FM-Fluid Dynamics PDF

18‐10‐2018
©Dr. Avinash Chandra
Thermo-Fluid
The Fundamental Equations of Fluid

Dynamics
1. The law of conservation of matter
 Stipulates that matter can be neither created nor

destroyed, though it may be transformed (e.g. by a
chemical process).
 Since this study of the mechanics of fluids excludes

chemical activity from consideration, the law reduces to
the principle of conservation of mass.
1
18‐10‐2018
2. The law of conservation of energy
 States that energy may be neither created nor destroyed.
 Energy can be transformed from one guise to another (e.g.

potential energy can be transformed into kinetic energy),
but none is actually lost.
 Engineers sometimes loosely refer to ‘energy losses’ due

to friction, but in fact the friction transforms some energy
into heat, so none is really ‘lost’.
3. The law of conservation of momentum
 States that a body in motion cannot gain or lose

momentum unless some external force is applied.
The classical statement of this law is Newton's Second

Law of Motion, i.e.
force = rate of change of momentum
2
18‐10‐2018
Ideal fluids and Euler's equation
To obtain the equation of motion for a fluid we appeal to
Newton's Second Law‐the mass of a fluid element times its
acceleration is equal to the net force acting on that fluid
element. If we take an element of unit volume, then we have
where f is the force per unit volume on a fluid element.
This force may have several contributions. The first is the

“internal” force which is due to viscous dissipation, which we
will ignore for right now. The second set are “body forces”
which act throughout the volume of the fluid, such as the
gravitational force. The third force is due to pressure
gradients within the fluid. To see how this works, consider a
cube of fluid, with dimensions, ∆x , ∆y, ∆z
p∆y ∆z
3
18‐10‐2018
The force on the top face at position x is p∆x∆y , while the

force on the bottom face is
subtracting, we see that the net force in the x‐direction is
so the pressure per unit volume is
Repeating for the y and z directions, we find the net force per
unit volume
Therefore, if we ignore viscosity and gravity for the moment,

we have
We want the acceleration of a particular element of the fluid;

the coordinates of this fluid element change in time as the fluid
flows. In a time interval ∆t, the coordinate changes by
The velocity then becomes
4
18‐10‐2018
To calculate the acceleration, we need to find the rate of

change of the velocity:
If the flow is steady,
The term is nonlinear
we have for our equation of motion
This is known as Euler's equation. This equation and the

equation of continuity are the governing equations of non‐
viscous fluid flow. For an incompressible fluid, the Euler
equation can be written in a somewhat different form which is
often useful for applications.
10
5
18‐10‐2018
Introduction to momentum Eq.

• Most engineering problems can be analyzed using one of
three basic approaches:
– Differential approaches: the problem is formulated accurately using
differential quantities, but the solution is usually relied on the use of
numerical methods.
– Experimental approaches: complemented with dimensional analysis
are highly accurate, but they are typically time consuming and
expensive.
– Finite control volume approach: described in this chapter is
remarkably fast and simple and usually gives answers that are
sufficiently accurate for most engineering purposes.
• The linear momentum and angular momentum equations for
control volumes were developed and use them to determine
the forces and torques associated with fluid flow.
11

NEWTON’S LAWS AND
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Newton’s Law
Newton’s first law
Newton’s second law.
Newton’s third law.
For a rigid body of mass m, Newton’s second law is
expressed as
12
6
18‐10‐2018
NEWTON’S LAWS AND CONSERVATION

OF MOMENTUM
The product of the mass and the velocity of a body is called
the linear momentum or just the momentum of the body.
Therefore, Newton’s second law can also be stated as the
rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal to the
net force acting on the body
Newton’s second law  the linear momentum equation in
fluid mechanics
The momentum of a system is conserved when it remains
constant  the conservation of momentum principle.
Momentum is a vector. Its direction is the direction of
velocity.
13
NEWTON’S LAWS AND
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Newton’s second law for rotating rigid bodies is
expressed as
where is the net moment or torque applied on
the body, I is the moment of inertia of the body
about the axis of rotation, and is the angular
acceleration.
7
18‐10‐2018
NEWTON’S LAWS AND CONSERVATION OF
MOMENTUM
The rate of change of angular momentum is
Where is the angular velocity.
The rate of change of the angular momentum of a
body is equal to the net torque acting on it
The conservation of angular momentum principle
is hold as
15
CHOOSING A CONTROL VOLUME
• How to wisely select a
control volume?
• A control volume can be
selected as any arbitrary
region in space through
which fluid flows.
• A control volume and its
bounding control surface
can be fixed, moving, and
even deforming during flow.
16
8
18‐10‐2018
FORCES ACTING ON A CONTROL VOLUME
• The forces include:
– Body forces: act throughout the
entire body of the control volume
(such as gravity, electric, and
magnetic forces)
– Surface forces: act on the control
surface (such as pressure and
viscous forces and reaction forces
at points of contact).
• Total force acting on control
volume is expressed as
17
Body Forces
• Body force: the only
body force considered in
this text is gravity
where
Therefore, the total body force is
On earth at sea level, the
gravitational constant g is
equal to 9.807 m/s2.
18
9
18‐10‐2018
Surface Forces
• Surface forces: are not as
simple to analyze since they
consist of both normal and
tangential components.
• Diagonal components xx , yy ,
zz are called normal stresses
and are due to pressure and
viscous stresses.
• Off‐diagonal components xy,
xz, etc. are called shear
stresses and are due solely to
viscous stresses.
19
Surface Forces
• The dot product of a second‐order tensor and a
vector yields a second vector whose direction is the
direction of the surface force itself.
• Surface force acting on a differential surface element:
• Total surface force acting on CS
20
10
18‐10‐2018
FORCES ACTING ON A CONTROL VOLUME
• Total force:
• The control volume is
drawn similar to drawing a
free‐body diagram in your
statics and dynamics classes.
• Which one (CV A and CV B)
is a wise choice if we want
to calculate the force on the
flange?
21
THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUATION
22
11
18‐10‐2018
THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUATION
‐Special Cases
23
During steady flow, the amount of momentum within the control

volume remains constant. The linear momentum equation
becomes
Momentum flow rate across a uniform inlet or outlet in
algebraic form:
24
12
18‐10‐2018
Momentum‐Flux Correction Factor, 
• Since the velocity across most inlets and outlets is not uniform,
the momentum‐flux correction factor, , is used to patch‐up
the error in the algebraic form equation. Therefore,
Momentum flux across an inlet or outlet:
Momentum‐flux correction factor:
25
For flow in a duct, the axial velocity is usually non‐uniform, the

simple momentum‐flux calculation
in error and should be corrected to
where β is the dimensionless momentum‐flux correction factor
26
13
18‐10‐2018
The factor β accounts for the variation of ua2 cross the duct
section. That is, we compute the exact flux and set it equal to a
flux based on average velocity in the duct
27
28
14
18‐10‐2018
EXAMPLE: Momentum‐Flux Correction
Factor for Laminar Pipe Flow
• Consider laminar flow
through a very long straight
section of round pipe. The
velocity profile through a
cross‐sectional area of the
pipe is
• Calculate the momentum‐
flux correction factor
through a cross section of
the pipe
29
For laminar flow in a circular tube b = 4/3

For turbulent flow in circular pipe: 1.01 ≤ b ≤ 1.05
Note: For turbulent flow b may have an insignificant effect at

inlets and outlets, but for laminar flow b may be important
and should not be neglected.
30
15
18‐10‐2018
MOMENTUM EQUATION
(alternate form)
• Sum of the forces acting on the control volume = the rate
of increase of momentum of the fluid through the control
surface.
• Forces
• Surface Forces ----- Stresses
• Body Forces ----- External forces like gravitation
• SURFACE FORCES: If σ is the stress (tensor) then the
force due to stress on the on the elemental area dS is σ.dS 
• Force due to stresses on the control surface is given by   . dS
S0
31
• BODY FORCES: If f is the body force per unit mass, then the
force on a small element of volume dV can be written as
(ρdV)f.

 dV  f
V0
BODY FORCES ON THE CONTROL VOLUME V0
 
 . dS   dV  f

S0 V0
FORCES ON CONTROL VOLUME V0

 

 . dS     f  dV
S0 V0
  .d S   (div )dV

S0 V0
FROM DIVERGENCE THEOREM
32
16
18‐10‐2018

Force   (. )dV   (  f )dV
V0 V0
 

  .   f dV
V0  
  

V0
  q  dV
t  
RATE OF INCREASE OF MOMENTUM
33
• Rate of net outflow of momentum: Flow of momentum is due to

mass flowing into & out of the control volume through control
surface.
• For an elemental area dS, the mass flow rate will be ρq.dS.
Therefore momentum flow rate through this elemental area is
[ρq.dS]*q
• Considering outflow as positive, the net rate of outflow of
momentum can be written as:
  
       
S  q.d S  q  S q.dS q  S  q(q.dS)  S ( q. q) dS

0 0 0 0
   
( q. q) dS  .( q. q) dV
S0 V0
FROM DIVERGENCE THEOREM
34
17
18‐10‐2018
     
.( a . b )  a .(. b )  b .(. a )
   
 
.(  q . q )   q .(. q )  q .. q 
 
     
   
  
S (  q . q ) dS  
V0
.(  q . q ) dV  
V0


 q .(. q )  q ..  q dV
 
0
35
• Force = Rate of increase of momentum + Rate of net outflow of

momentum
 
        


V0

.   f dV  
V0
t


 q 

dV  
V0
 q .(. q)  q ..( q)dV
FORCE Rate of increase Rate of Net Outflow of

of Momentum Momentum
36
18
18‐10‐2018
IF CONTROL VOLUME IS ASSUMED AS V0
 
       
.   f  
 t   q    q .(. q )  q. .(  q)


 q      
 q   q .(. q )  q. .(  q )
t t

q     
 [  q .(. q )]  q .[(. q )  ]
t t
37
 
 .(  q )  0 CONTINUITY EQUATION
t
 
q   Dq
[  q .(. q )]  MATERIAL DERIVATIVE
t Dt

 
 Dq
.   f   
Dt

MOMENTUM EQUATION
D q  .   (CAUCHY’S EQUATION)
  f
Dt    38
19
18‐10‐2018
EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION (ALTERNATE

PROOF)
• Let a closed surface S enclosing the fluid (non-viscous) be
moving with the fluid, so that S contains the same fluid
particles at any time.
• Now take a point P inside S. Let ρ be the density of the fluid
at P & δV be the elementary volume enclosing P, q being the
velocity of the fluid at P.
39
• Since the mass ρδV of the element remains unchanged,

we have the momentum M of the volume V in S given
by
M   qdV
V
dM Dq d
dt V dt
 dV   q ( dV ) RATE OF CHANGE OF MOMENTUM
V
dt
d
( dV )  0 MASS REMAINS UNCHANGED
dt
dM Dq
dt V dt
 dV
40
20
18‐10‐2018
 FdV
V
TOTAL FORCE ON LIQUID IN VOLUME V
  p.ndS
This image cannot currently be display ed.
P IS THE PRESSURE AT A POINT IN SURFACE dS, TOTAL FORCE
  pdV FROM GAUSS’S THEOREM
Dq

V
dt
dV   FdV   pdV
V V
RATE OF CHANGE OF
  F  p dV MOMENTUM = TOTAL FORCE
V
ACTING ON THE MASS
 Dq 
  
V
dt
 F  p dV  0
 41
Dq
  F  p  0 COMPLETE INTEGRAL
dt
Dq 1
 F  p EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION
dt 
Though the equations appear to be very complex, they are actually simplifications of
the more general Navier‐Stokes equations of fluid dynamics. The Euler equations
neglect the effects of the viscosity of the fluid which are included in the Navier‐
Stokes equations. A solution of the Euler equations is therefore only an
approximation to a real fluids problem.
42
21
18‐10‐2018
ENERGY CONSERVATION
KINETIC ENERGY PER UNIT MASS = q2/2
Body force per unit mass

Dq p  
Navier Stokes Equation for
   2 q  f
Dt  incompressible viscous flow
q p
 q. q    f viscous  g
t 
f viscous   2 q Viscous force per unit mass
q 1 1
q  q.q. q    q.p  q.g  q. f viscous Multiply throughout by q
t  
  q2   q2  1 1 Differential form of
   (q.)     q.p  q.g  q. f viscous
t  2  2
    conservation of K.E
Rate at which pressure, gravity & viscous forces are
Rate of increase of K.E increasing 43
Often the flow entering or leaving a port is not strictly one‐dimensional. In
particular, the velocity may vary over the cross section
hence
kinetic energy term should be modified by a dimensionless correction
factor α so that the integral can be proportional to the square of the
average velocity
44
22
18‐10‐2018
By letting u be the velocity normal to the port
for incompressible flow,
45
The term α is the kinetic‐energy correction factor, having a value of

about 2.0 for fully developed laminar pipe flow and from 1.04 to 1.11
for turbulent pipe flow. The complete incompressible steady‐flow
energy equation, including pumps, turbines, and losses, would
generalize to
In problems involving turbulent pipe flow, it is common to assume

that
α =1.0
46
23
18‐10‐2018
Flow with No External Forces
• This is a common situation for space vehicles and satellites.
• For a control volume with multiple inlets and outlets, the
linear momentum equation is
• This is an expression of the conservation of momentum
principle.
• If m remains nearly constant, then
47
Flow with No External Forces
• In this case, the control volume can be
treated as a solid body, with a thrust of
• This approach can be used to
determine the linear acceleration of
space vehicles when a rocket is fired.
48
24
18‐10‐2018
EXAMPLE: The Force to Hold a
Reversing Elbow in Place
• A reversing elbow Makes the
fluid a 180° U‐turn before it is
discharged at a rate of 14 kg/s,
The cross‐sectional area of the
elbow is 113 cm2 at the inlet
and 7 cm2 at the outlet. The
elevation difference between
the centers of the inlet and the
exit sections is still 0.3 m.
Determine the anchoring force
needed to hold the elbow in
place. (the weight of the
elbow and the water are
neglected)
49
Solution: The vertical component of the anchoring force at the connection of
the elbow to the pipe is zero, since weight is neglected. Only the FRx
is considered.
Where  is 1.03.
50
25
18‐10‐2018
EXAMPLE: Repositioning of a Satellite
• An orbiting satellite has a mass of msat = 5000
kg and is traveling at a constant velocity of V0.
To alter its orbit, an attached rocket discharges
mf = 100 kg of gases from the reaction of solid
fuel at a velocity Vf = 3000 m/s relative to the
satellite in a direction opposite to V0. The fuel
discharge rate is constant for 2 s. Determine (a)
the acceleration of the satellite during this 2‐s
period, (b) the change of velocity of the
satellite during this time period, and (c) the
thrust exerted on the satellite.
51
Solution:
The thrust exerted on the satellite is
52
26
18‐10‐2018
NAVIER STOKES EQUATIONS

• Before going into the details of the Navier-Stokes equations,
first, it is necessary to make several assumptions about the
fluid. The first one is that the fluid is continuous. It signifies
that it does not contain voids formed, for example, by bubbles
of dissolved gases, or that it does not consist of an aggregate
of mist-like particles. Another necessary assumption is that all
the fields of interest like pressure, velocity, density,
temperature, etc., are differentiable (i.e. no phase transitions)
& fluid is Newtonian.
• The equations are derived from the basic principles of
conservation of mass, momentum, and energy. For that matter
sometimes it is necessary to consider a finite arbitrary volume,
called a control volume, over which these principles can be
easily applied.
53
Navier-Stokes equation for incompressible flow ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

of Newtonian (constant viscosity) fluid
- derived from conservation of momentum
 ρ
kinematic
viscosity
density
(constant)
(constant)
pressure
external force
(such as
gravity)
54
27
18‐10‐2018

 ρ
 ρ
55

 ρ
Acceleration term:
change of velocity
with time
56
28
18‐10‐2018

 ρ
Advection term:
force exerted on a
particle of fluid by the
other particles of fluid
surrounding it
57

 ρ
viscosity (constant) controlled
velocity diffusion term:
(this term describes how fluid motion is
damped)
• Highly viscous fluids stick together (honey)
• Low-viscosity fluids flow freely (air)
58
29
18‐10‐2018

 ρ
Pressure term:
Fluid flows in the
direction of
largest change
in pressure
59

 ρ
Body force term:

external forces that
act on the fluid
(such as gravity,
electromagnetic,
etc.)
60
30
18‐10‐2018

 ρ
change
in body
= advection + diffusion + pressure + force
velocity
with time
61


Dq    
  p   2 q  ([. q ])   f
Dt 3

Dq p  2    
  q ([. q ])  f
Dt   3

Dq p    
   2 q  ([. q ])  f
Dt  3
REPRESENTS ACCELERATION OF FORCE PER UNIT MASS
62
31
18‐10‐2018

 
Dq q  
  q . q
Dt t
du u u u u
 u v w
dt t x y z
dv v v v v
 u v w
dt t x y z
dw w w w w
 u v w
dt t x y z 63
. p 1 p
 PRESSURE FORCE PER UNIT MASS
  x
IN X‐DIRECTION
1 p

 y IN Y‐DIRECTION
1 p

IN Y‐DIRECTION
 z
64
32
18‐10‐2018
  2u  2u  2u 
 REPRESENT VISCOUS FORCE
 q    2  2  2 
2
PER UNIT MASS
 x y z 
  2v  2v  2v 
 2  2  2 
 x y z 
 2w 2w 2w 
 2  2  2 
 x y z 
65
     u
v w 
(. q )      COMPRESSIBILITY FORCE PER
3 3 x  x y z  UNIT MASS
   u v w 
    
3 y  x y z  THIS BECOMES ZERO FOR
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS
   u v w 
    
3 z  x y z 
66
33
18‐10‐2018
u u u u 1 p   2u  2u  2u     u v w 
u v w    2  2  2        fx
t x y z  x  x y z  3 x  x y z 
v v v v 1 p   2 v  2 v  2v     u v w 
u v  w     2  2  2        fy
t x y z  y  x y z  3 y  x y z 
w w w w 1 p   2 w  2 w  2 w     u v w 
u v w    2  2  2        fz
t x y z  z  x y z  3 z  x y z 

Dq p  
   2 . q  f INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS
Dt 

Dq p 
 f
Dt  NON VISCOUS & INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS
EULER’S EQUATION 67
LIMITATIONS OF NAVIER STOKE’S EQUATIONS
• The derivation is based on the assumption that viscous

stress is directly proportional to the rate of deformation.
This characteristic is limited to Newtonian Fluids. Many
common fluids do behave in this manner. But these
equations cannot be applied to Non-Newtonian Fluids.
• It is set of three non-linear equations. For completely solve
this equation mathematically, three more relations are
necessary: the equation of continuity, the equation of state
of the fluid & the equation giving the shear viscosity as a
function of the state of the fluid.
68
34
18‐10‐2018
Continuity and Navier-Stokes equations ©Dr. Avinash Chandra
for incompressible flow of Newtonian fluid
 ρ
69

in Cartesian coordinates
Continuity:
Navier-Stokes:
x - component:
y - component:
z - component:
70
35
18‐10‐2018

Steady, incompressible flow of Newtonian fluid in an
infinite channel with stationery plates
- fully developed plane Poiseuille flow
Fixed plate
Fluid flow direction h

y
x
Fixed plate
Steady, incompressible flow of Newtonian fluid in an
infinite channel with one plate moving at uniform velocity
- fully developed plane Couette flow
Moving plate
Fluid flow direction h

y
x 71
Fixed plate

in cylindrical coordinates
Continuity:
Navier-Stokes:
Radial component:
Tangential component:
Axial component:
72
36
18‐10‐2018
Steady, incompressible flow of Newtonian fluid in a pipe ©Dr. Avinash Chandra
- fully developed pipe Poisuille flow
Fixed pipe φ
r
z Fluid flow direction 2a 2a
73

Steady, incompressible flow of Newtonian fluid between a
stationary outer cylinder and a rotating inner cylinder
- fully developed pipe Couette flow
a r
b
aΩ
74
37
18‐10‐2018
Total energy gradient line
75
• Total energy gradient line is equal to sum of

pressure head ,velocity head and datum head
EL = H = p / W + v2 / 2 g + h = constant along a
streamline
where
(EL ) Energy Line
• For a fluid flow without any losses due to friction
(major losses) or components (minor losses) - the
energy line would be at a constant level. In a
practical world the energy line decreases along the
flow due to losses.
• A turbine in the flow reduces the energy line and a
pump or fan in the line increases the energy line
76
38
18‐10‐2018
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL )
• Hydraulic gradient line is the sum of

pressure head and datum head
HGL = p / W + h
where
The hydraulic grade line lies one velocity head
below the energy line.
77
Flow of a viscous newtonain fluid through a pipe

Velocity Profile
Cohesive forces
between molecules 
layers of fluid slide past
each other generating
frictional forces 
energy dissipated (like Parabolic velocity
rubbing hands together) profile
Adhesive forces between fluid and surface  fluid

stationary at surface
78
39

FM-Fluid Dynamics PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

FM-Fluid Dynamics PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

18‐10‐2018

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

The Fundamental Equations of Fluid

 Stipulates that matter can be neither created nor

 Since this study of the mechanics of fluids excludes

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

2. The law of conservation of energy

 States that energy may be neither created nor destroyed.

 Energy can be transformed from one guise to another (e.g.

 Engineers sometimes loosely refer to ‘energy losses’ due

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

3. The law of conservation of momentum

 States that a body in motion cannot gain or lose

The classical statement of this law is Newton's Second

force = rate of change of momentum

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

This force may have several contributions. The first is the

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

The force on the top face at position x is p∆x∆y , while the

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Therefore, if we ignore viscosity and gravity for the moment,

We want the acceleration of a particular element of the fluid;

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

To calculate the acceleration, we need to find the rate of

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

This is known as Euler's equation. This equation and the

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Introduction to momentum Eq.

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

NEWTON’S LAWS AND CONSERVATION

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUATION

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

During steady flow, the amount of momentum within the control

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

For flow in a duct, the axial velocity is usually non‐uniform, the

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

For laminar flow in a circular tube b = 4/3

Note: For turbulent flow b may have an insignificant effect at

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

 . dS   dV  f

  .d S   (div )dV

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

©Dr. Avinash Chandra

• Rate of net outflow of momentum: Flow of momentum is due to

S  q.d S  q  S q.dS q  S  q(q.dS)  S ( q. q) dS