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A coupled thermal-granular model in flights

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design

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Impact Factor: 2.74 · DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.10.052

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 Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Research paper

A coupled thermal-granular model in flights rotary kiln: Industrial

validation and process design
Maxime Piton a, Florian Huchet a, *, Olivier Le Corre b, Laure

dan Le Guen a,
Bogdan Cazacliu a
a
L'UNAM, IFSTTAR, MAST/GPEM Lab., Route de Bouaye BP 4129, 44341 Bouguenais Cedex, France
b
L’UNAM, GEPEA CNRS-UMR 6144, Ecole des Mines de Nantes, 4 rue A. Kastler, 44307 Nantes, France

h i g h l i g h t s

1-D thermal-granular model is developed for flight rotary kiln.

Granular volume fraction is validated in asphalt plant.

The different energy fluxes acting on pavement processing are estimated.

Simulations reveal the proper process design for an efficient kiln.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The advancement on the physical heat transfer model in granular system is crucial for the energy process
Received 13 June 2014 efficiency development such as flights rotary kiln encountered in many industrial areas. The present paper
Accepted 14 October 2014 is devoted to a coupled thermal-granular model development applied to that process. Based on the ex-
Available online 29 October 2014
change surfaces estimation governing the heat transfer phenomena, the granular motion distribution is
calculated in the kiln cross-section. The granular volume fraction is accurately obtained in a dilute regime
Keywords:
characterized by one active phase (curtain area) and a granular dense regime characterized by two passive
Numerical simulation
phases (within a bed and the loaded flights). A suitable energy balance, where the fully heat transfer
Heat transfer
Granular mixing
phenomena are considered, is established in an elementary volume and integrated along the kiln. The
Rotary drum numerical results are compared to a set of experiments performed in an industrial flights rotary kiln
Energy efficiency applied to the hot-mix asphalt materials manufacture. The relative errors reach less than 5% on the gases
Hot-mix-asphalt and materials temperature. Finally, a set of simulations is carried out in order to analyze the role played by
the rotational speed and flights in the frame of a suitable energy diagnostics for future process design.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. State of the art
Many inorganic chemical industries employed rotary kilns for
drying, reacting, mixing, granulating, coating or heating solids
materials, and in many cases there are used to achieve a combi-
nation of these stages. They are widely used in the fields of building
materials, metallurgical and chemical industries as a unit operation
in the chemical engineering [1]. Within recent years, rotary kilns
are commonly used for the thermal treatment of waste materials
[2], for immobilize heavy metals in green waste composting pro-
cess [3]. Geometry of rotary kiln is characterized by a long, low-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ33 240 845 775; fax: þ33 240 845 993.
E-mail address: florian.huchet@ifsttar.fr (F. Huchet).
angled cylinders rotate at low angular velocity, while internal
flights are often added in order to improve materials mixing and
increase their surface renewal. The temperature range of that
thermal equipment extends from 373 to 2000 K. This widespread
usage can be attributed to the variable feedstock, as for example
granular materials having large variations in particles size, or the
ability to achieve reduction or oxidation reaction of materials from
the freeboard gases [4].
Rotary kiln reactor can be classified as direct-heat, indirect-heat
or combined direct-indirect heat kilns. This classification depends
on the method of the hot gases stream inlet. In direct-heat kiln, the
heat is supplied to solid materials by direct exchange between
convective gas and solid materials. The indirect rotary kiln is
dedicated to the granular flow materials while the heating source is
provided by an external way (micro-waves, ohmic heating …).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.10.052
1359-4311/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1012 M. Piton et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021
Direct-heat kilns are often used when the contact between solid
materials and gas are not harmful [5]. This kind of furnaces is one of
the most energy intensive industrial process with important ther-
mal energy consumption. Indeed, the energy required to conduct
rotary kiln is provided by combustible, typically from fossil fuel or
natural gas. For an efficient rotary kiln, maximum of energy must be
transferred to the solid materials. Fundamentally, rotary kiln
reactor is considered as being heat exchanger in which energy from
hot steam gases is transferred to the solid phase.
In the design or modeling of rotary kilns, four important prop-
erties should be considered from a process engineering point view:
heat transfer, granular flow, gases-solid mass transfer and kinetics
reaction [6]. However, heat transfer is the most significant, because
in many applications heat transport becomes the physical limiting
step [4,7,8].
In rotary kiln, heat transfers occur predominantly through the
transverse direction and longitudinal heat transfers can be
neglected [9,10] the temperature gradient is low in a straight sec-
tion of the rotating kiln. Heat transfers between solid materials, hot
gases and wall involve mainly radiation and convection phenom-
ena. So, calculation of the heat fluxes exchange into the rotary kiln
requires knowledge of heat transfer surfaces and the convective
and radiative properties; particularly the heat transfers coefficients
and the emissivity of the solid, the kiln wall, and the hot gases, an
accurate definition of the heat transfer coefficients being available
in Appendix A. In flight rotary kiln, the heat transfers occur via the
following mechanisms shown in Fig. 1:

The heat transfer between the exposed upper solid bed and hot
C terials are also continuously exchanging between the two phases
gasesQ_ , including both convection term, Q_ , and radiation
bg bg
R
term, Q_ bg . The convective heat transfer, hbg, coefficient be-
tween the bed and hot gases can be defined by the expression
proposed by some authors (Gorog et al., 1982) [11]. This
approach is widely used in the literature, for several mathe-
matical models describing bed solid/hot gases heat transfer in
rotating kiln (Barr et al. 1989) [12e14], (Ding et al. 2001)
(Boateng et al. 2008).

The heat transfer between the solid contained in the curtain and
C
hot gases, Q_ cg , including both convection term, Q_ cg , and radi-
R
ation term, Q_ cg . The convective heat transfer, hcg, coefficient
between the solid contained in the curtain and the hot gases can
be defined by expression proposed by Li and Mason, (2000) [15].
Li and Mason, (2000) [15] found that the Ranz and Marchal
(1952) [16] approach is accurate for Rep < 200, while at larger
Rep these same authors [15] propose new correlations.
Fig. 1. Sketch of a typical flight rotary kiln: cross-section view that exhibit the mains
C R C R
relative heat exchange fluxes. With Q_ bg and Q_ bg for bed/gas exchanges, Q_ gw and Q_ gw
for gas/wall exchanges, Q_ bw for bed/wall exchange and Q_ we for wall/environment
exchange.

The heat transfer between the covered wall and covered lower
bed, Q_ bw , this is an integral approach composed of the serial
connection of contact resistance between the wall and the solid
materials [17]. The heat transfer coefficient hbw can be defined
by an expression proposed by Tscheng and Watkinson, (1979)
[18]. This correlation is widely used in the literature, for several
mathematical models describing heat transfer by contact be-
tween the covered inner wall surface and the solid bed in
rotating kiln [4,6,17,19,20].

The heat transfer between the exposed wall and hot gases, Q_ gw ,
C R
including both convection, Q_ gw , term and radiation term, Q_ gw .
Convective heat transfer coefficient, hgw, between hot gases and
internal wall can be defined by expression proposed by
SeghireOuali et al. (2006) [21]. This correlation is widely used in
the literature for turbulent axial air flowing in a rotating cylin-
der [22].

The heat losses at the kiln wall with its surroundingQ_ we , are
estimated by the correlation of Labraga and Berkah, (2004) [23]
and used by Le Guen et al. (2013) [24] for the determination of
the heat transfer coefficient, hwe.
The rotary kilns are often designed with flights in order to
discharge the solid materials in the cross-section over the length
of the kiln. So, materials are alternately lifted and dropped
repeatedly to form a solid curtain. Thus, the heat transfer surfaces
depend mainly on the solid distribution in the cross-section of the
kiln. Indeed, in flight rotary kiln, the solid materials can be in the
active phase (curtain, upper surface of bed) or in the passive phase
(granular bed and flights area) [25]. Nonetheless, the solid ma-
and the heat transfer depends on the flow properties of the solid
materials (angle of repose) and operational parameters (air flow
rate, slope of the kiln, angular velocity and flight/kiln geometry).
Several methods for calculating the materials distribution in ro-
tary kiln are developed in the literature. Sherrit et al. (1993) [26]
proposed a method for free-flowing granular materials to calcu-
late the hold-up in a lifter. Puyvelde (2009) [27] calculated the
hold-up of material from a geometrical model for different ge-
ometries proving the performance of these lifters. Lee and Shee-
han (2010) presented an experimental study of the effect of
operating parameters on a discharge law for one lifter [28]. Recent
work of Sunkara et al. (2013)a [29] and Sunkara et al. (2013)b [30]
include a dimensional analysis of flights. The same method has
also been used by Debacq et al. (2013)a [31] and Debacq
et al.(2013)b [32] for the transverse solid distributions calculation
of an industrial powder rotary kiln. An identical strategy is pres-
ently applied in the frame of the granular materials discharge
evaluation. The discharge characteristics of each flight is calcu-
lated from several parameters that affect the solid materials dis-
tribution such as: the kiln diameter, the number and the flights
design, the rotational speed, the physical materials parameters
and the kiln loading.
Several authors were carried out investigations on the one-
dimensional steady state heat transfer model of smooth rotary
kiln. Generally, in the literature, rotary kiln without flights is used
for modeling heat transfer to improve the understanding of the
operating conditions upon the energy consumption in cement kiln
[5,43], or in pyrolysis kiln [6,33e35]. Some studies with flight ro-
tary kiln used for drying solid materials are also presented in the
literature [36,37]. Nonetheless, these latter models are based on a
heat exchange surface averaged at the kiln-scale, only usable for
one equipment and one material.
This state of art shows that many applications are concerned by
the flight rotary kiln. An accurate prediction of the heat transfer is
needed for the granular processes design. Despite the high
 M. Piton et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021
performance computing resource progress, the present two-
phase flow deserves to be treated differently than by direct nu-
merical simulation. The present work proposes a numerical tool
based on a coupled thermal granular system including a first stage
devoted to the surface exchange estimation, the second stage
being dedicated to the energy balance solving the fully heat
transfer phenomena. The added values of this work include a
comparison between the numerical results and experimental data
recently obtained at the pilot [20] and large-scale [24]. Several
simulations are finally conducted in order to point out the relative
importance of the rotational speed and flight design upon the
energy efficiency.
2. Thermal and geometrical coupled model
2.1. Assumptions
One-dimensional mathematical model is based on two sub-
models. The first one is related to the solids-gases heat transfer
surface determination according to the granular materials proper-
ties, flights and kiln geometry and operational parameters. This
geometrical model is based on the granular transport between the
flights, the curtain and the bed in order to obtain the granular
distribution in the cross-section of the rotary kiln. Then, the axial
one-dimensional heat transfer balance is applied in order to solve
temperature of gases, solids and wall along the rotary kiln. The
calculation method is shown in Fig. 2.
The model of flight rotary kiln is based on the following
assumptions:

The kiln is supposed overloaded, so the amount of solid mate-
rials is above than those required to fill the flights,

The average ambient temperature, equal to 298 K, is constant
during the study,

Materials flow is assumed free and non-cohesive, the fall of solid
materials is free and vertical. Therefore, hot gases velocity u
does not exceed the value ulim that causes the entrainment of
the solids materials.

Energy balances are written under steady-state condition,

Solid materials temperature is supposed homogeneous along
the radius r and the discharge angle d. Indeed, rotary kilns are
equipped with longitudinal flights in order to increase the
granular motion.

Hot gases are assumed to be an ideal gas and temperature is
supposed homogeneous along the radius r and the discharge
angle d.
Fig. 2. Calculation method.
1013

Finally, the temperature of rotating kiln wall is also supposed
homogeneous along the radius r and the discharge angle d.
2.2. Solids distribution model
The solids distribution model describes the solid materials
transport within flight rotary kiln in order to estimate the active
phase and the passive phase. First, the mean solid residence time
proposed by Friedman et al. (1949) [38] is used to estimate the
flight rotary kiln hold-up fT according to the following relationship:
!
0:23 3:6,104 m_ g
RTD ¼ L ± (1)
xDN 0:9 d0:5
p ms
_
where x is the kiln slope and, dp the particle diameter. The second
term in this equation defines the air drag; the negative sign is used
for counter-current and the positive sign is used in co-current flow.
This residence time model is certainly the most commonly used in
the literature [39].
ðRTDms Þ=Lrb
fT ¼ (2)
Vkiln
Then, the solid distribution is calculated in a kiln cross section
from a discharge law of flights in order to obtain the bed hold-up, fB,
the flights hold-up, fF, and the airborne phase hold-up, fC, with:
fT ¼ fB þ fF þ fC (3)
2.2.1. Discharge law of flights
Initially, it is necessary to find the amount of particle contained
in a flight, mF,i(d), based on the angular position d, in order to obtain
the amount of particle contained in air-borne phase. The geomet-
rical model computes the volume of solids materials contained in
one flight. Then, bulk mass, mF,i(d), within the flight is estimated
from the bulk density, rb, in order to take into account the void
degree between the solids. The ratio between the volume of solids
materials in the flight with the volume of the kiln corresponds to
the filling degree of the flight fF,i(d):
mF;i ðdÞ AF;i ðdÞ
¼ ¼ fF;i ðdÞ (4)
rb pR2 dz pR2
However, according to Gliking (1978) [40], it is difficult to
develop a simple relation for modeling the filling degree of flight
during the period of discharge. Therefore, from the work of Sunkara
1014 M. Piton et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021

Then, the filling degree of the curtain can be estimated from

residence time of solid materials in the airborne phase where they
are exposed to hot gases flow. The falling time of the materials is
the residence time of the materials in front of the hot gases from
the flight tip to the point of impact on the bed. This time of fall is a
function of the height of fall of particle and Froude number [26,32]:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 h ðdÞ
tF ¼ 2Fr F (10)
u R

where, hF(d) is the height of fall, it mainly depends on the filling

angle of the bed εB, and the position of the flight d. Based on the
geometrical considerations of the kiln cross-section, the height of
fall can be given by the following equation [29,30]:

Fig. 3. Rotary kiln with geometrical parameters and flight discharge characteristics. hF ðdÞ cos εB rH  sin d  tan q cos d
¼ þ (11)
R cos q R cos a
Finally, the amount of particles presents in the curtain is given
et al. (2013a) [29] the kiln is divided into three zones (Fig. 3) and the
by:
filling degree of the flight can be estimated as:
3
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 
Zone I (d  g):
2 dNp dp h ðdÞ dfF;i ðdÞ
¼ 2Fr F ¼ fC;i ðdÞ (12)
3 dz D2 R dd
"  
1   r  cosðk  gÞ sin g þ ε*  f with Np the number of particle contain in the curtain and fC,i(d)
fF;i ðdÞ ¼ g þ ε*  f  H  represents the filling degree of the curtain.
2p R cos a cosðf  gÞ
 2  2 #
l l 2.2.2. Rotary kiln hold-up
 2 tanðf  gÞ  3 cosðp  b1 Þcosðp  b2 Þ
R R The rotary kiln hold-up fT is estimated by the mean solid resi-
dence time, after the bed hold-up, fB, the flights hold-up, fF, and the
(5)
curtain hold-up, fC, is calculated according to the following
discharge law:
Zone II ðg  d  ðd þ g þ aÞÞ: 1
fB ¼ ðε  sinεB $cosεB Þ (13)
p B

"  2 fF ¼ nF;a f F;i (14)

1   cos ε*
fF;i ðdÞ ¼ g þ ε*  f  sin ε* cos ε* 
2p tanðd  gÞ
    # (6) fC ¼ nF;a f C;i (15)
r  l l3 2
H 2
  cosðp  b1 Þcosðp  b2 Þ Z
R R R dL
with, f k;i ¼ 1=dL fk;i ðdÞdd, and nF,a is the active number of flights
0
given from the discharge law and geometrical parameters of the
flight rotary kiln, nF, either:
Zone III ððd þ g þ aÞ  d  dL Þ:
dL
nF;a ¼ n (16)
2p F
"   2 #
1 l2 2 1 l 2.3. Heat transfers surfaces
fF;i ðdÞ ¼  3 cosðp  b1 Þcosðp  b2 Þ
2p R tanðd  g  aÞ R
In flight rotary kiln, various heat transfer surfaces can be
(7)
observed, including the transfer surface between internal wall to
with, ε* is the auxiliary filling angle formed by the surface of the the solid bed dSsw, hot gases to the solid bed dSbg, hot gases to the
solid, solid curtain dScg and hot gases to the internal wall dSgw. However,
the heat transfer is mainly influenced by the surface of the active
 
rH cosðk  gÞ phase dSa which is in contact with the hot gases:
ε* ¼ cos1 (8)
R cos a
dSa ¼ dScg þ dSbg (17)
*
and, k are the auxiliary coordinates, F ¼ 180 
ε and k ¼ d. 90  As a first step, heat transfer surface in the curtain dScg,i(d) is
The cascading rate of flight, which is estimated from the following given for each flight position, d, from specific surface area of solids
relation using Eqs. (5)e(7) such as: by assuming that all materials are spherical:
 
m_ F;i dfF;i ðdÞ 6mC;i ðdÞ
¼  (9) dScg;i ðdÞ ¼ (18)
rb upR2 dz dd dp rs
 M. Piton et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021 1015

Then, the total heat transfer surface in the curtain dScg is ob- Gas phase:
tained from the number of active flights and curtain hold-up fC
given from Eq. (12) and Eq. (18) by the following expression: dTg    
m_ g Cpg ¼ hgw lgw Tw  Tg þ sEgw Flgw Tw 4
 Tg4
   dz  
r D 
dScg ¼ lcg dz ¼ nF;a 3p b f Rdz (19) þ hbg lbg þ hcg lcg Ts  Tg (22)
rs dp C
  
þ sEbg F lbg þ lcg Ts4  Tg4
where lcg features a characteristics length corresponding to the
heat exchange in the elementary length dz. Thus, heat transfer
surface in the curtain depends on the volume fraction transported Solid phase
by the flight fF during the kiln rotation and number of flights car-
rying materials nF,a. So, the amount of materials contained in a
dTs   
flight is a function of the design of flight and the position of that m_ s Cps ¼ hbw lbw ðTw  Ts Þ þ hbg lbg þ hcg lcg Tg  Ts
flight, as well as the material properties. dz    X
Similarly, the gases to the solid bed surface depend on a charac- þ sEgs F lbg þ lcg Tg4  Ts4 þ n_ i DH
teristic length, lbg, estimated from the bed filling angle εB from Eq. (12).
(23)

dSbg ¼ lbg dz ¼ 2 sinðεB ÞRdz (20) where, n_ i is the production rate for various species involved in the
chemical reaction, while DH corresponding to enthalpy of the re-
action. However for inert materials, the chemical reaction can be
2.4. One-dimensional heat transfer model ignored.
One additional condition is necessary to close the differential
Fig. 4 shows a general scheme of a direct-heat rotary kiln ordinary equation system by assuming no net energy accumulation
working at co-current. The cold materials equal to Ts(0) are intro- occurs within the wall. So the energy conservation at wall is:
duced in the inclined kiln at z ¼ 0, and need to be heated to Ts(Lkiln)  
4
from hot gases equal to Tg(0). Energy balances are established by hwe dSwe ðTw  Te Þ þ sεw FdSwe Tw  Te4
considering a transverse slice (see Fig. 4) and the section is divided
 
¼ hbw dSbw ðTs  Tw Þ þ hgw dSgw Tg  Tw (24)
into volumes in order to predict the axial evolution of the solid  
materials and hot gases temperature into the rotary kiln. The þ sEgw FdSgw Tg4  Tw 4

simplified form of the energy conservation of each phase, g, inte-

grated in an elementary volume is given by: The length of control volume, dz, and the number of angular
sector, dd, is studied in order to determine a relevant value with
ZLkiln   respect to the physical consideration such as, dp < dz < l2.
vTg z X
rg ug ðzÞCpg Ag dz ¼ dQ_ (21) According to Fig. 5, the results reveal an important sensitivity to
vz the heat transfer surface in the curtain, dScg. Therefore, the ex-
0
changes surfaces require an accurate evaluation of the flights
Under steady state conditions, energy balance gases and solid design, the kiln rotational speed, the physical materials parameters
materials into the control volume Agdz, involve the integration of and the kiln loading.
two differential equations Eq. (22), Eq. (23). This system has been
resolved using to the four-order RungeeKutta method with the
boundary conditions established upon the gases Tg (0) and bulk- 3. Results and discussion
solid Ts (0).
3.1. Experimental validation of the model

In the present study, the experimental data extracted from

previous works [20,24] are relevant for numerical simulations
validation since the industrial rotary kiln employed various flights

Fig. 5. Dependence of the volume fraction in the active phase on the axial temperature
Fig. 4. Sketch of rotary kiln working at co-current. The physical kiln model is dis- profile of gases and solid materials temperatures. dScg are calculated for aggregates
cretized according to the axial motion. materials with nF ¼ 12 and operating condition of Le Guen et al. (2013) [24].
1016 M. Piton et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021

geometries. In those experiments, the industrial rotary kiln has a Table 1

diameter equal to 1.7 m and a length equal to 4 m. This rotary kiln is Geometrical properties.

used to manufacture hot mix asphalt. During the production pro- Geometrical parameters
cess, the aggregates are conveyed from stockpiles to rotary kiln Kiln Flights Zone 1 Zone 2
where materials are heated at a temperature range between 150  C
L [m] 4 nF 15 14
and 200  C. Then, the aggregates are mixed with the bituminous
D [m] 1.7 l1 [m] 0.23 0.25
binder to produce the final Hot-Mix-Asphalt. fT[-] 0.24 l2 [m] 0.14 0.05
The equipment is those presented in the work of Le Guen et al. x [ ] 3 l3 [m] 0.10 0.00
(2014) [24] characterized by two area separated by a recycling ring
in the case of recycled materials utilization. Two flights geometries
are used in this kind of rotary kiln (Fig. 6). In the zone 1, the flight Table 2
loading reaches its upper limit in order to promote the active phase Operating conditions from [Le Guen et al., 2013].
and to enhance the heat exchange between hot gases and solid Operations conditions 1 2 3 4
materials. Then, the zone 2 conducts to the mixing between the hot
Solid feed rate m_ s [kg s1] 25.7 29.6 30.8 34.0
aggregates with recycled ones in order to reach a uniform tem- Hot gases feed rate m_ g [kg s1] 2.7 3.1 3.0 3.3
perature equal to about 440 K before bitumen injection. In this Hot gases velocity u [m s1] 3.00 3.16 3.19 3.32
process area, the flight is designed in order to avoid the contact Solid materials diameter dp [m] 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005
between hot gases and recycled materials. Velocity causes entrainment [m s1] 22.04 22.93 22.92 22.88
of the solids materials ulim
The inventory of the industrial kiln parameters are presented in
Angular kiln velocity N [rpm] 9 9 9 9
Table 1, while the operating conditions of the working fluid and Froude number Fr [e] 0.077 0.077 0.077 0.077
solid are summarized in Table 2.
With respect to the Stokes law, the gas velocity into the rotary
kiln is inferior to the limiting velocity, ulim, necessary to the parti-
two flights need to satisfy the following criterion [40] in order to
cles entrainment in the gas phase. The maximum speed ulim is re-
load completely the first flight at d ¼ 0:
capped in Table 2.
Fig. 7 represents the volume fraction of the flight fF,i(d) and the  
360
heat transfer surface per unit of kiln length, lcg,i(d), according to the rHs tan  a > l1 tan g (25)
angular position d of the flight. The heat transfer length lcg,i(d) nF
reaches its maximum value when the flight is in the third region of So, the flight design mounted in the zone 1 is more efficient for
solid distribution model, when d ¼ (d þ g þ a), as aforementioned convective and radiative heat transfers than the flight mounted in
(Fig. 2). It is also at this location that the upper limit of the discharge the zone 2. These latter results are in agreement with the work of
rate is observed. Afterwards, the discharge rate decreases until the Sunkara et al. (2013) [29] where the author have showed that the
volume fraction within the flight reaches zero. So, flight design ratio between each flight lengths act on the discharge efficiency.
plays an important role on the distribution of solid materials in the Table 4 reports volume fraction evolving in each phase. The passive
cross-section and consequently on the heat transfer surfaces. The phase contributes respectively to 95% and 98% of the total volume of
augmentation of the flight size tends to increase the heat transfer materials according to the flights size. However, the granular ma-
surface dScg,i(d), yet the solids materials loss during the initial terials are continuously exchanging between the two phases due to
discharge appear to be lower Table 3. the kiln rotation speed. These results are also in agreement with the
The flight number, nF, plays also an important role in the works of Le Guen et al. (2014) [24] performed at the pilot-scale.
determination of heat transfer surface dScg. Limited by the flights Numerical gases and materials thermal responses (Fig. 8) are
size and rotary kiln geometry, the upper limit distance between compared with experimental data [20]. The rotating kiln, as

Fig. 6. Industrial rotary kiln used for HMA plant [24]. The kiln is divided in two zones characterized by their respective flight: the first zone ensures large heat transfer surface and
the second zone ensures mixing between materials (aggregates, recycled materials and bitumen).
 M. Piton et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021 1017

aforementioned, is composed of an inlet devoted to the recycled Table 3

materials utilization, where a secondary air flow characterized by Physical properties.

its flow rate, m_ inf , has been measured [24]. Therefore, a mixing Physical properties
temperature, Tg,inf, is established from the heat flow rates measured Density of solid materials [kg m3] rs ¼ 2300
during experimentation [20] in such way that: Bulk density of solid [kg m3] rb ¼ 1150
materials
m_ g;inf ¼ m_ g þ m_ inf (26) Angle of repose [ ] g ¼ 32
Density of gas [kg m3] rg ¼ pM=RTg ¼ 3:5337102 =Tg
Heat capacity of solid [J kg1 K1] Cps ¼ 880
m_ g Cpg Tg ðzÞ þ m_ inf Cpair Te
Tg;inf ¼ (27) materials
m_ g Cpg þ m_ inf Cpair Heat capacity of gas [J kg1 K1] Cpg ¼ a  bTg þ cTg2  dTg3
a ¼ 1.0575 103, b ¼ 4.4890 101,
c ¼ 1.1407 103, d ¼ 7.9999 107.
Then, the numerical simulations are assessed in the same
experimental condition presented in Table 2, and shown in Fig. 9.
So, the mean relative error between simulations and measure-
ments are equal to 0.97% for the solid charge, 5.60% for gases plant), the waste heat are connected to the wall losses contributing
temperature and 4.19% for wall temperature. Therefore, one can to 5% while the flue gas contribute to 30%.
conclude that the performance of the flight rotary kiln model is
acceptable in industrial condition.
As shown in Fig. 10, the heat transfers distribution, including 3.2. Effects of flight design and kiln rotational speed upon the
radiation and convection, is compared between the zone 1 and the energy efficiency
zone 2. Among them, the heat transfer between granular materials
and the hot gases represents respectively 96% and 72% from one to The flight geometry influence is studied from two control pa-
the others. This decrease is due to lower value of the radiative heat rameters based on the ratios l1/l2 and l1/D. For each flight ratio, the
transfer between solid materials and hot gases while the secondary upper limit of flight number is calculated, nF,a. Two criteria deserve
air flow improve the convective heat transfer between the wall and to be examined, who's the curtain hold-up fC and the heat transfer
the hot gases. Practically and for that application (continuous HMA efficiency ε given by:

Fig. 7. Evolution of flight hold-up fF,i(d) and heat transfer surface lcg,i(d) of industrial rotary kiln versus the position along the discharge angle d. As expected, flights geometry affects
the material amount within the flight, and consequently increase or decrease the active phase.
1018 M. Piton et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021

Table 4  
Distribution of aggregates in the flight rotary kiln. Q_ m_ g Cpg Tg;ð0Þ  TgðLÞ
ε¼ ¼   (28)
Zones Aggregates distribution [%] Q_ max m_ g Cpg Tg;ð0Þ  Tsð0Þ
fB/fT fF/fT fC/fT
The curtain hold-up fC and the heat transfer efficiency ε increase
1 76 19 5
2 94 4 2
until approximately l1/l2 ¼ 1. Above l1/l2 ¼ 1, the curtain hold-up
and the heat transfer efficiency decrease. So, the optimal flight
design is obtained at highest flight ratio, l1/D, for l1/l2 ranged be-
tween 0.75 and 1.25 (Fig. 11). However the flight size l1 require a
lower size than the bed height in order to fill entirely the flight.
The kiln rotational speed is known for its effect on the granular
mixing while the impact on the heat transfer are not still under-
stood [44]. Fig. 12a demonstrates that the rotational speed has a
notable effect on the kiln hold-up fT, the bed hold-up fB. Their values
decrease when the Froude number rises.
Fig. 12b reveals also the role played by the rotational speed upon
the flight rotary kiln efficiency. In the present case, for
0.03 < Fr < 0.1, the efficiency rises rapidly in the granular flow
regime corresponding to the cascading motion. Those results are in
agreement established in smooth rotating drum. Indeed, from
Fig. 8. Evolution of the hot gases (Tg), solid materials (Ts) and wall (Tw) temperatures Fr ¼ 0.1, the efficiency tend to be stable corresponding to the cat-
versus the position along the rotary kiln axis. These numerical results are compared to aracting motion characterized by an uniform bed leading to a
the experimental data published by Le Guen et al. (2013) [24]. The initial gas and solid constant exchange surface. We can expect that for Fr >> 1, it would
temperatures are respectively equal to 1005 K and 370 K. result a centrifugal motion unfavorable to the heat transfer
efficiency.

4. Conclusion

The development of one dimensional thermal-granular

Fig. 9. Comparison of experimental and numerical temperatures of gases, solid ma-
terials and wall in the rotary kiln.
discharge model was applied to the flight rotary kiln composed of
a granular dense regime characterized by two passive phases (e.g
bed and loaded flight) and a dilute regime characterized by an
active phase (e.g. cascading effect). Flights design, drum hold-up
and the materials properties were considered as explicit parame-
ters for the heat transfer surfaces identification from a geometrical
model established in the kiln cross-section. This latter model was
compared to the results of the literature [20,29] where the volume
fraction of each phase was found similar.

Fig. 10. Distribution of heat transfer inside rotary kiln used for produce Hot-Mix-Asphalt. The difference of heat transfer distribution between the two zones is due to the decreased
of the surface of the active phase dSa.
 M. Piton et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021 1019

are assessed up to 5%, the rest being imputed to the exhaust flue gas
(~30%)
Several simulations have been also conduct for process design
diagnostics. The role of the rotational speed and flights designs was
expressed leading to the mains conclusions:

An increasing of rotation speed involves a granular mixing

regime characterized by a diminution of the kiln hold-up. It
results an increase of the heat transfer efficiency until that
granular bed reaches the cataracting motion (i.e Fr < 0.1). Above
a Froud number equal to 0.1, stabilization of the efficiency is
observed. Indeed, the cascading motion ensures an efficient heat
transfer within the rotary kiln, while at highest Froud number
one can expect a decline of the efficiency.
Fig. 11. The curtain hold-up (a) and the kiln efficiency (b) depend on flight size l1/l2

A flight size close to the bed height is required in order to load
and l1/D. For each flight ratio, l1/l2, the upper limit of flight, nF, is indicated.
the upper limit of granular materials within the flight, and so the
volume fraction of the active phase is enhanced. An efficient
The thermodynamics model is based on the energy balance flight rotary kiln is found for flight ratio geometry l1/l2 ranged
taking into account the fully heat transfer phenomena including between 0.75 and 1.25.
convective and radiative heat transfer between granular materials
and hot gases. Its validation is achieved through experimental data Nomenclature
acquired in industrial rotary kiln composed of two flights geome-
tries and dedicated to the asphalt materials manufacture [24]. The a thermal diffusivity [m2 s1]
relative error between numerical thermal responses and the in- A flow cross sectional area [m2]
dustrial measurements is assessed to 0.97% for the solid charge, Cp heat capacity [J kg1 K1]
5.6% for the gases temperature, and 4.19% for the wall temperature dS Elementary heat transfer surface [m2]
proving the great relevance of the model. From a thermal point of dp particle diameter [m]
view, one flight, belonging to the first kiln zone, is found more dz axial discretization [m]
efficient that the second zone. Their granular distribution in the D kiln diameter [m]
dilute phase is respectively equal to 5% and 2% while the convective E radiative heat transfer coefficient [e]
heat transfer between solid curtains and hot gases is ranged be- Fr Froude number [e]
tween 38% and 57%. The others heat exchanges are found weaker f hold-up [e]
since in that short kiln (Lkiln ¼ 4 m), the waste heat from the wall F form factor [e]
g acceleration due to gravity [m s2]
Gr Grashof number [e]
h heat transfer coefficient [W m2 K1]
hF height of fall [m]
lcg,i(d) cross sectional area per unit kiln length in the i-th curtain
[m2/m]
l heat transfer area per unit kiln length [m2/m]
L kiln length [m]
m_ mass flow rate [kg s1]
mC,i material masse of i-th curtain [kg]
mF,i material masse of one flight [kg]
nF Number of flights [e]
nF,a number of active flights [e]
N angular kiln velocity [rpm]
NP particle number [e]
Nu Nusselt number [e]
Pr Prandtl number [e]
Q_ cross sectional heat transfer [W/m]
rH distance from the kiln center tol1 [m]
RTD residence time [min]
Rep ¼ Vdp =v particle Reynolds [e]
Re ¼ Vd=v Reynolds number [e]
Reu ¼ uD2 =2v rotational Reynolds number [e]
tF time of fall [s]
T temperature [K]

Greek letters
Fig. 12. a) Evolution of kiln hold-up, flight hold-up, bed hold-up and curtain hold-up a flight angle [rad]
versus Froude number Fr. b) Evolution of heat transfer efficiency, ε, versus Froude
number, Fr. Fr increases solid velocity and reduces the kiln hold-up. An increasing
b flight angle [rad]
rotational speed modifies the solid motion inside the kiln and increases the heat g kinetic angle of repose [rad]
transfer efficiency. d discharge angle [rad]
1020 M. Piton et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021

dL final discharge point of flight the flight [rad] convective heat transfer inside a rotating cylinder with an axial air
ε efficiency [e] flow. Experimental data leads to the following correlation:
εB angle of material bed [rad] 
F auxiliary coordinate [rad] Nugw ¼ hgw Dh lg ¼ 0:02Re0:93 þ 8:5:106 Re1:45
u (A.3)
k auxiliary coordinate [rad]
u angular kiln velocity [rad s1] where the equivalent diameter Dh ¼ 0.5D(2p  εB þ sinεB)/(p  εB/
s StefaneBoltzmann constant [W m2 K4] 2 þ sinεB/2) was introduced. Then, Eq. (A.3) is valid for a rotational
q dynamic angle of repose [rad] Reynolds number Reu between 1.6  103 and 4.7  105 and a Rey-
l thermal conductivity [W m1 K1] nolds number Re between 0 and 3  104.
rb bulk density of the material [kg m3] Finally [23], conducted a set of experimentations on the heat
r density [kg m3] transfer in cross flows around rotating circular cylinders. Experi-
n kinematic viscosity [m2 s1] mental data leads to the following correlation:
m dynamic viscosity [kg m1 s1]  1=3

x slope of the kiln [ ] Nuwe ¼ hwe D la ¼ 0:135 0:5Re2u þ Re2∞ þ Gr (A.4)

Then, Eq. (A.4) is valid for 1.1  103 < Reu < 5.8  104 and
Subscript 0 < Re < 3  104.
B bed
C curtain
F flight Heat contact transfer between the covered wall and bed
g studied phase
s solid Heat is transferred to solid bed by two paths, across the active
g gas phase and from the kiln wall. Heat transfer coefficient between the
w wall covered wall and bed hsw is computed according to established
inf recycling ring infiltration literature correlations by Tscheng and Watkinson, (1979) [18]:

 0:3
ls 2εB R2 u
hsw ¼ 11:6 (A.5)
Appendix A. Heat transfer coefficient 2εB R as

Convective heat transfer coefficient in rotary kiln where, as is the thermal diffusivity of solids. Then, Eq. (28) is valid
for a rotation rate u between 3.5 and 10.
Convective heat transfer includes four heat transfer coefficient:
hbg between hot gases and the solid bed, hcg between hot gases and Radiative transfer
suspension solids, hgw between hot gases and exposed wall and hwe
between external wall and environment. The classic correlation for Radiative heat transfers are influenced by the emissivity char-
turbulent convection of McAdams, (1954) [41] hgw(b) ¼ 0.023(lg/Dh) acteristics and temperature distribution of hot gases, solid and wall
Re0.8Pr0.3 in a non-established and non-rotating tube is not suitable surface. In this work, radiation heat transfers emissivity coefficients
for the calculation of hgw, hcg and hbg in a rotary kiln. between hot gases and solids Egs, between hot gases and internal
In the literature [11], conduct a set of experiments about the wall Egw and between internal wall and solid were determined from
influence of gas flow rate and solid hold-up upon the convective the radiative model presented by Manitius et al. (1974) [42]:
heat transfer between the solid bed and hot gases in a rotary kiln.
Regression analysis of the experimental data defines the following Egs ¼ εg εs (A.6)
correlation:
  Egw ¼ εg εw (A.7)
3600m_ g 0:62
hbg ¼ 0:4 (A.1)
Ag  
Ews ¼ εw εs 1  εg (A.8)
where, Ag is the cross section of hot gases phase and m_ g mass flow
where, εg is the radiation heat transfer emissivity coefficient of hot
rate of hot gases in the kiln. According to the experimental studies
gases, εw is the radiation heat transfer emissivity coefficient of in-
of [11] (Gorog et al., 1982) hbg must be in the range of
ternal wall and εs is the radiation heat transfer emissivity coefficient
50e100 W/m2/K.
of solids. In the rotary kiln, εg depends on concentration of
[15] Li and Mason, (2000) conducted a set of experiments on the
absorbing species such as H2O, CO2, CO, CH4, or fines presents in hot
influence of Rep on the convective heat transfer in particulate flu-
gases. Indeed, gases are mainly composed of H2O and CO2, emis-
idized bed and propose:
sivity of the others components is negligible due to the low con-
1=3 centration [33,34].
Nucg ¼ 2 þ anF 0:6Rep Pr 1=3 Rep < 200
1=2
Nucg ¼ 2 þ anF 0:5Rep þ anF 0:02Re0:8
p Pr
1=3
200 < Rep < 1500
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