Chapter 7

Geometric Design Manual-2002 Sight Distances

7 SIGHT DISTANCES
7.1 General Considerations

Simply put, sight distance is the distance visible to the driver of a passenger car. For
highway safety, the designer must provide sight distances of sufficient length that drivers
can control the operation of their vehicles. They must be able to avoid striking an
unexpected object on the traveled way. Two-lane highways should also have sufficient sight
distance to enable drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing maneuvers, without
risk of accident.
Two-lane rural highways should generally provide such passing sight distance at frequent
intervals and for substantial portions of their length (see Table 7-2). The length and interval
of passing sight distance should be compatible with the criteria established in the chapter 3
for the specific highway design classifications.

7.2 Stopping Sight Distance

The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle
traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. The
minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the following formula, which takes into
account both the driver reaction time and the distance required to stop the vehicle. The
formula is:

V2
d = (0.278)( t )(V) +
254f
where

d = distance (meter)
t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds
V= initial speed (km/h)
F = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway (see Table 7-1)

Table 7-1: Sight Distances

Passing Sight Reduced Passing

Design Speed Coefficient Stopping Sight
Distance (m) Sight Distance for
(km/h) of Friction (f) Distance (m)
from formulae design (m)
20 .42 20 160 50
30 .40 30 217 75
40 .38 45 285 125
50 .35 55 345 175
60 .33 85 407 225
70 .31 110 482 275
85 .30 155 573 340
100 .29 205 670 375
120 .28 285 792 425

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Sight Distances Geometric Design Manual-2002

The coefficient of friction values shown in Table 7-1 have been determined from test results
such as those shown in Figure B-1 of Appendix B, using the lowest results of the friction
tests. The values shown in the fourth column of Table 7-1 for minimum stopping sight
distance are rounded from the above formula.

If terrain or right-of-way problems result in an inability to meet these criteria, right-of-way

must be obtained and/or geometrics improved to meet this important safety element.
Alternatively in rare cases it may be necessary to seek a Departure from Standard, and here a
reduction would require lowering the design speed in the section and provision of proper
signage.

7.3 Control of Sight Distance

Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made to meet the
minimum requirements. The following values should be used for the determination of sight
lines (see Figures 7-1 and 7-2):

Driver's eye height: 1.07 meters

Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 meters
Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meters

Figure 7-1: Stopping Sight Distance at Sag

Figure 7-2: Stopping Sight Distance at Crest

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 Chapter 7
Geometric Design Manual-2002 Sight Distances

On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees or other
sight obstructions or widen cuts on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance
(see Figure 7-3).

Figure 7-3: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves

Relevant formulae are as follows:

Sight Line (S) = 2R sin ∆ where ∆ = Deflection angle (o)

2

Middle ordinate (M) = R(1-cos ∆ )

2

Example: Radius = 1000 meters, ∆ = 20o;

S = 2R sin ∆ M = R (1 – cos ∆)
2 2
= 2(1000)(sin 100) = 1000(1- cos 10o)
= 347 meters = 15.2 meters
The available sight distance needs to be checked separately for both stopping and passing
sight distance, for each direction of travel.
7.4 Stopping Sight Distance: Single Lane Roads
Certain classes of roads only have a single lane, with passing pullouts. In these
circumstances, a stopping sight distance is required to enable both approaching drivers to
stop. This distance is the sum of the stopping sight distance for the two vehicles, plus a 30-
meter safety distance. The resultant distance is that shown in Table 7-1, doubled, plus 10
meters.
Example:
Design speed = 50 km/hr. From Table 7-1
SSD = (55 x 2) + 30 = 140 meters

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Sight Distances Geometric Design Manual-2002

7.5 Passing Sight Distance

Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that
must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without
interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.
Within the sight area the terrain should be the same level or a level lower than the roadway.
Otherwise, for horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove obstructions and widen
cuttings on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance. Care must be exercised
in specifying passing/no-passing zones in areas where the sight distance may be obscured in
the future due to vegetative growth.
The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as
follows:
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction
d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:
d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + at1)
2
Where
t1 = time of initial maneuver, s
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h
d2 = 0.278 vt2
Where
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is dependent
on ambient speeds as per Table 7-2:
Table 7-2: Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speeds

Speed Group (km/h) 50-65 66-80 81-100 101-120

d3 (m) 30 55 80 100

d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2

less the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at:
d4 = 2d2/3
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
Resulting passing sight distances are as indicated in Table 7-1.

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Geometric Design Manual-2002 Sight Distances

The usual values resulting from application of the formulae are reduced in this manual, as it
is deemed appropriate to address the distances covered by twice the d4 distance and the
clearance distance d3. A driver finding that he has insufficient distance after initiating the
passing maneuver can choose to abort the maneuver (see Figure 7-4). Values for Minimum
Passing Sight Distance at various design speeds are given in the fifth column of Table 7-1.

Figure 7-4: Passing Sight Distance

A method of measuring and recording sight distances on plans is given in Appendix C.

7.6 Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance

Sight distance records also are useful on two-lane highways for determining the percentage
of length of highway on which sight distance is restricted to less than the minimum needed
for passing. This is important in evaluating capacity. With recorded sight distance, as in the
lower part of Figure C-1 of Appendix C, it is a simple process to determine the percentage of
length of highway with a given sight distance or greater.
Passing Sight Distance is a desirable requirement for two-way single roadway roads.
Sufficient visibility for passing increases the capacity and efficiency of a road, and should be
provided for as much of the road length as possible within financial limitations.
Table 7-3 gives guide values for the extent to which passing sight distance should be
provided, labeled percent passing opportunity.

Table 7-3 Guide Values for the Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance
PERCENT PASSING OPPORTUNITY vs. TERRAIN
DESIGN
Urban/Peri-
STANDARD Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment
Urban
DS2 50% 50% 25% 0% 20%
DS3 50% 33% 25% 0% 20%
DS4 25% 25% 15% 0% 20%
DS5 25% 25% 15% 0% 20%
DS6 20% 20% 15% 0% 20%
DS7 20% 20% 15% 0% 20%

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