MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

UNIAXIAL STRESS-STRAIN Uniaxial Loading and Deformation

Stress-Strain Curve for Mild Steel σ = P/A, where
♦ σ = stress on the cross section,
P = loading, and
A = cross-sectional area.
ε = δ/L, where
δ = longitudinal deformation and
L = length of member.
P A
E=σ ε=
δL
PL
δ=
AE

THERMAL DEFORMATIONS
The slope of the linear portion of the curve equals the δt = αL (Τ – Τo), where
modulus of elasticity.
δt = deformation caused by a change in temperature,
Engineering Strain α = temperature coefficient of expansion,
ε = ∆L / L0, where L = length of member,
ε = engineering strain (units per unit), Τ = final temperature, and
∆L = change in length (units) of member, Τo = initial temperature.
L0 = original length (units) of member,
CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSEL
εpl = plastic deformation (permanent), and
Cylindrical Pressure Vessel
εel = elastic deformation (recoverable).
For internal pressure only, the stresses at the inside wall are:
Equilibrium requirements: ΣF = 0; ΣM = 0
ro2 + ri2
Determine geometric compatibility with the restraints. Use a σ t = Pi and 0 > σ r > − Pi
linear force-deformation relationship; ro2 − ri2
F = kδ. For external pressure only, the stresses at the outside wall
are:
DEFINITIONS
ro2 + ri2
Shear Stress-Strain σ t = − Po and 0 > σ r > − Po , where
ro2 − ri2
γ = τ/G, where
σt = tangential (hoop) stress,
γ = shear strain,
σr = radial stress,
τ = shear stress, and
Pi = internal pressure,
G = shear modulus (constant in linear force-deformation
relationship). Po = external pressure,
E ri = inside radius, and
G= , where
2(1 + ν ) ro = outside radius.

E = modulus of elasticity For vessels with end caps, the axial stress is:

v = Poisson's ratio, and ri2

σ a = Pi
= – (lateral strain)/(longitudinal strain). ro2 − ri2
These are principal stresses.

♦Flinn, Richard A. & Paul K. Trojan, Engineering Materials & Their Applications, 4th Ed. Copyright 
1990 by Houghton Mifflin Co. Figure used with permission.

33
 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS (continued)
When the thickness of the cylinder wall is about one-tenth The two nonzero principal stresses are then:
or less, of inside radius, the cylinder can be considered as
σa = C + R τin = R
thin-walled. In which case, the internal pressure is resisted
by the hoop stress σb = C − R (σy, τxy)

Pi r Pi r
σt = and σa =
t 2t
where t = wall thickness.
(σx, τxy)
STRESS AND STRAIN
Principal Stresses
The maximum inplane shear stress is τin = R. However, the
For the special case of a two-dimensional stress state, the
maximum shear stress considering three dimensions is
equations for principal stress reduce to
always
2
σx + σ y æ σx − σ y ö σ1 − σ 3
σ a ,σ b = ± çç ÷ + τ 2xy τ max = .
2 2 ÷ 2
è ø
σc = 0 Hooke's Law
The two nonzero values calculated from this equation are Three-dimensional case:
temporarily labeled σa and σb and the third value σc is εx = (1/E)[σx – v(σy + σz)] γxy = τxy /G
always zero in this case. Depending on their values, the
three roots are then labeled according to the convention: εy = (1/E)[σy – v(σz + σx)] γyz = τyz /G
algebraically largest = σ1, algebraically smallest = σ3, other εz = (1/E)[σz – v(σx + σy)] γzx = τzx /G
= σ2. A typical 2D stress element is shown below with all
indicated components shown in their positive sense. Plane stress case (σz = 0):
é ù
εx = (1/E)(σx – vσy) ìσ x ü ê1 v 0 ú ìε x ü
Mohr's Circle – Stress, 2D ï ï E
εy = (1/E)(σy – vσx) êv 1 0 ú ïε ï
To construct a Mohr's circle, the following sign conventions íσ y ý = 2 ê úí y ý
ïτ ï 1 − v ê0 0 1 − v ú ï ï
are used. εz = – (1/E)(vσx + vσy) î xy þ îγ xy þ
êë 2 û ú
Uniaxial case (σy = σz = 0): σx = Eεx or σ = Eε, where
εx, εy, εz = normal strain,
σx, σy, σz = normal stress,
γxy, γyz, γzx = shear strain,
τxy, τyz, τzx = shear stress,
E = modulus of elasticity,
G = shear modulus, and
v = Poisson's ratio.

1. Tensile normal stress components are plotted on the
horizontal axis and are considered positive.
Compressive normal stress components are negative.
2. For constructing Mohr's circle only, shearing stresses
are plotted above the normal stress axis when the pair of
shearing stresses, acting on opposite and parallel faces
of an element, forms a clockwise couple. Shearing
stresses are plotted below the normal axis when the
shear stresses form a counterclockwise couple.
The circle drawn with the center on the normal stress
(horizontal) axis with center, C, and radius, R, where
2
σx + σy æ σx − σ y ö
C= , R = çç ÷ + τ 2xy
÷ theory predicts that yielding will occur whenever τmax ≥ Sy /2
2 è 2 ø
34
STATIC LOADING FAILURE THEORIES
Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory
The maximum-normal-stress theory states that failure occurs
when one of the three principal stresses equals the strength
of the material. If σ1 > σ2 > σ3, then the theory predicts that
failure occurs whenever σ1 ≥ St or σ3 ≤ – Sc where St and Sc
are the tensile and compressive strengths, respectively.
Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
The maximum-shear-stress theory states that yielding begins
when the maximum shear stress equals the maximum shear
stress in a tension-test specimen of the same material when
that specimen begins to yield. If σ 1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3, then the
where Sy is the yield strength.
 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS (continued)

Distortion-Energy Theory •
The distortion-energy theory states that yielding begins
whenever the distortion energy in a unit volume equals the
distortion energy in the same volume when uniaxially
stressed to the yield strength. The theory predicts that
yielding will occur whenever
12
é (σ1 − σ 2 )2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 )2 + (σ1 − σ 3 )2 ù The relationship between the load (q), shear (V), and
ê ú ≥ Sy moment (M) equations are:
ëê 2 ûú
dV(x)
q(x ) = −
TORSION dx
dM(x)
γ φz = limit r (∆φ ∆z ) = r (dφ dz ) V=
∆z →0 dx
V2 − V1 = ò xx1 [− q(x )] dx
2

The shear strain varies in direct proportion to the radius,

from zero strain at the center to the greatest strain at the M 2 − M 1 = ò xx1 V (x ) dx
2

outside of the shaft. dφ/dz is the twist per unit length or the
rate of twist.
Stresses in Beams
τφz = G γφz = Gr (dφ/dz) εx = – y/ρ, where
T = G (dφ/dz) òA r2dA = GJ(dφ/dz), where ρ = the radius of curvature of the deflected axis of the
J = polar moment of inertia (see table at end of beam, and
DYNAMICS section). y = the distance from the neutral axis to the longitudinal
T TL fiber in question.
φ = ò oL dz = , where
GJ GJ Using the stress-strain relationship σ = Eε,
φ = total angle (radians) of twist, Axial Stress: σx = –Ey/ρ, where
T = torque, and σx = the normal stress of the fiber located y-distance
from the neutral axis.
L = length of shaft.
1/ρ = M/(EI), where
τφz = Gr [T/(GJ)] = Tr/J
M = the moment at the section and
T GJ
= , where I = the moment of inertia of the cross-section.
φ L
σx = – My/I, where
T/φ gives the twisting moment per radian of twist. This is
y = the distance from the neutral axis to the fiber
called the torsional stiffness and is often denoted by the
location above or below the axis. Let y = c, where c
symbol k or c.
= distance from the neutral axis to the outermost
For Hollow, Thin-Walled Shafts fiber of a symmetrical beam section.
T σx = ± Mc/I
τ= , where
2 Amt Let S = I/c: then, σx = ± M/S, where
t = thickness of shaft wall and S = the elastic section modulus of the beam member.
Am = the total mean area enclosed by the shaft measured Transverse shear flow: q = VQ/I and
to the midpoint of the wall. Transverse shear stress: τxy = VQ/(Ib), where
q = shear flow,
BEAMS
τxy = shear stress on the surface,
Shearing Force and Bending Moment Sign
V = shear force at the section,
Conventions
1. The bending moment is positive if it produces bending b = width or thickness of the cross-section, and
of the beam concave upward (compression in top fibers Q = A′y ′ , where
and tension in bottom fibers).
A′ = area above the layer (or plane) upon which the
2. The shearing force is positive if the right portion of the desired transverse shear stress acts and
beam tends to shear downward with respect to the left.
y′ = distance from neutral axis to area centroid.
• Timoshenko, S. & Gleason H. MacCullough, Elements of Strength of Materials, 1949 by K. Van
Nostrand Co. Used with permission from Wadsworth Publishing Co.

35
 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS (continued)

Deflection of Beams ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY

Using 1/ρ = M/(EI), If the strain remains within the elastic limit, the work done
during deflection (extension) of a member will be
d2y transformed into potential energy and can be recovered.
EI = M, differential equation of deflection curve
dx 2 If the final load is P and the corresponding elongation of a
3
d y tension member is δ, then the total energy U stored is equal
EI = dM(x)/dx = V to the work W done during loading.
dx 3
U = W = Pδ/2
d4y
EI 4 = dV(x)/dx = −q
dx
Determine the deflection curve equation by double
integration (apply boundary conditions applicable to the
deflection and/or slope).
EI (dy/dx) = ò M(x) dx
EIy = ò [ ò M(x) dx] dx
The constants of integration can be determined from the
physical geometry of the beam. The strain energy per unit volume is
u = U/AL = σ2/2E (for tension)
COLUMNS
For long columns with pinned ends: MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Euler's Formula
π 2 EI

Wood (Fir)
Aluminum
Pcr = , where

Cast Iron
l2 Material

Units

Steel
Pcr = critical axial loading,
l = unbraced column length. Modulus of Mpsi 30.0 10.0 14.5 1.6
substitute I = r2A: Elasticity, E
GPa 207.0 69.0 100.0 11.0
Pcr π2 E Modulus of Mpsi 11.5 3.8 6.0 0.6
= , where
A (l r )2 Rigidity, G
GPa 80.0 26.0 41.4 4.1
r = radius of gyration and Poisson's 0.30 0.33 0.21 0.33
l/r = slenderness ratio for the column. Ratio, v
For further column design theory, see the CIVIL
ENGINEERING and MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
sections.

36