Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1 of 21

Magnetic Induction Tomography System in

Industrial and Medical Applications- A Review

Zulkifli Mansor1, Elmy Johana Binti Mohamad2∗, Ruzairi Abdul Rahim3 , Ilham Mukriz Zainal4
Abidin, Zulkarnay Zakaria5, Yasmin Abdul Wahab6, Omar Mohd Faizan Bin Marwah @ Omar7.
1Department of Mechanical Engineering-Mechatronic, Polytechnic Malaysia (Merlimau Campus).
2,3Department of Mechatronics and Robotics, Faculty of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia.
4Non-Destructive Testing Team, Nuclear Malaysia

5School of Mechatronic Engineering, University Malaysia Perlis

6 Faculty of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, University Malaysia Pahang

7 Department Of Manufacturing And Industry Engineering,

Faculty Of Mechanical Engineering And Manufacturing, University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia.

* Correspondence: elmy@uthm.edu.my; Tel.: +6019-7507576

Abstract:

There are relatively few studies on magnetic induction tomography systems. MIT is a technique based
on the eddy current concept. MIT is a method used to image passive electrical properties such
conductivity, permittivity and permeability. The MIT system can produce an image displaying the
internal arrangement of an object without causing any harm. Thus, this technique is suitable for
industrial and medical imaging. The imaging quality of the MIT system depends on criteria including
sensor design, circuit design and software design. This paper gives a brief review about the MIT
system, sensor design, circuit design and software design. A few examples are also discussed in this
paper. However, the realization of MIT remains limited. Low resolution imaging techniques,
insensitive sensors, large front-end electronic chassis and capability of real time data collection of
MIT systems are the factors that limit the applicability of MIT in the industrial area. Therefore, from
the review on the implementation of MIT in industrial and medical applications, a new MIT system
will be designed to overcome the aforementioned issues.

Keywords: Magnetic induction tomography, sensor, conditioning circuit, forward problem,

inverse problem.

1. Introduction

Tomography provides real-time methods for obtaining cross-section images of a process to

obtain information on material distribution. There are two types of tomography, namely hard field

tomography (examples include X-ray and ᵞ-ray tomography) and soft-field tomography (examples

include electrical impedance tomography (EIT), electrical capacitance tomography (ECT), and

magnetic induction tomography (MIT)). The advantages of soft – field tomography include its low

cost and short duration [1]. MIT and ECT are methods for imaging passive electrical properties

(conductivity, permittivity and permeability) [2][3][4]. ECT is one of the most attractive and
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21

promising methods for the measurement of two-phase flow because of its non-invasiveness,

reliability, simplicity, and high-speed capabilities [5][6]. ECT was created rapidly and utilized

successfully in multiphase flow measurements for numerous applications in the oil and gas industry,

gas-solids cyclones, milk flows, fluidized beds, as well as the pharmaceutical industry [7].

MIT is a contactless, non-destructive and non-hazardous technique that is applicable for

industrial and medical imaging [8][9][10][11]. MIT is also known as electromagnetic tomography

(MIT), eddy current tomography, and eddy current testing. Most of the studies only focused on

reconstructing the electrical properties of the medium[12]. As a relatively new tomographic

technique, MIT employs magnetic coupling between sensors to provide 2D or 3D images that

represent the distributions of electrically conductive and magnetically permeable material within the

object space[9] [13]. Potential applications for MIT techniques are where the target materials of

interest are characterized by contrasts in electrical conductivity or magnetic permeability [13].

High speed data acquisition, small size, real-time imaging and suitability for more diverse
industrial environments are crucial issues that should be considered during the design of an MIT
system [13], [14]. The designing for the MIT system still did not break through the real application. Commented [1]: What does this mean?
Answer: the application of the MIT system is still on research stage
Based on its potential in the industrial arena, MIT has become a popular research area. In 2005, Z. Liu and need an improvement.

et.al did a simulation on a parallel flexible circuit strip array in order to investigate the interaction
between the excitation field and copper, ferrite, conductive and ferromagnetic [15] . A simple
excitation coil and detection coil for imaging the metallic object using a commercialized inductor has
been designed [16]. W. Yin and A. J. Peyton designed a planar array sensor that is arranged
Commented [2]: conductive and ferromagnetic are adjectives.
they don't fit in this sentence?
answer: it is a material that are used in the testing stage: example
test the copper material with the excitation field…look at the result.
Suggestion is conductive material, ferromagnetic material.

perpendicularly to the metallic plate for detecting conductivity inhomogeneity [17]. The passive
electrical properties of a different metallic plate had also been tested using a parallel LCR circuit with
Q-factor and resonant frequency [18]. A dual plane MIT system for the identification of large areas of
hidden damage in carbon fiber reinforced polymer had been studied in 2014 [19]. Other applications
of MIT in the industrial arena include the development of an electrically conductive phase of a
multiphase flow problem [20] [10].
The limitations of CT or MRI imaging such as delayed imaging and not applicable beside the
patient bedside for imaging are the problems of frequent monitoring [21]. MIT is a good, non-invasive Commented [3]: What does this section mean?
Answer: The testing cannot be done real time. For example, patient
technique because it is able to discriminate electrical conductivity between fat tissue and water- in the ICU room.

bearing fat-free tissue[22]. MIT is a non-invasive medical imaging technique with promising
applications such as brain imaging and cryosurgery monitoring [23].
MIT is one of the tomography techniques that is able to map conductivity, permeability and
permittivity of an object to the image. The design of an MIT system greatly affects the performance
and image resolution of the tomography technique. Therefore, this review article concentrates on the
potential of MIT systems, sensor design, circuit design, inverse and forward problem design in order
to resolve the problems in the industrial applications of MIT systems.
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 21

1. MIT system

An MIT system should utilize direct phase measurement because imaging quality depends on
the precision of the phase measurement [24]. The important features of an MIT system with respect
to other electrical tomographic techniques are non-contacting, provide information on the
distribution of conductive and/or magnetic material, ability to operate at high excitation frequencies
to provide fast image capture rates, and separate excitation and detection coil assemblies which
provide flexibility in the design of the sensor array [5].
MIT system consists of three main subsystems: the sensor array, the interface electronics and the
host computer [25] [26] :
1. Sensor array
A sensor is required to accurately detect an object field. This field is representative of variations
of the homogeneity of object space and hence the presence of conductive and/or ferrous objects
[27].
2. The interface electronics
The electronic system of a tomographic imaging unit is a complex mix of both analogue and
digital hardware interfaced with a computer system containing a special software[28].
3. The host computer
Information in digital form is passed from the data acquisition system to the host computer for
image reconstruction.[28].
There are three basic systems for MIT, namely typical electromagnetic inductance system, two
coil tomography system and multiple pole MIT system, as shown in Figure 1 to Figure 3 [5].

Figure 1. Typical electromagnetic inductance tomography system

Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21

Figure 2. Two coil tomographic system

Figure 3. Multiple pole MIT system

2. Sensor Design
Eddy current testing is the main principle for MIT. Thus, it is important to obtain accurate data
from this test. The eddy current test depends on coil structure , the distance between the excitation
and detection coil, as well as the current and frequency of the coil [29]. There are many factors such
as object field distribution, conductivity, permeability of object, movement of object, number of
sensors, and external screen or sensor size which can affect the quality of MIT sensors [25][30].
Furthermore, extracting a lower eddy current field signal from the bigger primary field is important
for MIT because it helps enhance the resolution[29]. In order to select the optimum excitation
frequency, the penetration effect of eddy currents into the pouring nozzle must be taken into
account [13]. Cancelling the primary field as much as possible can improve measurement precision
and reduce drift, which bring much convenience to the next detection device design[23]. Thus,
resolution can be increased from the source[31]. Figure 4 shows the measurement principle of the
MIT system.
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21

Figure 4. Measurement principle for MIT [32]

Examples of MIT sensor design for medical applications and industrial applications are listed
in Table 2 and Table 3. Important parameters that must be considered when designing the coil and
sensor array are[25][10][33][30] [34][35]:

1. Number of coils for the sensor array: To obtain the object shape more precisely, the number
of sensors need to be increased
2. Number of turns for each coil: The inductance and corresponding input impedance of the coil
at the operational frequency are important factors to determine the appropriate number of
turns
3. Inner and outer diameter for each coil
4. Coil height
5. Self-inductance, resistance of the coil
6. Resonance frequency of each coil: The coil should operate below the resonance to obtain
inductor behaviour
7. The design of the exciter coil must satisfy the following requirements: maximize MIT system
sensitivity and minimize harmful influence on electronic MIT equipment

During the coil designing process, there is significant capacitive coupling between excitation and
detection coils. Therefore, screening is essential for MIT coil sensors to capture the true signal [5][30].
The electromagnetic screen is known to be effective for rejecting extraneous interference and
minimizing inter-coil capacitive coupling [36]. The MIT shield or sensor size design has been proven
to have a significant impact on the Electromagnetic field. The simulation of the size of shield or sensor
is determined by the ratio between real and imaginary parts of measuring voltages [37]. The
advantages of screening include providing rigid chassis to support coils, reducing interference from
external electromagnetic fields, and confining the excitation field within the imaging volume. This
removes the potential for interference by external conductive or magnetic objects and acts as a ground
plane that helps to reduce undesirable electric-field (capacitive) coupling between excitation coils and
detection coils [5] [25] [30]. X. Wang et al. found the optimum sensor pattern that will reduce the
effect of primary fields using the three techniques shown in [32].
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21

Table 1. Techniques for optimum sensor pattern

Technique Effect

Eddy current flow trends are the

same as the current in the excitation
coil.

Normal single channel coil

sensor

The primary field signal by the

excitation coil can be mostly
cancelled. It is a great advantage for

Single channel coil sensor with designing MIT detection devices

primary field compensation and image reconstruction.

The results proved that the

compensation method can
maximally cancel the influence of

Multiple channel coil sensors the primary field. Owing to more

with primary field detection coils, the resolution
compensation
increases and enhances image
reconstruction
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 21

Table 2. Examples of MIT sensor design for medical applications

Research application Coil criteria Array criteria
D N.T Rf Material/Other criteria N.C DA Design Screening
(cm) (Hz) (cm)

Head arrray [36] n/a n/a n/a Plastic hemispherical shell positioned n/a n/a Array of coils located inside Using an
inside the coil array. an outer on a hemisphere. electromagnetic Commented [4]: An outer ____? Inside a hemisphere
screen

Biomedical 4 6 20 Low inductance of 1.8 µH, 16 n/a 8 coils as excitation coils n/a
applications [33] operational frequency of 10 MHz and 8 coils as detection
coils.
Simulative design on 1 n/a n/a The sensors are simulated in the 8 5 The radius of shielding is Using an
double-frequency COMSOL multi-physics software. 100mm electromagnetic
excitation mode [37] screen

Samples with 0.6 2 50 M PVC-insulated, solid, copper wire 16 n./a n/a The screening
conductivities below system consists of a
10 S m-1 [25][22] [38] 35 cm diameter and
aluminium which is
25cm high.
Human brain model n/a n/a n/a Spiral copper wires printed on PCB e.c=10 n/a  Distance between the n/a
imaging[39][40] boards. d.c=30 excitation coil to the
detection coil is 0.5cm
 Distance from the
preamplifier PCB to the
detection coil is 3.5 cm.
 using star-form
shielding PCB board Commented [5]: What does this refer to? It is a technique for
Sub-mill degree 5 e.c=4 n/a n/a e.c=1 n/a The number of channels is n/a the shielding of the signal.
phase noise and high d.c=2 d.c=5 14
long-term phase
stability[41]
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 21

Table 3. Examples of MIT sensor design for industrial applications

Research application Coil criteria Array criteria
D(cm) N.T Rf (Hz) Material/Other criteria N.C DA(cm) Design
Metal process 5 50 5 kHz Duratec 750 was used to construct the coil 8 n/a Silicone sealant (tolerating
applications[13] formers, array base and enclosure. temperature of 300°C) was
utilized as the bond material
Nonconductive and n/a n/a n/a Conservative stators of the induction motor n/a n/a n/a
conductive material [30] are used to produce the applied magnetic
field and 24 hall sensors are used to detect
the change in the magnetic field
Steel flow visualization [15] 5 50 5 kHz n/a 8 16 Distance of each coil for the
sensor array are equally spaced
at intervals around the
periphery of the object to be
imaged
Metallic object imaging [32] 5 50 n/a The sensors are made from non-conducting 8 15 n/a
plastic
Industrial processing 2.1 50 n/a Copper wires manually wounded around a 8 11 The angle between adjacent coil
application[16]. cylindrical plastic template. is 450

Detection of faults on thin
metallic plates[17]
Ferromagnetic and
ferromagnetic conductive
material [42]
2 & 2.1 30 5.6MHz - Coil height (cm):0.3 6 10 n/a
- Self-inductance for each coil
(µH):26.78
- Resistance for each coil (Ω):2.54
- Mutual inductance between
opposite coils (µH):0.034
- Mutual induction between
adjacent coils (µH):0.254
0.48 x 40 3.2MHz. - Coil is made of copper wire 16 50 x 20 - The separation
0.48 (0.3mm in diameter), Non-magnetic core. between coils is 12.3mm.
- Self-inductance for each coil is 146 - Each coil can be used
mH in excitation or detection mode.
- Resistance for each coil (Ω) is 2.6 - Eight coils at each side
of the frame
- Frame material: wood
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 21

3. Circuit Design
The intension of the MIT system is to construct an image which offers important data on the
object to be tested. The challenge of using MIT in medical applications is to obtain accurate imaging
of biological tissues with low electrical conductivity. Meanwhile, the challenge of using MIT for
industrial applications is high speed processing [23][12]. An imaging system with a higher frame rate
is needed to handle very fast modifications in object properties [43]. Another issue related to the MIT
system is the inverse problem solver. Due to the problems listed, the conditioning circuit designing
stage must be considered carefully. The main function of the conditioning electronic is to control the
excitation coil and to condition the output from the detection coil[30]. The following system
requirements were considered when designing the electronic circuit[33] :
i. System flexibility and future spectral imaging expansion
ii. A high speed system design
iii. The devices need to be capable into multichannel system Commented [6]: What does this mean?
Answer: it means the system can be used in the multichannel
The selection component for the conditioning circuit in reducing the possible for or causes of
system.
errors and the handling time for the data processing before go through the image reconstruction
algorithm. There are a few examples of circuit design for MIT development which can be divided Commented [7]: Please clarify the meaning of this sentence?
Answer: the meaning is the size of the circuit need be smaller, the
into three categories:
circuit must make a good reading on the signal, because this signal
i. Using a base microprocessor controller for data acquisition (see Figure.5 and Table 4). will be effect the image, the image is depending on the algorithm.
ii. Using DAQ board or FPGA for data acquisition (see Figure. 6 and Table 5).
iii. Using ARM7 and integrated impedance IC as a data acquisition (see Figure 7 and Table 6).

Fig 5. Circuit-based microprocessor controller for data acquisition

Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21

Table 4. The functions of devices for the circuit-based microprocessor controller for data acquisition
Device Example of device Function
Signal AD9833 [39][40] [44],  Generate a signal for the system[39][40].
Generator Marconi Instruments  This device is controlled by a digitally
2022C[35]. controlled potentiometer [44]
DMUX TQ2-5 Matsushita  Selecting one of many data at the output
Electric[39][40], line.
AGN2004, Matsushita
Electric[35].
Power HF power amplifier-  To enhance the output power of the
Amplifier AD815[35]. signal source.
Lock in Lock-in 7225[39][40].  Allow the magnitude and phase of the
Amp signals received to be measured[39][40]
 Used to filter a signal when useful signal
very week [[44]. Commented [8]: ?
Answer: Need a filter circuit, to read the very useful signal, which
Differential AD830[39][40].  To subtract residual voltage[44].
maybe the signal is week.
Amplifier  Amplifly inducted voltage of the
gradiometer[39][40].
LP filter Dual op amp AD8066  Used to filter unwanted signals and
[39][40] improve SNR [35] [39][40].

Cancelling MUR420[39][40].  Clamp dangerous fly-back voltages from

circuit the excitation coil[39][40].
 To eliminate residual voltage[35].

Controller 8051-based  To control the DDS chips and digital

microprocessor[44] potentiometers and communicate with
computers using the RS232 line[44].
PC n/a  To control the whole system,
communicate with the microprocessor,
Lock-In Amp and the step motor driver
circuit. In the end, it processes the data
and reconstructs 2-dimensional
images[35] [39][40].

Figure 6. Circuit DAQ board or FPGA for

data acquisition
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 21

Table 5. The function of devices for circuit-based DAQ board or FPGA for data acquisition
Device Example of device Function
Data acquisition FPGA – 7951 flex  Provide the control logic measurement
circuit - FPGA RIO[33] operation
-  Contains DDS, MAC, A/D interface
AD/DA interface control and a D/A interface control [45].
control –XC3400[26]  Can be used in signal generation and
[45] demodulation processes [26] [33].
 FPGA will sample measurement signals
from the conditioning circuit and
transfer them to the work station for
signal processing [33] .
Data acquisition DAQ- An Agilent  Generates a signal for the excitation coil.
circuit - DAQ Board 34970A DAQ[42],  Analyse the DC component for the MIT
DAQ2205 [10] [4] system [10] [4] [14].
[14].  It supports RS-232 and GPIB interfaces
for a PC.
 The main issue in the DAQ module is
the difference in time sample rate [26] .
Signal generator TOPWARD 8112[33],  Supplies AC signal. Generates
NI USB-6259[33] sinusoidal signals and reads the detected
signals from the coil sensor
simultaneously[33]
Conditioning circuit Multiplexer –  Consists of switching circuit, front end
NI2593/ADG406[33], circuit for detection and excitation
MAX4656 based[10] sensor.
[4] [14]  A multiplexer is used to control the
channel switching task for the
LP filter- Fourth- system[33]
order  A DA converter is used to convert the
Butterworth[10] [4] digital excitation wave to an analogue
[14], seventh-order signal.
elliptical[33].  An amplifier is used to amplify the
signal and provide selecTable gains [42].
Demodulation - Improve signal to noise ratio (SNR) [10]
AD734 based [10] [4] [4] [14].
[14]  An LP filter is used to pass signals with
a frequency lower than a certain cut-off
frequency. Placed at the DAC output for
smoothing sinusoidal signals[33]
 The demodulation stage is used to
extract the original information-bearing
signal from a modulated carrier
wave[10] [4] [14]
The serial USB CY7C68013A [26]  Connect FPGA with the PC
Lab View  Uses two-phase measuring algorithms
for comparison: FFT tone measurement
and I/Q demodulation.
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 21

 These two algorithms will be evaluated

to decide which method can offer better
measuring qualities

Figure 7. Electronic circuit design for a system based on integrated impedance analyzers

Table 6. Function of devices for a circuit based on integrated impedance analyzers

Device Example of Function
device
Excitation strips n/a Used to generate a rotaTable parallel excitation field
Embedded ARM7 Used to control the current excitation and detector
microcontroller (LPC2148) signal
General Purpose Input n/a Used to control the current distribution of Voltage
Output (GPIO) Controlled Current Source array to generate an
excitation magnetic field
Integrated impedance (AD5933) Used to demodulate the excitation and measurement
analyser IC signal.
ADC n/a  Sample all the selected signals
 The sampling speed is 1 MSPS at a precision
of 12 bits
Pre-amplifiers n/a Amplify the signal from detection coils
Multiplexer n/a To control signal switching tasks of all 16 detector
coils for the system
In-chip DSP engine n/a Processes the selected demodulate signal from the
DFT algorithm.
DFT algorithm n/a Returns Real (R) and Imaginary (I) data-word at each
output frequency
DB 25 connector n/a Connect the MIT system with the electronic circuit
case
USB cable n/a Connect the front end electronic circuit with the
image reconstruction PC.
Process monitor LCD n/a Enables the status of the measurement process to be
panel indicated
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 21

4. Software Design
Virtual instrument based software should be developed for systems based on the data acquisition
system and graphical user interface (GUI) [13]. A new genetic algorithm (GA) for clinical brain and
bleeding shallow of biology tissues imaging technique had been improved due to the generation of the Commented [9]: Meaning? It means the blood vessels and the
brain (medical imaging)
initial population, selection, crossover and mutation operations [46]. The Tikhonov technique is one of
the algorithms that can correctly present the location, shape and conductivity of an object that is being
tested [33]. A novel digital demodulation method using only half of the signal cycle is implemented and
verified by using the Tikhonov regulation and the total variation method, which improve the operation
speed of the system twofold[45].

5.1 Forward Problem and Inverse Problem in the MIT System

The forward model is a simulation study to determine sensor behavior due to the given PEP
distribution, while the inverse problem in MIT can be defined as a mathematical technique that is used
to extract useful, real world information from physical measurements and construct images [1] . Figure
_ shows the illustration of forward problems and inverse problems. Commented [10]: ? figure 8.

Figure 8. The illustration of forward problems and inverse problems.

The quality of image reconstruction of the MIT system depends on the forward problem and the
inverse problem. Solving the forward problem involves estimating measurements from the known
permeability and conductivity distributions while solving the inverse problem involves construction of
an image representing permeability and/or conductivity distributions from inductance or magnetic field
measurements [42].

5.2 Forward problem

For MIT, the forward problem refers to the prediction of sensor outputs for a given material
distribution with known electromagnetic properties and obtaining the sensitivity matrix or Jacobian
matrix that is used in the image reconstruction algorithm [47] [48] [49]. The forward problem is expressed
in terms of Maxwell’s equations and Eddy current equations[1] [50] [51]. Usually, the forward problem
can be solved using numerical methods such as finite element method (FEM), finite difference method
(FDM) and edge finite element (EFEM) [30] [52] [53]. Non-contact, non-destructive MIT systems
according to the size, location and analyzed by the non-linear finite element method could measure
objects with a relative permeability as low as 10 [30]. A study conducted in 2007 by W.Yin et.al shows
that the relationship between sensor output, effective permeability and ferrite fraction can be measured
using a multi-frequency electromagnetic sensor based on an analytical model and an FEM model [54].
The variation of magnetic field can be computed by nonlinear finite-element method. The results will be
verified using the measurement value [30]. Quadrature demodulation offers better measurement
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 21

stability, while FFT has better linearity performance [33].To solve the forward problem in MIT, a
mathematical model that relates measurements to the spatial mapping of electrical properties should be
developed[55]. The forward problem can be expressed in the form : [42]
𝑀 = 𝐴𝐺…………………………………………….(equation 1)
M = vector of measurements
G = vector permeability distribution
A = the projection matrix
The sensitivity of sensors is usually defined as the variation of the signal s to a given variation of the
parameter being measured [42] . The sensitivity depends strongly on the positioning of the sample
objects that are located near the transmitting or receiving coils are very well locaTable, where objects in
larger distance are hard to detect.[68] In an MIT system, sensitivity matrix S can be used to denote the Commented [11]: Please clarify what this means
Answer: the meaning is the position of the object to be test must
map of a particular detector to a small perturbation of one test element area in each projection [67].
right, if not the, image not clear.
Therefore, the nonlinear solution of the forward problem where the sensitivity matrix is recomputed for
every iteration of the solution of the inverse problem is essential for improving image reconstruction
[55]. Factors affecting sensitivity in depth consider the following variations in coil parameters [69] :
i. Variation in the lateral separation of excitation coil and sensor.
ii. Variation in sensor coil diameter.
iii. Variation in excitation coil diameter.
iv. Variation of sensor coil separation.
v. Variation of coil plane and sample distance.
The sensitivity to a change in each image voxel results in the sensitivity matrix or the Jacobian
matrix. These matrices can be used in a reconstruction algorithm [70]. The sensitivity matrix maps the
changes of conductivity distribution onto the changes of the voltage induced in a receiver coil [71]. The
sensitivity map is a set of matrices of the projected path from one transmitter to one receiver of a system
[72] To optimize image reconstruction, it is essential to systematically analyze key factors affecting the
sensitivity map [71]. The sensitivity map depends strongly on the conductivity contrast and the geometry
of the compartments in the object under measurement[73].

5.3 Inverse problem

The inverse problem refers to the process of image reconstruction [56]. According to the measured
value of the detection coil, the distribution of the conductivity of the material field is reconstructed by
the image reconstruction algorithm [38][57][58]. The image reconstruction of MIT is a nonlinear and
morbid inverse problem[59]. Image reconstruction is an ill-posed inverse problem. To solve this inverse
problem, the forward problem needs to be solved [60] [61] [62] [63]. The inverse problem of MIT is ill-
posed due to the low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Besides other structural difficulties, there is no
uniqueness and stability of the solution [61] [62]. Larger eigenvalues of the sensitivity matrix cause
difficulties in solving the inverse problem for image reconstruction [64].
Since the inverse problem of MIT is non-linear[65][38], image reconstruction can only be based on a
small amount of measurement data. Thus, the appropriate algorithm is crucial for image reconstruction
[66]. Many reconstruction algorithms have been reported in electrical tomography systems including
linear back-projection (LBP), the Tikhonov regularization algorithm, Landweber iteration, Newton–
Raphson iterative, Tikhonov iterative, algebraic reconstruction algorithm, simultaneous iterative
reconstruction and model-based reconstruction algorithm, etc. [6–9]. For an MIT system, the LBP
algorithm is the basic algorithm, and the Tikhonov regularization and Landweber iterative are widely
used in MIT studies due to its effectiveness and convenience [67]. LBP, Landweber iterative, Tikhonov
regularization and modified Landweber reconstruction algorithms are simulated in a parallel excitation
MIT system model for multiphase flow measurement. Simulation in five typical patterns verified the
performance of the modified iterative algorithm as shown in Table 7 [67]. The inverse problem can be
expressed in the form: [42]
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 21

𝐺 = 𝐴−1 𝑀 = 𝑆𝑀………………………………………….(equation 2)
S= A-1 is called the sensitivity matrix
M = vector of measurements

Table 7. Image reconstruction for LBP, Landweber iterative, Tikhonov regularization and modified
Landweber reconstruction algorithms
Flow of LBP Landweber Thikonov Modified ks Modified ks
pattern Regulation Landweber 1 Landweber 2

4 18

5 19

5 17

4 24

1 11

A study to compare the algorithms had been done by Yuyan Chen et.al (2011), as shown in Table 8.
The variation algorithm improves the quality of the reconstructed image and makes the dividing line
between the target conductor region and the background region clearer in comparison to the Tikhonov
regularization algorithm. Tikhonov regularization and the SVD method are capable of showing the
correct object position by the brightest pixel and the relative size of the objects through pixel intensity.
The SIRT method produces better quality images but it converges very slowly as shown in Table 9 [14].

Table 8. Image reconstruction for Tikhonov and Variation regularization algorithm

Tikhonov regularization algorithm(TRA) variation regularization algorithm (VRA)
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 21

Table 9. Image reconstruction for SIRT, Tikhonov regularization and SIVD reconstruction algorithm
Number of rod Single rod Two rod Three rod Four rod

SIRT

Tikhonov
regularization

SIVD

5. Conclusion
This paper explained the types of MIT system, sensor design criteria, circuit design criteria and a
few image reconstruction algorithms. Three basic MIT systems were introduced. The importance of
shielding for the MIT sensor is an important parameter that should be considered for good end results.
Thus, a few examples of sensor designs with different applications for the MIT system were listed. Circuit
designs from other researchers were discussed, as well as the important components and their respective
functions. The quality of different image reconstructions for the MIT system has been listed in Table 7 to
Table 9. A few techniques by other researchers have also been explored. However, further research needs
to be carried out to investigate the effectiveness of new sensor array designs in combination with
inductive sensors and magnetic sensors. The effectiveness of pulsed waveform as a new excitation
current technique for improving the present MIT system should also be examined in future studies to
make it more attractive and relevant for water column imaging.

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