ADHESIVE CERAMIC TILING SYSTEM

Edgar Dinis Jesus Vaz

Civil Engineering Department, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal

1 Introduction

The application of ceramic tiles in Portugal dates back several centuries and still continue, in the
present, to be an excellent cladding solution.
In the last decades, the manufacturing industry of ceramic tiles has been experiencing a fast evolution
to keep up with the forthcoming of new technologies, new types of ceramics, new formats and
designs, creating new bounding materials as well as new materials for filling joints.
Since the application of adhesive ceramic tillig system are an important contribution in the overall
building performance, namely durability, asthetics and efficiency, this work provides a survey on the
various types of materials that make up the adhered ceramic cladding system. The application
procedures of theses materials are also discussed taking into account the proprieties of the adherent
ceramic tiling system as well as environmental conditions, in order to ensure adequate reliability,
durability and sustainability of buildings and infrastructures.

2 Ceramic cladding

The application of ceramic tiles is a practice since the dawn of human civilization, with the raise of
traditional ceramics [1] during the Neolithic Period, from a modeling, drying and firing process, with
clay as the main raw material [2].
In Portugal, the first evidence of the use of ceramic tiles dates back to the thirteenth century, namely
with the ceramic tile flooring and paneling present in the abbey of Cister Alcobaça [3].
Although Portugal is considered the European country that most used the ceramic coating between
the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries, its use was restricted to indoor spaces of churches and
palaces as a form of carpeting, or just as ornamental material, and to outdoor spaces, in the cladding
of spiers and domes of churches [4]. Only from the late seventeenth century and early eighteenth
century, with the creation of the Real Fábrica da Louça do Rato, in Lisbon, and the Real Fábrica do
Juncal, in Alcobaça [5], the use of adhesive ceramic tiling starts to cover other areas, including the
cladding of porches, courtyards, cloisters, as well as the decoration of gardens, fountains and seats.
From the nineteenth century, under the effects of the industrial revolution, the ceramic applications
has become accessible to a wider audience, being also applied in the cladding of the facades of
buildings.

1
In the twentieth century, and more specifically since the seventies, the various changes experienced in
manufacturing technology and in the selection of raw materials, has allowed to produce adhesive
materials with increasingly better technical performance and aesthetic than previously existing ones.
Currently, ceramic tiles are one of the most widely used materials in the construction industry and in
particular, in the indoor and outdoor walls and floors.
Using the clay as a raw material, the end product of the ceramic tiling can have the most diverse
characteristics, depending on the secondary elements added, and on the methods and processes
used. Thus, the ceramic tiles are classified according to diverse criteria, such as its manufacturing
process and absorption characteristics.
Concerning the methods and manufacture processes, tiles are usually shaped by extrusion (method
A) or dry pressing (Method B), at room temperature. Table 2.1 presents the classification of ceramic
tiles acoording to EN 14411. The tiles of both groups can also be glazed or unglazed, incombustible
and unaffectable by light. Moreover, tiles can also be manually molded, using craft processes in their
production.
With respect to absorption, tiles are further classified in low, medium and high absorption levels,
depending on the percentage of water absorption.
The raw materials used in the manufacturing of ceramic tiles, and the manufacturing methods
themselves, are the parameters which determine the degree of vitrification of the ceramic mass. Lucas
and Abreu [6] refer that this parameters determine the performance level of the pieces made, by
influencing: water absorption, wear resistance, flexion, shock, ice formation, blur, dimensional
regularity, among others. This level of performance increases with the degree of vitrification, except
the impact resistance of hard bodies, by virtue of vitrification corresponding, in general, to a greater
fragility [6].

Table 2.1: Classification of ceramic tiles according to EN 14411

Manufacturing Group EN
Type Water absorption (E)
Process 14411

AI Extruded stoneware  3%
Extruded stoneware
AIIa Klinker 3% < E  6%
Group A Rustic tiles
Extruded
Extruded stoneware
Allb 6% < E  10%
Terracota
AIII Rustic tiles E > 10%
Stoneware floor
BIa
Klinker  0,5%
Porcelânico
Stoneware floor
Group B BIb Klinker 0,5% < E  3%
Pressed dry Double firing floor
BIIa Single firing floor 6% < E  10%
BIIb Single firing coating 3% < E  6%
BIII Tile (Faiança) > 10%

2
 CI -  3%
Group C
Other CIIa Rustic Floor 3% < E  6%
Processes CIIb Rustic Floor 6% < E  10%
(Molding
manual) Tile
CIII > 10%
Rustic Floor

According to the European standard [7], water absorption, i.e., the amount of water absorbed, is
expressed as a percentage. This parameter is directly related with the porosity of ceramic tiles. The
lower the ceramic tile porosity is and the lower is the water absorption, the better will be the following
characteristics: mechanical resistance, wear resistance, resistance to freezing / thawing and chemical
resistance.
When exposed to environment humidity, just after the exit of the oven, ceramic tiles are still
subject to a "swelling" [8]. This swelling continues to occur after the plates have been laid on, giving
rise to tensions in coatings, which may affect its stability.
The thermal expansion is one of the main important characteristics in the behavior of ceramic
coatings, particularly in outdoor ceramic coating, since they are subject to greater temperature ranges.
Therefore it is crucial to understand the specific characteristics of ceramic tiles, namelly, the
dimensional characteristics, the physical and chemical properties, which are required for specific
situations [30], in order to obtain a good performance in their application.
Ceramic tiles should also be stored in flatten and stable areas, protected from the sun and rain,
packed in boxes according to their dimensions, and stacked up to, at most, two meters in height [9].
Since ceramic coatings have a great influence on the habitability of buildings, it is expected that
its application, namely in the context of indoor and outdoor coatings, fulfill several functions. For
instance, the outdoor coating is expected to provide sealing and holding protection, in addition to other
functionalities, such as aesthetics. In the case of the indoor, it is expected to ensure regularity,
aesthetic appearance and hygrometric comfort functions, as well as, albeit marginally, contribute for
acoustical and thermal comfort.

3 Bounding of ceramic

The bounding of ceramic has been subject to a huge development, due to the increasing
technological innovation in ceramic tile industry, to the emergence of new gluing products, and to the
diversity of walls and flors where this is applied.
Usually, fixing systems can be classified either as mechanical or adherent fixing systems.
Mechanical fixing systems are especially designed for the rehabilitation of buildings. However,
since this kind of fixing ensures greater comfort in housing, easier maintenance, reliability in the
application, regardless of the holder, and greater security for people, they have beginning to be used
in new construction. Nevertheless, this fixing method is not applicable to coatings of indoor walls [10].
In adherent fixing systems, the fixing to the substrate is made by contacting, with traditional
mortars or glues.

3
 Table 3.1: Classification of materials for fixation by contact [10]

Application on walls 1:1/2:5

Materials for fixing by contact

Traditional mortar (cement; whitewash and sand)
(thick layer - from 5 to 20
mm) Application on floors 1:5
(cement and sand)

Cement-glue (C) – Mixture of hydraulic binders, aggregates and others

organic additives

Aqueous dispersed glues (D) - Mixture of organic binders in aqueous

form composed by polymers, organic additives and mineral loads.

Glues of reaction of resins (R) - Mixture of synthetic resins, mineral loads

and organic additives (induration by chemical reaction)

Traditional mortars are prepared on the site of the work, consisting of sand, cement, whitewash
and water. Beyond the fixing of tiles on floors, mortars are mainly used in the settlement of masonry,
plaster and in regularization layers.
Adhesives, dosed in the factory and ready to knead on site for immediate application, can be
divided into three types, depending on their chemical composition: cement-glues, aqueous dispersion
glues and reaction resin glues. These products are used indoors and outdoors. Each adhesive type
can also be classified with respect to its performance.
Adherent fixing systems are easier to apply than mechanical fixing systems, requiring, however,
a more careful preparation of the substrate. Substrates must be flat, clean and free of virulent or
greasy particles, which may affect the adherence and durability of the coating. It is also essential to
check the existence of compatibility, from the mechanical, geometric and chemical points of view,
between the substrate and the adhesive with ceramic tiles. In this sense, it should also be taken into
account general rules for selection of ahdesive materials and its suitability, to ensure that the expected
behavior is achieved.
In Portugal, the adhesive ceramic tiling system is the most applied on walls and floors.
In traditional application systems there are diferent fixing methods for ceramic tiles, namely: the
glue by points technique, the oldest and in trend to disappear [11], and the thick layer technique. In the
adherent bonded system, which includes the tiles fixation with cements-glue and glues [12], it is used
the thick layer technique, a more evolved technique.
The selection of materials for filling joints in the settlement system should take into account the
characteristics of the substrate, working conditions, the application environment and the purpose of it.
In order to assure appropriate construction reliability and durability, it is necessary to define and set
joints in all process, accordingly to a sizing suitable for each use.
In order to assure an additional link between the tiles and the product of settlement, the joints
between tiles must be filled.
The solutions for filling mortar joints can be either based on Portland cement or reaction resines
(based epoxy grout).

4
4 Procedures to adopt in adherent ceramic cladding applications

Since buildings are subject to deformation events due to temperature changes, humidity, weight
of the structures, wind and other factors, there should exist areas without ceramic cladding, to allow
small structural variations that may occur in the adherent system, as well as joints. This approach will
provide union areas between bonded parts and, thus, facilitate their alignment.
Ceramic cladding is an operation of great importance and requires further attention. If it is a fact
that the correct selection of all materials has an important role on the success of the end result, it is no
less true that most of the observed failures are due to incorrect preparation and application [6].
Different steps should be followed in settlement, namely: preliminary tasks execution,
settlement material application, ceramic tiles placing, joints execution, cure.
Figures 4.1 and 4.2 exemplify the substrate regularization and ceramic coating application on
walls, respectively.
Within the tools used for coating application, we point out cutting equipment [10], drilling and
pumping and mixing systems.
Regarding the tools used in the settlement, we highlight out the trowel, the rubber hammer and
the builder’s trowel [12].
In the category of accessories we point out application facilitators of ceramic parts (spacers,
wedges, wire joints, nylon tapes), and the incorporated into the constructive structure (the PVC
profiles, construction joints in PVC or metal, the glass fiber net).
During the execution of the settlement, all procedures should be performed in a correct way,
using materials and tools in a proper manner.

a) Leveling the substrate using a ruler b) Wetting the substrate

Figure 4.1: Holder regularization

5
 2
Figure 4.2: Large ceramic tiling application on a wall (1m ).

The quality control the process can be made by a periodical extraction of a percentage of the
placed tiles. In Figure 4.3, we observe the quality control process.
Once all procedures are completed, an evaluation of all the specifications previously defined in
the project will be carried out, in order to verify that they are in compliance. The guarantee of the
performance, besides depending on the support and coordinated work of technical services, it also
depends on the level of manpower qualification.

Figure 4.3: Bounding quality control through a just applied tile.

5 Durability of adherent ceramic tiling

The term durability is associated with longevity and quality.

It appears, however, that either the buildings or some of its elements such as the ceramic
coatings, in some moment of their life no longer perform as predicted [13].
The most frequent anomalies in adhesive ceramic tiling systems, whether on walls or floors ,
are the detachment [10] and cracking [14]. These defects occur more frequently in the outside the
buildings, although they also appear in their interiors. Beyond these anomalies are still other defects

6
that may affect the performance of the system, namely in the aesthetic level, in level of safety in use,
in the level of the own tiles and even at the level of techniques and materials for filling joints
Prevention is to anticipate, predict, plan. An act to prevent the anomalie happens when a project
defines the materials to apply, foressee the substrate conditions and requires compatible execution
technique, ensuring the formal mechanisms of quality control .
Within the maintenance and with respect to their different stages (inspection, cleaning,
corrective measures, replacement measures and conditions of use) there are many ways to intercede.
Most of these operations should be performed by experts. In the case of inspection, the ideal is that
the pro-active measures are taken by the the respective manufacturer, since it is the one that best
knows the materials characteristics, as well as their application process. The role of the users is to to
perform a proper cleaning, in order to avoid the accumulation of dirt that can cause pre-pathologies,
and a continuous visual inspection. Given the increased life term of ceramic tile, it should be indicated
its conditions of use [14].
When anomalies occur in the adhesive ceramic tiling, it is necessary to define the mode of
action and tasks to accomplish. The repair and maintenance techniques applicable to ceramic
coatings consist in replacing generalized or localized ceramic coating, in the correction of the
substrate structure or in the replacement of the filling material of joints . The porpuse of these
interventions is to repair faults and eliminate the respective causes that gave rise to them .

6 Conclusions

In this work we studied the tile adhesive and ceramic tiles in particular , the fastening products and
products fill joints between tiles .Has also been emphasized to the methods and techniques of
application of these products without neglecting their respective substrate and care to be observed in
their execution .
They were also listed some of the main deficiencies recorded in the application of such cladding
beyond the forms to act both as part of maintenance or within the repair techniques.
In this study it can be concluded that applying an adherent ceramic tiling system should be preceded
by studies , that when the decision of the choice of materials, one can choose the most appropriate ,
since with the recent emergence of large numbers of new products is unknown , in its entirety , its
performance after application. Added to this is that in addition to proper selection of materials to be
used should be carried still adequate preparation and application thereof.

7
References

[1] V. c. especializados, Enciclopédia Alfa, Lisboa: Publicações Alfa, 1977.

[2] Porto Editora, Dicionário da Língua Portuguesa Contemporânea, Lisboa.

[3] R. A. A. Trindade, "Evidências do Emprego do Azul Cobalto na Cerâmica de Tardo Mediaval

Portuguesa," Revista de História de Arte, vol. 7, pp. 236-263, 2007.

[4] J. M. S. Simões, Estudos da Azulejaria, Lisboa: Imprensa Nacional - Casa da Moeda, 2001.

[5] M. M. C. Silva, "Notas para o estudo de alguns azulejos do distrito de Leiria atribuidos à fábrica
do Juncal".

[6] J. A. C. Lucas and M. M. Abreu, "Revestimentos Cerâmicos Colados-Descolamento, ITPRC 4,"

LNEC, Lisboa, 2003.

[7] NP EN ISO 10545-3:2008 (Ed. 1), Determinação da absorção de água, da porosidade aberta, da
densidade relativa aparente e da massa volúmica global (ISO 10545-3:1995, incluindo a
Corrigenda Técnica 1: 1997), Lisboa: IPQ, 2008.

[8] A. Fiorito, "Manual de Argamassas e Revestimentos: estudos e procedimentos de execução,"

PINI, São Paulo, 1994.

[9] A. Sá, "Durabilidade de cimentos cola em revestimentos cerâmicos aderentes a fachadas,"

Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, Dissertação de Mestrado, 2005.

[10] V. P. Freitas, A. V. Sousa and J. A. R. Silva, Manual de Aplicação de Revestimentos Cerâmicos,

APICER, 2003.

[11] C. Correia, "Caracterização de eflorescências, sua natureza e mecanismos de formação em

fachadas revestidas com cerâmica e pedra natural," Saint-Gobain Weber Cimenfix SA, Portugal.

[12] WEBER, O Guia Weber, Portugal, 2013.

[13] E. Campante, "Metodologia para diagnóstico e prevenção de problemas patológicos de

revestimentos cerâmicos de fachada.," Dissertação de Doutoramento, Universidade de São
Paulo, Brasil, 2001.

[14] R. I. S. Ferreira, "Metodologia de Manutenção de Edifícios - Revestimento de Pavimentos

Cerâmicos Interiores," U. Porto - FEUP, Porto, 2009.