Cavitation in centrifugal pump

1.1 Concept of Cavitation

1.1.1 Meaning of the Term "Cavitation" in the Context of the Centrifugal Pump.

The term ‘cavitation’ comes from the Latin word cavus, which means a hollow space or a cavity.
Webster’s Dictionary defines the word ‘cavitation’ as the rapid formation and collapse of cavities in a
flowing liquid in regions of very low pressure.

In any discussion on centrifugal pumps various terms like vapor pockets, gas pockets, holes, bubbles, etc.
are used in place of the term cavities. These are one and the same thing and need not be confused. The
term bubble shall be used hereafter in the discussion.

In the context of centrifugal pumps, the term cavitation implies a dynamic process of formation of
bubbles inside the liquid, their growth and subsequent collapse as the liquid flows through the pump.

Generally, the bubbles that form inside the liquid are of two types: Vapor bubbles or Gas bubbles.

1. Vapor bubbles are formed due to the vaporisation of a process liquid that is being
pumped. The cavitation condition induced by formation and collapse of vapor bubbles is
commonly referred to as Vaporous Cavitation.

2. Gas bubbles are formed due to the presence of dissolved gases in the liquid that is
being pumped (generally air but may be any gas in the system). The cavitation condition
induced by the formation and collapse of gas bubbles is commonly referred to as
Gaseous Cavitation.

1.2.2 Important Definitions:

To enable a clear understanding of mechanism of cavitation, definitions of following important terms are
explored.
· Static pressure,
· Dynamic pressure,
· Total pressure,
· Static pressure head,
· Velocity head, and
· Vapour pressure.
1.1.2.1 Static Pressure, ps
The static pressure in a fluid stream is the normal force per unit area on a solid boundary moving with the
fluid. It describes the difference between the pressure inside and outside a system, disregarding any
motion in the system. For instance, when referring to an air duct, static pressure is the difference between
the pressure inside the duct and outside the duct, disregarding any airflow inside the duct. In energy terms,
the static pressure is a measure of the potential energy of the fluid.
1.1.2.2 Dynamic pressure, pd
A moving fluid stream exerts a pressure higher than the static pressure due to the kinetic energy (½ mv2)
of the fluid. This additional pressure is defined as the dynamic pressure. The dynamic pressure can be
measured by converting the kinetic energy of the fluid stream into the potential energy. In other words, it
is pressure that would exist in a fluid stream that has been decelerated from its velocity ‘v’ to ‘zero’
velocity.
1.1.2.3 Total pressure, pt
 The sum of static pressure and dynamic pressure is defined as the total pressure. It is a
measure of total energy of the moving fluid stream. i.e. both potential and kinetic
energy.
1.1.2.4 Velocity head
The head corresponding to dynamic pressure is called the velocity head.
Velocity head = pd / ρ g = (ρ v2 / 2) / ρ g = v2/2g

From the reading hm, of the manometer velocity of flow can be calculated and thus velocity head can be
calculated. The pressure difference, dP (pt – ps) indicated by the manometer is the dynamic pressure.

dP = hm (ρ m - ρ ) g = ρ v2 /2

Velocity head = dP / ρ g = hm (ρ m - ρ ) /ρ

1.1.2.5 Vapor pressure, pv

Vapor pressure is the pressure required to keep a liquid in a liquid state. If the pressure
applied to the surface of the liquid is not enough to keep the molecules pretty close together,
the molecules will be free to separate and roam around as a gas or vapor. The vapor pressure
is dependent upon the temperature of the liquid. Higher the temperature, higher will be the
vapor pressure.

1.2 Types of Pump Cavitation

The classification of cavitation or division it into types is very different from scientist to
another..Some scientists are division the cavitation phenomenon according to the
position into: Suction and discharge cavitation

And another scientists are division the cavitation phenomenon according to causes
the cavitation into:

a. Vaporous cavitation

I. Classic cavitation

II. Internal re-circulation cavitation

b. Gaseous cavitation

I. Air ingestion induced cavitation

ِnd other group are division the cavitation phenomenon to five types, this division is
A
inclusive all the last or indicate it. As

1. Suction Cavitation
2. Re-circulation Cavitation (Suction Recirculation Cavitation and
Discharge Recirculation Cavitation.)
3. Incipient Cavitation
4. Vane Passing Syndrome Cavitation.
5. Flow turbulence
 There are 5 causes or types of cavitation in centrifugal pumps
as follows:

1.2.1 Suction Cavitation (Due to Low NPSH)

Suction Cavitation occurs when the Net Positive Suction Head Available to the pump is less than what
is Required ------------ NPSHA < NPSHR.

By other words:
when water enters a pump, its velocity
increases causing a reduction in pressure
within the pumping unit. If this pressure falls
too low, the water will vaporise, forming
bubbles entrained in the liquid. These bubbles
collapse violently as they move to areas of
higher pressure.

The pressure required to operate a pump satisfactorily and

avoid cavitation is called Net Positive Suction Head
(NPSH). You must ensure that the head available at the
pump inlet exceeds the NPSH required. The NPSH required
is specified by the pump manufacturer, and is a function of
the pump design. we know more information about (NPSH)
calculation in section 2.6

1.2.1.1 Symptoms

1. The pump sounds like it is pumping rocks!

2. High Vacuum reading on suction line.
3. Low discharge pressure/High flow

1.2.1.2 Causes

1. Clogged suction pipe. 2. Suction line too long 3. Suction line diameter too small

4. Suction lift too high. 5. Valve on Suction Line only partially open

1.2.2 Recirculation Cavitation

Caused by low flow rate through the pump. There are two types
which may occur together or separately: Suction Side and Discharge
Side. Both types of recirculation work by the same phenomena of
reverse fluid flows in close proximity to each other.
When a fluid has two flow paths moving in opposing directions
and in close proximity to each other, vortices form between the two
directions of flow, causing high fluid velocities and turbulence,
resulting in localized pockets of low pressure where cavitation can
occur.
How recirculation cavitation occurs within a pump at low flow
rates is an inherent function of pump type and design. In general
 however, pumps with lower pump specific speed (Ns) and lower
suction specific speed (Nss), are more resistant to recirculation
cavitation.

1.2.2.1 Suction Recirculation Cavitation

Fluid entering the pump suction nozzle is reversed,
resulting in high velocity vortexes either in or near the
impeller eye, in the suction nozzle, or in the pipe close
to the suction nozzle. High velocities result in low
localized pressures, local pressures may drop below the
vapor pressure of the fluid, resulting in cavitation.
Cavitation damage observed on the pressure side of
the inlet vanes, near the impeller eye, are a sign of
suction recirculation, and therefore this observation is
diagnostic. When looking into the eye of the impeller,
the pressure side of the inlet vanes is on the underside
of the vane, and therefore may only be observed using
a mirror.
Noise due to suction recirculation cavitation can be
distinctive from other cavitation noise, and is therefore
diagnostic. Suction recirculation cavitation noise is
reported to be a loud popping, crackling, hammering,
or knocking sound, with highest intensity detected at
the suction nozzle.
1.2.2.2 Discharge Recirculation Cavitation
At low flow rates fluid leaving the impeller discharge
side or the pump discharge nozzle, reverses, resulting
in high velocity vortexes between the two flow
directions, causing localized low pressure areas.
Pressures may drop below the vapor pressure of the
fluid resulting in cavitation. Recirculation cavitation
damage also occurs on the discharge side of the
impeller periphery, at the cutwater(s), inside the
discharge nozzle, or in the pipe close to the discharge
nozzle.
Noise due to discharge recirculation cavitation is
generally less noisy than suction side recirculation.
Discharge recirculation cavitation noise is heard mostly
at the pump discharge nozzle, and there will not be the
loud popping or crackling noise heard when suction
recirculation is occurring.

The two photographs above illustrate the type and location of damage
caused by Discharge Recirculation Cavitation.

1.2.3 Incipient Cavitation

First, to understand incipient cavitation one must know the

definition of NPSHi (Net Positive Suction Head Inception), and
NPSHR .
NPSHi - That Fluid pressure, as measured at the
pump suction nozzle, at which all cavitation inside the
pump is suppressed.
 NPSHR - The fluid pressure, as measured at the
pump suction nozzle, at which a 3% drop in dP occurs
(Presuming the 3% drop in dP is caused by cavitation).

Incipient Cavitation is commonly used to describe that cavitation

occurring inside a pump from the NPSHR 3% value, up to the
incipient point. However, it must be pointed out that incipient
cavitation occurs at all points below the incipient point, including
pressure values below the NPSHR 3% value.
Incipient cavitation occurs in most pumps at all times. The cause
is turbulence created by the impeller, resulting in localized pressure
below the vapor pressure of the pumpage. In the general pump
market, the ubiquitous presence of incipient cavitation appears to
cause little damage and little loss of performance, therefore the
concept is not commonly discussed. Although this fact may partially
be due to under-reporting, the fact remains that incipient cavitation
damage is not a common topic except in specific markets. The topic
is interesting to those markets where high energy suction pumps are
used. HVAC cooling towers and chilled water systems are well
known to have incipient cavitation problems.
High margins of NPSHA over NPSHR can result in increasingly
severe incipient cavitation damage, the higher the margin, the more
damage that will occur, until the NPSHi value is reached, which is
usually unachievable. The Hydraulic Institute and others have
established general recommended margins of NPSHA to address this
problem.

Factors indicating incipient cavitation may be a problem are:

1. Heavy weight liquids such as water, and especially when these liquids are
at cooler temperatures, for water this would be 1500 F. or less. Actually
water is one of the worst actors in regards to cavitation damage in general.
2. Certain ranges of Pump Specific Speed.
3. High Suction Specific Speeds (Nss > 9500).
4. Systems with high dP values.
5. Systems with high margins of NPSHA over NPSHR .

Incipient cavitation is strongly linked to the Suction Specific Speed

of a pump, the higher the suction specific speed, the more likely that
incipient cavitation may become a problem. High Suction Energy
pumps require larger margins of NPSHA over NPSHR, some report this
margin as 2-5 times NPSHA over NPSHR , some authorities report
values up to 20 times NPSHA over NPSHR . Confused? There are no
well defined simple ways to understand and know how to apply
these pumps except by experience. You need extra margin of NPSH,
and yet if you supply too much NPSH then incipient cavitation
becomes a problem. For some pumps, a small margin works well,
for other pumps higher margins are required.
The reason for this confusion involves the test methods for NPSHR.
This test sets NPSHR at a point when a 3% drop in dP across the
pump occurs as pump inlet pressure is reduced. For low suction
energy pumps and low suction specific speed pumps, that 3% drop
in dP represents a small but detectable amount of cavitation. But
high suction energy and high suction specific speed pumps are
much more efficient at moving water through the impeller, so that a
 3% dP drop represents a large amount of cavitation that can
damage the pump severely and quickly.
In conclusion, NPSHR 3% does not mean the same thing for all
pumps.

1.2.4 Vane Passing Syndrome Cavitation

Cavitation resulting when the impeller vane tip to cutwater

clearance is too small, resulting in excessive turbulence each time a
vane passes the cutwater, resulting in cavitation and also pulsation.
The location of cavitation damage is diagnostic. Typical cavitation
type damage may be observed on the center of the cutwater,
impeller vane tips, discharge edge of the impeller shroud, and
possibly to the pump casing downstream of the cutwater, and
directly behind the cutwater.
Engineering specifications may attempt to preclude this problem
by not allowing pump manufacturers to supply pumps with the
largest impeller diameter available for a given pump family. This is
not a recommended practice for engineers because it presumes that
a pump manufacturer will provide a pump with vane passing
syndrome without the manufacturer knowing of the problem, or if
they know, they are not telling the customer. Perhaps the practice
is understandable in view of the behavior of some pump
manufacturers.

1.2.5 Turbulence Flow

We would prefer to have liquid flowing through the piping at a constant velocity. Corrosion or
obstructions can change the velocity of the liquid and any time you change the velocity of a liquid you
change its pressure. Good piping layouts would include :

• Ten diameters of pipe between the pump suction and the first elbow.
• In multiple pump arrangements we would prefer to have the suction bells in separate bays so that
one pump suction will not interfere with another. If this is not practical a number of units can be
installed in a single large sump provided that :
• The pumps are located in a line perpendicular to the approaching flow.
• There must be a minimum spacing of at least two suction diameters between pump center lines.
• All pumps are running.
• The upstream conditions should have a minimum straight run of ten pipe diameters to provide
uniform flow to the suction bells.
• Each pump capacity must be less than 15,000 gpm..
• Back wall clearance distance to the centerline of the pump must be at least 0.75 of the suction
diameter.
• Bottom clearance should be approximately 0.30 (30%) of the suction diameter
• The minimum submergence should be as follows:

FLOW MINIMUM SUBMERGENCE

20,000 GPM 4 FEET
100,000 GPM 8 FEET
180,000 GPM 10 FEET
200,000 GPM 11 FEET
 250,000 GPM 12 FEET
The metric numbers are :
FLOW MINIMUM SUBMERGENCE
4,500 M3/HR 1.2 METERS
22,500 M3/HR 2.5 METERS
40,000 M3/HR 3.0 METERS
45,000 M3/HR 3.4 METERS
55,000 M3/HR 3.7 METERS

1.3 Diagnosing Cavitation

1.3.1 Diagnose Cavitation by Sound

Low level cavitation in pumps may be inaudible, but higher levels generate
distinctive sounds that we hear and call cavitation. This sound can be a
diagnostic clue to the experienced practitioner. Cavitation makes different
sounds depending on the equipment and conditions, and according to the type of
cavitation. Following are some of the descriptions of cavitation sounds:
Pumps (water or similar weight liquids)
1. Crackling or sizzling
2. Small steel shot rapidly striking against metal.
3. Hissing, rushing, swishing, or a static like sound similar to
radio or television static.
4. Recirculation cavitation can produce loud knocking,
hammering, or crackling sounds.
Valves (Valve disc riding close to seat)
1. High pitch squeal
2. High pitch singing
Valves (High Flow)
The sound of high flow rate through a full open valve such that
there is a very high pressure differential (dP) across the valve, and
regardless if there is cavitation occurring or not, can be similar to
the sound of cavitation in a pump, or the sound may be described as
a swishing, rushing, or hissing sound.
1.3.1.1 General Sound Levels
If there is no pattern or distinctive sound, or if the person listening
cannot distinguish a specific type of sound, the general sound level
can be diagnostic as follows:
1. If the sound lessens or disappears as the flow rate is reduced,
suction cavitation is probably occurring in the pump.
2. If the sound lessens or disappears as the flow rate is
increased, then recirculation cavitation may be the cause.
3. If the sound disappears as suction pressure is increased,
suction cavitation may be occurring.

One pump with suction cavitation due to clogged intake screens,

produced 86 decibels in the key of C. After the intake screens were
cleared, the sound level dropped to 66 decibels in the key of C.

NOTE: The key of C is commonly used to measure general

noise.
 Experienced persons may be able to diagnose cavitation by its unique sound
qualities. Cavity collapse has specific sound qualities that distinguish cavitation
from sounds made by entrained gas bubbles, and also from the sound of failed
bearings and other machinery noises.

1. The trained ear may be able to distinguish just by the sound if cavitation is
the source or not.
2. Cavitation sounds can start and stop quickly in response to changes in flow
rate.
3. Cavitation sounds exhibit precise repeatability, the noise is always the
same under identical conditions.

Gas bubbles entrained in the flow and not originating from cavitation, moving
through a pump or valve, make a softer and lower frequency sound than
cavitation because of the immense difference in energy levels. Sound from
entrained gasses may not react to variations in flow rate quickly or with precise
repeatability as cavitation sounds do.

1.3.2 Diagnose Cavitation by Visual Examination of Damage

Visual examination of supposed cavitation damage to pump components is often
the best way to determine exact cause. The key observation is usually the
location of the damage. The photographs below are a guide to diagnosing
cavitation damage by location.

Discharge Recirculation Cavitation

Severe discharge recirculation cavitation has damaged the discharge side of the
impeller, specifically the vane tips and the outer edges of the front and rear vane
shrouds.

Moreover, discharge recirculation creates cyclic axial thrust loads that can fatigue
the shaft, and in this case, the impeller attaching bolt, causing fatigue failure of
the bolt. The impeller bolt can be the weakest axial component in overhung end
suction pumps such as the one in the photographs, so the bolt failed instead of
the shaft.
This close up photograph of an enclosed impeller, shows discharge recirculation
cavitation damage to the vane tips and the outer edges of the front and back vane
shrouds.

Suction cavitation has damaged the leading edge and suction side of the
vane, and also damage is observed on "corner" surfaces leading into the vane.
The suction side of the vane is the side facing the viewer.
Suction cavitation on this pump was severe enough that cavities formed in the
fluid before the fluid reached the impeller. When the fluid reached the leading
edge of the vanes and surrounding areas, the cavities collapsed onto the vane
and surrounding areas eroding the impeller material.

If the pressure side of the vanes were damaged, (back side of the vane that can
only be seen with a mirror), then suction recirculation cavitation would have been
the cause.
Again, the suction cavitation was severe enough that cavities occurred in the
pumpage before the pumpage reached the pump. When pressure increased in
the area just ahead of the vane leading edge the cavities collapsed onto the vane
causing the observed damage.

1.3.3 A reduction in pump capacity.

• This happens because bubbles take up space and you cannot have bubbles and liquid
in the same place at the same time.
• If the bubble gets big enough at the eye of the impeller, the pump will lose its suction
and will require priming.

1.3.4 A reduction in the head of the pump

• Bubbles unlike liquid are compressible. It is this compression that can

change the head. The bubbles form in a lower pressure area because they
cannot form in a high pressure area.
• You should keep in mind that as the velocity of a fluid increase, the
pressure of the fluid decreases. This means that high velocity liquid is by
definition a lower pressure area. This can be a problem any time a liquid
flows through a restriction in the piping, volute, or changes direction
suddenly. The fluid will accelerate as it changes direction. The same
acceleration takes place as the fluid flows in the small area between the tip
of the impeller and the volute cut water.

1.4 Cavitation Damage

Cavitation can destroy pumps and valves, and cavitation causes a loss of
efficiency in pumps immediately, and also a continuously increasing loss of
efficiency as the equipment degrades due to erosion of the pump components by
cavitation. Therefore It is important to understand the phenomena sufficiently to
predict and therefore reduce cavitation and damage from cavitation, and also to
diagnose and find practical solutions to cavitation problems.

1.4.1 Cavitation Enhanced Chemical Erosion

Pumps operating under cavitation conditions become more
vulnerable to corrosion and chemical attack. Metals commonly
develop an oxide layer or passivated layer which protects the metal
from further corrosion. Cavitation can remove this oxide or passive
layer on a continuous basis and expose unprotected metal to further
oxidation. The two processes (cavitation & oxidation) then work
together to rapidly remove metal from the pump casing and
impeller. Stainless steels are not invulnerable to this process.

1.4.2 Materials Selection

There is no metal, plastic, or any other material known to man, that
can withstand the high levels of energy released by cavitation in the
forms of heat and pressure. In practice however, materials can be
selected that result in longer life and customer value in their ability
 to withstand cavitation energies, so that attention to pump
construction materials is valuable and productive.
Where cavitation is not a problem or not predicted to be a
problem, common materials such as cast iron and bronze are
suitable for pump construction. There are millions of cast iron and
bronze pumps that work fine for 20 years or more without any
problem even though many of those pumps experience some
cavitation.

1.4.2.1 Factors indicating use of materials with higher resistance to

cavitation are:

1. Corrosive Pumpage - Water with chlorine, salt water, or other oxidizers. A

metal that normally has no problem with erosion by a specific chemical can
become vulnerable to that chemical If cavitation occurs. Cavitation can
eat away the protective surface oxide layers of a metal that protect the
metal from corrosion. Even stainless steel can experience chemical
erosion if the passivated surface layer of the stainless steel is continuously
removed by cavitation thus exposing unprotected metal to the oxidizing
agent.
2. Low Flow Rate - Long term operation at low flow rates can result in both
types of Recirculation Cavitation.
3. Low NPSHA - Long term operation with marginal or insufficient NPSHA.
4. Heavy Weight (High Density) Liquids - Heavy liquids such as water cause
more damage in cavitation situations. Water molecules are small and
dense, water weights 8.33 lbs./gallon. Since density is highest at cooler
temperatures, water and similar liquids are more of a problem at
temperatures below 1500 F.
5. High Specific Speed Pumps (Ns>9000)
6. High Suction Specific Speeds (Nss>9500)
7. Systems with high dP values across the pump.
8. Systems with high margins of NPSHA over NPSHR . In these situations
reducing NPSH may reduce or practically eliminate the cavitation damage.

1.4.2.2 Material Resistance

The Materials below are listed in the order of their ability to
withstand Cavitation Erosion, Cast Iron having the lowest resistance
and Stellite the highest resistance to cavitation damage.
1. Cast Iron
2. Leaded Bronze
3. Cast Carbon Steel
4. Manganese Bronze
5. Monel
6. Cast Iron - CA-15, CA6-NM, CF-8M
7. Stainless Steel (Cast Precipitation, Cast
Duplex)
8. Cast Nickel Aluminum Bronze
9. Titanium
10. Cast Carburized 12% Chromium Stainless,
Chrome-manganese austenitic Stainless.
11. Stellite

2.5 Mechanism of Cavitation

The phenomenon of cavitation is a stepwise process as shown in Figure (below).

2.5.1 Step One, Formation of bubbles inside

the liquid being pumped.

The bubbles form inside the liquid when it vaporises

i.e. phase change from liquid to vapor. But how does
vaporization of the liquid occur during a pumping
operation?
Vaporization of any liquid inside a closed
container can occur if either pressure on the liquid
surface decreases such that it becomes equal to or
less than the liquid vapor pressure at the operating
temperature, or the temperature of the liquid rises,
raising the vapor pressure such that it becomes
equal to or greater than the operating pressure at
the liquid surface. For example, if water at room
temperature (about 77 °F) is kept in a closed
Phenomenon of Cavitation
container and the system pressure is reduced to its
vapor pressure (about 0.52 psia), the water quickly changes to a vapor. Also, if the operating
pressure is to remain constant at about 0.52 psia and the temperature is allowed to rise above
77 °F, then the water quickly changes to a vapor.

Just like in a closed container, vaporization of the liquid can occur in centrifugal pumps when
the local static pressure reduces below that of the vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping
temperature.

NOTE: The vaporisation accomplished by addition of heat or the reduction of static pressure
without dynamic action of the liquid is excluded from the definition of cavitation. For the
purposes of this article, only pressure variations that cause cavitation shall be explored.
Temperature changes must be considered only when dealing with systems that introduce or
remove heat from the fluid being pumped.

To understand vaporization, two important points to remember are:

1. We consider only the static pressure and not the total pressure when determining if the system
pressure is less than or greater than the liquid vapor pressure. The total pressure is the sum of the
static pressure and dynamic pressure (due to velocity).

2. The terms pressure and head have different meanings and they should not be
confused. As a convention in this article, the term “pressure” shall be used to understand the
concept of cavitation whereas the term “head” shall be used in equations. Thus, the key concept
is - vapor bubbles form due to vaporization of the liquid being pumped when the local static
pressure at any point inside the pump becomes equal to or less than the vapor pressure of the
liquid at the pumping temperature.

How does pressure reduction occur in a pump system?

The reduction in local static pressure at any point inside the pump can occur under two
conditions:
1. The actual pressure drop in the external suction system is greater than that
considered during design. As a result, the pressure available at pump suction is not
sufficiently high enough to overcome the design pressure drop inside the pump.
2. The actual pressure drop inside the pump is greater than that considered during the
pump design.

In summary, vaporization of the liquid (bubble formation) occurs due to the reduction of the static pressure
to a value below that of the liquid vapor pressure. The reduction of static pressure in the external suction
system occurs mainly due to friction in suction piping. The reduction of static pressure in the internal suction
system occurs mainly due to the rise in the velocity at the impeller eye.

1.5.2 Step Two, Growth of bubbles

Unless there is no change in the operating conditions, new bubbles continue to form and old bubbles
grow in size. The bubbles then get carried in the liquid as it flows from the impeller eye to the impeller
exit tip along the vane trailing edge. Due to impeller rotating action, the bubbles attain very high
velocity and eventually reach the regions of high pressure within the impeller where they start
collapsing. The life cycle of a bubble
has been estimated to be in the order
of 0.003 seconds.
1.5.3 Step Three, Collapse of
bubbles
As the vapor bubbles move along the
impeller vanes, the pressure around
the bubbles begins to increase until a
point is reached where the pressure
on the outside of the bubble is
greater than the pressure inside the
bubble. The bubble collapses. The
process is not an explosion but rather
an implosion (inward bursting).
Hundreds of bubbles collapse at
approximately the same point on
each impeller vane. Bubbles collapse
non-symmetrically such that the
surrounding liquid rushes to fill the Collapse of a Vapor Bubble
void forming a liquid microjet. The micro jet subsequently ruptures the bubble with such force that a
hammering action occurs. Bubble collapse pressures greater than 1 GPa (145x106 psi) have been
reported. The highly localized hammering effect can pit the pump impeller. The pitting effect is
illustrated schematically in this the figure.
After the bubble collapses, a shock wave emanates outward from the point of collapse. This shock
wave is what we actually hear and what we call "cavitation". The implosion of bubbles and emanation
of shock waves (red color) . In nutshell, the mechanism of cavitation is all about formation, growth
and collapse of bubbles inside the liquid being pumped. But how can the knowledge of mechanism of
cavitation can really help in troubleshooting a cavitation problem. The concept of mechanism can help
in identifying the type of bubbles and the cause of their formation and collapse.
1.6 calculation

1.6.1 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) and Cavitation

The Hydraulic Institute defines NPSH as the total suction head in feet absolute, determined at the
suction nozzle and corrected to datum, less the vapour pressure of the liquid in feet absolute.
Simply stated, it is an analysis of energy conditions on the suction side of a pump to determine if
the liquid will vaporize at the lowest pressure point in the pump.

The pressure, which a liquid exerts on its surroundings, is dependent upon its temperature. This
pressure, called vapour pressure, is a unique characteristic of every fluid and increased with
increasing temperature. When the vapour pressure within the fluid reaches the pressure of the
surrounding medium, the fluid begins to vaporize or boil. The temperature at which this
vaporization occurs will decrease as the pressure of the surrounding medium decreases.

A liquid increases greatly in volume when it vaporizes. One cubic foot of water at room
temperature becomes 1700 cu. ft. of vapour at the same temperature.

It is obvious from the above that if we are to pump a fluid effectively, we must keep it in liquid
form. NPSH is simply a measure of the amount of suction head present to prevent this
vaporization at the lowest pressure point in the pump.

NPSH Required is a function of the pump design. As the liquid passes from the pump suction to
the eye of the impeller, the velocity increases and the pressure decreases. There are also pressure
losses due to shock and turbulence as the liquid strikes the impeller. The centrifugal force of the
impeller vanes further increases the velocity and decreases the pressure of the liquid. The NPSH
Required is the positive head in feet absolute required at the pump suction to overcome these
pressure drops in the pump and maintain the majority of the liquid above its vapor pressure. The
NPSH Required varies with speed and capacity within any particular pump. Pump
manufacturer's curves normally provide this information.

1.6.2 NPSH and Suction Specific Speed

In designing a pumping system, it is essential to provide adequate NPSH available for proper
pump operation. Insufficient NPSH available may seriously restrict pump selection, or even force
an expensive system redesign. On the other hand, providing excessive NPSH available may
needlessly increase system cost.

Suction specific speed may provide help in this situation.

Suction specific speed (S) is defined as:

Where
N = Pump speed RPM
GPM = Pump flow at best efficiency point at impeller inlet (for double suction impellers divide
total pump flow by two).
NPSHR = Pump NPSH required at best efficiency point.

For a given pump, the suction specific speed is generally a constant - it does not change when the
pump speed is changed. Experience has shown that 9000 is a reasonable value of suction specific
speed. Pumps with a minimum suction specific speed of 9000 are readily available, and are not
normally subject to severe operating restrictions, unless the pump speed pushes the pump into
high or very high suction energy.

An example:
Flow 2,000 GPM; head 600 ft. What NPSHA will be required?

Assume: at 600 ft., 3500 RPM operation will be required.

A related problem is in selecting a new pump, especially at higher flow, for an existing system.
Suction specific speed will highlight applications where NPSHA may restrict pump selection. An
example:

Existing system: Flow 2000 GPM; head 600 ft.; NPSHA 30 ft.; Specific Gravity 1.0; Suction
Nozzle 6 in. - What is the maximum speed at which a pump can be run without exceeding NPSH
available? (NPSHMargin Ratio = 1.5 from above @ S.E. = 173 x 106)

Running a pump at this speed would require a gear and at this speed, the pump might not develop
the required head. At a mini-mum, existing NPSH A is constraining pump selection.

Same system as 1. Is a double suction pump practical?

For a double suction pump De = .75 x 6" = 4.5
S.E. = 4.5 x 3550 x 9000 x 1.0
S.E. = 136 x 106 (High S.E.)

For a double suction pump, flow is divided by two.

Using a double suction pump is one way of meeting system NPSH and obtaining a higher head.
The amount of energy in a pumped fluid, that flashes into vapor and then collapses back to a
liquid in the higher pressure area of the impeller inlet, determines the extent of the noise and/or
damage from cavitation. Suction Energy is defined as:

Suction Energy = De x N x S x Sg

Where D e = Impeller eye diameter (inches)

Sg = Specific gravity of liquid (Sg - 1.0 for cold water)

High Suction Energy starts at 160 x 10 6 for end suctabtion pumps and 120 x 10 6 for horizontal
split case pumps. Very high suction energy starts at 1.5 times the High Suction Energy values.
For estimating purposes you can normally assume that the impeller eye diameter is
approximately 90% of the suction nozzle size, for an end suction pump, and 75% of the suction
size for a double suction split case pump.

According to the Hydraulic Institute, and NPSH margin is required above the NPSHR of the
pump to supress incipient cavitation. The amount of margin is a function of Suction Energy and
the critical nature of the application as follows:

NPSH Margin Ratio

Suction Energy
(NPSHA/NPSHR)
Low 1.1 - 1.3
High 1.2 - 1.7
Very High 1.7 - 2.5

Suction specific speed 9,000, pump speed 3550 RPM, suction nozzle size 6 inch, specific gravity
1.0, and the pump type is end suction.

De ~ .9 x 6" = 5.4"
Suction Energy = De x N x S x Sg
= 5.4 x 3550 x 9,000 x 1.0
= 173 x 106

Since 173 x 106 > 160 x 106 , this is a High Suction Energy pump.

1.6.3.a How you are calculate the net positive suction head (NPSH) of your pump
and determine if you are going to have a cavitation problem?

To calculate the net positive suction head (NPSH) of your pump and determine if you are
going to have a cavitation problem, you will need access to several additional pieces of
information:

• The curve for your pump. This pump curve is supplied by the pump manufacturer.
Someone in your plant should have a copy. The curve is going to show you the Net
Positive Suction Head (NPSH) required for your pump at a given capacity. Each pump
is different so make sure you have the correct pump curve and use the numbers for the
impeller diameter on your pump. Keep in mind that this NPSH required was for cold,
fresh water.
 • A chart or some type of publication that will give you the vapor pressure of the fluid
you are pumping. You can find a typical vapor pressure chart in the "charts you can
use" section in the home page of this web site
• If you would like to be a little more exact, you can use a chart to show the possible
reduction in NPSH required if you are pumping hot water or light hydrocarbons. I will
cover this subject in great detail in another paper.
• You need to know the specific gravity of your fluid. Keep in mind that the number is
temperature sensitive. You can get this number from a published chart, ask some
knowledgeable person at your plant, or take a reading on the fluid using a hydrometer.
• Charts showing the head loss through the size of piping you are using between the
source and the suction eye of your pump. You will also need charts to calculate the
loss in any fittings, valves, or other hardware that might have been installed in the
suction piping. You can find these charts in the "charts you can use" section in the
home page of this web site
• Is the tank you are pumping from at atmospheric pressure or is it pressurized in some
manner? Maybe it is under a vacuum ?
• You need to know the atmospheric pressure at the time you are making your
calculation. We all know atmospheric pressure changes through out the day, but you
have to start somewhere.
• The formulas for converting pressure to head and head back to pressure in the imperial
system are as follows:

head × sg .
pressure =
2.31
pressure × 2.31
Head =
sg .

o sg. = specific gravity

o pressure = pounds per square inch
o head = feet
• You also need to know the formulas that show you how to convert vacuum readings to
feet of head. Here are a few of them:

To convert surface pressure to feet of liquid; use one of the following formulas:

• Inches of mercury x 1.133 / specific gravity = feet of liquid

• Pounds per square inch x 2.31 / specific gravity = feet of liquid
• Millimeters of mercury / (22.4 x specific gravity) = feet of liquid

There are different ways to think about net positive suction head (NPSH) but they all
have two terms in common.

• NPSHA (net positive suction head available)

• NPSHR (net positive suction head required)

NPSHR (net positive suction head required) is defined as the NPSH at which the pump
total head (first stage head in multi stage pumps) has decreased by three percent (3%) due to
low suction head and resultant cavitation within the pump. This number is shown on your
pump curve, but it is going to be too low if you are pumping hydrocarbon liquids or hot water.
Cavitation begins as small harmless bubbles before you get any indication of loss of head or
capacity. This is called the point of incipient cavitation. Testing has shown that it takes from
two to twenty times the NPSHR (net positive suction head required) to fully suppress
incipient cavitation, depending on the impeller shape (specific speed number) and operating
conditions.

To stop a product from vaporizing or boiling at the low pressure side of the pump the NPSHA
(net positive suction head available) must be equal to or greater than the NPSHR (net positive
suction head required).

As I mentioned at the beginning, NPSHA is defined as static head + surface pressure head -
the vapor pressure of your product - loss in the piping, valves and fittings .

In the following paragraphs you will be using the above formulas to determine if you
have a problem with NPSHA. Here is where you locate the numbers to put into the
formula:

• Static head. Measure it from the centerline of the pump suction to the top of the liquid
level. If the level is below the centerline of the pump it will be a negative or minus
number.
• Surface pressure head. Convert the gage absolute pressure to feet of liquid using the
formula:
o Pressure = head x specific gravity / 2.31
• Vapor pressure of your product . Look at the vapor pressure chart in the "charts you
can use" section in the home page of this web site. You will have to convert the
pressure to head. If you use the absolute pressure shown on the left side of the chart,
you can use the above formula
• Specific gravity of your product. You can measure it with a hydrometer if no one in
your facility has the correct chart or knows the number.
• Loss of pressure in the piping, fittings and valves. Use the three charts in the "charts
you can use" section in the home page of this web site
o Find the chart for the proper pipe size, go down to the gpm and read across to
the loss through one hundred feet of pipe directly from the last column in the
chart. As an example: two inch pipe, 65 gpm = 7.69 feet of loss for each 100
feet of pipe.
o For valves and fittings look up the resistance coefficient numbers (K numbers)
for all the valves and fittings, add them together and multiply the total by the
V2/2g number shown in the fourth column of the friction loss piping chart.
Example: A 2 inch long radius screwed elbow has a K number of 0.4 and a 2
inch globe valve has a K number of 8. Adding them together (8 + 0.4) = 8.4 x
0.6 (for 65 gpm) = 5 feet of loss.

In the following examples we will be looking only at the suction side of the pump. If we
were calculating the pump's total head we would look at both the suction and discharge sides.

First example: given:

• Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 psi

• Gage pressure =The tank is at sea level and open to atmospheric pressure.
• Liquid level above pump centerline = 5 feet
 • Piping = a total of 10 feet of 2 inch pipe
plus one 90° long radius screwed elbow.
• Pumping =100 gpm. 68°F. fresh water
with a specific gravity of one (1).
Static
• Vapor pressure of 68°F. Water = 0.27 psia Discharge
from the vapor chart. Head
• Specific gravity = 1
• NPSHR (net positive suction head
required, from the pump curve) = 9 feet
Static
Now for the calculations: Suction
Head
NPSHA = Atmospheric pressure (converted to
head) + static head + surface pressure head -
vapor pressure of your product - loss in the
piping, valves and fittings

• Static head = 5 feet

• Atmospheric pressure = pressure x 2.31/sg. = 14.7 x 2.31/1 = 34 feet absolute
• Gage pressure = 0
• Vapor pressure of 68°F. water converted to head = pressure x 2.31/sg = 0.27 x 2.31/1
= 0.62 feet
• Looking at the friction charts:
o 100 gpm flowing through 2 inch pipe shows a loss of 17.4 feet for each 100
feet of pipe or 17.4/10 = 1.74 feet of head loss in the piping
o The K factor for one 2 inch elbow is 0.4 x 1.42 = 0.6 feet
• Adding these numbers together, 1.74 + 0.6 = a total of 2.34 feet friction loss in the
pipe and fitting.

NPSHA (net positive suction head available) = 34 + 5 + 0 - 0.62 - 2.34 = 36.04 feet

The pump required 9 feet of head at 100 gpm. And we have 36.04 feet so we have plenty to
spare.

Example No. 2:

This time we are going to be pumping from a tank

400ft
under vacuum.

Given:

• Gage pressure = - 20 inches of vacuum

• Atmospheic pressure = 14.7 psi ft 40
• Liquid level above pump centerline = 5 feet Hg 20-
• Piping = a total of 10 feet of 2 inch pipe plus one
90° long radius screwed elbow.
• Pumping = 100 gpm. 68°F fresh water with ft 5

a specific gravity of one (1).

 • Vapor pressure of 68°F water = 0.27 psia from the vapor chart.
• NPSHR (net positive suction head required) = 9 feet

Now for the calculations:

NPSHA = Atmospheric pressure(converted to head) + static head + surface pressure head -

vapor pressure of your product - loss in the piping, valves and fittings

• Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 psi x 2.31/sg. =34 feet

• Static head = 5 feet
• Gage pessure pressure = 20 inches of vacuum converted to head
o inches of mercury x 1.133 / specific gravity = feet of liquid
o -20 x 1.133 /1 = -22.7 feet of pressure head absolute
• Vapor pressure of 68°F water = pressure x 2.31/sg. = 0.27 x 2.31/1 = 0.62 feet
• Looking at the friction charts:
o 100 gpm flowing through 2.5 inch pipe shows a loss of 17.4 feet or each 100
feet of pipe or 17.4/10 = 1.74 feet loss in the piping
o The K factor for one 2 inch elbow is 0.4 x 1.42 = 0.6 feet
• Adding these two numbers together: (1.74 + 0.6) = a total of 2.34 feet friction loss in
the pipe and fitting.

NPSHA (net positive suction head available) = 34 + 5 - 22.7 - 0.62 - 2.34 = 13.34 feet. This is
enough to stop cavitation also.

Example No 3:

we will keep everything the same except that we will be pumping 180° F. hot condensate
from the vacuum tank.

The vapor pressure of 180°F condensate is 7 psi according to the chart. We get the specific
gravity from another chart and find that it is 0.97 sg. for 180° F. Fresh water.

Putting this into the pressure conversion formula we get:

• pressure x 2.31/sg. = 7 x 2.31 / 0.97 = 16.7 feet absolute

NPSHA = Atmospheric pressure(converted to head) + static head + surface pressure head -

vapor pressure of your product - loss in the piping, valves and fittings

NPSHA (net positive suction head available) = 34 + 5 + 22.7 - 16.7 - 2.34 = -2.74 feet.

We need 9 feet, so the pump is going to cavitate for sure.

If you are given the absolute and vapor pressures in psia, and you forgot how to convet to feet
of head; you can use the following formula, providing you know the specific weight of the
liquid you are pumping :
 • Pp = Absolute pressure expressed in psia. In an open system, Pp equals atmospheric
pressure, Pa, expressed in psia.
• Pvpa = Vapor pressure expressed in psia.
• W = Specific weight of liquid at the pumping temperature in pounds per cubic foot.

1.6.3.b Calculation of Minimum Inlet Pressure

The minimum inlet pressure “H” in metres head required to avoid cavitation in the pump is
calculated as follows :
H = Pb *10.2 - NPSH - Hf - Hs
Where:
Pb = Barometric pressure in bar. (Barometric pressure can be set to 1 bar). In closed systems Pb
indicates the system pressure in bar.
NPSH = Net Positive Suction Head in metres head (to be read from the NPSH curve at the
highest flow the pump will be delivering).
Hf = Friction loss in suction pipe in metres
head.
Hv = Vapour pressure in metres head. tm =
Liquid temperature.
Hs = Safety margin = 0.5 metres head.
If the calculated H is positive, the pump can
operate at a suction lift of maximum “H”
metres head .
If the calculated H is negative , an inlet
pressure of minimum “H” metres head is
required . There must be a pressure equal
to the calculated H during operation.

Example:
Pb = 1 bar.
Pump type: CR16, 50 Hz.
Flow rate: 16 m/ h .
NPSH(from curve ) : 1.5 metres head .
Hf = 3.0 metres head .
Tm= Liquid temperature : + 90 C .
Hv = ( from curve) : 7.2 metres head . NPSH curve
H = Pb * 10.2 - NPSH - Hf - Hv - Hs [m head].
H = 1 * 10.2 - 1.5 - 3.0 - 7.2 - 0.5 = - 2.0 metres head.

This means that an inlet pressure of 2.0 metres head is required during operation.
The pressure calculated in bar: 2.0 * 0.0981 = 0.20 bar.
The pressure calculated in kPa: 2.0 * 9.81 = 19.7 kPa.
 1.6.4 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH).. No cavitation

PP Pvapour
≥
ρg ρg

PS VS2 PP VP2
+ = +
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g

PS VS2 Pvapour VP2

+ − ≥
ρg 2 g ρg 2g

Patmospheric PS VS2
−z= + + H f + HL
ρg ρg 2 g

 Patmospheric  Pvapour
NPSH available =  − z − H f − H L  −
 ρg  ρg

1.6.5 Cavitation Number:

NPSH available
σ available =
Hp
NPSH required
σ required =
Hp
• for cavitation-free operations
 Patmospheric  P
 − z − H f − H L  ≥ σ required H p + vapour
 ρg  ρg
1.7 Solution and Remedies

1.2.7.1 For vaporization problems (cavitation) :

To cure vaporization problems you must either increase the suction head, lower the fluid
temperature, or decrease the N.P.S.H. Required. We shall look at each possibility:

1.7.2.1 Increase the suction head

• Raise the liquid level in the tank

• Raise the tank
• Put the pump in a pit
• Reduce the piping losses. These losses occur for a variety of reasons that include :
o The system was designed incorrectly. There are too many fittings and/or the piping is too
small in diameter.
o A pipe liner has collapsed.
o Solids have built up on the inside of the pipe.
o The suction pipe collapsed when it was run over by a heavy vehicle.
o A suction strainer is clogged.
o Be sure the tank vent is open and not obstructed. Vents can freeze in cold weather
 o Something is stuck in the pipe, It either grew there or was left during the last time the
system was opened . Maybe a check valve is broken and the seat is stuck in the pipe.
o The inside of the pipe, or a fitting has corroded.
o A bigger pump has been installed and the existing system has too much loss for the
increased capacity.
o A globe valve was used to replace a gate valve.
o A heating jacket has frozen and collapsed the pipe.
o A gasket is protruding into the piping.
o The pump speed has increased.
• Install a booster pump
• Pressurize the tank

1.7.2.2 lower the fluid temperature

• Injecting a small amount of cooler fluid at the suction is often practical.

• Insulate the piping from the sun's rays.
• Be careful of discharge recirculation lines, they can heat up the suction fluid.

1.7.2.3 reduce the N.P.S.H. Required

• Use a double suction pump. This can reduce the N.P.S.H.R. by as much as 27% or in some cases
it will allow you to raise the pump speed by 41%
• Use a lower speed pump
• Use a pump with a larger impeller eye opening.
• If possible install an Inducer. These inducers can cut N.P.S.H.R. by almost 50%.
• Use several smaller pumps. Three half capacity pumps can be cheaper than one large pump plus a
spare. This will also conserve energy at lighter loads.

1.7.2 For suction cavitation:

1. Remove debris from suction line. 2. Move pump closer to source

tank/sump 3. Increase suction line diameter. 4. Decrease suction lift
requirement 5. Install larger pump running slower which will decrease
the Net Positive Suction Head Required by the pump(NPSHR). 6.
Increase discharge pressure. 7. Fully open Suction line valve.

1.7.3 For discharge cavitation:

1. Remove debris from discharge line. 2. Decrease discharge line length 3.

Increase discharge line diameter. 4. Decrease discharge static head
requirement. 5. Install larger pump, which will maintain the required flow
without discharge cavitating. 6. Fully open discharge line valve.

1.7.4 For Recirculation cavitation:

1. Designing the pump for lower suction-specific speeds and limiting the range of
operation to flow capacities above the point of recirculation.
2. 2. Raising the suction head.