JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE, 25(4), 728–738

Body Image Disturbances and Predictors of Body Dissatisfaction Among

Hispanic and White Preadolescents
Norma Olvera, Kendall McCarley, Augusto X. Rodriguez, Nausheen Noor, and
Mar
ıa A. Hern
andez-Valero
University of Houston

This study assessed ethnic and gender differences in ideal body size, body dissatisfaction (BD), and the relationship
between BD and various predictors (e.g., body composition indicators and cardiorespiratory fitness). The sample con-
sisted of 190 White and Hispanic preadolescents aged 10–13 years. Demographic, percent body fat (%BF), body mass
index (BMI), body image variables, and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) were examined. A significant Gender 9 Ethnic-
ity interaction was found for ideal body size (p < .05), with Hispanic girls preferring the thinnest figures and Hispanic
boys the largest figures, compared to their counterparts. No significant gender or ethnic differences in BD were
observed. After controlling for demographic and cultural variables, increased %BF and BMI scores predicted greater
BD, whereas CRF did not.

Despite the increased societal pressure for thinness
in the United States (Myers & Crowther, 2007), the
obesity rate among American children and adoles-
cents has tripled in past decades (Ogden, Carroll,
Curtin, Lamb, & Flegal, 2012). This dilemma may
lead youth to feel dissatisfied with their body size
and engage in unhealthy weight control behaviors,
which in turn, contribute to increased obesity
(McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2003). The sociocultural
model (Stice & Agras, 1998) has been used to
explain the role that both internalization of the thin
ideal and body dissatisfaction (BD) play in predict-
ing eating disorders. According to the sociocultural
model, thin body-ideal internalization leads to BD,
which results in negative affect and eating disor-
ders. Consistent with this model, several studies
have shown that thin-ideal internalization and BD
lead to dieting, binge eating, and purging (McCabe
& Ricciardelli, 2003; Neumark-Sztainer, Wall, Story,
& Perry, 2003; Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001; Stice &
Bearman, 2001). Given the significant role that thin
body-ideal internalization and BD play in the
development of eating disorders, an examination of
the risk factors for these body image disturbances
is essential from a preventive perspective.
We would like to thank all the participating children for their
contribution to this manuscript and also to the research assistants
who assisted in the data collection and data entry. Finally, we
appreciate Dr. Lorriane Rietzel’s assistance in editing this manu-
script. This study was supported by the National Institutes of Dia-
betes and Digestive and Kidney Disease (Grant #R03DK58927).
Requests for reprints should be sent to Norma Olvera, Depart-
ment of Educational Psychology, University of Houston, 491
Farish Hall, Houston TX 77204. E-mail: nolvera@uh.edu
Ethnicity is an important factor to consider when
investigating body image issues in American youth,
given that preferred ideal body size and body size
satisfaction levels are thought to be culturally
bound. Hispanic children and adolescents growing
up in the United States are of great interest because
they are exposed to two contrasting views of ideal
body size, which may influence their BD rate. One
perspective on body size that Hispanic children may
be exposed to is the traditional Hispanic “chubby
(gordito)” view of body size as acceptable and ideal.
This view is based on the notion that it represents a
state of being “healthy and well cared for” by
parents (Caballero & Tenzer, 2007; Contento, Basch,
& Zybert, 2003; Olvera, George, & Kaiser, 2011).
Additionally, Hispanic children are exposed to the
American “thin-ideal” body size as portrayed in the
media (Caballero & Tenzer, 2007; Contento et al.,
2003; Myers & Crowther, 2007; Rubin, Fitts, &
Becker, 2003). Thus, it is expected that Hispanic
youth who endorse a more traditionally Hispanic
view of ideal body size will report lower BD than
those endorsing the American thin ideal. Consistent
with this assumption, Ayala, Mickens, Galindo, and
Elder (2007) showed that Hispanic adolescents with
high levels of acculturation (or strong identification
with the American culture) were more likely to
report greater BD than their less acculturated coun-
terparts. In another study, Olvera, Suminski, and
Power (2005) reported that Hispanic elementary-
school children who spoke primarily English were
© 2014 The Authors
Journal of Research on Adolescence © 2014 Society for Research on Adolescence
DOI: 10.1111/jora.12165

more likely to prefer thinner figures as their ideal
body size, compared to those who spoke predomi-
nantly Spanish. Furthermore, Hispanic girls were
more likely to prefer smaller body sizes as ideal than
did Hispanic boys. Similarly, Mirza, Davis, and
Yanovski (2005) found that Hispanic adolescent
females preferred smaller body sizes as ideal than
did their male counterparts. These studies suggest
that acculturation and gender might be influencing
ideal body size and BD within Hispanic youth.
There is a paucity of studies assessing ethnic dif-
ferences in ideal body size and BD in Hispanic and
White youth. Of the limited studies available, the
results have been inconsistent and equivocal. One
study, involving only girls, found no significant
differences between Hispanic and White preadoles-
cent girls on body image disturbances (Erickson &
Gerstle, 2007). Conversely, Ceballos and Czy-
zewska (2010) noted that Hispanic adolescents
(females and males; aged 12–15 years) had lower
rates of BD compared to their White counterparts.
A trend for an interaction between gender and eth-
nicity was also noted, with White females exhibit-
ing the highest BD rates followed by Hispanic
females, White males, and Hispanic males. It is
possible that ethnic differences in Hispanic and
White youth may be moderated by gender. How-
ever, the role of gender as a potential moderator
has yet to be determined.
Gender differences in preferred thin body ideal
and BD in children and adolescents are well docu-
mented (Presnell, Bearman, & Stice, 2004; Xantho-
poulos et al., 2011). Girls are more likely to report
higher levels of body dissatisfaction than males
(Lawler & Nixon, 2011). An explanation for these
gender differences in BD has been attributed to the
preferences of girls and women to be thin, whereas
among boys and men, there is a preference to be
muscular (Bergeron & Tylka, 2007; McCabe & Ricc-
iardelli, 2005; Petrie, Greenleaf, & Martin, 2010).
Furthermore, BD has been observed to increase
through middle childhood and adolescence (Smo-
lak, 2004), particularly in girls (Olive, Byrne, Cunn-
ingham, & Telford, 2012). These findings highlight
the importance of accounting for ethnicity, gender,
and age factors when studying BD in youth.
Body composition is another factor commonly
found to be linked to BD in youth. Evidence suggests
that children and adolescents with excessive percent
body fat (%BF) and large body mass indices (BMIs)
report greater BD than their thinner counterparts
(Banitt et al., 2008; Lawler & Nixon, 2011; Olive et al.,
2012). While %BF and BMI have been identified as
risk factors for BD, participation in physical activity
BODY IMAGE IN YOUTH 729
is expected to serve as a, protective factor against BD
(Campbell & Hausenblas, 2009). Data collected with
White children and adolescents have shown there is
a positive association among physical activity, exer-
cise, and body satisfaction levels (Duncan, Al-Na-
keeb, Nevill, & Jones, 2006; Gillison, Standage, &
Skevington, 2006). However, the link between BD
and physical activity is not simple and varies as a
function of physical activity status and body compo-
sition. Parfitt, Pavey, and Rowlands (2009) observed
a weak correlation between children’s BD and overall
physical activity, but they reported stronger associa-
tions between BD and two levels of physical activity
—very light and light. Goldfield et al. (2011) revealed
that only vigorous physical activity was associated
with improvements in body esteem in adolescents.
However, Olive et al. (2012) showed that the associa-
tion between physical activity and BD was not signif-
icant after controlling for %BF.
Limited research has examined factors that are
associated with %BF, such as cardiorespiratory fit-
ness (CRF), which may act as a buffer to BD in
youth. The link between CRF and BD can be
explained by the notion that improvements in CRF
lead to increases in lean mass and decreases in fat
mass, resulting in a body size that closely reflects
societal ideals and in subsequently higher body sat-
isfaction (Kimm et al., 2005). A review of the litera-
ture indicates that few studies have investigated
the association between CRF and BD. Among those
that have investigated these relations, CRF has
been consistently negatively associated with BD
levels, particularly in girls (Hausenblas, Downs,
Fleming, & Connaughton, 2002; Olive et al., 2012;
Schubert, Janu
ario, Casonatto, & Sonoo, 2013). The
focus on CRF is particularly relevant because of its
strong association with abdominal fat in youth,
which leads to cardiovascular disease in adulthood
(Castillo, Ortega, Ruiz, & Sjostrom, 2008).
The present study contributes to the current body
of knowledge in body image disturbances by exam-
ining the following: (1) ethnic differences in body
size ideal and BD in Hispanic and White preadoles-
cent boys and girls, (2) gender differences in body
size ideal and BD in Hispanic and White preadoles-
cent boys and girls, and (3) the combined predictive
effects of body composition and CRF on BD, after
controlling for demographic and cultural factors.
Moreover, rationales for ideal body size selection in
Hispanic and White children were examined to
determine whether size, muscularity, and health
rationales were seen as more or less prominent for
the different groups of children. Corresponding with
the aims of this study, the following hypotheses
730

OLVERA, MCCARLEY, RODRIGUEZ, NOOR, AND HERNANDEZ-VALERO
were proposed: (1) Hispanic preadolescents will
select heavier figures as their ideal body sizes and
exhibit lower levels of BD than White preadoles-
cents, (2) girls will select thinner figures as their
ideal body sizes and exhibit greater BD than boys,
and (3) children’s body composition indicators and
CRF will be expected to predict BD, after controlling
for demographic and cultural factors.
METHOD
Participants
The sample consisted of 190 preadolescents (103
girls; 87 boys) between the ages of 10–13 years.
Ninety-seven participants (51%) were self-identified
Hispanic, and 93 were self-identified White (49%).
The participants were recruited from two suburban
elementary and two junior high schools and were
part of a larger NIH-funded study to assess corre-
lates of CRF in school children and adolescents.
These schools were selected for their similar charac-
teristics in (1) the proportion of Hispanic and White
students (45%–55%), (2) socioeconomic levels (33%–
38% economically disadvantaged), and (3) geo-
graphic proximity (schools were located within a
five-mile radius). Before collecting any data, parents
and children were asked to sign consent and assent
forms, respectively. Both of these forms included
information about participants’ rights to withdraw
from the study without affecting their school grades
or their eligibility to receive a toy and a $5 gift card.
The University of Houston Committee for the Protec-
tion of Human Subjects and School District approved
the assent and consent forms used in this study.
Measures
Demographic and cultural characteristics. Each
participant responded to questions related to his or
her age, gender, grade, place of birth, and parental
occupation. Preferred language spoken at home
was used as a proxy for acculturation. Using lan-
guage preferences at home as a proxy for deter-
mining acculturation level among children has
previously employed in the assessment of relation-
ships between acculturation and health beliefs and
behaviors (Dinh, Roosa, Tein, & Lopez, 2002;
Epstein, Botvin, & Diaz, 1998).
Body composition. Percent body fat was
assessed by measuring skinfolds at the triceps and
calf, following procedures developed by Lohman
(1992). Lohman’s equation was used to calculate %
BF. For boys, the equation to calculate was %
BF = 0.735 * (triceps + calf) + 1. For girls, the equa-
tion was %BF = 0.610 * (triceps + calf) + 5. Body
weight and height were measured to the nearest
0.1 kg and 0.1 cm, respectively, using a scale (Tanita
TBF 310) and a stadiometer (Seca 213). A bilingual
research assistant instructed each participant to
remove his or her shoes, socks, and heavy garments
before stepping onto the scale. Height was deter-
mined without shoes, with the heels of both feet
together, and the toes pointed slightly outward at
approximately a 60-degree angle. Arms were at the
sides of the body. Heels, buttocks, and back of the
head were touching the vertical backboard of the
scale, and the headpiece was lowered until it firmly
touched the crown of the participant’s head. BMI
was calculated using Quetelet’s index [body weight
(kilograms) divided by height2 (meters)]. BMI values
were then used to identify the age- and gender-spe-
cific percentile for each participant using the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) growth
tables (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
2011). Based on these tables, a participant was classi-
fied as normal weight (BMI < 85th percentile), over-
weight (BMI ≥ 85th–94th percentile), or obese
(BMI ≥ 95th percentile).
Body image variables. Ideal body size and BD
were assessed using the Figure Rating Scale, which
consists of seven gender-specific figures, developed
by Collins (1991). Participants in this study were
asked to determine their perceived body size with
the question, “Which picture looks the most like
you?” The participant’s ideal body size was assessed
by asking him or her the question, “Which picture
shows the way you want to look?” Participants’ lev-
els of body size satisfaction were determined by sub-
tracting each participant’s ideal body size figure
from his or her perceived body size, resulting in
scores that ranged from 6 to +6. Zero scores indi-
cated that the participant was satisfied with his or
her perceived body size. In contrast, negative or
positive scores indicated body size dissatisfaction,
meaning that the participant would like to be thin-
ner or bigger than his or her perceived body size.
Following the question about his or her ideal self,
each participant was asked to provide a rationale for
his or her selected figure. Rationales were grouped
into four categories: appearance, weight/size,
health/fitness, and psychosocial. Appearance ratio-
nales included statements related to general physical
appearance or looks, excluding weight or health ref-
erences (e.g., “She looks pretty”). Weight/size ratio-
nales included statements related to weight (e.g.,

“She looks thin” or “She is small”). Health/fitness
rationales included references to health or fitness
(e.g., “He looks healthy” or “He looks muscular”).
Psychosocial rationales included statements related
to mood or social status (e.g., “She looks happy” or
“She has more friends”). The Figure Rating Scale
instrument has a good test–retest reliability for the
perceived body size figure selected (r = .71) and
sound reliability for the selected ideal figure
(r = .59). A significant correlation has been reported
between figure size and BMI (r = .37).
Cardiorespiratory fitness. The 20-Meter Endur-
ance Shuttle Run Test (MST) was used to estimate
maximal speed in participants, which in turn was
employed to determine VO2max (CRF level). The 20
MST is a practical and reliable CRF test which allows
a large number of participants to be tested at the
same time (Ruiz et al., 2008). This test consisted of
1-min stages of continuous incremental-paced run-
ning. The starting speed began at 8.5 km/h and
increased by 0.5 km/h at each successive minute,
reaching 18.0 km/h at min 20. Guided by auditory
signals emitted from a prerecorded tape, children
ran 20 m, turned, and ran back 20 m, touching par-
allel lines placed 20 m apart. When a participant
stopped or failed to touch the end line twice, the test
was terminated. The maximal speed was deter-
mined by the last lap completed. The equation used
to calculate VO2max was developed by Leger and
Lambert (1982); where VO2max = 31.025 + 3.238 * S
(final speed) 3.248 * A (age) + 0.1536 * S * A.
Training. Bilingual kinesiology research assis-
tants were trained in assessing body composition
and VO2max. As part of the training, research assis-
tants received a written protocol to follow when con-
ducting measurements. The research assistants then
observed a demonstration for assessing height,
weight, skinfold measurements, and VO2max. After
the demonstration, they practiced procedures while
being observed by one of the investigators, who pro-
vided feedback. Once 90% agreement between the
trainer and each research assistant was reached, the
research assistant was able to assess the participants.
Procedure
After obtaining permission from the school district,
school principals from the four selected schools
were contacted to solicit their support for the
study. The principals introduced the research team
to the physical education coordinators and teachers
at each school to discuss the objectives of the
BODY IMAGE IN YOUTH 731
research and recruitment procedures. With their
full support, the research assistants made an
announcement about the study during physical-
education sessions and distributed clasp envelopes
among students who were interested in participat-
ing in the study to take home to their parents. Each
clasp envelope contained information about the
study and the consent and assent forms. Students
who returned signed parental and assent forms
participated in the study. Data were collected at 2-
day measurement sessions during physical educa-
tion classes for a period of 10 weeks. At Day 1
measurement, bilingual research assistants assessed
each participant’s height, weight, and skinfolds. To
ensure the student’s privacy, a small room was
assigned to conduct these assessments. At Day 2
measurement, demographic, cultural, body image,
and 20 MST were administered.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics (means and standard devia-
tions for continuous variables; frequencies and per-
centages for categorical variables) were calculated
separately for Hispanic and White participants,
and for boys and girls, to test for ethnic and gen-
der differences in overall sample characteristics
and body image variables. Specifically, using chi-
square tests with Yates’ continuity correction and
2 9 2 ANOVAs for continuous outcome variables,
ethnic and gender differences were examined for
BMI, %BF, CRF, ratings of children’s ideal body
sizes, rationales for ideal body size selections, and
BD. Correlation and hierarchical multiple regression
were employed to assess the contribution of demo-
graphic factors (age, gender, ethnicity, and accultur-
ation), body composition indicators (BMI and %BF),
and CRF in predicting BD. The unique contribution
of each variable was estimated through the squared
semipartial correlations (sr2i ). Additionally, the coef-
ficient of multiple determination (R2) expressed the
proportion of variance in the dependent variable
that was shared by the weighted contribution of the
independent variables at each block. Assumptions
of normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity were
evaluated and yielded no serious violations. While
several variables of interest appeared to have a posi-
tive skew, light to moderate positive kurtosis, and
several multivariate outliers, they were not removed
due to the exploratory nature of this study. An
examination of bivariate correlations among the
independent variables indicated that multicollineari-
ty was present, most likely stemming from the
strong positive correlation between BMI and %BF.
736

OLVERA, MCCARLEY, RODRIGUEZ, NOOR, AND HERNANDEZ-VALERO
employed in both studies. The sample in our study
consisted primarily of preadolescents compared to
the sample of adolescents (aged 12–15 years)
employed in the Ceballos and Czyzewska’s (2010)
study. It is plausible that as BD increases through
middle childhood and adolescence (Smolak, 2004),
particularly in girls (Olive et al., 2012), ethnic dif-
ferences in BD emerge. Future studies are needed
to assess the development of BD in Hispanic and
White youth longitudinally through childhood and
adolescence to better determine the prevalence of
ethnic differences and to identify the factors that
may influence these differences.
This study also examined the relationships
among body composition, CRF, and BD in His-
panic and White youth during preadolescence. Pre-
adolescence is a critical period of extensive bodily
changes and is also a risk factor for BD (McCabe &
Ricciardelli, 2004). Findings from this study indi-
cated that BD was associated significantly with
BMI and %BF in a sample of preadolescents. Partic-
ipants with higher BMI and %BF were more likely
to be dissatisfied with their body size compared to
their leaner counterparts. These findings are consis-
tent with previous studies (Mirza et al., 2005; Petrie
et al., 2010; Xanthopoulos et al., 2011) reporting
that body composition was strongly associated
with BD.
There was also a bivariate relationship between
BD and CRF observed in the present study. Corre-
sponding with previous research (Hausenblas
et al., 2002; Olive et al., 2012; Schubert et al., 2013),
participants who reported that they were more dis-
satisfied with their body sizes were less likely to be
physically fit. Perhaps, less physically fit preadoles-
cents assessed their body size more negatively and
less reflective of societal ideals than their more
physically fit counterparts. Cardiorespiratory fit-
ness was also associated negatively with %BF and
BMI, suggesting that less fit children were more
likely to exhibit greater %BF or BMI. These find-
ings suggest that increases in CRF may act as a
protective factor against BD in Hispanic and White
preadolescents, whereas increases in %BF and BMI
may be risk factors for BD. The use of %BF in addi-
tion to BMI is strength of the current study.
The predictive effects of body composition and
CRF on BD after controlling for demographic and
cultural factors were examined to test the third
hypothesis, which was partially supported. Consis-
tent with Hausenblas et al. (2002), results from this
study indicated that body composition variables
significantly predicted BD, but CRF did not when
both were included in the model. In contrast, Olive
et al. (2012) reported that BD was significantly
related to %BF and CRF in boys and girls. The
association between BD and CRF was observed to
be independent of the child’s body composition.
There are some explanations for the discrepancies
of the results. It is plausible that the influence of
CRF on body dissatisfaction may be indirect
through its impact on physical self-concept and
competence (Olive et al., 2012; Petrie et al., 2010).
Unfortunately, neither physical self-concept nor
physical activity self-confidence were assessed in
this study. Future research should include such
variables to examine potential mediating effects
between cardiorespiratory fitness and body size
satisfaction level.
There are some limitations to this study.
Although the authors of this study used BMI in
combination with %BF to predict BD, the inclusion
of BMI estimation to assess body size in school-
aged populations is problematic. Specifically, BMI
only considers body weight relative to height and
thus does not differentiate between fat-free mass
and fat mass (Gutin, 2011). Furthermore, this study
did not take into consideration interindividual and
gender variation in sexual maturation rates which
are related to children’s and adolescents’ views of
their physical bodies. For instance, girls start the
pubertal stage earlier than boys, on average, and
may be more advanced in relation to physical
development at this stage, which may have influ-
enced their body size satisfaction level (Telford &
Cunningham, 2008). Therefore, any gender differ-
ences observed in this study in relation to body
perceptions may be convoluted by maturation
stage. Future studies should include sexual matura-
tion measures (e.g., Tanner Stages of Sexual Matu-
ration developed by Tanner, 1962) to assess
accurately gender differences in body size ideal
and dissatisfaction. An additional limitation is the
use of Collins’ Figure Rating Scale, which relies
upon Caucasian features to measure Hispanic chil-
dren’s body image perceptions. It is uncertain
whether Hispanic preadolescents can relate to
those figures in the same way as White preadoles-
cents. Another limitation is the influence of social
desirability on participants’ responses in this study.
For example, participants may have been influ-
enced by a desire to provide socially acceptable
responses when explaining their preferences for
selected figures as ideal body sizes (e.g., rationales
such as weight-related or health/fitness might have
been perceived as more socially acceptable than
romantic or sexually attractive rationales). Despite
the cited limitations, this research represents one of
 BODY IMAGE IN YOUTH 733

third born in Mexico (37%), as compared to 2% of
White participants. The percentage of participants
speaking at least some Spanish at home significantly
differed by ethnicity [v2(1, N = 190) = 81.24, p < .05,
u = .67]. Namely, almost two-thirds (62%) of the
Hispanic participants reported speaking some Span-
ish or a mixture of English and Spanish with their
parents at home. In contrast, none of their White
counterparts spoke any language other than English
at home. White participants were more likely to
have parents with technical and managerial occupa-
tions than their Hispanic counterparts. Hispanic
participants were more likely to have fathers with
operator and laborer occupations and mothers who
were housewives [father’s occupation: v2(7, N =
190) = 25.39, p < .05, u = .35; mother’s occupation:
v2(6, N = 190) = 25.36, p < .05, u = .36]. There was a
trend for Hispanic participants to be categorized as
overweight. Forty-seven percent of Hispanic partici-
pants were categorized as overweight (BMI
between ≥ 85th–94th percentile) compared to 33%
of White children [v2(1, N = 190) = 3.35, p = .07,
u = .14].
Ethnic and Gender Differences in Body Size
Ideal and Dissatisfaction
To evaluate the hypothesized effects of ethnicity
and gender on ideal body size selections, a 2 9 2
between-subjects analysis of variance was per-
formed. With respect to ideal body size, we
expected that Hispanic children to select larger fig-
ures than White children and girls to select thinner
figures than boys. Findings indicated that there was
no main effect of ethnicity on ideal body size selec-
tion [F(1, 186) = 0.08, p = .78, partial g2 = .0004].
That is, Hispanic and White participants selected
similar figures as ideal (see Table 2). Conversely, as
hypothesized a main effect of gender was observed
with girls selecting smaller figures as ideal com-
pared to boys [F(1, 186) = 9.86, p = .002, partial
g2 = .05]. Furthermore, a significant interaction of
gender and ethnicity on ideal body size was
reported [F(1, 186) = 6.85, p = .01, partial g2 = .036].
Although White boys and girls did not significantly
differ in ideal body size preferences (girls M = 3.48,
SD = .57; boys M = 3.54, SD = .68) [F(1, 91) = 0.19,
p = .66, partial g2 = .002], Hispanic boys and girls
did. Specifically, Hispanic boys preferred signifi-
cantly larger figures (M = 3.79, SD = .74) than His-
panic girls (M = 3.16, SD = .94) [F(1, 95) = 13.26,
p = .0004, partial g2 = .12].
To further investigate the above group differ-
ences in ideal body size selection, children were
asked to provide rationales for their selections. A
4 9 4 chi-square test of independence revealed no
significant group differences regarding partici-
pants’ rationales for their preferred ideal body size
selection [v2(12, N = 190) = 12.57, p = .40, u = .26].
However, from a purely descriptive perspective,
the selected rationales provide interesting insight
into children’s selections of their ideal body sizes.
Specifically, while Hispanic and White girls and
boys selected weight/size as the most frequent
rationale for their ideal body size selections, White
girls selected that rationale most frequently (White
girls: 59%; White boys: 50%; Hispanic girls 51%;
Hispanic boys: 46%). Hispanic and White girls
were more likely to cite appearance/looks as the
rationale for their body size selections (Hispanic
girls: 36%; White girls: 33%; Hispanic boys: 29%;
White boys: 26%). White males most often listed
health/fitness as the rationale for their ideal body
size selection (White boys: 21%; Hispanic boys:

TABLE 2
Descriptive Statistics for Body Size Ideal and Body Dissatisfaction

White (N = 93) Hispanic (N = 97) Total (N = 190)

Variable Girls (N = 54) Boys (N = 39) Girls (N = 49) Boys (N = 48) Girls (N = 103) Boys (N = 87)

Ideal Body Size Figure M (SD) 3.48 (0.57) 3.54 (0.68) 3.16 (0.94) 3.79 (0.74) 3.33 (0.79) 3.68 (0.72)
Ideal Body Size Rationales N (%)
Appearance 18 (33.3) 10 (25.6) 16 (32.7) 14 (29.2) 34 (33.0) 24 (27.6)
Weight/size 32 (59.3) 20 (51.3) 25 (51.0) 23 (47.9) 57 (55.3) 43 (49.4)
Health/fitness 2 (3.7) 8 (20.5) 4 (8.2) 7 (14.6) 6 (5.8) 15 (17.2)
Psychosocial 2 (3.7) 1 (2.6) 4 (8.2) 4 (8.3) 6 (5.8) 5 (5.7)
Body dissatisfaction 0.37 (0.9) 0.38 (1.0) 0.53 (1.0) 0.25 (0.8) 0.45 (1.0) 0.31 (0.9)
(continuous) M (SD)

Note. Chi-square and 2 9 2 ANOVAs used to examine ethnic and gender differences. A significant Gender 9 Ethnicity interaction
and main effect for gender was found in participants’ selections of their ideal body size figures.
734

OLVERA, MCCARLEY, RODRIGUEZ, NOOR, AND HERNANDEZ-VALERO

15%; White girls: 8%; Hispanic girls: 4%). Finally,
Hispanic boys and girls selected psychosocial ratio-
nales more frequently than their White counter-
parts (Hispanic boys 9%; Hispanic girls: 8%; White
girls: 4%; White boys: 3%).
With respect to body dissatisfaction, we hypothe-
sized that Hispanic participants would report lower
levels of BD than their White counterparts and that
girls would report higher levels of BD than boys.
However, findings indicated no significant main
effect of gender or ethnicity [Fgender(1, 186) = .95,
p = .33, partial g2 = .005; Fethnicity(1, 186) = .01, p =
.93, partial g2 = .0004]. Furthermore, there was no
significant interaction between gender and ethnicity
on BD [F(1, 186) = 1.16, p = .28, partial g2 = .006].
Relationships Among Demographic, Cultural,
Body Composition Indicators, Cardiorespiratory
Fitness, and Body Image Variables
Fisher’s Z transformation was applied to the bivari-
ate correlation matrices to determine whether
bivariate relationships among the variables of inter-
est needed to be examined separately by ethnicity
and gender. There were no significant gender or
ethnicity differences among the bivariate correla-
tion coefficients. Therefore, the primary analyses
reflect patterns in the sample as a whole. The
bivariate correlation matrix for all of the variables
that were included in the regression model is pre-
sented in Table 3. Language spoken at home was
associated with both BMI and ethnicity. Children
who spoke Spanish at home were more likely to be
heavier [r(190) = .17, p < .05] and of Hispanic ori-
gin [r(190) = .66, p < .01] than children who only
spoke English at home.
BMI shared a strong and positive relationship
with %BF [r(190) = .83, p < .01]. Both BMI and %BF
were negatively associated with the CRF measure
(VO2max), such that as BMI and %BF increased,
VO2max decreased [rBMI(190) = .47, p < .01; r%
BF(190) = .47, p < .01]. Body dissatisfaction was
positively related to BMI [r(190) = .62, p < .01] and
%BF [r(190) = .62, p < .01] and negatively associ-
ated with VO2max [r(190) = .26, p < .01]. Those
participants who reported dissatisfaction with their
body sizes were more likely to have a higher BMI
and %BF and less likely to be physically fit.
Hierarchical multiple regression was used to
examine the combined predictive effects of body
composition and CRF on BD, after controlling for
the demographic and cultural factors (age, gender,
ethnicity, and language spoken at home). Although
none of the demographic and cultural variables
shared a bivariate relationship with BD, they were
included in the regression model based on theory
and in an effort to rule out any potential omitted-
variable biases. At Step 1, in addition to age and gen-
der, ethnicity and language spoken at home were
entered into the model. As summarized in Table 4,
with age, gender, ethnicity, and language spoken at
home in the equation, multiple R was not signifi-
cantly different from zero [R2 = .02 (adjusted R2 =
.005), Finc(4, 184) = .78, p = .54]. These findings
suggest that these factors do not reliably predict BD.
At Step 2, BMI and %BF were included to deter-
mine the relationship between body composition
indicators and BD, after controlling for demo-
graphic and cultural characteristics. Furthermore,
VO2max was incorporated into the model to exam-
ine the unique contribution of CRF in predicting
BD. After Step 2, with BMI, %BF, and VO2max in

TABLE 3
Correlation Matrix of Study Variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Age 1.00 — — — — — — —
2. Gendera 0.16* 1.00 — — — — — —
3. Ethnicityb 0.13 0.07 1.00 — — — — —
4. Languagec 0.07 0.07 0.66** 1.00 — — — —
5. BMI 0.01 0.01 0.14* 0.17* 1.00 — — —
6. %BF 0.16* 0.14* 0.06 0.05 0.83** 1.00 — —
7. Cardiorespiratory fitness 0.22** 0.08 0.06 0.09 0.47** 0.47** 1.00 —
8. Body dissatisfaction 0.10 0.09 0.02 0.01 0.62** 0.62** 0.26** 1.00

*p < .05; **p < .01.

a
Males coded as 1, females 0.
b
Hispanic preadolescents coded as 1, White preadolescents 0.
c
If some Spanish spoken at home coded as 1, if only English coded as 0. BF = body fat.
 BODY IMAGE IN YOUTH 735

TABLE 4
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Body Dissatisfaction

Model 1 Model 2

Predictor B SEB b sr2i B SEB b sr2i

Age .12 .10 .10 .01 .05 .08 .04 .002

Gendera .14 .14 .07 .005 .06 .11 .03 .002
Ethnicityb .11 .19 .06 .003 .13 .15 .07 .005
Languagec .07 .20 .03 .002 .24 .15 .12 .01
BMI — — — — .08 .02 .40** .06
%BF — — — — .03 .01 .32** .04
Cardiorespiratory fitness — — — — .02 .02 .07 .01
Adjusted R2 .005 .41
F for change in R2 .78 44.81**

*p < .05; **p < .01.

a
Males coded as 1, females 0.
b
Hispanic preadolescents coded as 1, White preadolescents 0.
c
If some Spanish spoken at home coded as 1, if only English coded as 0 (N = 190).

the equation, R2 = .44 was significantly different
from zero (adjusted R2 = .41), Finc(3, 181) = 44.81,
p < .01. The addition of the body composition indi-
cators and CRF resulted in a significant increment
in R2. However, only BMI and %BF were signifi-
cantly predictive of BD; CRF was not. The adjusted
R2 value of .41 indicates that nearly one-half of the
variance in BD was predicted by age, ethnicity, lan-
guage spoken at home, BMI, %BF, and VO2max.
More specifically, for every one-unit increase in
BMI (b = .40, p < .01), BD progressed from smaller
to larger than ideal by .40 units, holding all other
variables constant. Likewise, increases in %BF were
associated with BD in the direction of perceiving
oneself as larger than ideal (b = .32 p < .01), con-
trolling for all other variables. Although not signifi-
cant, there was a trend for participants who spoke
Spanish at home to be more likely to be satisfied
with their body size (b = .12, p = .12), controlling
for all other variables in the model.
DISCUSSION
The current study contributed to the literature by
examining ethnic and gender differences in pre-
ferred ideal body size, BD, and predictors of BD in
a sample of Hispanic and White preadolescents,
aged 10–13 years. Almost half of the Hispanic par-
ticipants were categorized as overweight, com-
pared to 30% of the White participants. Hispanic
participants were more likely to speak Spanish at
home, have fathers with operator or laborer occu-
pations, and housewife mothers than their White
counterparts.
Contrary to the first hypothesis, findings from
this study revealed that Hispanic and White chil-
dren selected similar figures as ideal. However, a
significant ethnic by gender interaction was
observed. While White boys and girls preferred
similar body size ideals, Hispanic boys preferred
significantly larger figures than Hispanic girls.
These findings partially support the second
hypothesis and are consistent with previous studies
indicating that Hispanic girls preferred smaller fig-
ures as ideal compared to Hispanic boys (Mirza
et al., 2005; Olvera et al., 2005). It is possible that
Hispanic boys and girls may be socialized differ-
ently, leading Hispanic boys to select heavier fig-
ures than Hispanic girls as ideal. Hispanic parents
may encourage their children, particularly males,
to gain weight (Ceballos & Czyzewska, 2010). Olve-
ra et al. (2005) found that Hispanic mothers, when
rating body figures for their children, considered
larger figures to be more attractive for their boys
than for their girls. Furthermore, it is conceivable
that these gender differences observed in ideal
body size selection among Hispanic preadolescents
might explain the gender differences existing in the
prevalence of obesity in this population, with His-
panic boys exhibiting greater rates of obesity than
Hispanic girls (Ogden et al., 2012).
No ethnic differences on BD were observed in
this study. These findings are divergent from those
reported by Ceballos and Czyzewska (2010), who
found significant ethnic differences in BD in White
and Hispanic adolescents. The inconsistency of
results regarding ethnic differences in BD may be
due to developmental differences in the samples
736

OLVERA, MCCARLEY, RODRIGUEZ, NOOR, AND HERNANDEZ-VALERO
employed in both studies. The sample in our study
consisted primarily of preadolescents compared to
the sample of adolescents (aged 12–15 years)
employed in the Ceballos and Czyzewska’s (2010)
study. It is plausible that as BD increases through
middle childhood and adolescence (Smolak, 2004),
particularly in girls (Olive et al., 2012), ethnic dif-
ferences in BD emerge. Future studies are needed
to assess the development of BD in Hispanic and
White youth longitudinally through childhood and
adolescence to better determine the prevalence of
ethnic differences and to identify the factors that
may influence these differences.
This study also examined the relationships
among body composition, CRF, and BD in His-
panic and White youth during preadolescence. Pre-
adolescence is a critical period of extensive bodily
changes and is also a risk factor for BD (McCabe &
Ricciardelli, 2004). Findings from this study indi-
cated that BD was associated significantly with
BMI and %BF in a sample of preadolescents. Partic-
ipants with higher BMI and %BF were more likely
to be dissatisfied with their body size compared to
their leaner counterparts. These findings are consis-
tent with previous studies (Mirza et al., 2005; Petrie
et al., 2010; Xanthopoulos et al., 2011) reporting
that body composition was strongly associated
with BD.
There was also a bivariate relationship between
BD and CRF observed in the present study. Corre-
sponding with previous research (Hausenblas
et al., 2002; Olive et al., 2012; Schubert et al., 2013),
participants who reported that they were more dis-
satisfied with their body sizes were less likely to be
physically fit. Perhaps, less physically fit preadoles-
cents assessed their body size more negatively and
less reflective of societal ideals than their more
physically fit counterparts. Cardiorespiratory fit-
ness was also associated negatively with %BF and
BMI, suggesting that less fit children were more
likely to exhibit greater %BF or BMI. These find-
ings suggest that increases in CRF may act as a
protective factor against BD in Hispanic and White
preadolescents, whereas increases in %BF and BMI
may be risk factors for BD. The use of %BF in addi-
tion to BMI is strength of the current study.
The predictive effects of body composition and
CRF on BD after controlling for demographic and
cultural factors were examined to test the third
hypothesis, which was partially supported. Consis-
tent with Hausenblas et al. (2002), results from this
study indicated that body composition variables
significantly predicted BD, but CRF did not when
both were included in the model. In contrast, Olive
et al. (2012) reported that BD was significantly
related to %BF and CRF in boys and girls. The
association between BD and CRF was observed to
be independent of the child’s body composition.
There are some explanations for the discrepancies
of the results. It is plausible that the influence of
CRF on body dissatisfaction may be indirect
through its impact on physical self-concept and
competence (Olive et al., 2012; Petrie et al., 2010).
Unfortunately, neither physical self-concept nor
physical activity self-confidence were assessed in
this study. Future research should include such
variables to examine potential mediating effects
between cardiorespiratory fitness and body size
satisfaction level.
There are some limitations to this study.
Although the authors of this study used BMI in
combination with %BF to predict BD, the inclusion
of BMI estimation to assess body size in school-
aged populations is problematic. Specifically, BMI
only considers body weight relative to height and
thus does not differentiate between fat-free mass
and fat mass (Gutin, 2011). Furthermore, this study
did not take into consideration interindividual and
gender variation in sexual maturation rates which
are related to children’s and adolescents’ views of
their physical bodies. For instance, girls start the
pubertal stage earlier than boys, on average, and
may be more advanced in relation to physical
development at this stage, which may have influ-
enced their body size satisfaction level (Telford &
Cunningham, 2008). Therefore, any gender differ-
ences observed in this study in relation to body
perceptions may be convoluted by maturation
stage. Future studies should include sexual matura-
tion measures (e.g., Tanner Stages of Sexual Matu-
ration developed by Tanner, 1962) to assess
accurately gender differences in body size ideal
and dissatisfaction. An additional limitation is the
use of Collins’ Figure Rating Scale, which relies
upon Caucasian features to measure Hispanic chil-
dren’s body image perceptions. It is uncertain
whether Hispanic preadolescents can relate to
those figures in the same way as White preadoles-
cents. Another limitation is the influence of social
desirability on participants’ responses in this study.
For example, participants may have been influ-
enced by a desire to provide socially acceptable
responses when explaining their preferences for
selected figures as ideal body sizes (e.g., rationales
such as weight-related or health/fitness might have
been perceived as more socially acceptable than
romantic or sexually attractive rationales). Despite
the cited limitations, this research represents one of

the few studies that provides evidence regarding
body image disturbances and predictors of BD
(encompassing both body composition indicators
and CRF) in Hispanic and White preadolescents.
These findings have relevant implications for
future lines of research given the potential implica-
tions of BD on obesity and eating disorders.
REFERENCES
Ayala, G. X., Mickens, L., Galindo, P., & Elder, J. P.
(2007). Acculturation and body image perception
among Latino youth. Ethnicity and Health, 12, 21–41.
doi:10.1080/13557850600824294
Banitt, A., Kaur, H., Pulvers, K., Nollen, N., Ireland, M.,
& Fitzgibbon, M. (2008). BMI percentiles and body
image discrepancy in black and white adolescents.
Obesity, 16, 987–991. doi:10.1038/oby.2008.21
Bergeron, D., & Tylka, T. L. (2007). Support of the
uniqueness of body dissatisfaction from drive for mus-
cularity among men. Body Image, 4, 288–295. doi:10.
1016/j.bodyim.2007.05.002
Caballero, A. E., & Tenzer, P. (2007). Building cultural
competency for improved diabetes care: Latino
Americans and diabetes. Journal of Family Practice, 56,
7–13.
Campbell, A., & Hausenblas, H. A. (2009). Effects of
exercise interventions on body image: A meta-analysis.
Journal of Health Psychology, 14, 780–793. doi:10.1177/
1359105309338977
Castillo, M. J., Ortega, F. B., Ruiz, J. R., & Sjostrom, M.
(2008). Physical fitness in childhood and adolescence:
A powerful marker of health. International Journal of
Obesity, 32, 1–11. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803774
Ceballos, N., & Czyzewska, M. (2010). Body image in
Hispanic/Latino vs. European American adolescents:
Implications for treatment and prevention of obesity in
underserved populations. Journal of Health Care for the
Poor and Underserved, 21, 823–838. doi:10.1353/hpu.0.
0333
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011). BMI
table for children and adolescents. Retrieved July 11,
2011, from www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/healthyweight/
assessing/bmi/00
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral
sciences, (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Collins, M. E. (1991). Body figure perceptions and prefer-
ences among preadolescent children. International Jour-
nal of Eating Disorders, 10, 199–208. doi:10.1002/1098-
108X(199103)10:2<199:AID-EAT2260100209>3.0.CO;2-D
Contento, I. R., Basch, C., & Zybert, P. (2003). Body image,
weight and food choices of Latina women and their
young children. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behav-
ior, 35, 236–248. doi:10.1016/S1499-4046(06)60054-7
Dinh, K. T., Roosa, M. W., Tein, J. Y., & Lopez, V. L. (2002).
The relationship between acculturation and problem
behavior proneness in a Hispanic youth sample: A lon-
BODY IMAGE IN YOUTH 737
gitudinal mediation model. Journal of Abnormal Child
Psychology, 30, 295–309. doi:10.1023/A:1015111014775
Duncan, M. J., Al-Nakeeb, Y., Nevill, A., & Jones, M. V.
(2006). Body image and physical activity in British
secondary school children. European Physical Education
Review, 10, 243–260. doi:10.1177/1356336X04047125
Epstein, J. A., Botvin, G. J., & Diaz, T. (1998). Linguistic
acculturation and gender effects on smoking among
Hispanic youth. Preventive Medicine, 27, 583–589.
doi:10.1006/pmed.1998.0329
Erickson, S. J., & Gerstle, M. (2007). Investigation of ethnic
differences in body image between Hispanic/biethnic-
Hispanic and non-Hispanic White preadolescent girls.
Body Image, 4, 69–78. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2006.11.003
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., & Buchner, A. (2007).
G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis pro-
gram for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sci-
ences. Behavior Research Methods, 54, 175–191. doi:10.
3758/BF03193146
Gillison, F. B., Standage, M., & Skevington, S. M. (2006).
Relationships among adolescents’ weight perceptions,
exercise goals, exercise motivation, quality of life and
leisure-time exercise behavior: A self-determination
theory approach. Health Education Research, 21, 836–
847. doi:10.1093/her/cyl139
Goldfield, G., Henderson, K., Buchholz, A., Obeid, N.,
Nguyen, H., & Flament, M. (2011). Physical activity
and psychological adjustment in adolescents. Journal of
Physical Activity and Health, 8, 157–163.
Gutin, B. (2011). The role of nutrient partitioning and
stem cell differentiation in pediatric obesity: A new
theory. International Journal of Pediatric Obesity, 6, 7–12.
doi:10.3109/17477166.2011.590201
Hausenblas, H. A., Downs, D. S., Fleming, D. S., & Con-
naughton, D. P. (2002). Body image in middle school
children. Eating and Weight Disorders, 7, 244–248.
doi:10.1007/bf03327463
Kimm, S., Glynn, N., Obarzanek, E., Kriska, A., Daniels,
S., Barton, B., & Liu, K. et al. (2005). Relation between
the changes in physical activity and body mass index
during adolescence: A multicenter longitudinal study.
Lancet, 366, 301–307. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66837-7
Lawler, M., & Nixon, E. (2011). Body dissatisfaction
among adolescent boys and girls: The effects of body
mass, peer appearance culture, and internalization of
appearance ideals. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40,
59–71. doi:10.1007/s10964-009-9500-2
Leger, L., & Lambert, J. (1982). A maximal multistage 20-
m shuttle run test to predict VO2max. European Journal
of Applied Physiology, 49, 1–12. doi:0301-5548/82/0049/
0001
Lohman, T. G. (1992). Advances in body composition
assessment. In T. G. Lohman (Ed.), Current issues in exer-
cise science, monograph, no. 3. Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics Publishers.
McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2003). Body image
and strategies to lose weight and increase muscle
738

OLVERA, MCCARLEY, RODRIGUEZ, NOOR, AND HERNANDEZ-VALERO
among boys and girls. Health Psychology, 22, 39–46.
doi:10.1037/0278-6133.22.1.39
McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2004). A longitudi-
nal study of pubertal timing and extreme body change
behaviors among adolescent boys and girls. Adoles-
cence, 39, 145–166.
McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2005). A longitudi-
nal study of body image and strategies to lose weight
and increase muscles among children. Journal of
Applied Developmental Psychology, 26, 559–577. doi:10.
1016/j.appdev.2005.06.007
Mirza, N. M., Davis, D., & Yanovski, J. A. (2005). Body
dissatisfaction, self-esteem, and overweight among
inner-city Hispanic children and adolescents. Journal of
Adolescent Health, 36, 267.e16–267.e20. doi: 10.1016/j.
jadohealth.2004.02.033
Myers, T. A., & Crowther, J. H. (2007). Sociocultural pres-
sures, thin-ideal internalization, self-objectification, and
body dissatisfaction: Could feminist beliefs be a moder-
ating factor? Body Image, 4, 296–308. doi:10.1016/j.body-
im.2007.04.001
Neumark-Sztainer, D., Wall, M., Story, M., & Perry, C. L.
(2003). Correlates of unhealthy weight-control behav-
iors among adolescents: Implications for prevention
programs. Health Psychology, 22, 88–98. doi:10.1037/
0278-6133.22.1.88
Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Curtin, L. R., Lamb, M. M.,
& Flegal, K. M. (2012). Prevalence of obesity and
trends in body mass index among US children and
adolescents, 1999–2010. Journal of the American Medical
Association, 307, 483–490. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.40
Olive, L. S., Byrne, D. G., Cunningham, R. B., &
Telford, R. D. (2012). Effects of physical activity, fit-
ness, and fatness on children’s body image: The
Australian LOOK longitudinal study. Mental Health
and Physical Activity, 5, 116–124. doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.
2012.08.004
Olvera, N., George, G., & Kaiser, L. (2011). My child is
not fat, he is just chubby. A Latino/a parenting per-
spective. In R. Perez-Escamilla & H. Melgar-Quinonez
(Eds.), At risk Latino children’s health (pp. 87–111).
Houston, TX: Arte Publico Press.
Olvera, N., Suminski, R., & Power, T. G. (2005). Intergen-
erational perceptions of body size and attractiveness in
Mexican Americans: Role of gender, acculturation, and
BMI. Obesity Research, 13, 1970–1979. doi:10.1038/oby.
2005.242
Parfitt, G., Pavey, T., & Rowlands, A. V. (2009). Chil-
dren’s physical activity and psychological health: The
relevance of intensity. Acta Paedriatica, 98, 1037–1043.
doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01255.x
Petrie, T. A., Greenleaf, C., & Martin, S. (2010). Biopsy-
chosocial and physical correlates of middle school
boys’ and girls’ body satisfaction. Sex Roles, 63, 631–
644. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9872-5
Presnell, K., Bearman, S. K., & Stice, E. (2004). Risk fac-
tors for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and
girls: A prospective study. International Journal of Eat-
ing Disorders, 36, 389–401. doi:10.1002/eat.20045
Ricciardelli, L. A., & McCabe, M. P. (2001). Self-esteem
and negative affect as moderators of sociocultural
influences on body dissatisfaction, strategies to
decrease weight, and strategies to increase muscles
among adolescent boys and girls. Sex Roles, 4, 189–207.
doi:10.1023/A:1010955120359
Rubin, L., Fitts, M., & Becker, A. (2003). “Whatever feels
good in my soul”: Body ethics and aesthetics among
African American and Latina women. Culture, Medicine
and Psychiatry, 27, 49–75. doi:10.1023/A:102367 9821086
Ruiz, J. R., Ramirez-Lechuga, J., Ortega, F., Castro-Pi~ nero,
J., Benitez, J., Arauzo-Azofra, A., . . . Zabala, M. (2008).
Artificial neural network-based equation for estimating
VO2max from the 20 m shuttle run test in adolescents.
Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, 44, 233–245. doi:10.
1016/j.artmed.2008.06.004
Schubert, A., Janu
ario, R. S., Casonatto, J., & Sonoo, C.
N. (2013). Body image, nutritional status, abdominal
strength, and cardiorespiratory fitness in children and
adolescents practicing sports. Revista Paulista de Pedia-
tria, 31, 71–76. doi:10.1590/S0103-058220130001 00012
Smolak, L. (2004). Body image in children and adoles-
cents: Where do we go from here? Body Image, 1, 15–
28. doi:10.1016/S1740-1445(03)00008-1
Stice, E., & Agras, W. S. (1998). Predicting onset and
cessation of bulimic behaviors during adolescence: A
longitudinal grouping analysis. Behavior Therapy, 29,
257–276. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894(98)80006-3
Stice, E., & Bearman, S. K. (2001). Body image and eating
disturbances prospectively predict increases in depres-
sive symptoms in adolescent girls: A growth curve
analysis. Developmental Psychology, 37, 597–607. doi:10.
1037/0012-1649.37.5.597
Tabachnick, B. L., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate
statistics (5th ed.) Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Tanner, J. M. (1962). Growth at adolescence. Oxford, UK:
Blackwell Scientific Publications.
Telford, R. D., & Cunningham, R. B. (2008). Reformula-
tion of BMI and percent body fat to remove the height
bias in 8-year-olds. Obesity, 16, 2175–2181. doi:10.1038/
oby.2008.332
Xanthopoulos, M. S., Borradalie, K. E., Hayes, S., Sher-
man, S., Vander-Veur, S., Grundy, K. M., Nachmani, J.,
& Foster, G. D. (2011). The impact of weight, sex, and
race/ethnicity on body dissatisfaction among urban
children. Body Image, 8, 385–389. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.
2011.04.011