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Introduction
The physical properties of a drilling hole cleaning, minimize pump pressures
fluid, density and rheological proper- and avoid fluid or formation influxes,
ties are monitored to assist in optimiz- as well as prevent loss of circulation to
ing the drilling process. These physical formations being drilled.
properties contribute to several impor- Rheology and hydraulics are interre-
tant aspects for successfully drilling a lated studies of fluid behavior. Rheology
well, including: is the study of how matter deforms and
• Provide pressure control to prevent flows. It is primarily concerned with the
an influx of formation fluid. relationship of shear stress and shear
• Provide energy at the bit to maximize rate and the impact these have on flow
Rate of Penetration (ROP). characteristics inside tubulars and annu-
Rheology is • Provide wellbore stability through lar spaces. Hydraulics describes how fluid
the science of pressured or mechanically stressed flow creates and uses pressures. In drill-
zones. ing fluids, the flow behavior of the fluid
deformation • Suspend cuttings and weight must be described using rheological
and flow of material during static periods. models and equations before the
matter. • Permit separation of drilled solids hydraulic equations can be applied.
and gas at surface. This chapter discusses the rheologi-
• Remove cuttings from the well. cal properties of drilling fluids, the
factors that influence these properties
Each well is unique, therefore it is
and the impact they have with respect
important to control these properties
to performing work during the drilling
with respect to the requirements for a
operation. A discussion of the influ-
specific well and fluid being used. The
ence of rheological properties on hole
rheological properties of a fluid can
cleaning, barite suspension and solids
affect one aspect negatively while pro-
separation can be found in the chap-
viding a significant positive impact with
ters on Hole Cleaning, Barite Sag and
respect to another aspect. A balance
Solids Control, respectively.
must be attained in order to maximize
Rheology
Rheology is the science of deformation to describe drilling fluid viscosity and
and flow of matter. By making certain rheological properties:
measurements on a fluid it is possible 1. Funnel viscosity (sec/qt or sec/l).
to determine how that fluid will flow 2. Apparent viscosity (cP or mPa•sec).
Viscosity… under a variety of conditions, including 3. Effective viscosity (cP or mPa•sec).
can be temperature, pressure and shear rate. 4. Plastic viscosity (cP or mPa•sec).
described 5. Yield point (lb/100 ft2 or Pa).
VISCOSITY
6. Low-shear viscosity and Low-
as a Of the rheological terms, viscosity Shear-Rate Viscosity (LSRV)
substance’s is the most familiar. Viscosity in its (cP or mPa•sec).
broadest sense can be described as a 7. Gel strengths (lb/100 ft2 or Pa).
resistance substance’s resistance to flow. In the These are among the key values for
to flow. oilfield, the following terms are used treating and maintaining drilling fluids.
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.1 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.2 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
The shear rate (γ), sec–1, is equal to viscosity values are consistent with the
the mud viscometer RPM (ω) multi- viscosity formula:
plied by 1.703. This factor is derived 300 x Θ
AV (cP) =
from the sleeve and bob geometry of ω
the viscometer.
PLASTIC VISCOSITY
γ (sec–1) = 1.703 x ω
Plastic Viscosity (PV) in centipoise (cP)
SHEAR STRESS or milliPascal seconds (mPa•s) is cal-
Shear stress Shear stress (τ) is the force required to culated from mud viscometer data as:
is the force sustain the shear rate. Shear stress is PV (cP) = Θ600 – Θ300
reported in standard oilfield units
required to as the pounds of force per hundred
Plastic viscosity is usually described
sustain the as that part of resistance to flow
square feet (lb/100 ft2) required to
caused by mechanical friction.
shear rate. maintain the shear rate.
Primarily, it is affected by:
Mud viscometer dial readings (Θ)
• Solids concentration.
taken with the standard number one
• Size and shape of solids.
(1) bob and spring combination as
• Viscosity of the fluid phase.
described in the Testing chapter can
• The presence of some long-
be converted to a shear stress (τ) with
chain polymers (POLY-PLUS T,
lb/100 ft2 units by multiplying the
Hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC),
reading by 1.0678.
POLYPAC T R, Carboxymethylcellulose
τ (lb/100 ft2) = 1.0678 x Θ (CMC)).
Viscometer readings are often used as • The Oil-to-Water (O/W) or
the shear stress (τ) in lb/100 ft2 without Synthetic-to-Water (S/W) ratio
this conversion since the difference in invert-emulsion fluids.
is small. • Type of emulsifiers in invert-
A variety of viscometers are used to emulsion fluids.
measure drilling fluid viscosity. Fann The solids phase is the chief concern
VG meters and rheometers are designed of the fluid engineer. An increase in
to simplify the use of rheological mod- plastic viscosity can mean an increase
els. Viscometers are also used to mea- in the percent by volume of solids, a
sure the thixotropic properties or gel reduction in the size of the solid parti-
strengths of a fluid. cles, a change in the shape of the parti-
EFFECTIVE VISCOSITY cles or a combination of these. Any
The viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid increase in the total surface area of
changes with shear. The effective vis- solids exposed will be reflected in an
cosity (µe) of a fluid is a fluid’s viscos- increased plastic viscosity. Breaking a
ity under specific conditions. These solid particle in half, for instance, will
conditions include shear rate, pressure result in two pieces with a combined
and temperature. exposed surface area greater than the
original particle. A flat particle has more
APPARENT VISCOSITY surface area exposed than a spherical
The effective viscosity is sometimes one of the same volume. Most of the
referred to as the Apparent Viscosity time, however, an increase in plastic
(AV). The apparent viscosity is reported viscosity is the result of an increase in
as either the mud viscometer reading at the percentage of solids. This can be
300 RPM (Θ300) or one-half of the meter verified by density changes and/or
reading at 600 RPM (Θ600). It should retort analysis.
be noted that both of these apparent
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.3 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 02·28·01
CHAPTER
Some of the solids in the fluid are viscosities, especially after initially mix-
there because they have been deliber- ing the polymer. The long-chain poly-
ately added. Bentonite, for instance, mers (POLY-PLUS,T HEC, POLYPACT R, CMC)
is good for increasing viscosity and have the greatest impact on plastic vis-
decreasing fluid loss, while barite is cosity. The short-chain or low-viscosity
necessary for density. A good rule is variations of these polymers (POLYPACT R,
…the that the viscosity of the fluid should UL, CMC LV) have a less significant
viscosity of not be higher than that required for impact on plastic viscosity. The increase
hole cleaning and barite suspension. in plastic viscosity is most apparent just
the fluid When a fluid is failing to perform after mixing these polymers. It is there-
should not these functions, emphasis should fore recommended not to measure vis-
be higher be placed on raising the yield point cosity in the suction pit at this time.
and low-shear values (6 and 3 RPM) Generally, after a few circulations
than that rather than the plastic viscosity. the plastic viscosity and rheological
required for Drilled solids, however, adversely properties will decrease and stabilize.
hole cleaning affect rheological properties of the fluid With respect to invert-emulsion flu-
and are undesirable. They are continu- ids (oil- and synthetic-base) the plastic
and barite ally being added to the fluid during viscosity can be adjusted with the O/W
suspension. drilling, causing an increase in solids or S/W ratio. Generally, the higher the
concentration. If the solids are not O/W or S/W, the lower the plastic vis-
removed promptly, they continue to cosity. Also, the choice of primary
break up into smaller pieces as they are emulsifier can have an impact on
circulated and recirculated through the plastic viscosity.
system. Viscosity problems will occur if Changes in plastic viscosity can
drilled solids are not controlled. result in significant changes in pump
There are three ways that drilled pressure in the field. This is extremely
solids can be controlled: important in extended-reach as well
1. Mechanical solids control. as coiled-tubing drilling where longer,
2. Settling. smaller-diameter tubulars are used. It
3. Dilution or displacement. is critical to minimize plastic viscosity
in these situations. As a rule, plastic
Chapter 8 discusses solids control
Changes and the removal of drilled solids in
viscosity should be kept as low as
in plastic practical in all cases because a low
more detail.
PV can result in greater energy at the
viscosity Plastic viscosity is also a function
bit, greater flow in the annulus for
of the viscosity of the fluid phase. As
can result in the viscosity of water decreases with
hole cleaning, as well as less wear and
significant tear on the equipment, and lower fuel
increased temperature, the plastic vis-
usage. A practical upper limit for the
changes cosity will decrease proportionally.
plastic viscosity is twice the fluid
in pump Brines have higher viscosities than
weight (lb/gal). Although this value
freshwater fluids. Oil emulsified in
pressure in water-base fluids also acts as a solid
may seem restrictive for high fluid
weights, the solids are so crowded
the field. and will affect the plastic viscosity
by weight material that these fluids
of the fluid.
have a very low tolerance for drill
Polymers added to the system for vis-
solids. The plastic viscosity is a good
cosity, fluid-loss control or shale inhibi-
approximation of the viscosity
tion may contribute to elevated plastic
through the bit nozzles.
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.4 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 02·28·01
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Rheology and Hydraulics 5.5 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 02·28·01
CHAPTER
3. Water can be used to lower the yield The yield point is often used as an
point, but unless the concentration indicator of the shear-thinning charac-
of solids is very high, this is relatively teristics of a fluid and its ability to sus-
ineffective and can be expensive. pend weight material and remove
Water alone may undesirably alter cuttings from the wellbore, but it can
other properties of the fluid. This is be misleading. Any fluid with a yield
particularly true of weighted fluids point greater than zero, shear thins to
where water can increase fluid loss some degree. Fluids with very low yield
and lower fluid weight (necessitating points will not suspend weight material,
weighting up again). but fluids with high yield points may
not suspend weight material either.
Generally in clay-base, water-base
Solutions of CMC, Polyanionic Cellulose
muds, anionic (negatively charged)
(PAC) and HEC polymers in water have
materials deflocculate, reducing vis-
yield points, but they will not suspend
cosity. Cationic (positively charged)
weight material under static conditions.
materials promote flocculation and
Measurements of their shear stresses at
increase viscosity.
low shear rates indicate that their shear
An increase in the yield point can be
stress at a shear rate of zero sec–1 is
achieved through additions of a good
zero (0). The ability of a fluid to sus-
commercial viscosifier. Also, anything
pend barite is more dependent on gel
that produces flocculation in a fluid will
strengths, low-shear viscosity and the
raise the yield point. A small amount of
thixotropy of a fluid.
lime, for example, added to a freshwater
fluid containing enough hydrated ben- LOW-SHEAR VISCOSITY AND LSRV
tonite or other clays will produce floccu- The increase in directional, extended-
lation and, hence, an increase in the reach and horizontal drilling, and the
yield point. It should be remembered, use of biopolymers for rheological
however, that flocculation can have properties has altered the perception
undesirable effects on fluid-loss control, of which rheological properties are
circulating pressures and gel strengths. required for efficient hole cleaning in
The yield point of dispersed ligno- deviated wellbores. Through numerous
sulfonate (SPERSENEE) clay-fluid systems laboratory studies and field experience,
…low-shear is typically maintained approximately it was found that the low-shear viscos-
equal to the mud weight. The yield ity values (6 and 3 RPM) had a greater
viscosity point of low- or minimum-solids, non- impact on hole cleaning than yield
values…had dispersed fluids, may be run at consid- point, in addition to providing barite
a greater erably higher values, but these fluids suspension under dynamic as well as
are seldom used at densities in excess static conditions. These topics are cov-
impact on of 14 lb/gal. ered in more detail in the Barite Sag
hole cleaning Wetting agents or chemical thinners and Hole Cleaning chapters.
than yield can be used to reduce yield point in In addition to 6- and 3-RPM readings,
point… invert-emulsion fluids. These materi- it was found that low-shear-rate viscos-
als can sometimes reduce the solids ity created by the polymer network in
tolerance of the fluid. Usually the best FLO-PROT systems was critical for hole
method for reducing yield point in cleaning and solids suspension in hori-
an invert system is to increase the zontal and high-angle wells. This LSRV
O/W or S/W ratio by adding oil- or is measured using a Brookfield viscome-
synthetic-base fluid. ter at a shear rate of 0.3 RPM (the equiv-
alent of 0.037 RPM on a VG meter).
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.6 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 02·28·01
CHAPTER
Viscosity
FLO-VIS
circulation after a trip.
2.5 lb/bbl
3. Reduction in the efficiency of
HEC solids-removal equipment.
4. Excessive swabbing while tripping
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 out of the hole.
Shear/rate (sec–1) 5. Excessive pressure surges while
tripping in the hole.
Figure 2: Comparison of FLO-VIS’ LSRV to that of HEC.
6. Inability to get logging tools to
Figure 2 shows how similar viscosities the bottom.
Progressive at 6 and 3 RPM may not indicate true Progressive gels or flash gels may
LSRV behavior. reflect fluid system problems. A wide
gels or flash These low-shear rheological proper- range between the initial and 10- or
gels may ties fill the gap between traditional 30-min gel readings is called progressive
reflect fluid dynamic viscosity measurements of gels, and is an indication of solids
PV, YP and static measurements of buildup. If the initial and 10-min gel
system gel strength. readings are both high with little differ-
problems. ence between the two, it is called flash
THIXOTROPY AND GEL STRENGTHS
gels and may indicate that flocculation
Thixotropy is the property exhibited by
has occurred. In the case of a FLO-PROT
some fluids which form a gel structure
system, the gel strengths are elevated
while static and then become fluid
and flat, but this is due to the polymer
again when shear is applied. Most
network created. In addition to being
water-base drilling fluids exhibit this
elevated and flat, FLO-PROT gel strengths
property due to the presence of electri-
are also fragile and “break back” quite
cally charged particles or special poly-
readily. Fragile gel strengths are very
mers that link together to form a rigid
common in polymer drilling fluids.
matrix. Gel strength readings taken at
Figure 3 graphically illustrates the
10-sec and 10-min intervals, and in crit-
different types of gel strength.
ical situations at 30-min intervals, on
the Fann VG meter provide a measure
80
of the degree of thixotropy present in
the fluid. The strength of the gel formed 70
Gel strength (lb/100 ft2)
Progressive gels
…anything is a function of the amount and type of 60
solids in suspension, time, temperature
promoting or and chemical treatment. In other words,
50
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.7 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 02·28·01
CHAPTER
Gel strength and yield point are both can be taken in moving from one shear
measures of the attractive forces in a rate to another. This is illustrated in
fluid system. The initial gel strength Figure 4. The solid curve represents the
measures the static attractive forces, equilibrium shear-stress/shear-rate rela-
while the yield point measures the tionship that will occur if the shear rate
dynamic attractive forces. Treatment of the fluid is changed very slowly. If,
for excessive initial gel strength is, however, the fluid starts at point A at
therefore, the same as for excessive an equilibrium value of high-shear stress
yield point. that suddenly decreases to a shear rate
…gelation In addition, gelation gives a fluid a of zero, the shear stress will follow the
gives a fluid “memory” of its past history and must lower curve, which at all points is less
be taken into account in making mean- than the equilibrium curve.
a “memory” ingful rheological property measure- Upon standing quiescent, the gel
of its past ments. If a fluid has been allowed to strength will build up until point B is
history… stand for a period of time before making reached. If, after gelling to point B, the
a measurement of shear stress at some shear rate is suddenly increased, the
shear rate, some time at that particular shear stress will follow a higher path
shear rate is required before an equilib- from point B to point C, which at all
rium shear stress can be measured. All of points is higher than the equilibrium
the bonds between particles that can be curve. With time at this high shear
broken at that shear rate must be bro- rate, the shear stress will eventually
ken or the measured shear stress will be decrease from point C to the equilib-
higher than the true equilibrium shear rium value at point A. Conversely, if,
stress. The length of time required after gelling to point B the shear rate is
depends on the degree of gelation that slowly increased, the shear stress will
has occurred in the sample. decrease at first and then follow the
After a measurement has been made equilibrium curve to point A.
at 600 RPM and the shear rate is slowed The B-to-C curve can be followed
to 300 RPM, the fluid tends to remem- if the drilling fluid is not properly
ber its past shear history at 600 RPM. A treated. This would result in very high
period of time is required for certain circulating pressures. Extended time
bonds between particles that can exist at periods could be required to reach
the reduced shear rate to re-form before equilibrium point A. Properly treated
a true equilibrium shear stress can be drilling fluids follow the shorter path
measured. The indicated shear stress will to the equilibrium curve, resulting in
be too low at first and will gradually lower pump pressures.
increase to an equilibrium value.
The first indicated value of shear
stress at any shear rate is a function
Shear stress (τ)
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.8 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.9 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 02·28·01
CHAPTER
Maximum
dv
periodically and before trips.
Zero
dr
The shear stress at various shear
Average velocity
rates must be measured in order to
characterize the flow properties of a
fluid. Only one measurement is neces-
sary since the shear stress is directly
proportional to the shear rate for a
Newtonian fluid. From this measure-
ment the shear stress at any other
shear rate can be calculated from A B
the following equation:
Figure 6: Newtonian velocity profile (laminar).
τ=µxγ
pipe is shown in Figure 6b. The flow
This general definition is indepen-
profile is in the form of a parabola or
dent of units. VG meter data (con-
bullet shape.
verted to shear stress and shear rate)
The rate of change of velocity with
can be converted to viscosity with
distance (shear rate) is the slope of the
this formula:
velocity profile at any point in the
1.0678 x Θ
The slope of µ= pipe. The slope of the velocity profile is
1.703 x ω maximum at the wall of the pipe and
the velocity
The viscosity as determined by this decreases to zero at the center of the
profile is formula is in English units (ft, lb, etc.), pipe. Therefore, the shear rate is a maxi-
maximum at but the viscosity is reported in cen- mum at the wall and zero at the center
the wall of tipoise (cP or 0.01 dynes/cm2) on the of the pipe. At the pipe wall, the slope
API Daily Mud Report. The factor for of the velocity profile is parallel to the
the pipe and converting viscosity in English units to pipe wall and has an infinite slope
decreases to centipoise is 478.9. When this conver- (maximum). This slope decreases with
zero at the sion factor is included in the formula, distance away from the wall and at
it becomes: some point has a 45° slope that would
center of the
1.0678 Θ have a slope of 1. In the center of the
pipe. µ (cP) = 478.9 x
1.703
x
ω pipe, the slope of the velocity profile is
perpendicular to the pipe wall and has
If the numerical values are simplified, a zero slope (minimum) (see Figure 6b).
this formula becomes: Consequently, the shear stress will also
Θ be maximum at the wall.
µ (cP) = 300 x
ω The shear rate (sec–1) at the wall of a
This simple formula will be used to cylindrical pipe may be calculated in
show that the viscosity of drilling flu- the following equation:
ids is far more complex than might 8V
γ=
be assumed. D
Fluid flowing in a cylindrical pipe Where:
in laminar or streamline flow moves V = Average fluid velocity in the
in concentric layers as shown in pipe (ft/sec)
Figure 6a. A typical velocity profile D = Pipe diameter (ft)
for a Newtonian fluid flowing in a
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.10 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 02·28·01
CHAPTER
Telescopic
cylinders
of fluid
Average velocity
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.11 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
Effective viscosity
(µ) lines
file
pro
Flow
Shear stress (τ)
Effec
tive v
Shear stress (τ) and effective viscosity (µ)
µ3
iscos
µ2
µ1
ity cu
ve r
e
curv
Shear rate (γ) ar stress
She
Figure 9: Effect of shear rate on effective viscosity
of non-Newtonian fluid.
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.12 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
Rheological Models
yield point
Where:
τ = Shear stress Transition from plug
τ0 = Yield point or shear stress at zero to viscous flow
shear rate (Y-intercept) Plug flow
µp = Plastic viscosity or rate of nian
True yield Newto
increase of shear stress with
increasing shear rate (slope of
Shear rate (γ)
the line)
γ = Shear rate Figure 11: Flow diagram of Newtonian and typical mud.
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.13 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
Bingham ham
Bing Plastic fluid then the initial gel strength
Bingham yield point luid
a nf
ni and yield point will be equal, as is
wto
Plastic fluid on-Ne the case with many flocculated clay
ln
ica water-base fluids.
then the Typ
Bingha
muds, the true yield stress is actually
an
less than the Bingham yield point, as toni
w New
shown in Figures 11 and 13. La
wer
Figure 13 illustrates an actual drill- Po
ing fluid flow profile with the ideal
Bingham Plastic model. It shows not Shear rate (γ)
only the comparison of the “true yield
Figure 14: Power Law model comparison.
point” to the Bingham yield point, but
also shows the deviation in viscosity at
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.14 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
Θ = K(rpm) n
pe
As the 0.2
5
Depending on the value of “n,”
n=
velocity 0.5 three different types of flow profiles
n= and fluid behavior exist:
profile =
1
n 1. n < 1: The fluid is shear-thinning,
becomes non-Newtonian.
flatter the 2. n = 1: The fluid is Newtonian.
fluid velocity Shear rate (γ) 3. n > 1: The fluid is dilatant, shear-
thickening (drilling fluids are not
will be Figure 16: Effect of Power Law “n” on
in this category).
higher over a shape of flow profile.
A comparison of a typical drilling
larger area… This model describes a fluid in which fluid to a shear-thinning, Newtonian
the shear stress increases as a function and dilatant fluid is shown in Figure 17.
of the shear rate mathematically raised The effect of “n” on flow profile and
to some power. Mathematically, the the velocity profile is very important for
Power Law model is expressed as: shear-thinning, non-Newtonian fluids.
τ = Kγ n As the velocity profile becomes flatter
Where: (see Figure 18) the fluid velocity will be
τ = Shear stress higher over a larger area of the annulus
K = Consistency index so that hole cleaning will be greatly
γ = Shear rate improved. This is one of the reasons
n = Power Law index that low “n”-value fluids like FLO-PROT
provide such good hole cleaning.
The consis- Plotted on a log-log graph, a Power The consistency index “K” is the vis-
Law fluid shear-stress/shear-rate rela- cosity at a shear rate of one reciprocal
tency index tionship forms a straight line, as shown second (sec–1). It is related to a fluid’s
“K” is the on Figure 15. The “slope” of this line is viscosity at low shear rates. A fluid’s
viscosity “n.” “K’ is the intercept of this line. hole-cleaning and suspension effective-
at a shear The Power Law index “n” indicates ness can be improved by increasing the
a fluid’s degree of non-Newtonian “K” value. The consistency index “K” is
rate of one behavior over a given shear rate range. usually reported as lb-sec–n/100 ft2, but
reciprocal The lower the “n” value the more shear- may be reported in other units. The
second… thinning a fluid is over that shear rate terms “K” and “n” only have real rele-
range and the more curved the shear- vance when associated with a specific
stress/shear-rate relationship, as shown shear rate. However, where a fluid curve
in Figure 16.
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.15 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 02·28·01
CHAPTER
Θ2
n=
log ( )
Θ1
ω2
log ( )
ω1
Θ1
K=
ω1n
Velocity
n = 1.0 Where:
n = 0.667 n = Power Law index or exponent
n = 0.5 K = Power Law consistency index or
n = 0.25 fluid index (dyne sec–n/cm2)
n = 0.125 Θ1 = Mud viscometer reading at
lower shear rate
Θ2 = Mud viscometer reading at
higher shear rate
Figure 18: Effect of Power Law “n” on velocity profile.
ω1 = Mud viscometer RPM at lower
is described by a finite number of meas- shear rate
urements, the line segments for those ω2 = Mud viscometer RPM at higher
particular measurements describe “K” shear rate
and “n.” RELATING (K, N) TO (PV, YP)
“K” and “n” values can be calculated
In clay-base drilling fluids, both the
from mud viscometer data. The general
plastic viscosity and yield point of
equations for “n” and “K” values are:
PV 4
4, Y
P 32
(1)
100
Base
In clay-base PV 36,
YP 10
(2) PV 30, Y
drilling P8
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.16 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
the mud as shown in Figure 19 affect The annular Power Law equations
the “K” coefficient. Three cases are are developed in the same manner,
shown: (1) solids build-up, (2) decreas- but use the 3- and 100-RPM (Θ3 and
ing solids and (3) flocculation due to Θ100) values. By substituting the shear
contamination. rates (5.1 sec–1 and 170 sec–1, respec-
Case 1. Plastic viscosity has increased tively) into the general equation, they
over that of the “base” due to solids simplify to:
Θ100
increase with very little change in yield
point. The viscosity curve is essentially
parallel to the base curve, thus there is na =
log( ) Θ3 Θ
= 0.657 log 100
Θ3
little change in “n.” The overall viscos-
ity has increased; therefore, “K” is a
log( )170.2
5.11
higher number. 5.11Θ100 5.11Θ3
Ka = or
Case 2. Plastic viscosity decreased 170.2na 5.11na
due to solids removal; yield point also These annular equations require a
is reduced. As with Case 1, the viscosity 100-RPM (Θ100) viscometer reading.
curve is essentially parallel and there is This is not available on two-speed VG
little change in “n.” “K” decreases due meters. The API recommends that an
to a decrease in overall viscosity. approximate value be calculated for
Case 3. Yield point and plastic vis- the 100-RPM reading when using
cosity increased due to contamination two-speed VG meter data:
and solids increase. The ratio of YP to
…pipe 2(Θ600 – Θ300)
PV is greatly affected by the resultant Θ100 = Θ300 –
3
Power Law flocculation and “n,” the slope of the
equations viscosity curve, decreased in value. General Power Law equation for
“K” increases as a function of the effective viscosity (cP):
should changed slope (“n”) and the overall µe = 100 x Kγ n–1
be used increase in viscosity.
The bulletin, “Recommended Practice Effective viscosity, pipe:
whenever
on the Rheology and Hydraulics of Oil- µep (cP) =
the shear Well Drilling Fluids” (API Recommended
( ) (
1.6 x Vp (np–1) 3np + 1
)
np
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.17 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
sen the Power Law model as the stan- Shear rate (γ)
dard model. The Power Law model,
however, does not fully describe drill- Figure 20: Rheological model comparison.
ing fluids because it does not have a
yield stress and underestimates LSRV,
Bingham
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.18 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
Stages of Flow
The drilling fluid is subject to a variety
of flow patterns during the process of
Wellbore
drilling a well. These flow patterns can Stage 6
be defined as different stages of flow
as depicted in Figure 22. Turbulent flow
Stage 1 — No flow. Most drilling flu-
Drill pipe
ids resist flow strongly enough so that
Stage 5
pressure must be applied to initiate
flow. The maximum value of this force
Transition flow
is the true yield stress of the fluid. In a
…true yield well, the true yield stress is related to
stress is the force needed to “break circulation.” Stage 4
Stage 2 — Plug flow. When the true
related to the yield stress is exceeded, flow will com- Complete streamline
force needed mence as a solid plug. In plug flow, the
to “break velocity will be the same across the pipe
Stage 3
diameter or annulus except for the fluid
circulation.” layer against the conduit wall. The flow
Incomplete streamline
of toothpaste from a tube is often used
as an example of plug flow. The velocity
profile of plug flow is flat. Stage 2
Stage 3 — Plug to laminar flow tran-
sition. As the flow rate is increased, Plug flow
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.19 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
pipe in one direction, but at any point three times will increase the pressure
within the body of fluid, the direction loss eight times (23).
While of movement will be unpredictable. While drilling, the drillstring is almost
drilling, the Under these conditions the flow is always in turbulent flow, and the result-
turbulent. After these conditions are ing increases in pressure loss can limit
drillstring reached, any further increases in the flow rate. The pressure losses associ-
is almost the flow rate will only increase the ated with turbulent flow in the annulus
always in turbulence. can be critical when the Equivalent
These flow stages have several differ- Circulating Density (ECD) approaches
turbulent ent implications. The pressure required the fracture gradient. In addition, tur-
flow, and the to pump a fluid in turbulent flow is bulent flow in the annulus is associated
resulting significantly higher than the pressure with hole erosion and washouts in
required to pump the same fluid in many formations. In susceptible zones,
increases in laminar flow. Once the flow is turbu- the hole will erode to a diameter where
pressure loss lent, increases in the flow rate increase the flow reverts to laminar. When drill-
can limit the the circulating pressure geometrically. ing these zones, the flow rate and the
flow rate. In turbulent flow, doubling the flow mud’s rheological properties should be
rate will increase the pressure by a fac- controlled to prevent turbulent flow.
tor of four (22). Increasing the flow rate
Hydraulics Calculations
Once the rheological properties for a and annulus as well as the possibly
fluid have been determined and mod- smaller-diameter drillstring. The mud
eled to predict flow behavior, hydrau- pump liners will be changed to have
lics calculations are made to determine smaller diameters and higher pressure
what effect this particular fluid will have ratings. This will increase the maximum
on system pressures. The critical pres- allowable circulating pressure.
sures are total system pressure (pump Under any set of hole conditions,
pressure), pressure loss across the bit a theoretical limit is imposed on the
and annular pressure loss (converted flow rate by the maximum allowable
to ECD). circulating pressure. Circulating pres-
Many wells are drilled under pressure sures, and consequently the flow rate,
limitations imposed by the drilling rig are directly related to the wellbore
It is… and associated equipment. The pres- and tubular geometry used, including
imperative sure ratings of the pump liners and special Bottom-Hole Assembly (BHA)
to optimize surface equipment and the number of equipment, as well as the fluid’s den-
mud pumps available limit the circu- sity and rheological properties. It is
drilling-fluid lating system to a maximum allowable therefore imperative to optimize drilling-
hydraulics by circulating pressure. fluid hydraulics by controlling the
controlling the As wells are drilled deeper and casing rheological properties of the drilling
is set, the flow rate will be decreased in fluid to avoid reaching this theoreti-
rheological the smaller diameter holes. The circulat- cal limit. This is especially true in
properties… ing pressures will increase because of extended-reach drilling.
the increased length of the drillstring
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.20 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.22 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
Pressure-Loss Calculations
CIRCULATING SYSTEM
The circulating system of a drilling well Top drive or kelly
is made up of a number of components Standpipe
or intervals, each with a specific pressure
The sum drop. The sum of these interval pressure
of interval drops is equal to the total system pres-
Fluid out
sure loss or the measured standpipe Standpipe
pressure pressure. Figure 23 is a schematic of the
gauge
The total pressure loss for this sys- Figure 23: Schematic of a circulating system.
tem can described mathematically as:
PTotal =
PSurf Equip + PDrillstring + PBit + PAnnulus 0
2
6
3
4 5
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Rheology and Hydraulics 5.24 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
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Rheology and Hydraulics 5.25 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.26 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
Generally, HYDRAULIC IMPACT FORCE (IF) to 65% of the maximum allowable cir-
the goal is VnQρ culating pressure to the bit. Systems are
IF (lb) = considered optimized for impact force
to use 50 to 1,930
Where: when the pressure loss at the bit is
65% of the Vn = Nozzle velocity (ft/sec) equal to 50% of the circulating pres-
maximum Q = Flow rate (gpm) sure. When the pressure loss at the bit
ρ = Density (lb/gal) is equal to approximately 65% of the
allowable circulating pressure, the system is con-
circulating IMPACT FORCE/IN.2 sidered optimized for hydraulic horse-
pressure to IF (psi) =
1.27 x IF (lb) power. Figure 24 compares optimization
Bit Size2 by hydraulic horsepower and impact
the bit. force. There is a tradeoff in optimizing
BIT HYDRAULICS OPTIMIZATION with respect to one aspect vs. the other.
In many areas of the world, rock bit In the soft formations typical of off-
hydraulics can be optimized to improve shore wells, the only limit on the pen-
rate of penetration. There are a lot of etration rate may be the connection
factors that effect ROP including bit time. The jetting action is not as criti-
size, bit type, bit features, formation cal. Under these conditions, high flow
type and strength, and bit hydraulics. rates and turbulence beneath the bit to
In hard rock areas, bit/formation inter- reduce balling of the bit and BHA (bit,
action has a greater impact on ROP collars, etc.) and cleaning the wellbore
than bit hydraulics. are the primary concerns. For these
Bit hydraulics may be optimized on conditions, the bit can be optimized
hydraulic impact, hydraulic horse- for impact force and flow rate. When
power, hydraulic horsepower per square optimized for impact force, approxi-
inch of hole beneath the bit or nozzle mately 50% of the maximum allowable
velocity. Generally, the goal is to use 50
3,000
2,750
Pressure loss, impact force and hydraulic horsepower
Bit s
2,250 pre se
ssu los
re l
oss lar
2,000 nu
an
d
1,750 an
Optimized for hydraulic horsepower ring
st
ill
1,500 Dr
1,000
500
power
250 Hydraulic horse
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Flow rate (gpm)
Figure 25: Effect of flow rate on pressure loss and bit hydraulics.
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.27 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
circulating pressure will be lost at horsepower at the bit and the circu-
the bit. lating rate will decrease with depth
When drilling hard shales at greater and drilling performance can suffer.
depths, chip hold-down and fines The flow rate must be maintained at
beneath the bit are the limiting factors adequate levels for hole cleaning, even
for penetration rates. Under these con- though the bit pressure loss becomes
Care should ditions, relatively small increases in the less than desired. Care should also be
be taken penetration rate can lower well costs sig- taken to not “optimize the nozzles
nificantly. Jetting action is critical and down” to a size that will not permit
to not drilling rates are improved when the bit the use of lost-circulation material.
“optimize is optimized for hydraulic horsepower This problem is sometimes avoided by
the nozzles with 65% of the maximum allowable blanking one of the nozzles and sizing
circulating pressure loss at the bit. the remaining nozzles for the total
down” to a flow area. With one of the nozzles
size that will LIMITATIONS OF OPTIMIZING FOR
blanked, the bit can be optimized
PERCENT PRESSURE LOSS AT THE BIT
not permit While there is a need to achieve opti-
with larger-size nozzles.
Optimum flow rates change with the
the use mum drilling performance, there are type of formation being drilled, the hole
of lost- upper limits to acceptable hydraulics. size, hole angle, and whether the bit is
Excessive nozzle velocities may dam-
circulation age the cutting structures of bits and
optimized for impact force or hydrau-
material. lics. Use a hole cleaning computer
shorten bit life. Nozzle shear rates in model such as M-I’s VIRTUAL HYDRAULICST
excess of 100,000 sec–1 have been or RDH, or charts for deviated wells to
associated with hole washout. determine an appropriate flow rate.
In addition to upper limits there are
also lower acceptable limits. Selecting DOWNHOLE TOOLS, BYPASSED FLOW
the bit nozzles for 50 or 65% of the cir- Downhole tools can also affect the abil-
culating pressure loss at the bit without ity to optimize bit hydraulics. Some (but
considering the circulating system as a not all) MWD and LWD tools bypass up
whole can create problems. As a well is to 5% of the flow. This bypassed fluid
drilled deeper, the pressure losses in the does not reach the bit and must be sub-
drillstring and annulus increase if the tracted from the flow to the bit when
flow rate is maintained. As this occurs, optimizing bit hydraulics. The full flow
a smaller percentage of the maximum rate (not reduced by the bypassed vol-
allowable circulating pressure will be ume) is used for calculating annular
available for use at the bit. It will hydraulics and pressure losses in the
become impossible to maintain the drill pipe and drill collars. The MWD
flow rate and the bit pressure loss and LWD manufacturer’s representative
at 65% of the maximum allowable should be contacted to determine if a
circulating pressure. specific tool bypasses flow, how much it
If the circulating rate is decreased, the bypasses and the estimated pressure loss
pressure losses in the drillstring and through the tool.
annulus will decrease. The nozzles can The bearing sections of both PDMs
then be sized to maintain the bit pressure and turbines require a portion of the
loss at 65% of the maximum allowable flow for cooling. This fluid is directed to
surface pressure. Although the percent the annulus and bypasses the bit. The
pressure loss at the bit can be main- bypassed volume depends on a number
tained by decreasing the flow rate, the of different variables, but usually ranges
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.28 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 02·28·01
CHAPTER
of variables that affect drilling fluid into the well are called surge pressures. If
hydraulics to produce a clearer pic- the surge pressure plus the hydrosta-
ture of the viscosities and pressure tic pressure exceed the fracture gradi-
losses that are occurring under down- ent, the formation will be fractured
…the hole conditions. It incorporates not with resultant loss of circulation.
maximum only field viscosity data but also high- Swab and surge pressures are related
temperature and high-pressure viscos- to the mud’s rheological properties; the
reduction in ity to better predict the behavior of mud’s gel strengths; the speed at which
hydrostatic invert systems under non-standard the pipe is pulled from, or run into, the
pressure conditions. VIRTUAL HYDRAULICST is also well; the annular dimensions; and the
capable of accounting for subtle changes length of drillstring in the well. The
is called in pipe and wellbore geometry that rheological properties affect swab and
the swab heretofore had been averaged across surge pressures in the same manner as
pressure. an interval. The information produced they affect annular pressure losses.
by this program is extremely accurate Increases in either the plastic viscosity
and can be validated with downhole or the yield point will increase the
pressure measurement devices. swab and surge pressures.
The velocity of the mud being dis-
SWAB AND SURGE PRESSURES
placed is different for each annular
When the drillstring is picked up to space and is directly related to the
make a connection or trip out of the velocity of drillstring movement,
well, the mud in the annulus must fall whether tripping in or out of the well.
to replace the volume of pipe pulled Since the maximum (not average) swab
from the well. The hydrostatic pressure and surge pressures must be less than
is momentarily reduced while the mud the pressures needed to swab the well
is falling in the annulus. This action is in or break the formation down, swab
referred to as swabbing and the maxi- and surge pressures must be calculated
mum reduction in hydrostatic pressure for the maximum drillstring velocity
is called the swab pressure. Swab pres- when tripping. This is generally calcu-
sures are related to the frictional pres- lated as one-and-one-half times the
sures of the mud flowing in the annulus average drillstring velocity.
to displace the drillstring, not the reduc-
VMaxDrillstring (ft/min per stand) =
tion in hydrostatic pressure due to the
stand length (ft)
lower mud level in the annulus. If the 1.5 x x 60 sec/min
swab pressure is greater than the hydro- seconds per stand
static pressure safety margin (overbal- The annular velocity is calculated for
ance pressure), formation fluids will be each interval based on the drillstring
swabbed into the wellbore. displacement for that interval. The
When the drillstring or casing is low- drillstring displacement is adjusted
ered or run into the well, mud is dis- accordingly for free flow from or into
placed from the well. The frictional the drillstring (no float, plugged bit,
pressure losses from the flow of mud etc.) or for plugged drillstring where
in the annulus as it is displaced by the the displacement plus capacity of the
pipe causes pressures in excess of the drillstring is used.
hydrostatic pressure of the column of The annular velocity must be calcu-
mud in the wellbore. The elevated pres- lated for each annular space. These
sures caused by running the drillstring annular velocities should be substituted
VMaxDrillstring (ft/min) x drillstring displacement (bbl/ft)
AVSwab-Surge (ft/min) =
annular capacity (bbl/ft)
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.30 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 02·28·01
CHAPTER
into the API equations for the annular As pipe is removed from the hole, the
pressure losses for each interval. The drillstring length decreases and the bot-
swab and surge pressures are then calcu- tom hole assembly will be pulled into
The object of lated in the same manner as the ECD. large diameter casing. This will make it
calculating The object of calculating swab and possible to pull each stand faster with-
surge pressures is to determine safe out risk of swabbing in the well. When
swab and pulling and running speeds and mini- tripping in to the well, the length of
surge mized trip times. This is done by chang- drillstring will be increasing and the
pressures is ing the maximum or minimum time annular spaces will decrease as the BHA
per stand and recalculating the swab is run into smaller diameters. This will
to determine and surge pressures until times per stand require that the running time per stand
safe pulling are found where the swab and surge be increased to avoid fracturing the for-
and running pressures plus the hydrostatic pressure is mation. The swab and surge pressures
speeds and approximately equal to the formation should be calculated at either 500- or
pressure and fracture pressure. This time 1,000-ft intervals.
minimized per stand is only relevant for the present
trip times. length of drillstring in the well.
Summary
Drilling performance is directly related should be controlled to deliver as much
to the mechanical limitations imposed of the rig’s maximum allowable circulat-
Controlling by the drilling rig. Controlling the ing pressure as possible to the bit by
the mud’s mud’s rheological properties can opti- reducing the parasitic pressure losses in
mize the performance while operating the surface connections, drillstring
rheological within the mechanical limits imposed by and annulus without compromising
properties can the rig. The mud’s rheological properties hole cleaning or solids suspension.
optimize the
performance
while Hydraulics Example Problem
operating
PROBLEM: Yield point: 15 lb/100 ft2
within the MD/TVD: 12,031 ft Initial gel: 8 lb/100 ft2
mechanical Surface casing: 2,135 ft of 133⁄8-in. Flow rate: 335 gpm
limits 61 lb/ft Calculations: Hydraulics calculations
Intermediate casing: 10,786 ft of use a series of formulae that must be
imposed by 95⁄8-in. 40 lb/ft used in sequence. Since the mud veloc-
the rig. Bit: 85⁄8 in. ity and viscosity change every time the
Nozzles (32nds in.): 11, 11, 11 internal diameter of the drillstring and
Surface connections: Case 3 annulus diameter changes, hydraulics
Drill pipe: 41⁄2 in., 16.6 lb/ft must be calculated for each length of
Drill collars: 390 ft of drillstring and annulus that has a differ-
7 in. x 21⁄4 in. ent diameter. Although the same val-
Surface pressure: 3,000 psi ues are calculated for the annular and
Mud weight: 12.8 lb/gal drillstring intervals, different formulae
Funnel viscosity: 42 sec/qt are used to compensate for the differ-
Plastic viscosity: 19 cP ences in flow in the drillstring and
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.31 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.32 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
fp =
(log n + 3.93
50 ) fp =
( log (0.64) + 3.93
50 )
NRep[
1.75 – log n
7
] [ 1.75 – log (0.64)
]
8,667 7
fp =
( log (0.64) + 3.93
50 ) = 0.006025
Interval pressure:
8,667
[ 1.75 – log (0.64)
7
] Pp (psi) =
fpVp2ρ
x Lm
92,916 D
= 0.006025
0.006025 x 560.232 x 12.8
Pressure loss: Pp = x 11,641
92,916 x 3.826
fpVp2ρ = 792.52 psi
Pp (psi) = x Lm
92,916 D
DRILLSTRING INTERVAL #2
0.006025 x 560.232 x 12.8 (DRILL COLLARS):
Pp = x 610
92,916 x 3.826 Bulk velocity:
= 41.53 psi 24.48 x Q (gpm)
Vp (ft/min) =
DRILLSTRING INTERVAL #1 (DRILL PIPE): D2 (in.)
Velocity: 24.48 x 335
24.48 x Q (gpm) Vp = = 1,619.91 ft/min
Vp (ft/min) = 2.252
D2 (in.)
24.48 x 335
Vp = = 560.23 ft/min
3.8262
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.33 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
_______________________
100 x 3.21(1.6 x 1,619.91
2.25 ) ( x
3 x 0.64 + 1
(0.64–1)
4 x 0.64 )
0.64 na = 0.657 log ( ) 21
8
= 0.275
fp =
( log n + 3.93
50 ) = 141.86 ft/min
Effective annular viscosity:
NRe [
1.75 – log n
7
] µea (cP) =
p
( ) (
2.4 x Va (na–1) 2na + 1
)
na
fp =
( log (0.64) + 3.93
50 ) 100 x Ka
µea =
D2 – D1
x
3na
26,144
[ 1.75 – log (0.64)
7
] 100 x Ka ( ) (
2.4 x 141.86
8.835 – 4.5
(0.275–1)
x
3 x 0.275 )
2 x 0.275 + 1 0.275
= 0.004434 = 131.22 cP
Pressure loss: Annular Reynolds number:
fpVp2ρ 15.467 x Va x (D2 – D1) x ρ
Pp (psi) = x Lm NRea =
92,916 D µea
0.004434 x 1,619.912 x 12.8 15.467 x 141.86 x (8.835 – 4.5) x 12.8
Pp = x 390 NRea =
92,916 x 2.25 131.22
= 277.84 psi = 927.82
Total drillstring pressure loss: Friction factor (if the Reynolds num-
PDrillstring = Pp1 + Pp2 + … ber is less than 2,100, use laminar
PDrillstring = 792.52 + 277.84 equation):
= 1,070.36 psi 24
fa =
NRea
24
fa = = 0.025867
927.82
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.34 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 02·28·01
CHAPTER
( ) (
2.4 x Va (na–1) 2na + 1
) µea =
na
100 x Ka x
(
2.4 x 322.99
) ( )
2 x 0.275 + 1
(0.275–1) 0.275
D2 – D1 3na 100 x 26.1
8.625 – 7 3 x 0.275
µea =
= 35.48 cP
( ) (
2.4 x 151.47 2 x 0.275 + 1
)
(0.275–1) 0.275
100 x 26.1 x
8.625 – 4.5 3 x 0.275 Annular Reynolds number:
= 120.72 cP 15.467 x Va x (D2 – D1) x ρ
NRea =
µea
Annular Reynolds number:
15.467 x Va x (D2 – D1) x ρ 15.467 x 322.99 x (8.625 – 7) x 12.8
NRea = NRea =
µea 35.48
= 2,928.7
15.467 x 151.47 x (8.625 – 4.5) x 12.8
NRea = Friction factor (if the Reynolds num-
120.72
= 1,024.68 ber is greater than 2,100, use the tur-
bulent equation):
Friction factor (if the Reynolds num-
ber is less than 2,100, use the laminar
equation): fa =
((log n + 3.93)
50 )
NRea[
fa =
24
1.75 – log n
7
]
NRea
fa =
24
1,024.68
= 0.02342
fa =
( (log (0.275) + 3.93)
50 )
2,928.70
[ 1.75 – log (0.275)
7
]
= 0.00483
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Rheology and Hydraulics 5.36 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98