs can be deployed to support a wide range of y Whenever a node cannot send its data directly to the
applications, whether they have stationary or mobile sink, it has to rely assistance of intermediate nodes
nodes to forward the data, thus form a multihop network
y Once deployed, the nodes self-organize into a
autonomous wireless ad hoc network, with little or no S
C
maintenance
i A
y The nodes collaborate to perform the task(s) of the
D
application for which they are deployed B
y Their main task is to collect data, process data, forward y Node S wants to send a packet to node D; no direct
the information back to the application; achieving this link, has to pass (forward) the packet to its
link
task efficiently requires an efficient routing protocol to neighbor first
set up paths between the sensors and the data sink
 Forwarding…2
g Routing
g tables…
5 6

y The simplest forwarding technique is “flooding”

flooding , where every y Nodes
N d gather
th and
d store
t metrics
t i about
b t th
their
i
packet is sent to every neighbor until it reaches the sink
neighbors in “routing tables”
y Alternatively,
y, a packet
p is forwarded onlyy to a randomlyy Node S Node A
selected neighbor, in a technique called “gossiping” Destination Next Cost Destination Next Cost
hop hop
y Using a technique (in the middle grounds), called A A 1 S S 1
controlled flooding
“controlled flooding”, a packet is sent to a “select”
select set of B B 1 B S 2
neighbors C C 1 C S 2
y The pperformance of forwarding g is measured in terms of D C 2 D C 3
number of packets sent or delay, and usually the above D B 2
techniques demonstrate a poor performance
y “suitability”
suitability of a neighbor is needed (captured as a set of y Determining these tables is performed by the
metrics) “routing protocols”
{ Is the forwarding node capable? Is it closer to the destination? …

Routing
gpprotocols… Ad hoc protocols…
p
7 8

y In “wired”
wired networks
networks, the routing protocols are Ad hoc routing
protocols
usually based on the link state or distance vector
algorithms.
y In wireless (mobile, multihop) networks, different Table driven
Source-initiated
On-demand
strategies
st ateg es a
aree required;
equ ed; sshould
ou d be
{ distributed
{ low overhead DSDV WRP AODV DSR LMR ABR

{ self configuring
y Ad hoc routing can be classified as CGSR TORA SSR

{ Table driven (proactive)

DSDV—Destination Sequenced Distance Vector
{ Source initiated (demand driven) CGSR—Cluster Gateway Switch Routing
WRP—Wireless Routing Protocol
AODV—Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector
DSR—Dynamic Source Routing
LMR—Lightweight Mobile Routing
TORA T
TORA—Temporallyll Ordered
O d dR Routing
ti AlAlgorithm
ith
ABR—Associativity Based Routing
SSR—Signal Stability Routing
 Routing
g in WSNs… Gossiping
Goss p ga and
d age
agent-based
t based u
unicast
cast forwarding…
o a d g…
9 10

y Th
The crucial
i l aspects
t iin WSN
WSNs are y The idea is to eliminate the need of a routing table
{ The overhead is high or
{ Energy efficiency
{ The tables are to be created in the first place!
p
Ù Selecting the most energy
energ efficient routes
Ù Low overhead of table construction
y A parallel is drawn between the distribution of data in a
replicated data base system and epidemics occurring in
{ Stability and dependability of routes
h
human populations
l ti
{ Size of the routing table { Rumor mongering…
{ Resilience Ù Once an update is received, the site propagates this periodically and
randomly to another site
y Unicasting, broadcasting, and multicasting Ù The goal is to spread the updates as fast as possible while minimizing

y Geographic routing g overhead

the message
y The idea of randomly choosing forwarding nodes can be
applied to WSNs

Randomized forwarding…
g Rumor routing…
g
11 12

y In
I gossip
i bbased
d randomized
d i d fforwarding,
di the
th kkey iis yR
Rumor routingti
the probability with which a node retransmits an { Detect an event and install a few paths in the network

incoming packet Ù Agents propagate from node to node installing routing

information
{ It is shown that the critical threshold is 65-75%
{ The boundary nodes are critical,
critical as they have fewer neighbors
y Alternatively, a data packet (acting as an agent) can
wander through the network in search for its
destination (this is known as random walking)
{ All packets wander Æ flooding
?
{ Some packets wander Æ gossiping
 Energy-efficient
gy unicast… Energy-efficient
gy unicast…2
13 14

y Take
T k the
th network
t k graph
h y Minimize energy/bit
{ Example: A-B-E-H
y Assign a cost value (reflecting the energy y Maximize network lifetime
consumption)
i ) to each
h li
link
k { Time until the first node fails
y Routing considering available battery capacity
y Use an algorithm that would compute the least-cost { Maximum available batteryy levels
path(s) 4 Ù Example: A-C-F-H
A 2 { Minimum battery cost routing (MBCR)
3
1 Ù Example: A-D-H
1
C
{ Min-max battery capacity routing (MMBCR)
3 2 Ù Only take battery level into account when below a given level
2
D B
1 { Conditional min-max capacity
p y routing
g (CMMBCR)
2
{ Minimize variance in power levels
3 E
Send data from A to H
1 2
4 y Minimum total transmission power routing (MTPR)
4 2 F
H G
2
2

Some unicast protocols…

p Multipath
p unicast routing…
g
15 16

y Attracting
Att ti routes
t bby redirecting
di ti y Instead
I t d off constructing
t ti a single
i l energy-efficient
ffi i t path,
th
y Distance vector routing over topology control focus can be shifted on choosing the best possible
y Maximizing time to first node failure as a flow
path from a set of paths
{ Provides redundancy as a “standby”
problem
{ Goal is to find k paths that do not have either links or nodes in
y Maximizing time to first node failure by max-min common
optimization { Increased robustness
y Maximizing number of messages { Well studied
y Bounding the difference between routing protocols
 Multipath
p unicast routing…2
g Multipath
p unicast routing…3
g 3
17 18

y Sequential assignment routing (SAR)… (SAR) y Unicast routing is the broadest research topic in the
{ Based on the observation that the nodes close to the sink are context of ad hoc and wireless sensor networks
likelyy to fail sooner y A variety of other topics considered (but not covered)
{ Construct trees outward from each sink neighbor
include:
y Energy-efficient
gy secondaryy p paths { Routing and topology control
{ Construct “braided” paths where various paths may share { Maximizing data flow for multiple source/destination pairs
nodes { All costs considered
y Si
Simultaneous
lt ttransmission
i i over multiplelti l paths
th { Integration of scheduling and power control
{ Send several copies of a packet over multiple node-disjoint { Routing and link quality
paths { R ti and
Routing d lif
lifetime
ti guarantees
t
y Random selection of the next upstream hop { Routing for one-shot queries

Broadcast and multicast… Options…

p
19 20

y While
Whil transmitting
t itti d data
t ffrom one node
d tto another,
th
nodes may also need to perform a broadcast
operation Broadcast Multicast
y Efficient broadcasting Æ to restrict the set of
f
forwarding
di nodesd as much h as possible,
ibl while
hil all
ll th
the
nodes receive data Source-based Shared core-
Mesh
t
tree b d ttree
based
y Multicasting
li i h has a similar
i il goall

Minimize Minimize Single Multiple

maximum cost
total cost per destination core core
 Source-based tree approach…
pp Source-based protocols…
p
21 22

y The
Th id
idea iis tto construct,
t t forf each
h source, a ttree, y A greedy heuristic—Shortest
heuristic Shortest Path Tree
rooted at the given source, that contains all the { Calculate the shortest (cheapest) path to each destination and
overlayy these p
paths onto a tree
destinations for this source,
source as well as other nodes
y Broadcast using minimum cost spanning tree—
that are needed
Prim’s algorithm
g
{ Try to find a tree for which the sum of all link costs is
{ Start with a tree consisting of the source node and, in |V|-1
minimum (Steiner tree)
steps, add one node
{ Try to find the minimum cost to each destination (shortest
(shortest- { For every next node,
node construct a shortest path to some other
path tree) node already on the tree
Steiner tree Shortest path tree
src
2
dst 2 src
2
dst 2 y Other Steiner tree approximations
y Broadcasting or multicasting with a finite set of
2 1 2 1
p
powers
dst 1 dst 1

Wireless advantage…
g Broadcast incremental p
power ((BIP)…
)
23 24

y Broadcasting or Multicasting in wireless medium is y In the previous algorithms

algorithms, the cost of transmitting
different from the same in wired medium to multiple neighbors (multiple children) increases
{ Wired: locally distributing a packet to n neighbors:
Ù n times
ti th
the costt off a unicast
i t packet
k t exponentially
{ Wireless: sending to n neighbors can incur costs y BIP differs by exploiting the wireless multicasting
Ù As high as sending to a single neighbor—if receive costs are neglected
completely
completel y A node already transmitting to some other node can
Ù As high as sending once, receiving n times—if receives are tuned to the increase its transmitting power to further the
right moment
Ù As high as sending n unicast packets—if the MAC protocol does not
transmission to other nodes,, without the cost of a
support local multicast new transmission
y If local multicast is cheaper than repeated unicasts (a y The additional cost is only
y the difference between the
realistic assumption)
assumption), then we claim the wireless
multicast advantage… current cost and the needed (higher) transmission
power
 Broadcast incremental p
power ((BIP)…2
) BIP in action…
25 26
// Initialize…
Vt = {source node}
P(source node) = 0 // transmission power assigned to a node
foreach (v in V\Vt) {
Set candidate edge to (source node, v)
Set candidate edge weight to transmission power to reach
reach v from source node
}
// Compute tree…
while (Vt ≠ V) {
Select v ∈ V\Vt with smallest candidate edge weight
Add v to Vt using this candidate edge (u,v)
Increase P(u) to smallest power that reaches v
// Re-compute
Re compute candidate edges and their weights
foreach (v in V\Vt) {
Select u which minimized P’(u)-P(u)
// where P’(u) ≥ P(u) is smallest power to reach from v to u
g to (
Set candidate edge , )
(u,v)
Set candidate edge weight to P’(u)-P(u)
}
}

Other multicast algorithms…

g Shared,, core-based p
protocols…
27 28

yE
Exploiting
l iti wireless
i l multicast
lti t advantage
d t y The
Th challenge
h ll is
i to
t find
fi d the
th ““core””
{ Multicast Incremental Power (MIP) y The problem can then be solved with a source-based
yE
Embedded
b dd d wireless
i l multicast
li advantage
d tree algorithm
l i h withi h the
h core as the
h source
{ Transforming existing trees y One approach is “merge point formation”, where a
y A distributed, position based approach merge point for a tree with a few sinks is to be found
 Mesh-based protocols…
p Other broadcast and multicast approaches…
pp
29 30

y Gossiping for multicast

y Tree-based
T b d protocols
t l suffer
ff ffrom scalability
l bilit and
d { E.g., to improve the reliability
robustness y Directed antennas for multicast
{ Robustness and traffic carrying capacity improvements
y A structure with
i h hi
high
h llevell off connectivity
i i iis needed
d d y Relationship to topology control
to connect multiple sources to their destinations { Difference is the source-based protocols

y Optimal solutions by linear programming

y Core-Assisted Mesh Protocol (CAMP) { LP is NP-hard, but provides better approximations

{ The mesh (a sub-graph of the original graph) has to contain all y Optimal solutions for tree networks
{ Collecting and distributing data
sources andd destinations
d i i and
d provide
id at least
l one path
h ffrom
y Time to complete a multicast
each source to each destination { Time is important, too…
{ Redundancy in a mesh can enable shorter paths than in a core- y Data replacement
based tree, based on the forwarding procedure { Caching

y Cooperative multihop broadcast

Geographic
g p routing…
g Position-based routing
g basics…
31 32

y IIn geographic hi routingti protocols:

t l y Simple forwarding strategies:
{ Known positions of the source and destination, as well as the { Most forward within r

intermediate nodes can be used to assist the routing Æ { Nearest with forward progress
position-based routing { Directional routing

{ It is necessary
y ((for manyy applications)
pp ) to address p
physical
y { Restricted flooding
locations (e.g., any node in a given region) Æ geocasting { Hmmm. Dead ends...

y For wireless sensor networks the latter is more y Basic idea to get out of a dead end: Put right hand to
important the
h wall,
ll follow
f ll the
h wall
ll
{ Nodes are interchangeable and distinguishable only by their { Does not work if on some inner wall—will walk in circles
external aspects, the location service is usually not necessary { N d some additional
Need dditi l rules
l tto d
detect
t t such
h circles
i l
Ù Send the packets around the face using the right-hand rule
 Greedyy p
perimeter stateless routing
g ((GPSR)) Greedyy p
perimeter stateless routing
g ((GPSR))
33 34

y When
Wh stuck
t k iin a d
dead-end,
d d one way off escaping
i iis tto
keep the right hand to the wall and keep walking...
{ Practically,
P ti ll b backtrack
kt k ththe packet
k t outt off th
the d
dead
d end,
d counter-
t
clockwise around the obstacle
y Similar approach will allow the discovery of a node
closer to the destination in WSNs
y In GPSR,
GPSR a packet is greedil
greedily for
forwarded,
arded until
ntil an
obstacle is reached at, when the algorithm switches
to “perimeter
perimeter routing
routing” (essentially,
(essentially sending a packet
around a plane using the right-hand rule)

A GPSR example…
p Other p
position-based routing…
g
35 36

y Route
R t packet
k t from
f node
d A tto node
d Z y ID-based
ID b d routing,
ti hi
hierarchies
hi
y Randomized forwarding and adaptive node activity
Leave face (GeRaF))
(G
routing
E I y Geographic routing without positions (GEM)

B H K
F

Z
A D
Enter
E t
face J L
routing G
C
 Geocasting…
g Further issues in geocasting…
g g
37 38

y Sending data to a subset of nodes that are located in an y Impact of localization errors
indicated region (an example of multicasting!) { Impractical assumption in real systems, that all the nodes know their
location
{ Geographically
g p y restricted flooding
g
Ù Location based multicast y Location
i services
i
| Static zone, adaptive zone, adaptive distance { Mapping node IDs to node locations; more important in ad hoc networks

Ù Finding the right direction y Location-aided

Location aided Routing (LAR)
| Voronoi diagrams and convex hulls { Use location information to assist in the flooding phase(s)
Ù Tessellating the plane y Energy aware geocast (GEAR)
| Simpler
Si l forms
f (tessellations)
( ll i ) off the
h plane
l { Load splitting among neighbors when forwarding
Ù Mesh-based geocasting
y Geographic routing without geographic coordinates
{ Unicast routing
g
{ Does not really need exact location
Ù Geocasting using unicast (GeoTORA)
y Link asymmetry
{ Trajectory-based forwarding (TBF)
{ Geographic routing fails badly

Mobile nodes… Multiple

p sinks…
39 40

yS
Sources off mobility
bilit iin WSN
WSNs: So rce
Source

{ The sensor nodes

{ Data
D t sinks
i k
Sink moves
{ Observed event(s) downward

Source

Source

Sink
moves
upward