Positivism and Interpretivism are the two basic approaches to research methods in

Sociology. Positivist prefer scientific quantitative methods, while Inter-pretivists prefer

humanistic qualitative methods

Realism Research Philosohy. Realism research philosophy relies on the idea of

independence of reality from the human mind. This philosophy is based on the
assumption of a scientific approach to the development of knowledge. ... In other words,
direct realism portrays the world through personal human senses.

Generalization, which is an act of reasoning that involves drawing broad inferences

from particular observations, is widely-acknowledged as a quality standard in
quantitative research, but is more controversial in qualitative research.

The investigation into an issue or topic that looks at the effect of one thing or variable on
another. For example,causal research might be used in a business environment to
quantify the effect that a change to its present operations will have on its future
production levels to assist in the business planning process.

The dependent variable is the variable a researcher is interested inDependent

Variable: A dependent variable is what you measure in the experiment and what is affected
during the experiment. The dependent variableresponds to the independent variable. It is
calleddependent because it "depends" on the independentvariable.

An independent variable is avariable believed to affect the dependent variable. This

is the variable that you, the researcher, will manipulate to see if it makes
the dependent variable change.
In general, a correlational study is a quantitative method of research in which you
have 2 or more quantitative variables from the same group of participants, & you are
trying to determine if there is a relationship (or co-variation) between the 2 variables
(that is, a similarity in pattern of scores between the two.

Causal-comparative research, like correlational research, seeks to identify

associations among variables. Causal-comparative research attempts to determine
the cause or consequences of differences that already exist between or among groups
of individuals.

Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent
results. Types ofReliability. Test-retest reliability is a measure ofreliability obtained
by administering the same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals.

Validity. In its purest sense, this refers to how well a scientific test or piece of
research actually measures what it sets out to, or how well it reflects the reality it claims
to represent.
History of philosophy
See also: Metaphilosophy and History of ethics
Further information: Philosophical progress and List of years in philosophy
Some philosophers specialize in one or more historical periods. The history of philosophy (study of a
specific period, individual or school) is related to but not the same as the philosophy of history (the
theoretical aspect of history, which deals with questions such as the nature of historical evidence and the
possibility of objectivity).

Hegel's Lectures on the Philosophy of History influenced many philosophers to interpret truth in light of
history, a view called historicism.

Philosophy of religion
Main article: Philosophy of religion
Philosophy of religion deals with questions that involve religion and religious ideas from a philosophically
neutral perspective (as opposed to theology which begins from religious convinctions).[68] Traditionally,
religious questions were not seen as a separate field from philosophy proper, the idea of a separate field
only arose in the 19th century.[69]

Issues include the existence of God, the relationship between reason and faith, questions of religious
epistemology, the relationship between religion and science, how to interpret religious experiences,
questions about the possibility of an afterlife, the problem of religious language and the existence of souls
and responses to religious pluralism and diversity.

Philosophical schools
Some philosophers specialize in one or more of the major philosophical schools, such as Continental
philosophy, Analytical philosophy, Thomism, Asian philosophy or African philosophy.

Other approaches
A variety of other academic and non-academic approaches have been explored.

Applied philosophy

Martin Luther King Jr

The ideas conceived by a society have profound repercussions on what actions the society performs.
Weaver argued that ideas have consequences. Philosophy yields applications such as those in ethics –
applied ethics in particular – and political philosophy. The political and economic philosophies of
Confucius, Sun Tzu, Chanakya, Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Taymiyyah, Machiavelli, Leibniz, Hobbes,
Locke, Rousseau, Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, Marx, Tolstoy, Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. have
been used to shape and justify governments and their actions. Progressive education as championed by
Dewey had a profound impact on 20th century US educational practices. Descendants of this movement
include efforts in philosophy for children, which are part of philosophy education. Clausewitz's political
philosophy of war has had a profound effect on statecraft, international politics and military strategy in the
20th century, especially around World War II. Logic is important in mathematics, linguistics, psychology,
computer science and computer engineering.

Other important applications can be found in epistemology, which aid in understanding the requisites for
knowledge, sound evidence and justified belief (important in law, economics, decision theory and a
number of other disciplines). The philosophy of science discusses the underpinnings of the scientific
method and has affected the nature of scientific investigation and argumentation. Philosophy thus has
fundamental implications for science as a whole. For example, the strictly empirical approach of B. F.
Skinner's behaviorism affected for decades the approach of the American psychological establishment.
Deep ecology and animal rights examine the moral situation of humans as occupants of a world that has
non-human occupants to consider also. Aesthetics can help to interpret discussions of music, literature,
the plastic arts and the whole artistic dimension of life. In general, the various philosophies strive to
provide practical activities with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of
their fields.

Society
Some of those who study philosophy become professional philosophers, typically by working as
professors who teach, research and write in academic institutions.[70] However, most students of
academic philosophy later contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, politics, business, or various
arts.[26][71] For example, public figures who have degrees in philosophy include comedians Steve Martin
and Ricky Gervais, filmmaker Terrence Malick, Pope John Paul II, Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger,
technology entrepreneur Peter Thiel, Supreme Court Justice Stephen Bryer and vice presidential
candidate Carly Fiorina.[72][73]

Recent efforts to avail the general public to the work and relevance of philosophers include the million-
dollar Berggruen Prize, first awarded to Charles Taylor in 2016.[74]