AE 152 M8 - Sprikler Irrigation

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Module No. 8
Sprinkler Irrigation System
The different methods of applying irrigation water are broadly classified as surface,
sprinkler and drip irrigation systems. Surface irrigation methods such as flooding, furrow and
border strip were already discussed in Module No. 2. Supposedly, discussions on sprinkler and
drip irrigation systems should follow said module. Since these pressurized systems require a pump
unit, we postponed their discussions because at that point in time you were not yet ready to
comprehend their design ramifications and applications. Thus, in this module the design and
application of sprinkler irrigation system is presented. Drip irrigation system will be covered in the
next module.
Sprinkler irrigation is a pressurized irrigation method in which water is led to the field
through a pipe system and sprinkled through the air as small rain-like droplets which fall to the
ground in a circular pattern using a spray nozzle (Figure 1a), or a rotator sprinkler (Figure 1b). It is
adaptable to almost all irrigable lands since sprinkler heads are available in a wide range of
discharge capacity. The sprinkler heads are either permanently set in place, or temporarily set
and then moved after a given amount of water has been applied. Pressure for sprinkler systems
is provided by pumps powered by gasoline, diesel or electric motors.
(a) Spray nozzle (b) Rotator sprinkler
Source: Flotec (2018) Source: Nelson Irrigation (2018)
Figure 1. Sprinkler irrigation System
A sprinkler irrigation system must be properly designed based on the operating and field
conditions. The main objective is to conserve soil and water through application of crop water
requirement at the right amount at the right time as uniformly as possible to fill the root zone at a
rate at which the soil can absorb the irrigation water with minimum runoff and deep percolation
and prevent excessive evaporation losses. This is our concern in this module.
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Aside from knowledge gained in the previous module about pumps and pumping,
knowledge of Bernoulli’s principle and hydraulic head is extremely necessary in this module. It is
enjoined therefore that prior to reading this module you should review Module No. 9 of AE 163
(Hydrometeorology).
After thorough and diligent study of this module, you should be able to:
a. Differentiate the different types of sprinkler irrigation system;
b. Prepare a detailed list of data and information needed in the design of sprinkler irrigation
system and discuss briefly the importance of each data and information in the design
process;
c. Synthesize the conditions to be met for proper operations of the sprinkler heads, laterals,
and main and sub-mains;
d. Design a sprinkler irrigation system in terms of:
 nozzle size,
 nozzle operating pressure,
 spacing of laterals and sprinklers,
 lateral allowable friction head loss,
 lateral discharge capacity,
 lateral pipe size,
 mainline and sub-mains allowable friction head loss,
 mainline and sub-mains discharge capacity,
 mainline and sub-mains pipe size,
 system operating pressure requirement,
 operating hours of the sprinkler irrigation system, and
 final design specifications; and
e. Prepare the bill of materials and determine the total cost of the designed sprinkler
irrigation system.
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I. Components of Sprinkler Irrigation System

The components of manual and automatic sprinkler systems are the same, except that
wires, a solenoid valve, and a controller are necessary to operate an automatically controlled
system. Aside from the water source, the basic components are pump unit, pressure regulator,
water meter or flow sensor, mainline pipe, lateral pipes, couplers, risers, sprinkler heads, and
fittings and other accessories (Figure 2). To give you an idea how it works, a general field layout
of a typical sprinkler irrigation system is shown in Figure 3.
Source: Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (n.d)
Figure 2. Components of sprinkler irrigation system

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Source: Tulsi Extrusions, Ltd. (n.d)
Figure 3. General field layout of typical sprinkler irrigation system
A. Pump unit
A sprinkler irrigation system distributes water under pressure by spraying it over the fields.
The pressure forces the water through sprinklers, or through perforations or nozzles in pipelines
forming a spray pattern. A high speed centrifugal or turbine pump can be used for operating
sprinkler irrigation for individual fields. Centrifugal pump is used when the distance from the
pump inlet to the water surface is less than eight meters. For pumping water from deep wells or
more than eight meters, a turbine pump is recommended. The driver unit may be either an
electric motor, or a gasoline or diesel internal combustion engine.
B. Pressure regulator
Generally, pressures over 100 pounds per square inch (psi) is not desirable in most
sprinkler irrigation systems because higher pressure may damage the components upstream, or
may burst the pipe lines. Even when the design pressure is below 100 psi, there is a big possibility
that this can be doubled when water hammer occurs. Water hammer is what happens when all
that fast flowing water is forced to stop moving almost instantly. To prevent this from happening,
a pressure regulator (Figure 4) should be installed in the system. A pressure regulator is a special
valve that reduces the water pressure to a set level and keeps it at that level. It should be
installed between the pump and the main emergency shut-off valve.
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Source: Stryker (1997)
Figure 4. Pressure regulator
The hex-head bolt on top adjusts the outlet pressure, which must always be set at least 15
psi lower than the incoming pressure. For example, if the incoming pressure is 80 psi the pressure
regulator must be set at 65 psi or less. Otherwise, it will not work accurately and may allow
damaging pressure surges to pass through the system. In other words, the pressure regulator
must reduce the pressure by 15 psi or more for it to work accurately and reliably. The pressure
regulator is normally installed after the main emergency shut-off valve.
C. Flow sensor/water meter
In large sprinkler irrigation system, a flow sensor (Figure 5a) rather than a water meter
(Figure 5b) is used. The difference between the two is that a typical water meter measures only
the amount of water used (i.e. cubic meters); while a flow sensor measures the rate of flow (i.e.
cubic meters per unit time). This allows the monitoring of how much flow the irrigation system is
using at any given time. For relatively smaller and less sophisticated irrigation system, a water
meter can be used. The flow sensor or water meter should be installed after the pressure
regulator,
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Source: Solidrop (2018) Source: Fakhri Sons (n.d)
Figure 5. Water metering devices
D. Piping system
The piping system consists of mainline, sub-mains and laterals. The main pipe line conveys
water from the source and distributes it to the sub-mains. The sub-mains convey water to the
laterals which, in turn, supply water to the sprinkler heads. Aluminum or polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
pipes are generally used for portable systems; steel pipes are usually used for large systems.
Asbestos, PVC and steel pipes are usually used for buried mainlines and laterals.
1. Mainline
The mainline is the most important pipe in the irrigation system because when it breaks
the whole system is out of service. When buried, the depth should be at least 18″ deep from the
top of the pipe to the ground surface. In such case, use a cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) pipe if
the ground is very rocky that it would be impossible to keep the rocks from contacting the pipe.
If the ground is not rocky, use Sch 40 (read: Schedule 40) PVC pipe and if pipe required is larger
than 2 inches, then use Cl 315 (Read: Class 315 psi) PVC pipe instead.
As a “rule-of-thumb”, use a pipe size that is the next size larger than the water supply
pipe the irrigation system is tapped into. Do not use smaller than ¾” if the irrigation system
mainline is going to tap into a 1″ water supply pipe. Use instead a 1-¼” size mainline.
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2. Laterals
Laterals are pipes or tubes that are connected to the mainline (in some cases to the sub-
mains) from which the sprinkler devices are installed. A control or gate valve to open and shut
off flow may be installed between the mainline and each lateral connected to it. Because the
water is only pressurized in the lateral pipes when the sprinklers are turned on, a less durable and
hence cheaper pipe may be used to save cost.
The pressure loss in laterals should not be greater than 20 percent of the sprinkler head
operating pressure as specified by the manufacturer. The allowable pressure loss is typically kept
under 4 psi, with 6 psi being the maximum advisable if the static pressure is high, or if economy is
more important than quality. Higher pressure loss than these values can cause poor distribution
uniformity which lead to dry spots in the sprinkled area. It is not desirable for the pressure loss to
be too low, but should be closely under the above specifications.
3. Risers
No two sprinkler systems are the same. Hence, different kinds of risers have been
developed to suit the field conditions for which the system is designed. Each type has its own
features and benefits, but the basic function and purpose is the same. A riser connects the
sprinkler head to the lateral pipe. It is used to support and hold in place the sprinkler head. The
connection is usually flexible to allow the sprinkler head to be moved side-to-side and up-and-
down without breaking the lateral pipe. The height is adjustable to avoid crop interference with
the jet of water discharged from the sprinkler head (Figure 6).
Source: Antelco (n.d)
Figure 6. Sprinkler riser

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E. Sprinkler heads
Sprinkler heads (Figure 7) must distribute water uniformly over the field without runoff or
excessive loss due to deep percolation. Different types of sprinkler heads are available. They are
either rotating or fixed type. The rotating type can be adapted for a wide range of application
rates and spacing. They are effective with pressure of about 10 to 70 m head at the sprinkler.
Pressures ranging from 16 to 40 m head are considered the most practical for most farmers.
Fixed head sprinklers are commonly used to irrigate small lawns and gardens. Perforated
lateral lines are sometimes used as sprinklers. They require less pressure and release more water
per unit area than rotating sprinklers. Hence fixed head sprinklers are adaptable for soils with
high intake rate.
Source: www.nbevergreen.cn (n.d)
Figure 7. Different types of sprinkler head
F. Couplers
Couplers are used for connecting pipes, which as much as possible can be dismantled
quickly and easily. Figure 8 shows the ordinary and quick-connect types. Essentially, couplers
should be light, non-corrosive and durable, and must provide flexible and leak-free connection
at the joints.
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(a) Ordinary coupling (b) Quick-connect coupling

Source: Amazon.co.uk (2018) Source: Dalya Irrigation (2017)
Figure 8. Types of coupler
G. Other fittings and accessories
 Flange (Figure 9a) and nipples (Figure 9b) for proper connection of the water pump to
suction pipe, mainline, laterals and risers.
 Pressure gauge (Figure 10) to know whether the sprinkler system is working properly at the
desired pressure to ensure uniform application.
 Hydrants, reducers, tees, elbows (Figure 11), valves, plugs and bushings (Figure 12) for
proper operation and flexibility of utilization of the sprinkler irrigation system.
 Filters (Figure 13) to prevent clogging due to the physical, chemical and biological
impurities present in water.
(a) Flange cum gate valve (b) Nipples
Source: 123RF (2018) Source: Google.com (2018)
Figure 9. Pipe connectors

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(a) Ordinary (b) Digital
Source: FLW, Inc. (2018) Source: Omega Engineering, Inc. (2018)
Figure 10. Pressure gauge
Figure 11. Hydrant, reducer, tee and elbow

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(a) Valves (b) Bushing & plug

Source: Kayalar Group (2018) Source: IndiaMART, Ltd. (2018)
Figure 12. Valves, bushing and plug
Source: RedLeafHeights (n.d)
Figure 13. Filter
H. Optional accessories
 Check valve (Figure 14) allows water to go through it in one direction, but prevents the
water from going backwards in the opposite direction. Only when the sprinkler irrigation
system is equipped with a fertigator that a check valve is extremely required to prevent
contaminating the water source.
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Source: IndiaMart, Ltd. (n.d)
Figure 14. Check valve
 Fertilizer applicator (sometimes called fertigator) to enable injection of soluble fertilizers

and pesticides into the system and applied to the crop.
The construction of a fertigator is very simple and can be fabricated locally. It consists of
a fertilizer tank and a venturi injector that can be installed in the mainline. The differential
pressure created by the flowing water in the mainline sucks the fertilizer solution in the
tank to enter the mainline and incorporated with the irrigation water. A commercial-type
fertigator is shown in Figure 15.
Source: OM IrriTech, Ltd. (2010)
Figure 15. Commercial-type fertigator

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 Solenoid valve is an electro-mechanically actuated or controlled valve. It has a solenoid,

which is an electric coil with a movable ferromagnetic core in its center. This core is
called the plunger (Figure 16). As soon as the coil is electrically energized, a magnetic
field is created which pulls the plunger up towards the center of the coil. This opens the
orifice so that the fluid can flow through. In rest position, the plunger closes off the orifice.
This is the basic principle that is used to open and close solenoid valves.
A semi-automatic sprinkler (also drip) irrigation system is equipped with a solenoid valve.
It is turned on and off by a timer. The electric current sent to the valve solenoid is just
used to jump-start the plunger movement of closing and opening the orifice.
(a) Closed (b) Open

Source: Tameson.com (n.d)
Figure 16. Schematic representation of direct operated solenoid valve
II. Types of Sprinkler Irrigation System

The United States Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Service
(USDA-NRCS) classified sprinkler irrigation systems as fixed solid set type, periodic move type, and
continuous move type (1997).
A. Fixed solid set sprinkler irrigation system
In a fixed solid set sprinkler irrigation system (Figure 17), there are enough number of
laterals and sprinkler heads to complete an irrigation schedule or irrigation set time (defined as
the specified length of time to apply a required depth of water). This whole set of laterals and
sprinkler heads is placed in the field at the start of the irrigation season and left in place
throughout the entire crop growing season. It consists of either an above-ground portable pipe
system made of aluminium pipe, or a permanently buried system made of plastic pipe.
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Source: All-Biz, Ltd. (2018)
Figure 17. Fixed solid set sprinkler irrigation system
A portable solid set system can be moved to a different field at the end of a particular
crop growing season. A permanent solid set system consists of mainlines and laterals buried
below the depth of normal field operations. Only the sprinkler heads and a portion of the risers
are above the ground surface.
To irrigate the field, one or more zones of sprinklers are cycled on or off with a control
valve at the mainline. A diamond or triangular layout of sprinkler heads is recommended for solid
set systems, thereby improving application uniformity. Application efficiencies can be 60 to 85
percent, depending on design and management.
B. Periodic move sprinkler irrigation system
A periodic move sprinkler irrigation system comes in different types, such as hand move
laterals, side roll, and gun-type. It is laid on the field in a fixed location for a specified irrigation set
time. After an irrigation set, the laterals and sprinkler heads are moved to the next set position.
1. Hand move lateral system
A portable hand move lateral system made of aluminum is commonly used for field
crops, vegetables and orchards. The lateral is moved by hand between irrigation sets thus used
in multiple locations as shown in Figure 18.
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Source: Gronwald (n.d)
Figure 18. Hand move lateral system (top view)
The mainline can be portable above ground or permanently buried. The lateral sections
are typically 6 m (20 ft), 9 m (30 ft), or 12 m (40 ft) long and the diameter is either 3 inches or 4
inches. However for long lines, 4 inches aluminum should be used to keep the velocity under 5
feet per second and maintain pressure losses below 20 percent of the design pressure. The
height of risers must be based on the maximum height of the crop. Minimum height is generally
15 cm (6 in). Risers over 1.22 m (4 ft) in height must be anchored for stability.
Hand move lateral systems have the lowest initial cost, have the highest labor
requirement, and are easily adapted to irregular fields. With proper management, application
efficiencies can be 60 to 75 percent.
2. Side roll system
The side roll system is similar to a hand move lateral system, except that wheels are
provided for ease of moving the system after each irrigation set (Figure 8). The lateral pipe serves
as an axle to assist in moving the system sideways by rolling the wheel. Each pipe section is
supported by a wheel at least 3 feet in diameter or larger so that the lateral clears the crop
(Figure 19).
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Source: Irrline Technologies Corporation (n.d)
Figure 19. Side roll system
A flexible hose or telescoping section of pipe is required at the beginning of each lateral
to connect on to the mainline outlet valves. Ensure that the lateral is in a nearly straight line, and
the sprinkler heads are in upright position and aligned with each other. Otherwise, uniformity of
distribution will be poor. There should be flush valves installed on each lateral to drain the line
before it is moved. Empty laterals must be anchored to prevent movement by wind.
Side roll systems have a low labor requirement, but they have higher initial and
maintenance costs than hand move lateral systems. They irrigate a rectangular area. They are
not adapted to tall crops. Topography must be flat or gently rolling. With proper management,
application efficiencies can be 60 to 75 percent.
3. Gun-type or rotator system
Periodic move gun-type or rotator sprinklers are operated as a large single impact type
sprinkler unit. It is moved from one irrigation set to the next either by hand (Figure 20a) or by a
small tractor (Figure 20b). Generally, only one sprinkler head is operated per lateral. Lateral lines
are usually aluminum pipe with quick-coupled joints. Nozzle sizes are large and vary between ½
to 1 ¾ inches. Operating pressures can range from 50 to 120 psi with flow rates at 50-1000 gpm.
When irrigating, the sprinkler is allowed to remain at one location until the desired amount of
water is applied. Application rates can be very high and uniformity of application can be
adversely affected by wind speed greater than 4 miles per hour (1.8 meters/sec). Droplet size will
be large beyond 50 feet from the sprinkler, resulting in soil puddling and damage to sensitive
crops. With proper management, application efficiency can be 50 to 60 percent.
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Source: Royal Micro Irrigation Systems (n.d)
Figure 20. Compact single gun-type system
C. Continuous move sprinkler irrigation system
Several types of continuous sprinkler irrigation system are being used in large farms,
namely: center-pivot, linear move, traveling gun, and traveling boom.
1. Center-pivot system
Center pivot systems (Figure 21) consist of a single lateral supported by towers with one
end anchored to a fixed pivot structure and the other end continuously moving around the
pivot point while applying water. This system irrigates a circular field unless end guns and swing
lines are cycled on in corner areas to irrigate more of a square field. The water is supplied from
the source to the lateral through the pivot.
Source: Lindsay Corporation (n.d) Source: Western Farm Press (2017)
Figure 21. Center-pivot system

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The pump unit is normally powered by internal combustion engine or electric motor. The
sprinkler heads may be high or low pressure impact, gear driven, or one of many low pressure
spray nozzles, which are located along the lateral. Each tower which is generally mounted on
rubber tires has a power device designed to propel the system around the pivot point. Towers
are spaced from 24 to 76 m (80-250 ft) apart, and lateral lengths vary up to 805 m (½ mile). Long
spans require a substantial truss or cable to support the lateral pipe in place.
Each sprinkler head has a pressure regulator set at 10 to 20 psi. With proper
management, application efficiencies can be 75 to 90 percent depending on wind speed and
direction, sprinkler type, operating pressure, and tillage practices.
2. Linear move system
A linear move sprinkle system (Figure 22) is a continuous, self-moving, straight lateral that
irrigates a rectangular field. It is similar to the center pivot in that the lateral is supported by
trusses, cables, and towers mounted on wheels. Most linear move systems are driven by electric
motors located in each tower. A self-aligning system is used to maintain near straight line uniform
travel. One tower is the master control tower for the lateral where the speed is set, and all other
towers operate in start-stop mode to maintain alignment.
Linear move systems can be equipped with a variety of spray heads. Drop tubes and low
pressure spray heads located a few inches above the ground surface or crop canopy can be
used instead of sprinkler heads attached directly to the lateral. To conserve water and energy,
the low pressure sprinkle heads on drop tubes are preferred for linear move systems. With proper
management, application efficiencies are similar to the center pivot system. Linear move
systems are high cost and generally used on medium to high value crops and multiple crop
production areas.
Source: Green Agriculture Company (2018)
Figure 22. Linear move system

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3. Traveling gun system
A traveling gun system consists of a high capacity single gun-type sprinkler connected to
a chassis assembly with rotating reel to which a flexible hose is rolled (Figure 23a). The sprinkler
gun is pulled along selected travel path or lane (Figure 23b) in a straight line during operation.
The hose is usually 3 to 5 inches in diameter and up to 400 m (1,310 ft) long (see Figure 24).
(a) Components (b) Sprinkler gun extended from unit
Source: Micro Rain (2018)
Figure 23. Traveling gun system
Source: Big Sprinkler (2018)
Figure 24. Sprinkler gun can be extended farther from unit

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As the traveller moves along its path, the sprinkler wets a strip of land 61 to 122 m (200-
400 ft) wide. After the unit reaches the end of the travel path, it is moved and set to irrigate an
adjacent strip of land. The overlap of adjacent strips depends on the distance between the
travel paths, wetted diameter of sprinkler, average wind speed, and application pattern of the
sprinkler. After one travel path is completed, the sprinkler is reset by towing it to the edge of the
field.
Sprinkler discharge flows can range from 3 li/sec to more than 60 li/sec (50 to more than
1,000 gpm) with nozzles ranging from 12.5 to 45 mm (0.5-1.75 in) in diameter and operating
pressure from 69 to 120 psi.
4. Traveling boom system
A traveling boom system is similar to a traveling gun, except several nozzles are used
(Figure 25). It has higher distribution uniformity than the traveling gun for the same diameter of
coverage. The boom can be designed with low pressure and low flow nozzles that operate at
higher efficiency and uniformity.
The unit is typically moved by dragging or coiling the water feed hose on a reel. The
sprinkler boom usually is fixed, or may be rotated by back pressure from fixed nozzles. A boom
can be nearly 30 m (100 ft) long with uniformly spaced nozzles that overlap similar to a linear
move lateral.
Source: Briggs Irrigation (n.d)
Figure 25. Traveling boom system

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III. Data and Information for Sprinkler Irrigation System Design

Sprinkler irrigation systems design is an engineering task which requires competency in
mathematics and knowledge of Bernoulli’s principle, hydraulic head, and pumps and pumping.
Understanding agronomy and soil science particularly soil-water-plant relationship, irrigation
water management and irrigation scheduling are bonus competencies.
It is emphasized that the design of manual and automatic sprinkler systems is the same,
except that wires, a controller, and automatic valves are necessary to operate an automatically
controlled system. Prior to designing, an inventory of available resources and operating
conditions are necessary. These include data and information on:
A. Field characteristics
Physical characteristics of the field to be irrigated such as area, dimension and shape
must be considered in locating the mainline and spacing of the laterals, and in selecting the
appropriate type of sprinkler system. A drawn-to-scale map is useful in visualizing the field layout.
The field layout is determined by the location of the water supply, the convenience of lateral
moving operations, field cultural practices and topography of the field.
Topography characterizes how much uneven or level the ground surface is. This
unevenness of ground surface is described as elevation. In drawings, elevation is represented by
contour lines. Said drawing is called contour map. A drawn-to-scale contour map of the field
under consideration is useful in layouting the main and lateral pipes.
In a pipe system, changes in elevation adds or subtracts water pressure from the system.
For water, each foot of elevation change is equal to 0.433 psi of water pressure, or one psi of
water pressure is equivalent to 2.31 feet of water column. In simpler terms, it takes one psi to raise
water 2.31 feet higher. If the pipe is going downhill, add 0.433 psi of pressure per vertical foot
difference in elevation (pressure increases). If the pipe is going uphill, subtract 0.433 psi for every
vertical foot difference in elevation (pressure decreases). The length of the pipe is irrelevant in
this regard because water is a non-compressible fluid which exhibits the unique property of
transferring pressure horizontally along the entire length of the pipe system, or any distance for
that matter.
When water in a pipe system is at rest or not flowing, the water pressure is called static
pressure. In such case, there is no friction between the water and the pipe thus there is no
pressure loss. In contrast, when water is flowing in the pipe, the water would lose pressure due to
friction. This water pressure is called dynamic pressure. This distinction between static and
dynamic pressures is important in sprinkler irrigation system because of pressure loss.
B. Soil properties
Soil texture, available water content (AWC), and crop rooting depth must be known in
order to determine the application rate and to plan irrigation schedules. AWC is a function of soil
texture (see Appendix Table 1). If the field contains different soil textures, the most restrictive soil
therein must be considered in the design.
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Soil texture, crop cover and land slope determine the application rate which, in turn, is a
function of nozzle size and operating pressure at a given sprinkler head spacing. Table 1 gives
the suggested maximum application rate to avoid puddling and runoff.
Table 1. Maximum application rates to avoid puddling and runoff

Slope (%)
Soil Texture 0 to 5 5 to 8 8 to 12 12 to 16
Maximum Application Rate (cm/hr)
Coarse sandy soils (2 m deep) 5.0 3.7 2.5 1.3
Coarse sandy soils (over more compact soil) 3.7 2.5 2.0 1.0
Light sandy loam (2 m deep) 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0
Light sandy loam (over more compact soil) 1.9 1.3 1.0 0.8
Silt loam (2 m deep) 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.5
Silt loam (over more compact soil) 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.3
Heavy textured clays or clay loam 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
Source: Agriculture in India (n.d)
C. Soil and water quality
Actual measurements of soil acidity and salinity must be done in the field under
consideration as published literatures are generalized values which may not be true in the field
under consideration.
Water pH generally is not a problem in itself. Per report of Ayers & Westcot, the normal pH
range for irrigation water is from 6.5 to 8.4. Irrigation water with a pH outside of this range may
cause nutritional imbalance or may contain a toxic ion (1994).
Classification of salinity hazards of irrigation water expressed in terms of electrical

conductivity (EC) and total dissolved solids (TDS) is given in Appendix Table 3. These water
quality standards define the suitability of irrigation water which, in turn, determines the type of
crops to be grown depending on their level of susceptibility and tolerance.
D. Climate
Since climate differs across time and space, climate factors such as precipitation,
temperature, humidity and wind velocity must be considered as these factors define the
reference or potential evaporation (ETo) in a particular location at a particular moment. Crop
evapotranspiration (ETc) can be estimated using the FAO Penman-Monteith equation wherein
ETc = Kc x ETo, where ETo is a function of geographic location, day of the year and even time of
the day. Different crops and even different types of that crop have different ETc at different
growth stages. This is expressed by the crop coefficient (Kc), which is highest during the mid-
season growth stage (Figure 26). In other words, ETc is specific for a given location, time, crop
and growth stage. ETc is used to determine depth of application and frequency of irrigation.
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Source: Roa, Agcayab, Brillantes, Salazar & Taqueban (2018)
Figure 26. Sample Kc curve
Wind has a pronounced effect on the distribution pattern of water from sprinklers. The
pattern is transported downwind as would be expected, thus the wetted diameter
perpendicular to the wind direction is reduced which consequently affects the spacing. The
higher the wind velocity, the closer must be the sprinkler spacing on the lateral and the lateral
spacing on the mainline. According to Martin, Kincaid Lyle, it is more economical to space
sprinklers closer together along the lateral rather than space laterals closer together along the
mainline. Thus, the general recommendation is to orient laterals perpendicular to the prevailing
wind direction (2007). Given in Table 2 is the maximum sprinkler and lateral spacings as a
percentage of the effective wetted diameter for sprinkler heads operating at the average
pressure along the lateral.
Table 2. Maximum sprinkler head and lateral spacing

Wind Condition Percent of Effective Wetted Diameter of Sprinklers (%)
(mps) Sprinkler Spacing Lateral Spacing
No wind 45 65
Low wind up to 2.22 40 60
2.22 to 4.44 35 50
> 4.44 30 30
Source: Martin, Kincaid Lyle (2007)
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According to the United States Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources

Conservation Service, if the wind is moving diagonally through the sprinkler system, a square
pattern such as a 12 x 12 m (40 x 40 ft) or a 18 x 18 m (60 x 60 ft) will give a more uniform
distribution pattern. Since it is recommended to place the laterals perpendicular to the wind
direction, it is simpler to space the sprinklers more closely such as in a 9 x 12 m (30 x 40 ft) or in a
12 x 18 m (40 x 60 ft) rectangular patterns (1997).
E. Crop water requirement
Effective rooting depth and maximum allowable depletion (MAD) rate are dependent
on crop type (see Appendix Table 2). These are used in planning irrigation schedules in
conjunction with crop water requirement.
The amount of water required to compensate the ET loss from the cropped field is
defined as crop water requirement (CWR). Although the values for ETc and CWR are identical,
ETc is the amount of water that is lost through evapotranspiration while CWR refers to the
amount of water that needs to be supplied. The irrigation water requirement basically represents
the difference between CWR and effective precipitation. The irrigation water requirement also
includes additional water for leaching of salts and to compensate for non-uniformity of water
application (Allen, Pereira, Raes & Smith, 1998).
In the design of sprinkler (also drip) irrigation system, the average ETc is used (United
States Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1997). In order for this
sprinkler system to meet the CWR at different growth stages particularly during mid-season (peak
ETc), the operating hour is adjusted accordingly, that is, longer time for deeper applications and
shorter time for shallower applications.
In practice, all crops to be irrigated should be evaluated separately to determine their

respective CWRs. In other words, when using sprinkler irrigation system, there should be specific
irrigation interval for each crop taking into account also the production period.
F. Water supply
The source of water must be able to supply at all times the CWR in adequate quantity
and acceptable quality. In the case of wells, quantity is described in terms of safe yield and
static head. Safe yield is the amount of water that can be withdrawn from the well without
causing damaging effects such as surface subsidence, saltwater intrusion, and reduced
discharge or capacity. These damages are irreversible, meaning they cannot be corrected
once they set in. Thus, the rate of withdrawal or pumping rate from a well shall not be more than
its safe yield.
The static head of a well is the actual volume of water contained in the casing, or bore
hole when the well is at rest or not in use. It is measured as the height of the level of water inside
the well casing or bore hole after it has fully recovered from recent use to the level of the pump
intake setting in the well (Figure 27). It indicates the volume of water available to the pump after
the well has rested for some time and the water has stopped rising to its maximum height inside
the well.
25
Source: Cramer & Cranor (2018)
Figure 27. Static head of well
During pumping, pumping rate shall be equal to or less than the recharge rate of the well
so that the drawdown will not be dangerously too close to the pump intake level. If air is sucked
into the system, cavitation occurs which may damage the pump system. A suitable pump must
be selected based on safe yield and static head of the well in conjunction with other operating
conditions of the sprinkler irrigation system (see Module No. 7 – Pumps and Pumping).
G. Power supply
In pressurized irrigation systems like sprinkler (also drip), a pump is needed to provide
sufficient pressure on the water high enough for the sprinkler head or nozzle to produce rain-like
droplets at the required flow rate. A pump is not a stand-alone equipment but is driven by either
electric motor or internal combustion engine (ICE).
Electric motors are usually used in sprinkler irrigation systems. However, if the field is too far
away from the source of power, there is no other recourse but to use ICE. According to Shaver,
electric motors are relatively more efficient (80-90%) than ICE (20-30 %) [2017]. If issues of noise
and air pollutions are factored in, electric motors run with very little noise generated and emit no
pollutants thus more desirable than ICE.
In the Philippines, most if not all power providers (called electric cooperatives) supply 220
VAC, 60 Hz, single phase power. The electric motor should run on these specifications.
26
IV. Design Process
A. Lateral line design
In designing and layouting sprinkler laterals, the following are considered:
 The pressure loss in laterals should never be greater than 20 percent of the sprinkler head
operating pressure. For example, if the operating pressure of the sprinkler heads is 30 psi,
the pressure in the laterals must always be higher than and never go below 24 psi.
 Larger pipes have relatively lower pressure loss than smaller ones. If, for some reasons, the
above design requirement is not met, increasing the size of the lateral would lower the
pressure loss in the pipeline (Stryker, 1997).
 The laterals should be laid across the slope as nearly level as possible.
 Where the laterals must be laid uphill, elevations that produce variations of pressure
greater than 10 percent of system operating pressure should be avoided.
 Laterals laid downhill have certain advantages, particularly where pipe size reduction or
control valves can be used to equalize pressure.
 For ease of moving, hand-moved laterals should be kept to four inches in diameter or
less.
 If possible, laterals should be laid perpendicular to the direction of prevailing winds.
 Laterals should be of equal length as much as possible.
 Keep extra laterals. The additional cost of an extra lateral is often justified because it
allows for dry moves, convenience in moving time, and equalized pressure conditions.
 In many instances, the use of smaller nozzles to reduce the discharge per sprinkler head
with a corresponding increase in time for each irrigation set, will allow the addition of a
lateral to balance the system, and will often allow smaller pipe sizes to be used.
 If a choice exists, locating the water source and pump in the center of the area to be
irrigated is usually most desirable (United States Department of Agriculture – Natural
Resources Conservation Service, 1997).
B. Sprinkler spacing and spacing pattern
The primary design objective of a sprinkler system is to apply water and fill the root zone
as uniformly as possible. The wetting pattern of a single sprinkler head is not uniform over the
entire coverage area, that is, a considerable amount of the water fall close to the sprinkler head
and relatively less in the periphery (Figure 28). To achieve good uniformity, the sprinkler heads
should be so placed that they overlap each other. This setting or placement of sprinkler heads is
known as spacing (S). The spacing of the sprinkler heads along the lateral lines is represented in
27
Figure 29 as SL, and the spacing between two laterals along the mainline as Sm. The spacing
geometric pattern can be a square, rectangular, or triangular which determines the maximum
spacing between sprinklers.
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization (n.d)b
Figure 28. Sprinkler head wetting pattern and depth of application
(a) Square (b) Rectangular (c) Triangular
Source: Food & Agriculture Organization (n.d)b
Figure 29. Sprinkler head spacing pattern
C. Types of sprinkler head, size and discharge rate
As mentioned in the beginning of this module, there are two types of sprinkler head used
in irrigation – spray nozzle and rotator sprinkler (see Figure 1). As the name implies, spray nozzle
heads are small nozzles that spray a fan-shaped pattern of water. The basic physics of water
spray limits the distance between nozzle heads of up to 5.5 m (18 ft), which requires between 20
and 30 psi of water pressure at the nozzle.
28
Rotator sprinkler is the name used to describe the various sprinkler heads which operate
by rotating streams of water back and forth, or in circles over the land surface. They can be
spaced from 2.4 to 19.8 m (8 to 65 ft) apart. The pressure requirement can be estimated through
a rule of thumb, which states that “the water pressure at the rotator sprinkler head must exceed
the distance between the heads.” To apply this Stryker’s Rule, if for example the rotator sprinkler
heads are spaced 10 m (33 ft) apart, then 33 psi of pressure at the rotator sprinkle head is
needed. To account for pressure lost in the pipeline, valves and other fittings as the water flows
to the sprinkler heads, add about 5 psi to be safe.
A “hybrid” of the aforementioned head types is also available. It is called rotary nozzle,
which uses multiple streams of water that rotate around the nozzle and look like rotating spider
legs as shown in Figure 30. Rotary nozzle is more efficient than the traditional spray nozzle
because it produces less mist, which evaporates before it reaches the ground (Stryker, 1997).
Since different models are available in the market, all the designer needs to do is to
select one type, brand and model, and take cognizance of its specifications particularly
operating pressure, discharge or precipitation rate and wetted diameter. Match these
information with other operational requirements of the sprinkler irrigation system such as spacing
of laterals and sprinkler heads, required application rate and other performance characteristics.
(a) Rotary nozzle (b) Spray pattern
Source: Blue Thumb Distributing, Inc. (2017) Source: Rain Bird (n.d)
Figure 30. Spray pattern of rotary nozzle sprinkler head
The discharge requirement of a sprinkler irrigation system determines the size of the
sprinkler head used. When the application rate and spacing have been determined, the
required sprinkler head capacity can be calculated by the following formula.
In English units:
(Eq. 1a)
29
In metric units:
(Eq. 1b)
where: q Sprinkler discharge or precipitation rate. gallons per minute (gpm) or

liters per second (li/sec)
Sm Spacing of laterals on the mainline, ft or m
Sl Spacing of sprinkler heads on the lateral pipe, ft or m
r Application rate, inch per hour (iph) or centimeter per hour (cm/hr)
(see Table 1)
Each type of sprinkler head has certain distribution pattern characteristics that change
as nozzle size and operating pressure change. All sprinkler manufacturers provide specifications
for each of their products, which typically include the operating pressure, discharge or
precipitation rate, and wetted diameter. For best results, the selection of appropriate sprinkler
head suitable for a given field condition should be made in accordance with these
recommendations.
Higher water pressure results in both higher flow rate and wider wetted diameter.
Spacing of laterals (Sm) and sprinkler heads (SL) are influenced by the wetted diameter of the
sprinkler head. Since the initial choice or “educated guess” of spacing in Equation 1 can be
adjusted later in the design process, other considerations such as wind velocity, uniformity of
distribution and other factors are essential in the selection of the final spacing later.
D. Sprinkler head operating pressure
Operating pressure is the pressure that needs to be present at the sprinkler head inlet for
it to operate satisfactorily. For a given pressure, larger drops are obtained from a large nozzle
size and fine spray from a small nozzle. Within reasonable limits, higher pressures produce more
uniform distribution patterns. To accomplish this, Table 3 gives the required operating pressure for
different nozzle sizes. Single-nozzle sprinkler heads require about 5 psi more than the value shown
in the table for two-nozzle sprinklers to produce a good pattern.
Table 3. Operating pressure requirement of different nozzle sizes to achieve uniform distribution
Nozzle Size Adequate Break-up (psi) Optimum Break-up (psi)
1/8” – 11/64” 30 40 – 50
3/16” – 7/32” 40 50 – 60
1/4” – 3/8” 50 60 – 70
Source: United States Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Service (1997)
30
In Appendix Table 4, the general performance data of typical sprinkler nozzles such as
operating pressure, discharge or precipitation rate and wetted diameter are given. These values
and other specific nozzle characteristics should be cross-referenced with manufacturers’
catalogue.
Both Table 3 and Appendix Table 4 are used in selecting the appropriate nozzle size to
use.
Example 1 – Determining design specifications of sprinkler head
Problem: Consider a periodic hand-moved lateral sprinkler irrigation system for a

relatively flat rainfed farm in Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur. Cropping pattern is
upland rice-hybrid corn-mungbean. The average wind speed
throughout the year is about 2.5 meters per second (mps) with variable
directions depending on season. The soil is silt loam underlain by a
hardpan at about 1.5 m below the soil surface. Assume other data, if
necessary. Determine the design specifications of sprinkler heads in terms
of:
a. nozzle size;
b. nozzle operating pressure; and
c. spacing of laterals and sprinklers.
Solution:
A. Nozzle size
Consider Equation
1b:
Assume Based on the United States Department of

“educated guess” Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation
spacing of laterals Service (1997) recommendations, the spacing
(Sm) and sprinkler can be = 9 x 12 m
heads (SL):
A rectangular pattern is selected because the
wind direction is variable. But then the laterals
should be laid perpendicular to the dominant
wind direction in the area.
Identify which of Based on Martin, Kincaid & Lyle (2007) findings

the 9 x 12 m that “it is more economical to space sprinklers
spacing is for closer together along the lateral rather than
laterals and space laterals closer together along the
sprinkler heads: mainline,” the spacings should be:
31
Lateral (Sm) = 12 m along

the
mainline
Sprinkler head (SL) = 9 m along

the lateral
From Table 1, For relatively flat (<5 % slope) silt loam soil
determine the underlain by a hardpan at about 1.5 m below
maximum the surface,
application rate
(rmax) to avoid Maximum application rate (r max) = 0.8 cm/hr
puddling and
runoff:
Solve for discharge Substituting values in the equation:

or precipitation
rate (qS) of the
sprinkler nozzle
using Equation 1b,
thus: qS = [(9 m)(12 m)(0.8 cm/hr)]/360 = 0.24 li/sec
or
0.24 li/sec x 60 sec/1 min x 1 gal/3.78 li = 3.81 gpm
Note that this 3.81 gpm discharge is based on

the recommended maximum application rate
of 0.8 cm/hr for silt loam soils. Higher discharge
values than this may cause potential problems
on puddling and runoff.
From Appendix The appropriate nozzle size to use = 1/8 in

Table 4, select
appropriate nozzle Note that other sprinkler nozzles with equivalent
size that could discharge rates or less can be selected. In this
discharge the example, however, there is no other choice for
required nozzle size that has a discharge rate of 3.81 gpm
application rate: or less but 1/8” nozzle.
B. Nozzle operating pressure
From Table 3, For 1/8” nozzle size,

determine the
optimum Optimum operating pressure to achieve uniform
operating pressure distribution = 40 to 50 psi
to achieve uniform
distribution: Thus, the average operating pressure = 45 psi
32
C. Spacing of laterals and sprinklers
From Table 2, Note from Appendix Table 4 that the 45 psi

adjust the average operating pressure for 1/8” nozzle will
“educated guess” discharge 3.1 gpm at 23 .5 m (77 ft) wetted
spacing to diameter.
account for the
effects of wind: For 2.5 mps wind speed and based on effective
wetted diameter of sprinkler,
Maximum lateral spacing = 50 %

Maximum sprinkler spacing = 35 %
Design lateral spacing (Sm) = (23.5 m)(0.50)

= 11.75 m ≈ 11 m along
the
mainline
Design sprinkler spacing (SL) = (23.5 m)(0.35)
= 8.22 m ≈ 8 m along
the lateral
Note that these design maximum spacing are

based on a 45 psi average nozzle operating
pressure. Likewise, these spacings were originally
set at 9 x 12 m (educate guess) and now
adjusted based on the wetted diameter of the
selected nozzle size (manufacturer
recommendation) to account for the effects of
wind. It does not matter much if these spacings
are adjusted shorter for convenience to suit the
length of the pipe sections. Besides, by shorter
adjustments made, the incidence of dry spots or
areas not adequately watered is lessened.
Therefore, the sprinkler irrigation system under consideration must have the following technical
specifications:
Type of sprinkler system desired: Periodic hand-moved lateral

Nozzle size: 1/8”
Peak discharge: 3.2 gpm
Operating pressure: 40 to 50 psi (Ave. = 45 psi)
Wetted diameter: 23 to 24 m (76 to 78 ft)
Lateral spacing along the mainline: 11 m
Sprinkler spacing along the lateral: 8m
More of these specifications in Example 2.

33
E. Capacity of laterals
To determine the discharge capacity of laterals, multiply the number of sprinkler heads
on a lateral by its precipitation rate (q) at average operating pressure. The pipe size of laterals is
based on this discharge capacity. Adding the capacities of all laterals operating simultaneously
will give the peak requirement for the mainline, which is the basis in the selection of the main
pipe size.
F. Pressure loss
Pressure losses due to friction are the principal consideration in the design of any pipe
system. Loss of pressure occurs both in the pipeline and component valves, fittings and other
accessories. These losses are important in the design of sprinkler (also drip) irrigation systems. To
calculate pressure loss, the Darcy-Weisbach and the Hazen-Williams equations are widely used.
There are also several methods to calculate pressure loss in valves, fittings and other accessories
but the K-value and equivalent length methods are the most preferred.
Using the Hazen-Williams equation, the United States Department of Agriculture-Natural

Resources Conservation Service (1997) determined the friction head loss in pipes commonly
used for sprinkler irrigation system such as aluminum, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes. Their findings are given in Appendix Table 5. In this module, only
the friction loss in PVC pipes are presented.
When the allowable friction loss and the discharge capacity required have been
determined, the appropriate pipe size is selected from Appendix Table 5. The friction loss given
therein is based on standard dimension ratio (SDR) equal to 21. To find friction head loss in PVC
pipes having an SDR value other than 21, the value in the table should be multiplied by the
appropriate conversion factor indicated below the said table, which can be interpolated. For
flow rates higher than 500 gpm and pipes larger than 6 inches, refer to the United States
Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Service (1997). See “References” for
the web address.
If the pipeline is of the same pipe size, friction losses for its entire length can be computed
by assuming there is no outlet in the line, and then applying a correction factor (Fn) based on
the number of outlets (Table 4). This correction factor accounts for the friction loss through the
outlets and component valves, fittings, and other accessories.
Table 4. Correction factor for multiple outlets*

Number of Outlet Correction Factor (Fn)
1 1.000
2 0.634
3 0.528
4 0.480
5 0.451
34
Table 4. (continued)
Number of Outlet Correction Factor (Fn)
6 0.433
7 0.419
8 0.410
9 0.402
10 0.396
11 0.392
12 0.388
13 0.384
14 0.381
15 0.379
16 0.377
17 0.375
18 0.373
19 0.372
20 0.370
21 0.369
22 0.368
23 0.367
24 0.366
25 0.365
26 0.364
27 0.364
28 0.363
29 0.363
30 0.362
* Values assume equal sprinkler spacing and flows.
1. Laterals laid on level ground
For laterals laid on level ground, the allowable pressure loss due to friction is determined
by the formula:
35
(Eq. 2)
where: Pf Allowable friction head loss in the lateral, feet H2O per 100 feet of
lateral with 30-foot sections
Pa Average operating pressure of the sprinkler head, psi
2.31 Conversion factor from psi to ft H2O
L Total length of laterals operating simultaneously, ft
Fn Correction factor for number of sprinkler heads in the lateral section,
dimensionless (see Table 4)
Equation 2 is based on 9 m (30 ft) sections. If 6 m (20 ft) sections are used, divide the Pf by
1.07; if 12 m (40 ft) sections are used, divide by 0.97. Note that the standard full length of pipes
available in the Philippine market usually comes in 6 m (20 ft) length.
Pf is used to determine the pipe diameter using Appendix Table 5. The tabular value must
be equal to or less than the design Pf, otherwise the irrigation system will not work. If Pf is too high,
it can be reduced by selecting a relatively bigger pipe diameter to reduce the flow velocity.
Consequently, the cost of the pipe will be more expensive. In selecting pipe diameter, a
balance between Pf and cost of pipe which redounds to lowest annual water application cost is
the ultimate objective.
2. Laterals laid uphill or downhill
For laterals laid uphill or downhill, the elevation difference must be considered. Equation
2 is also used but the numerator is changed, thus:
(Eq. 3)
where: Pe Pressure difference due to elevation between the first and the last
sprinkler heads on the lateral, psi
Add (+) Pe from Pa when the lateral is laid uphill, that is, the lateral
connection in the mainline is lower than the elevation of the lateral
distal end.
Subtract (-) Pe from Pa when the lateral is laid downhill, that is, the
lateral connection in the mainline is higher than the elevation of the
lateral distal end.
36
G. Pressure requirement of mainline
To determine the required pressure at the mainline, the pressure required to lift the water
through the riser pipe (Pr) must be considered in the design. For different field layout conditions,
the following equations are used:
1. Mainline laid on level ground
Pm = Pa + ¾ Pf + Pr (Eq. 4)
2. Mainline laid uphill
Pm = Pa + ¾ (Pf + Pe) + Pr (Eq. 5)
3. Mainline laid downhill
Pm = Pa + ¾ (Pf – Pe) + Pr (Eq. 6)
where: Pm Pressure requirement at the mainline, psi

Pr Pressure required to lift the water through the riser pipe, psi
¾ Factor that provides for the average operating pressure at the center
of the mainline rather than at the distal end
H. Capacity of sprinkler irrigation system
The capacity of sprinkler irrigation system required depends on the irrigated area, the
crop water requirement, time of application, and irrigation efficiency. Similarly with discharge of
sprinkler heads, this can be calculated by unity of units:
(Eq. 7)
where: Q Required flow rate

A Irrigated area
d Depth of application
t Operating hours
Eff Application efficiency, decimal
37
Contrary to usual practice, there is no unit indicated for the above parameters because
the units must necessarily be unified in the actual application of Equation 7. This is illustrated in
Example 2.
When sprinkler irrigation is used, the farm is usually divided into manageable sizes or areas
(A) to be irrigated. This is called irrigation zone. By this zoning practice, the cost of the piping
system is significantly reduced because the number of laterals to be provided is limited. While
the mainline (sometimes with sub-mainlines) can be permanently laid to cover the whole farm,
the laterals used to water a given irrigation zone are movable and can be used from one
irrigation zone to another after completing the prior irrigation set. By doing so, it is essential that
the prior order of irrigating the zones should be followed in the next irrigation set so that the
amount of soil moisture in the root zone in these irrigation zones is within the maximum allowable
depletion (MAD).
The depth of application (d) refers to the crop water requirement (CWR). This is
determined by Equation 5 in Module No. 6 (Irrigation Scheduling). Note that in the design of
sprinkler irrigation system and in using Equation 5, CWR should be based on the average ETc.
The operating hour (t) refers to the time elapsed to apply the CWR and leaching
requirements, if necessary, to fill the root zone without runoff and excessive deep percolation.
Because the area of the irrigation zone is manageably small, the sprinkler system operating hour
usually takes only a few hours. Among the parameters in Equation 7, the time to operate the
sprinkler system is dependent on the designed values of Q, A, d and efficiency.
The application efficiency of sprinkler irrigation system is a function of the depth (d) and
rate (r) of water application, and wind velocity. All these factors are directly proportional to
application efficiency, that is, as they increase so with efficiency. Table 5 gives the efficiencies
for a well-planned system.
Table 5. Water application efficiencies for well-planned sprinkler irrigation systems

Depth of Application Wind Velocity (mps)
Application Rate < 1.9 1.9 to 4.7 > 4.7 Up to 7.0
(mm) (mm/hr) Application Efficiency (%)*
< 50 < 12.5 65 60 55
> 12.5 75 65 60
> 50 < 12.5 70 65 60
> 12.5 75 70 65
* Use efficiencies 5 percent higher than shown for areas where peak ETc rates are less than
5 mm/day.
I. Mainline design
Designing mainline involves the selection of a pipe size that is capable to carry the rate
of flow required at acceptable pressure head losses due to friction and elevation of the sprinkler
riser. The peak flow rate for the mainline is determined by adding the capacities of all laterals
38
operating simultaneously. To determine friction head loss in the mainline, Appendix Table 5 is also
used. Elevation head loss is determined by the difference in elevation between the pump and
the highest possible installation setting of the sprinkler heads.
The allowable pressure loss in the mainline should be kept under 4 psi (Stryker, 1977), with
6 psi being the maximum advisable (United States Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources
Conservation Service, 1997).
Example 2 – Determining design specifications of lateral and mainline
Problem: Consider the same sprinkler irrigation system in Example 1 with the
following design specifications based on conditions previously indicated:
Type of sprinkler system desired: Periodic hand-moved lateral

Nozzle size: 1/8”
Sprinkler spacing along the lateral: 8m
The system is equipped with a pressure regulator to maintain the system

operating pressure at optimum level at all times. Ten 12-m lateral sections
are used to irrigate one zone. To irrigate corn which grows as tall as 2.0 m
(6.5 ft including tassel) at maturity, the riser height should be raised up to
3 m (10 ft). Assume other data, if necessary.
Determine:
a. lateral specifications in terms of allowable friction head loss,

discharge capacity, and pipe size;
b. mainline specifications in terms of allowable friction head loss,
discharge capacity, and pipe size;
c. system operating pressure requirement;
d. operating hours of the sprinkler irrigation system; and
e. final design specifications.
Solution:
A. Lateral allowable friction loss
Since the farm is

relatively flat,
consider
Equation 2:
39
Determine number By graphical solution for 12 m lateral section:

of sprinkler heads
per lateral (nL):
nL = 2 sprinklers
per lateral
Therefore, there are 20 sprinkler nozzles (10
laterals x 2 sprinklers/lateral) operating
simultaneously per irrigation zone.
From Table 4, For 2 sprinkler outlets per lateral, Fn = 0.634

determine
correction factor
(Fn) for multiple
outlets:
Solve for allowable Substituting values in the equation:

friction loss in the
laterals (PfL) using
Equation 2, thus:
PfL = [(0.20)(45 psi)(2.31 ft/1 psi)]/

[(393.6 ft/100 ft)(0.634)] = 8.33 ft H2O
Since the length of lateral section is 12 m, the

corrected PfL = 8.33 ft H2O/0.97 = 8.59 ft H2O
B. Lateral discharge requirement
Determine qL = 3.2 gpm/sprinkler x 2 sprinklers = 6.4 gpm

discharge per
lateral (qL):
C. Lateral pipe size
From Appendix In selecting pipe size from Appendix Table 5, the

Table 5, determine tabular value must be equal to or less than the
lateral pipe size at design Pf. If Pf is higher, it can be reduced by
allowable friction selecting a bigger pipe diameter.
loss (PfL) and
required flow rate For PfL of 8.59 ft H2O and qL of 6.4 gpm, any of
(qL): the pipe sizes from 1” to 3” at rated discharge
capacity of 8 gpm can be used.
40
For economy, however, use lateral pipe size = 1 in Ø PVC
Note that the flow rate of this 1” PVC lateral pipe

must not be lower than 6.4 gpm up to 15 gpm
maximum, otherwise the system will not work. This
can be accomplished by proper pump selection
(see Equation 11, Module No. 6 – Pumps and
Pumping).
For simplicity of connection, the riser tube and

the lateral can be of the same size.
D. Mainline and sub-mains allowable friction loss
Consider
Equations 2 and 4
for allowable
pressure loss (PfM)
and pressure
requirement (Pm) in
mainline and sub- Pm = Pa + ¾ Pf + Pr
main laid on level
ground:
Determine total Assume mainline length is 54 m and length of 2

length of mainline sub-mains is also 54 m (27 m x 2) [see field layout
and sub-mains at the end of this example],
supplying 10
laterals per Total length of mainline and sub-mains
irrigation zone: = 54 m + 54 m = 108 m
or
108 m (3.28 ft/1 m) = 354.24 ft
From Table 4, For 10 lateral outlets per irrigation zone,

determine Fn = 0.396
correction factor
(Fn) for multiple
outlets:
Solve for allowable Substituting values in the equation:

friction loss in the
main and sub-
mains (PfM) using
Equation 2, thus:
PfM = [(0.20)(45 psi)(2.31 ft/1 psi)]/

[(354. 24 ft/100 ft)(0.396)] = 14.82 ft H2O
41
or
14.82 ft (1 psi/2.31 ft H2O = 6.42 psi
E. Main and sub-mains discharge requirement
Solve for main and The peak discharge requirement of main and
sub-mains sub-mains is determined by adding the
discharge capacities of all laterals operating simultaneously,
requirement: thus:
Q = 10 laterals x 6.4 gpm/lateral = 64 gpm
F. Main and sub-mains pipe size
From Appendix For PfM of 14.82 ft H2O and Qm of 64 gpm,

Table 5, determine
main and sub- Main and sub-mains pipe size = 2 in Ø PVC
mains pipe size at
allowable friction Note that a 1-1/2” PVC pipe will not work
loss (PfM) and because its Pf of 15.85 ft H2O at 65 gpm
required flow rate discharge exceeds the allowable limit. Hence,
(QM): the next bigger size is selected.
G. System operating pressure requirement
Solve for system Substituting values in the equation:

operating pressure
requirement in Pm = Pa + ¾ Pf + Pr
main and sub-
mains (Pm) laid on Pm = 45 psi + ¾ (6.42 psi) + 10 ft (1 psi/2.31 ft) = 54.14 psi
level ground using
Equation 4, thus: Since the recommended maximum total pressure
loss in the mainline and sub-mains is 6 psi (United
States Department of Agriculture-Natural
Resources Conservation Service, 1997), the
Design operating pressure in the mainline and

sub-mains = 54.14 + 6 psi = 60.14 psi
or
Required system operating pressure ≈ 60 psi
Note that in order for this sprinkler irrigation system

to operate properly, the system operating
pressure must not at any time be lower than 60
psi. This can be accomplished by installing a
pressure regulator.
42
Determine actual The actual system operating pressure setting must

field setting of the be = (1.15)(60 psi) = 69 ≈ 70 psi
system operating
pressure: Note that if the sprinkler system is provided with a
design operating pressure of 70 psi, the pressure
regulator to be installed between the pump and
the mainline emergency shut-off valve will
maintain about 60 psi (15 % less of system setting)
of pressure at the mainline and sub-mains at all
times.
Note also that, according to Stryker, 1997), the

operating pressure of sprinkler (also drip) irrigation
systems must not exceed 100 psi to avoid
damage to the system components due to
pressure surge caused by “water hammer” or
hydraulic jump. This happens when the flow is
abruptly stopped by a solenoid valve.
H. Operating hours
Consider Equation
7 to determine the
system operating
time (t):
Solve for area (A) By graphical solution, the dimensions of one (1)
of irrigation zone irrigation zone:
using the formula
for area of a
rectangle, thus:
One set of 5 laterals with 2 sprinklers per lateral

(Not drawn to scale)
1 irrigation zone = 2 sets lateral
Thus,
Length = 4(11 m) + 2 end (23 m/2) = 67 m
Width = 1(8 m) + 2 ends (23 m/2) = 31 m

43
Irrigation zone area (A) = 2 sets (length)(width)

= 2 (67 m)(31 m) = 4,154 m2
From Table 5, The cropping pattern is upland rice-hybrid corn-

determine mungbean wherein rice being an aquatic plant
application has the highest CWR among the said crops.
efficiency (Eff): Hence, consider CWR of rice as the peak depth
of application of the sprinkler system, which
should be determined based on the average
ETc. Note that the depth of application (d) is
represented in Equation 5 in Module 6 of this
course as depth of readily available moisture
(dRAM).
Assume dRAM of rice when grown on silt loam

(d) = 30 mm
Assume average ETc of rice when grown from

July through October in Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur = 4.0 mm/day
Assume peak ETc of rice when grown from July

through October in Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur = 4.8 mm/day
From Example 1 (based on Table 1), the

maximum application rate (rmax) to avoid
puddling and runoff = 0.8 cm/hr
or 80 mm/hr
For d = 30 mm (< 50 mm), rmax = 80 mm/hr (> 12.5

mm/hr) and wind speed = 2.5 mps, application
efficiency (Eff) = 65 %
Since the assumed peak ETc = 4.8 mm/day (< 5

mm/day), add 5 percent to the tabular value,
thus:
Eff to be used in Equation 7 = 65 + 5 = 70 %
Note that the actual theoretical values of the

assumed parameters above can be determined
using equations. For dRAM, see Module No. 6
(Irrigation Scheduling) of this course. For ETc, see
Laboratory Exercise No. 3/Problem Set No. 1 of AE
163 (Hydrology).
Solve for operating Substituting values in the equation:

hours (t) using
Equation 7, thus:
44
Re-arranging the equation:
t = (A x d)/(Q x Eff)
A= 4,154 m2
d = 30 mm x (1 m/1000 mm) = 0.03 m
Q = 64.2 gal/min x (1 m3/264.17 gal) x
(60 min/1 hr )= 14.58 m3/hr
t = [(4,154 m2)(0.03 m)]/[(14.58 m3/hr)(0.70)] = 12.21 hrs
or 12 hrs
13 min
Note that the operating time of this sprinkler
irrigation system is good only for irrigation
scheduling of upland rice grown under both
stipulated and assumed conditions above. There
should be separate and specific irrigation
schedules for corn and mungbean, and for any
other crops for that matter, wherein the
operating time differs because of factors
discussed above.
Therefore, the final design specifications of the sprinkler irrigation system under consideration
are, as follows:
Type of sprinkler irrigation system: Periodic hand-moved lateral
Sprinkler:
Type: Rotary nozzle
Nozzle size: 1/8”
Number of sprinklers per lateral: 2
Nozzle spacing along the lateral: 8m
Lateral:
Type of pipe: PVC
Size: 1” Ø
Discharge requirement per lateral: 6.4 gpm
Number of laterals: 10
Length of lateral sections: 12 m
45
Mainline and sub-mains:

Type of pipe: PVC
Size: 2” Ø
System operating pressure: 70 psi
Required discharge: 14.58 m3/hr
Discharge rate: 80 mm/hr
Area of irrigation zone: 4,154 m2
System efficiency: 70 %
Operating time per irrigation zone: 12 hours, 13 minutes
I. Source of pressure
Consider a pump Hydraulic problems concerning flow of water are

system capable of handled by accounting the energy per weight of
providing sufficient flowing water from Point 1 (source) to Point 2
pressure to run the (sprinkler heads). This energy accounting is known
sprinkler irrigation as the Bernoulli’s energy balance equation. The
system: total amount of energy or hydraulic head (H) is
that caused by the pressure head, plus the
motion or velocity head, plus the potential head
caused by elevation difference between the
source of water and sprinkler heads, plus head
loss due to friction. The water pump system must
be able to provide this H requirement of the
sprinkler irrigation system in order for it to work
properly. These are discussed in Module No. 7 of
this course.
The field layout per irrigation zone is shown overleaf:

46
Not drawn to scale

47
Passing Score: 75 points

Due Date: ASAP but not later than ____________________________________.
Penalty for Late Submission: 5 points deduction per day of delay
If space is not enough, continue at the left-side directly opposite the item being answered.
1. Differentiate the different types of sprinkler irrigation system. (10 pts)

48
2. What are the data and information needed in the design of sprinkler irrigation system?
Discuss briefly the importance of each. (10 pts)
3. What are the design conditions to be considered for proper operations of the sprinkler
heads, laterals, and main and sub-mains? (15 pts)
49
4. Design a sprinkler irrigation system in terms of nozzle size, nozzle operating pressure, spacing
of laterals and sprinklers, lateral allowable friction head loss, lateral discharge capacity,
lateral pipe size, mainline and sub-mains allowable friction head loss, mainline and sub-mains
discharge capacity, mainline and sub-mains pipe size, system operating pressure
requirement, and operating hours of the sprinkler irrigation system. Prepare also the final
design specifications and field layout. Assume all data and information needed in the
design. These assumptions are where you differ from your classmates. (50 pts)
50
51
5. Relative to Item 4, prepare the bill of materials and determine the total cost of the designed
sprinkler irrigation system. (15 pts)
BILL OF MATERIALS
_______________________Sprinkler Irrigation System

(specify type)
Qty Unit Specifications Unit Cost Total Cost

(PhP)* (PhP)*
* Prices as of November 2018

52
Appendix Table 1. Available water capacity (AWC) by texture

Soil Texture Water Holding Capacity (inches per foot of soil)
Coarse sand 0.25 – 0.75
Fine sand 0.75 – 1.00
Loamy sand 1.10 – 1.20
Sandy loam 1.25 – 1.40
Fine sandy loam 1.50 – 2.00
Silt loam 2.00 – 2.50
Silty clay loam 1.80 – 2.00
Silty clay 1.50 – 1.70
Clay 1.20 – 1.50
Source: Plant and Soil Science eLibrary (2018)
53
Appendix Table 2. Maximum allowable depletion and maximum root depth for selected field
crops and orchards during their most sensitive growth stage and grown under normal conditions
Crop Maximum Allowable Depletion Effective
(MAD)1 Root Zone Depth (RZD)2
(for ET ≈ 5 mm/day) (m)
A. Small Vegetables
Broccoli 0.45 0.40 – 0.60

Cabbage 0.45 0.50 – 0.80
Carrots 0.35 0.50 – 1.00
Cauliflower 0.45 0.40 – 0.70
Celery 0.20 0.30 – 0.50
Garlic 0.30 0.30 – 0.50
Lettuce 0.30 0.30 – 0.50
Onion 0.30 – 0.60 0.30
Spinach 0.20 0.30 – 0.50
Radish 0.30 0.30 – 0.50
B. Vegetables – Solarium
Eggplant 0.45 0.7-1.2

Sweet pepper (bell) 0.30 0.5-1.0
Tomato 0.40 0.7-1.5
C. Vegetables – Cucurbitaceae
Cantaloupe 0.45 0.9-1.5

Cucumber 0.7-1.2 0.50
Squash 0.50 0.6-1.0
Watermelon 0.40 0.8-1.5
D. Roots and tubers
Cassava
- year 1 0.5-0.8 0.35
- year 2 0.7-1.0 0.40
Potato 0.35 0.4-0.6
Sweet Potato 0.65 1.0-1.5
54
Appendix Table 2. (continued)

E. Leguminoceae
Beans, green 0.45 0.5-0.7
Beans, dry 0.45 0.6-0.9
Beans, lima, large vines 0.45 0.8-1.2
Chickpea 0.50 0.6-1.0
Cowpea 0.45 0.60 – 1.00
Garbanzo 0.45 0.6-1.0
Groundnut (Peanut) 0.50 0.5-1.0
Soybeans 0.50 0.6-1.3
F. Perennial vegetables
Asparagus 0.45 1.2-1.8

Strawberries 0.20 0.2-0.3
G. Fiber crops
Cotton 0.65 1.0-1.7

H. Oil crops
Castor bean 0.50 1.0-2.0

Rapeseed, Canola 0.60 1.0-1.5
Sesame 0.60 1.0-1.5
Sunflower 0.45 0.8-1.5
I. Cereals
Maize, grain 0.55 1.0-1.7

Maize, sweet 0.50 0.8-1.2
Sorghum
- grain 1.0-2.0 0.55
- sweet 1.0-2.0 0.50
Rice 0.20 0.5-1.0
55

J. Forages
Bermuda 1.00 – 1.50 0.55

Grazing pasture
- Rotated grazing 0.5-1.5 0.60
- Extensive grazing 0.5-1.5 0.60
K. Plantation crops, Tropical fruits, and orchards
Banana
- 1st year 0.5-0.9 0.35
- 2nd year 0.5-0.9 0.35
Cacao 0.30 0.7-1.0
Coffee 0.40 0.9-1.5
Pineapple 0.50 0.3-0.6
Rubber Trees 0.40 1.0-1.5
Sugarcane 0.65 1.2-2.0
L. Grapes
Grapes
- Table or Raisin 1.0-2.0 0.35
- Wine 1.0-2.0 0.45
56

M. Fruit trees
Avocado 0.70 0.5-1.0

Citrus
- 70% canopy 1.2-1.5 0.50
- 50% canopy 1.1-1.5 0.50
- 20% canopy 0.8-1.1 0.50
1 The values for MAD apply for ETc ≈ 5 mm/day, which can be adjusted for different ETc
according to: MAD = MADTable + 0.04 (5 – ETc); where MAD is expressed as a fraction and ETc
as mm/day.
2 The larger values for RZD are for soils having no significant layering or other characteristics that
can restrict rooting depth. The smaller values must be used for irrigation scheduling and the
larger values for modeling soil water stress or for rainfed conditions.
3 Sugar beets often experience late afternoon wilting in arid climates even at MAD< 0.55, with
usually only minor impact on sugar yield.
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization (n.d)a
57
Appendix Table 3. Classification of salinity hazards of irrigation water

Electrical Conductivity (EC) Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Salinity Hazard Classification
(mmhos/cm or dS/m) (ppm) and Effects on Management
Below 0.25 Below 160 Excellent. No detrimental
effects on plants, and no soil
buildup expected.
0.25 – 0.75 160 – 480 Good. Sensitive plants may

show stress; moderate
leaching prevents salt
accumulation in soil.
0.75 – 2.0 480 – 1,280 Permissible. Salinity may

adversely affect plants.
Requires selection of salt
tolerant plants, careful
irrigation and good drainage.
Leaching needed if used.
2.0 – 3.0 1,280 – 1,920 Doubtful. Will require careful

management to raise most
crops. Good drainage
needed and sensitive plants
will have difficulty obtaining
stands.
Above 3.0 Above 1,920 Unsuitable. Generally

unacceptable for irrigation,
except for very salt-tolerant
plants where there is
excellent drainage, frequent
leaching, and intensive
management.
Sensitive plants will have
difficulty obtaining stands.
Source: Hopkins, Horneck, Stevens, Ellsworth & Sullivan (2007)

58
Appendix Table 4. Performance data of typical sprinkler nozzles

Operating Nozzle Size (in)
Pressure 1/8 5/32 11/64 3/16 13/64 7/32 1/4 9/32
(psi) q D q D q D q D q D q D q D q D
30 2.5 74
35 2.7 75
40 2.9 76
45 3.1 77 4.7 89 5.7 94 6.8 98 8.1 111 9.4 123
50 3.2 78 5.0 90 6.0 95 7.2 100 8.5 113 9.9 125 12.9 124
55 3.4 79 5.2 91 6.3 96 7.5 101 8.9 115 10.4 127 13.6 126 17.0 140
60 3.6 80 5.4 92 6.6 97 7.8 102 9.2 116 10.9 129 14.2 128 17.9 143
65 5.7 93 6.8 98 8.2 103 9.5 117 11.4 131 14.8 130 18.7 146
70 5.9 94 7.1 99 8.5 104 9.8 118 11.8 134 15.4 132 19.5 150
75 16.0 134 20.3 153
80 21.1 157
q – Discharge or precipitation rate per sprinkler head, gallons per minute (gpm)
D – Wetted diameter, feet (ft)
Data from United States Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Service (1997)
59
Appendix Table 5. Friction head loss in plastic irrigation pipes made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC)*
Flow Rate Pipe Size
(Q, gpm) 1” 1-1/4” 1-1/2” 2” 2-1/2” 3” 3-1/2” 4” 5” 6”
Friction Head Loss (Pf, feet water column)
2 0.15 0.04 0.02
4 0.54 0.17 0.09 0.03 0.01
6 1.15 0.37 0.19 0.06 0.02
8 1.97 0.63 0.32 0.11 0.04 0.01
10 2.98 0.95 0.49 0.16 0.06 0.02 0.01
15 6.32 2.03 1.04 0.35 0.14 0.05 0.02 0.01
20 10.79 3.46 1.78 0.60 0.23 0.09 0.04 0.02
25 16.30 5.22 2.70 0.91 0.36 0.13 0.07 0.04 0.01
30 22.86 7.32 3.78 1.27 0.50 0.19 0.10 0.05 0.02
35 9.75 5.03 1.70 0.67 0.25 0.13 0.07 0.02 0.01
40 12.46 6.46 2.18 0.86 0.32 0.17 0.09 0.03 0.01
45 15.51 8.02 2.71 1.07 0.40 0.21 0.12 0.04 0.01
50 18.87 9.75 3.30 1.30 0.49 0.25 0.14 0.05 0.02
55 22.48 11.64 3.94 1.54 0.59 0.30 0.17 0.06 0.02
60 13.64 4.62 1.81 0.69 0.36 0.20 0.07 0.03
65 15.85 5.36 2.10 0.80 0.41 0.23 0.08 0.03
70 18.19 6.14 2.42 0.92 0.47 0.27 0.09 0.04
75 20.65 6.99 2.75 1.06 0.55 0.31 0.11 0.04
80 23.28 7.86 3.10 1.19 0.62 0.35 0.12 0.05
60

Flow Rate Pipe Size
(Q, gpm) 1” 1-1/4” 1-1/2” 2” 2-1/2” 3” 3-1/2” 4” 5” 6”
85 8.81 3.47 1.33 0.69 0.39 0.14 0.05
90 9.79 3.85 1.48 0.77 0.43 0.15 0.06
95 10.82 4.25 1.64 0.85 0.48 0.17 0.07
100 11.89 4.69 1.80 0.93 0.52 0.19 0.07
110 14.21 5.59 2.14 1.11 0.63 0.22 0.09
120 16.69 6.56 2.52 1.31 0.74 0.26 0.10
130 19.35 7.63 2.92 1.53 0.85 0.30 0.12
140 22.21 8.73 3.36 1.75 0.98 0.35 0.14
150 9.94 3.82 1.99 1.11 0.40 0.16
160 11.20 4.29 2.24 1.26 0.44 0.19
170 12.51 4.80 2.50 1.41 0.49 0.21
180 13-90 5.35 2.79 1.57 0.55 0.24
190 15.39 5.92 3.08 1.73 0.61 0.26
200 16.91 6.50 3.38 1.90 0.67 0.29
220 20.19 7.77 4.04 2.28 0.81 0.34
240 23.73 9.12 4.76 2.67 0.95 0.40
260 10.57 5.51 3.10 1.10 0.46
280 12.11 6.32 3.56 1.26 0.54
300 13.78 7.18 4.04 1.43 0.61
61

Flow Rate Pipe Size
(Q, gpm) 1” 1-1/4” 1-1/2” 2” 2-1/2” 3” 3-1/2” 4” 5” 6”
320 15.52 8.10 4.56 1.62 0.69
340 17.37 9.07 5.10 1.82 0.77
360 19.27 10.08 5.67 2.02 0.86
380 21.33 11.13 6.26 2.22 0.95
400 23.45 12.22 6.90 2.45 1.04
420 13.40 7.55 2.69 1.14
440 14.59 8.23 2.92 1.25
460 15.86 8.94 3.18 1.35
480 17.15 9.67 3.44 1.46
500 18.50 10.42 3.70 1.58
* Based on standard dimension ratio (SDR) = 21. To find friction head loss in PVC pipe having a standard dimension ratio other than 21,
the values in the table should be multiplied by the appropriate conversion factor shown below, which can be interpolated:
SDR Conversion Factor

13.5 1.35
17 1.13
21 1.00
26 0.91
32.5 0.84
41 0.785
51 0.75
Abridged from United States Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Service (1997)
62
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https://www.irrigationtutorials.com/landscape-sprinkler-system-design-tutorial/
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types.html
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http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/agricultural_engineering/spring_irrigation.pdf
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http://www.tulsigroup.com/sprinkler_irr/Sprinkler_layout.jpg
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AE 152 M8 - Sprikler Irrigation

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AE 152 M8 - Sprikler Irrigation

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1

Sprinkler Irrigation System

(a) Spray nozzle (b) Rotator sprinkler

Source: Flotec (2018) Source: Nelson Irrigation (2018)

Figure 1. Sprinkler irrigation System

a. Differentiate the different types of sprinkler irrigation system;

d. Design a sprinkler irrigation system in terms of:

I. Components of Sprinkler Irrigation System

Source: Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (n.d)

Figure 2. Components of sprinkler irrigation system

Source: Tulsi Extrusions, Ltd. (n.d)

Figure 3. General field layout of typical sprinkler irrigation system

Source: Stryker (1997)

Figure 4. Pressure regulator

C. Flow sensor/water meter

Source: Solidrop (2018) Source: Fakhri Sons (n.d)

Figure 5. Water metering devices

Source: Antelco (n.d)

Figure 6. Sprinkler riser

Source: www.nbevergreen.cn (n.d)

Figure 7. Different types of sprinkler head

(a) Ordinary coupling (b) Quick-connect coupling

Figure 8. Types of coupler

G. Other fittings and accessories

(a) Flange cum gate valve (b) Nipples

Source: 123RF (2018) Source: Google.com (2018)

Figure 9. Pipe connectors

(a) Ordinary (b) Digital

Source: FLW, Inc. (2018) Source: Omega Engineering, Inc. (2018)

Figure 10. Pressure gauge

Figure 11. Hydrant, reducer, tee and elbow

(a) Valves (b) Bushing & plug

Figure 12. Valves, bushing and plug

Source: RedLeafHeights (n.d)

Figure 13. Filter

Source: IndiaMart, Ltd. (n.d)

Figure 14. Check valve

 Fertilizer applicator (sometimes called fertigator) to enable injection of soluble fertilizers

Source: OM IrriTech, Ltd. (2010)

Figure 15. Commercial-type fertigator

 Solenoid valve is an electro-mechanically actuated or controlled valve. It has a solenoid,

(a) Closed (b) Open

Figure 16. Schematic representation of direct operated solenoid valve

II. Types of Sprinkler Irrigation System

A. Fixed solid set sprinkler irrigation system

Source: All-Biz, Ltd. (2018)

Figure 17. Fixed solid set sprinkler irrigation system

B. Periodic move sprinkler irrigation system

1. Hand move lateral system

Source: Gronwald (n.d)

Figure 18. Hand move lateral system (top view)

2. Side roll system

Source: Irrline Technologies Corporation (n.d)

Figure 19. Side roll system

3. Gun-type or rotator system

Source: Royal Micro Irrigation Systems (n.d)

Figure 20. Compact single gun-type system

C. Continuous move sprinkler irrigation system

Source: Lindsay Corporation (n.d) Source: Western Farm Press (2017)

Figure 21. Center-pivot system

2. Linear move system

Source: Green Agriculture Company (2018)

Figure 22. Linear move system

3. Traveling gun system