UNIT 1 – MANUFACTURE OF FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

Fuel:
A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases energy as
heat energy or to be used for work. The heat energy released by reactions of fuels is converted
into mechanical energy via a heat engine

Classification of Fuels

Petroleum (Petra = rock + oleum = Oil)

Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations

beneath the Earth's surface. It is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of
petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation i.e. separation of a
liquid mixture into fractions differing in boiling point by means of distillation, typically using a
fractionating column.

It consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The
name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products
that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities
of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock and
subjected to both intense heat and pressure.

Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling (natural petroleum springs are rare).
Drilling is carried out after studies of structural geology (at the reservoir scale), sedimentary
basin analysis, and reservoir characterization (mainly in terms of the porosity and permeability
of geologic reservoir structures) have been completed. It is refined and separated, most easily
by distillation, into a large number of consumer products, from gasoline (petrol) and kerosene
to asphalt and chemical reagents used to make plastics and pharmaceuticals. Petroleum is used

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in manufacturing a wide variety of materials, and it is estimated that the world consumes about
95 million barrels each day.

Concern over the depletion of the earth's finite reserves of oil, and the effect this would have
on a society dependent on it, is a concept known as peak oil. The use of fossil fuels, such as
petroleum, has a negative impact on Earth's biosphere, damaging ecosystems through events
such as oil spills and releasing a range of pollutants into the air including ground-level ozone
and sulfur dioxide from sulfur impurities in fossil fuels. The burning of fossil fuels plays a major
role in the current episode of global warming.

Structure of Petroleum

Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons; the most commonly
found molecules are alkanes (paraffins), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), aromatic hydrocarbons, or
more complicated chemicals like asphaltenes. Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of
molecules, which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and viscosity. It also
contains some sulphur and other impurities.

Paraffins (Alkanes)

Normal or straight chain paraffins are stable, saturated compounds having the general chemical
formula CnH2n+2. The compounds in this group have a name ending in –ane. The first four
members of this series (n = 1 to 4) are gases. The members from n = 6 to 18 are liquids and then
gradually transformation takes place from n = 18 to 21, after which they are solids. The
molecular structure of three of the members of the normal paraffin family with n = 1, 3 and 8
are shown below:

The hydrocarbons which have the same chemical formula but different structural formula are
known as isomers. Any compound with four or more carbon atoms may possess isomers. Iso-
octane has the same general chemical formula and molecular weight as octane but a different
structure and different physical characteristics. Isoparaffins are also stable compounds.

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Isooctane is a very smooth burning fuel in spark-ignition engine and has been chosen as the
standard for 100 octane gasoline. In contrast, normal octane is a rather poor engine fuel and
has a low octane rating.

The alkanes from pentane (C5H12) to octane (C8H18) are refined into gasoline, the ones
from nonane (C9H20) to hexadecane (C16H34) into diesel fuel, kerosene and jet fuel. Alkanes with
more than 16 carbon atoms can be refined into fuel oil and lubricating oil. At the heavier end of
the range, paraffin wax is an alkane with approximately 25 carbon atoms, while asphalt has 35
and up, although these are usually cracked by modern refineries into more valuable products.

The shortest molecules, those with four or fewer carbon atoms, are in a gaseous state at room
temperature. They are the petroleum gases. Depending on demand and the cost of recovery,
these gases are either flared off, sold as liquefied petroleum gas under pressure, or used to
power the refinery's own burners. During the winter, butane (C4H10), is blended into the
gasoline pool at high rates, because its high vapor pressure assists with cold starts. Liquefied
under pressure slightly above atmospheric, it is best known for powering cigarette lighters, but
it is also a main fuel source for many developing countries. Propane can be liquefied under
modest pressure, and is consumed for just about every application relying on petroleum for
energy, from cooking to heating to transportation.

Olefins (Alkenes)

Olefins are also straight chain compounds similar to paraffins but they are saturated as they
contain one or more double bonds between the carbon atoms. Their general chemical formula
is CnH2n. The double bond of the olefins may appear between two carbon atoms, the position
being designated by a number indicating the smaller number of carbon atoms at one side of the
double bond. The members of this family have names similar to paraffins except that the suffix
–ene is used. The structure of 3-Heptene (C7H14) is shown below:

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The diolefins (CnH2n-2) have a structure similar to that of olefins, but have double bonds in the
open-chain structure, and the suffix “diene” is used.

The olefins and the still more unsaturated diolefins are unstable compounds and are thought to
be the cause of gum formation in gasoline. However, since they possess very good ignition
characteristics, substantial quantities of these compounds appear in modern high octane
gasoline.

Naphthenes (Cyclanes)

Naphthenes are saturated, stable compounds with a ring structure. The molecular structure of
cyclopetane is shown below:

The naphthenes are saturated compounds even though the general chemical formula is C nH2n,
the same as for the unsaturated olefins. The names of the members of this family are the same
as those of the corresponding paraffin except that the prefix cyclo- is added to denote the ring
structure of the naphthenes.

The physical properties of this group are similar to those of the normal paraffins, but the
combustion properties are more like those of Isoparaffins. Cycloalkanes (naphthenes) have
similar properties to alkanes but have higher boiling points.

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Aromatics (Benzene derivatives)

The aromatics are unsaturated but stable ring compounds. The general chemical formula for
this group is CnH2n-6. Benzene (C6H6) is the most characteristic member of this group, and all
other aromatics consist of some variations of the benzene ring. Various aromatic compounds
are formed by replacing one or more of the hydrogen atoms of the benzene molecules with an
organic radical. By adding a methyl group (CH3), toluene is formed.

This group has very desirable combustion characteristics for use in SI engine, and the members
of this group are often added to gasoline to produce high octane fuels. They tend to burn with a
sooty flame, and many have a sweet aroma. Some are carcinogenic.

Refining Process of Petroleum

The crude oil, as it comes from the oil wells, contains impurities such as water, solids and gases
consisting mainly of ethane and methane. By simple atmospheric pressure distillation, utilizing

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the fact that the boiling points of various hydrocarbons increase with an increase in molecular
weight, the crude oil is separated into gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil or reduced crude oil.

First all the light fractions such as butane, propane, ethane, etc., which are either standing
above the liquids above the earth or dissolved in the crude, are obtained at low temperature
and form natural gas. Then comes gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, fuel and gas oils, in order of
increasing molecular weight. After the distillation of residue of paraffin wax or asphalt
depending on the base of the crude is left.

The gasoline demand is much more than that of other petroleum products. As is clear from the
figure below, the typical yield of a crude is much less gasoline and much more heavy materials
than needed. This led to the development of refinery processes to convert unwanted streams
of crude into salable products and to upgrade quality of these streams i.e., to crack the larger
molecules into smaller molecules having low boiling point as in the gasoline range, and in
processes to polymerize or alkylate small molecules into larger molecules, both having boiling
points in the gasoline range.

The following figure shows a simplified diagram of the refining of petroleum.

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The main refinery processes are as follows:

(i) Thermal Cracking: If large hydrocarbon molecules are heated to a high temperature
and pressure they decompose into smaller, lower boiling point molecules. This
process of thermal decomposition is called cracking. The more stable molecules
form cracked gasoline and the reactive one polymerize, forming cracked oil and
petroleum coke. Gasoline is the primary final product from the cracking plant.
(ii) Catalytic Cracking: It is done using a catalyst at lower pressure and temperature
than the thermal cracking. Due to the catalysis the naphthenes are cracked to olefins
and paraffins, and olefins to Isoparaffins, and thus forming gasoline. Catalytic
cracking gives better anti-knock property gasoline as compared to thermal cracking.
(iii) Polymerisation: It is the process of converting olefins, the unsaturated products of
cracking, into heavier and stable compounds such as high octane gasoline. The
typical reaction is

(iv) Alkylation: It combines an olefin with an iso-paraffin to produce a branched chain

isoparaffins of molecular weight equal to the sum of reactants, in the presence of
catalyst. This gives a fuel of very high octane number such as iso-octane or
isopentane.
𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑦𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Isobutylene + isobutane → iso-octane

(v) Isomerisation: It is the process by which isomers, i.e., compounds having same
chemical formula with different chemical properties are produced. Isomerisation is
used:
1. To convert n-butane into iso-butane for alkylation
2. To convert n-pentane and n-hexane into Isoparaffins to improve knock rating of
highly volatile gasoline.
Octane rating between 93 and 107 are obtained with 95 percent pure iso-paraffins.
(vi) Reforming: It is used to convert low anti-knock quality stocks. It does not increase
the total gasoline volume as is the case in cracking polymerisation and alkylation
processes.
(vii) Blending: It is the process of obtaining a product of desired quality by mixing certain
products in some suitable proportion. To meet the changing demands the volume of
gasoline and distillates from the refinery is adjusted by changing the cut off points of
various refinery process.

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Vacuum Distillation

In the refining process, the atmospheric distillation unit (ADU) separates the lighter
hydrocarbons from the heavier oils based on boiling point. The ADU is capable of boiling crude
oil fractions to temperatures of 750oF. Above this temperature, the oil will thermally crack, or
break apart, which impedes the distillation process. As lighter products are boiled off, the
heavier oils, called bottoms, remain at the bottom of the ADU. To increase the production of
high-value petroleum products, these bottoms are run through a vacuum distillation column to
further refine them. As the name vacuum distillation implies, the distillation column is under a
vacuum, or significantly less than atmospheric pressure of 760 millimeters of mercury (mmHg).
At low pressures, the boiling point of the ADU bottoms is low enough that lighter products can
vaporize without cracking, or degrading, the oil. Vacuum distillation produces several types of
gas oil. These are slightly heavier than middle distillates such as jet fuel, kerosene, and diesel. In
the next stage of refining, these gas oils are further refined to make products such as light-cycle
oil (a type of distillate), gasoline, and naphtha.

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Products of Petroleum Refining Process

Manufacture of lubricating oil base stocks

Base oil, also called base stock, is the name given to the main liquid component (or components)
of a lubricant. Base oils may be mineral oil based (mineral refers to the fact it was extracted
from rocks in the form of crude oil), vegetable, or synthetic in origin. Synthetics may be petroleum-
based or chemical-based. The base stock provides the basic lubricating requirements of a lubricant i.e.
the “oiliness". In most modern lubricants, a base oil mixture alone is insufficient to deliver the
technical performance characteristics required. Therefore, the base oils are mixed with a variety
of different additives, each chosen to impart additional performance benefits to the finished oil.

There are two types of conventional mineral base oil – naphthenic and paraffinic – depending on the
composition of the crude oil from which they are produced. All oils are composed of various ratios of
these types of oil.

Paraffinic base oils have higher viscosity index (generally >95) and a high pour point. They are
produced from feed stocks rich in paraffins, and are used for lubricants for which VI and oxidation
stability are important. Paraffinic base oils are not very good at dissolving additives and they do
not emulsify easily. Because of their structure - long chains - they have high film strength and
excellent lubricating properties. That is why paraffinics are used as the base fluid in engine oils,
hydraulics and industrial lubes.

Naphthenic base oils have low viscosity index (VI) (generally 0-40) and a low pour point. They
are produced from feed stocks rich in naphthenes and low in wax content. They are used mainly
for lubricants in which color and color stability are important, and VI and oxidation stability are
of secondary importance. Naphthenic oils also have a greater propensity to solublize additives. Their
structure does not lend them to the film strength and lubricating properties of the paraffinic but they
are still good. They are therefore used extensively in the formulation of oil-based metalworking fluids.

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Each of these types of oil has several grades, according to its viscosity. The American Petroleum
Institute has developed a classification system for base oils in order to facilitate engine oil interchange
guidelines.

The five groups are:

Group I: base stocks contain less than 90 percent saturates and/or greater than 0.03 percent
sulfur and have viscosity index greater than or equal to 80 and less than 120.
Group II: base stocks contain greater than or equal to 90 percent saturates and less than or
equal to 0.03 percent sulfur and have viscosity index greater than or equal to 80 and less than 120.
Group III: base stocks contain greater than or equal to 90 percent saturates and less than or equal
to 0.03 percent sulfur and have viscosity index greater than or equal to 120.
Group IV: base stocks are polyalphaolefins (PAO).
Group V: base stocks include all other base stocks not included in groups I, II, III or IV. Naphthenic oils
are considered Group V.

API Base Oil Classification System

Group II base oils are differentiated from Group I base oils because they contain significantly
lower levels of impurities. They also look different. Group II and Group III oils made using modern
hydroisomerization technology are so pure that they have almost no color at all. From a
performance standpoint, improved purity means that the base oil and the additives in the
finished product can last much longer. Some refiners sell intermediate grades labeled as Group 1+ or
Group II +.

Historically, PAOs have had superior lubricating performance characteristics such as VI, pour point,
volatility, and oxidation stability that could not be achieved with conventional mineral oils. Now, in
modern base oil manufacturing, VI, pour point, volatility, and oxidation stability can be
independently controlled. Modern Group III oils today can be designed and manufactured so
that their performance closely matches PAOs in most commercially significant finished lube
applications. From a processing standpoint, modern Group III base oils are manufactured by essentially
the same processing route as modern Group II base oils. Higher VI is achieved by increasing the
temperature or time in the hydro cracker.

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Base Oil Properties

Certain properties are very important in determining the usefulness and application for a particular base
oil:

Viscosity - The viscosity of an oil is a measure of its resistance to flow, and depends on the
temperature at which the measurement is made. It has high values at low temperatures, and low
values at high temperatures. A viscosity measurement has no value unless it is associated with a
temperature. In the past, viscosity was expressed in Engler (Europe), Redwood (UK) and Saybolt
(USA). Nowadays, centistoke (kinematic viscosity) and centipoise (dynamic viscosity) are commonly used
units.

Viscosity index - As viscosity depends on temperature, a measure of its sensitivity to temperature

is expressed by its viscosity index (VI) value. VI is determined by comparing the change of
viscosity with temperature to two reference oils – one of which changes very little with temperature
and is given a VI = 100, and another which changes a lot and is given a VI = 0. Oxidation stability - Most
oils, when exposed to air over time, react with oxygen. The Turbine Oil Stability Test (TOST) and
the resulting TOST life are measures of the oxidation stability, i.e. how much it degrades in the
presence of air. Oils used to blend lubricants must have high oxidation stability; otherwise, they
become discolored during storage. When base oils with poor oxidation stability are used in engines,
the high temperature causes them to form corrosive acids and insoluble sludge. This can hamper the
engine’s performance by forming a hard layer in the grooves of the piston rings.

Aniline Point - Aniline point is defined as the minimum temperature at which equal volumes of
anhydrous aniline and oil mix together. Its main use is determining the quality of fuels. Since aniline
is an aromatic compound, it freely mixes with other aromatics so a low aniline point indicates low
diesel index (because of high percentage of aromatics). High aniline point indicates that the fuel is
highly paraffinic and hence has a high diesel index and very good ignition quality. In case of aromatics
the aniline point is low and the ignition quality is poor. In the metalworking industry, the aniline
point is useful in determining the solvency power of your base oil. The lower the aniline point, the
better the base oil will be at solublizing and holding onto additives and emulsifiers.

Pour point and cloud point - The cloud point of an oil is the temperature at which the first trace
of wax starts to separate out, causing it to become turbid or cloudy. If the temperature is reduced
further, more wax will crystallize out until a point is reached when the oil and wax crystallize together as
a whole, and will not flow when poured. The temperature at which this just happens is the pour
point of the oil. Oils used for lubricants must have a low pour point so that in areas where the
temperature is very low, they remain as fluids. A low cloud point ensures that they remain clear and
bright in such areas.

Flash point - The flash point of oil is the temperature at which its vapor ignites when exposed to a flame.
A minimum flash point is normally specified for safety reasons.

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What is a lubricant?

A lubricant is made from base oil and additives. The quality of a lubricant, therefore, depends on the
quality of the base oil and additives used in the formulation. Additives, although used in relatively
small quantities, play a very important role in the performance and composition of the lubricants. Many
types of additives are used including:

1. Pour-point depressants to decrease the pour point of the oil.

2. VI improvers to increase the viscosity index, i.e. to reduce the viscosity at low temperatures
3. Anti-wear additives to decrease the engine/unit wear
4. Anti-oxidants to extend lubricant life by reducing degradation by oxygen from the air
5. Corrosion inhibitors and detergents to prevent the corrosion of various metals
6. Ash less dispersants to keep particles or deposits in suspension
7. Extreme-pressure load-carrying additives for gear oils
8. Various other additives such as anti-foams and friction modifiers

Why are additives used in lubricating oil?

Additives are used in lubricating oil to change, alter, or enhance its properties. Base oil as such
cannot be used in most of the present-day lubricating applications. Their properties - like resistance to
heat, oxygen, wear etc - have to be increased. This improvement is done with the use of these
additives. To increase the resistance to oxidation, we add antioxidants; to increase resistance to wear,
we add anti-wear additives, etc.

Lubricating Oil Refining Process

Vacuum distillation unit

The first step in the processing of lubricating oils is separation in the distillation units of the
individual fractions according to viscosity and boiling range specifications. The heavier lube oil raw
stocks are included in the vacuum fractionating tower bottoms with asphaltenes, resins and other

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undesirable materials. The raw lube oil fractions from most crude oils contain components which
have undesirable characteristics for finished lubricating oils. These must be removed or
reconstituted by processes such as extraction, crystallization, hydro cracking and hydrogenation.
Vacuum distillation separates raw lube oil into two or three streams with increasing viscosity. The
heavier stream is derived by removing asphalt from the residue in a de-asphalting unit. The lighter feed
stocks are sent directly to a solvent extraction. This first stage determines the final base oil viscosity
grades. The further process sequence is usually in the order of deasphalting, solvent extraction,
dewaxing and finishing.

De-asphalting
Propane is usually used as the solvent in de-asphalting but it may also be used with ethane or butane
in order to obtain the desired solvent properties. Propane has unusual solvent properties in
temperatures from 40°C (104°F) to 60°C (140°F). Paraffins are very soluble in propane but the
solubility decreases with an increase in temperature until at the critical temperature of propane
(96.8°C/206.2°F) all hydrocarbons become insoluble. In the range of 40°C (104°F) to 96.8°C (206°F) the
higher molecular weight asphaltenes and resins are largely insoluble in propane. Separation by
distillation is generally by molecular weight of the components and solvent extraction by type of
molecule structure.

Solvent extraction
There are three solvents used for the extraction of aromatics from lube oil feedstock’s and the solvent
recovery portions of the systems are different for each. The solvents are furfural, phenol and N-
methyl-2- pyrrolidione (NMP). The purpose of solvent extraction is to improve the viscosity index
(VI), oxidation resistance, and colour of the lube oil base stock and to reduce the carbon- and
sludge-forming tendencies of the lubricants by separating the aromatic portion from the naphthenic
and paraffinic portion of the feed stock.

Furfural extraction
The process flow through the furfural extraction unit is similar to that of the propane de-
asphalting unit except for the solvent recovery section which is more complex. The oil feedstock is
introduced into a continuous countercurrent extractor at a temperature which is a function of the
viscosity of the feed; the greater the viscosity the higher temperature is used.

Phenol extraction
The process flow for the phenol extraction unit is somewhat similar to that of the furfural extraction
unit but differs markedly in the solvent recovery section because phenol is easier to recover than
furfural.

NMP extraction
NMP extraction uses N-methyl-2- pyrrolidione as the solvent to remove the condensed ring
aromatics and polar components from the lubricating oil distillate bright stocks. This process was

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developed as a replacement for phenol extraction because of the safety, health, and environmental
problems associated with the use of phenol.

De-waxing
All lube oil stocks, except those from a relatively few highly naphthenic crude oils, must be de-
waxed or they will not flow properly at ambient temperatures. Dewaxing is one of the most
important and most difficult processes in lubricating oil manufacture.

Hydro finishing
Hydro treating of de-waxed lube oil stocks is needed to remove chemically active compounds that
affect the color and color stability of lube oils.

Manufacture of finished automotive lubricants

The automotive vehicles manufactured today and in the past have all required gearing of some sort to
allow transfer of engine power to the driving wheels. This gearing is composed of a range of gear
designs encompassing spur, helical, herringbone, and/or hypoid gears. All these gears require
lubrication. As there is a wide range of gearing and application requirements, so is there a range of
performance levels to meet the mild to severe operating and application conditions.

Finished automotive gear lubricants will typically be composed of high-quality base stocks (mineral
and/or synthetics), and between 5% and 20% additive depending on the desired performance
characteristics. Up to 10 different additive materials can be used to formulate these oils, and based on
the increasing requirements of extended service intervals and environmental concerns, more may be
needed. These additives would include anti-wear, EP, oxidation stabilizers, metal deactivators, foam
suppressers, corrosion inhibitors, pour point depressants, dispersants, and VI improvers. As with the
other high-performance lubricants, these additives compete with each other to perform their functions
and must be balanced to provide the required performance requirements.

Three primary technical societies composed of equipment builders, lubricant formulators, additive
suppliers, and the users of the equipment have combined efforts to define automotive gear lubricant
requirements. These three technical societies are SAE, ASTM, and API. The SAE has established a
viscosity classification system (SAE J306) for automotive gear lubricants, as shown in Table 3.2. The
ASTM established test methods and criteria for judging performance levels and defining test limits. The
API defines performance category language. The MIL-PRF-2105E specification that the U.S. military had
established for automotive gear lubricants has been replaced by SAE J2360.

Unlike automotive engine oils, there are no current licensing requirements for gear oils classified by the
API. There are however, some major OEMs that offer licenses to use their designations for transmission
and axle lubricants.

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The API performance categories as defined by API Publication 1560 are as follows:
API GL-1 (not in current use): Lubricants for manual transmissions operating under mild service
conditions. These oils do not contain antiwear, EP, or friction modifier additives. They do contain
corrosion inhibitors, oxidation inhibitors, pour point depressants, and antifoam agents. This category is
not in current use.
API GL-3 (not in current use): This category designates the type of lubricants for manual transmissions,
operating under moderate to severe conditions of speed and load, and spiral bevel axles operating in
mild to moderate conditions. These service conditions require a lubricant having greater load-carrying
capabilities than those that will satisfy API GL-1 service, but below the requirements of lubricants
satisfying API GL-4 service.

API GL-4: Designates the type of lubricants typically used for differentials and transmissions operating
under moderate to severe conditions of speed and load where spiral bevel gears are used or moderate
conditions where hypoid gears are used. These oils may be used in manual transmissions and transaxles
where EP oils are acceptable and API MT-1 oils are unsuitable. Limited-slip differentials generally have
special lubrication requirements, and the manufacturer or lubricant supplier should be consulted
regarding the suitability of this lubricant for such differentials.

API GL-5: Lubricants for differentials containing hypoid gears operating under severe conditions of
torque and occasional shock loading. These oils generally contain high levels of anti-wear and EP
additives.

API MT-1: Lubricants for manual transmissions that do not contain synchronizers. Non synchronized
manual transmissions are used in buses and heavy-duty trucks. These oils are formulated to provide

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higher levels of oxidation and thermal stability, component wear, and oil-seal compatibility that may not
be provided by API GL-1, GL-4, and GL-5 category oils. See Table 3.9 for a comparison of testing for API
GL-5 and MT-1.

Lubricants that satisfy SAE J2360 will satisfy the requirements for API GL-5; however, SAE J2360 has
additional performance requirements that exceed API GL-5. In addition to the automotive gear lubricant
tests, various car and other automotive axle and transmission manufacturers have gear tests, many of
which are conducted in cars or over-the-road vehicles either on dynamometers or in actual road tests.
These tests generally represent special requirements such as the ability of lubricants to provide
satisfactory performance in limited slip axles. In general, most laboratory and bench testing has shown
good correlation to field performance.

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 UNIT 2 THEORY OF LUBRICATION
Engine Friction
It is defined as the difference between the indicated horse-power (power at piston top
as produced by the combustion gases) and the brake horse-power (useful power) available at the output
shaft i.e.,
f.p = i.p – b.p
A knowledge of engine friction is essential for calculating the efficiency of the engine. It is interesting to
note that due to increase in friction with high compression ratio the designer tends to keep the actual
compression ratio as low as possible, contrary to what is indicted by the theoretical efficiency curve.
After a certain compression ratio the gain in efficiency due to increase in compression ratio is less than
the loss of power in friction, not only that, increased friction horse power which is ultimately dissipated
as heat to cooling water also increases the pump and fan power requirements.

Engine friction is also greatly affected by engine speed. The mechanical efficiency, which is defined as
the ratio of bhp and ihp can be as high as 85 percent for a carefully designed low speed engine having a
piston speed of up to 600 m/min. But it is very difficult to get a mechanical efficiency figure better than
75 percent for a high speed engine having a piston speed of about 800 m/min. Thus a definite limit is
imposed on the maximum output which can be obtained from an engine by increasing engine speed and
it becomes very important to give careful attention to engine friction at all steps in engine design.

Usually an appreciable difference in the specific fuel consumption between two engines of almost
identical size operating under very similar conditions results due to effect of engine friction.

The above figure shows the motoring losses of two engines of approximately ten liters, one of which is
developed carefully to get a good mechanical efficiency value.

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Total Engine Friction
It is defined as the difference between ihp and bhp, includes the power required to
drive the compressor or a scavenging pump and the power required to drive engine auxiliaries such as
oil pump, coolant pump and fan, etc., If the power to drive the compressor and auxiliaries is neglected,
the total engine friction can be divided into five main components. These are:
a) Crank case mechanical friction
b) Blowby losses ( compression-expansion pumping losses)
c) Exhaust and inlet system throttling losses
d) Combustion chamber pumping loop losses
e) Piston mechanical friction.
The following figure shows the break-up of total engine friction in more detail.

Crankcase Mechanical Friction: It can be sub-divided into

(i) Bearing friction
(ii) Valve gear friction, and
(iii) Pump and miscellaneous friction

The bearing friction includes the friction due to main bearing, connecting rod bearing and other
bearings. Bearing friction is viscous in nature and depends upon the oil viscosity, the speed, size and
geometry of the journal.

The valve gear friction losses vary with the engine design variables and no general equation is available
for predicting them. All crankcase friction losses other than bearing and value gear losses vary roughly in
proportion to engine displacement and speed. Crankcase mechanical friction is about 15 to 20 percent
of total engine friction.

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Blow-by gases: It is the phenomenon of leakage of combustion products past the piston and piston rings
from the cylinder to the crankcase. Blow-by loss depends upon inlet pressure and compression ratio.
These losses vary as the square root of inlet pressure and increase as the compression ratio is increased.
Blow-by losses can be reduced as the engine speed is increased.

Exhaust and Inlet Throttling losses: The standard practice for sizing the exhaust valve is to make them a
certain percentage smaller than the inlet valves. This usually results in an insufficiently sized exhaust
valve and hence, results in exhaust pumping losses.

The inlet throttling loss occurs due to restrictions imposed by the air cleaner, carburetor venture,
throttle valve, inlet manifold and inlet valve. All these restrictions result in pressure loss. Similarly, some
pressure loss is necessary to exhaust the products of combustion. The work required to inhale fresh
charge during the suction stroke and to exhaust stroke is called the pumping friction work.

Combustion Chamber Pumping Loop Losses: In the case of pre-combustion chamber engines
an additional loss occurs. This is the loss occurring due to the pumping work required to pump
gases into and out of the pre-combustion chamber. The exact value of this would depend upon
the orifice size connecting the pre-combustion chamber and the main chamber, and the speed.
Higher the speed greater is the loss and smaller the orifice size greater is the loss.

Piston Mechanical Friction: This can be subdivided into:

1. Viscous friction
2. Non-viscous friction
 Friction due to ring tension
 Friction due to gas pressure forces behind the ring.
Lower part of the piston works more or less under viscous friction conditions. The viscous
friction depends upon the viscosity of the oil and the temperature of the various parts of the
piston. The degree to which the upper part of the piston can be lubricated also affects the
viscous friction. The oil fil thickness between piston and the cylinder is also affected by the
piston side-thrust and the resulting vibrations.

Effect of engine variables on engine friction

Effect of bore/stroke:
The effect of stroke/bore ratio on engine friction and economy is very
small. High stroke/bore ratio engines have equally good friction mep values as that for low
stroke/bore ratio engine. Indications are that at high speeds the higher stroke/bore ratio engine
may be at some advantage.

19
Effect of cylinder size and number of cylinders:
The friction and economy improves as a smaller number or larger
cylinders are used. This is because the proportion between the working piston area and its
friction producing area i.e, circumference, is reduced.

Effect of number of piston rings:

From the figure, it can be said that the effect of number of piston ring is
not very critical and this number is usually chosen on the basis of cost, size and other
requirements rather than on the basis of their effect on friction.

Effect of compression ratio:

The friction mean effective pressure increases as the compression ratio is
increased. But the mechanical efficiency either remains constant or improves as the
compression ratio is increased. If the displacement is varied to keep the maximum engine
torque constant, this results in better part load friction characteristics. For example at 1600
rpm, an increase in compression ratio from 9 to 12 results in a 5 per cent increase in fuel
economy at constant engine displacement. However, if the displacement is varied to keep
maximum torque constant the improvement in fuel economy becomes 10 percent.

20
Effect of engine speed:
Engine friction increases rapidly as the speed increases. The best way to
improve mechanical efficiency at high speed is to increase the number of cylinders. There is a
nearly linear variation in fmep with speed.

Effect of oil viscosity:

Higher the oil viscosity, greater is the friction loss. The temperature of the
oil in the crankcase significantly affects the friction losses, wear and service life of an engine. As
the oil temperature increases, the viscosity decreases and friction losses are reduced during a
certain temperature range. If the temperature goes higher than a certain value the local oil film
is destroyed resulting in metal to metal contact.

Effect of coolant water temperature:

A rise in cooling water temperature reduces engine friction through its
effect on oil viscosity. During starting operation the temperature of both the oil and the water
is low, hence, the viscosity is high. This results in high starting friction losses and rapid engine
wear.

21
Effect of engine load:
As the load increases the maximum pressure in the cylinder has a
tendency to increase slightly. This results in slightly higher friction values. However, this
increase in friction loss is more than compensated by the decrease in oil viscosity due to higher
temperature resulting from increased load. Further in case of petrol engines the throttling
losses reduce as the throttle is opened more and more to supply more fuel for allowing an
increase in engine load. Both these effects combine to reduce frictional losses of a petrol
engine as engine load is increased. However, for diesel engines the frictional losses are more or
less independent for engine load.

Lubrication Regimes
Consider a block resting on a flat surface covered with a layer of lubricating oil. If the weight of the
block is very high or the oil is thin, the oil will squeeze out. In other words, thick oil can support a higher
load than that supported by thin oil. (a) Hydrodynamic lubrication. When this block is moved over the
surface, a wedge-shaped oil film is built up between the moving block and the surface. This wedge-
shaped film is thicker at the leading edge than at the rear. In other words the moving block acts as a
pump to force oil into clearance that narrows down progressively as the block moves. This generates
appreciable oil film pressure which carries the load. This type of lubrication where a wedge-shaped oil
film is formed between two moving surfaces is called hydrodynamic lubrication.

The important feature of this type of lubrication is that the load carrying capacity of the bearing
increases with increase in relative speed of the moving surfaces. This occurs because at higher speed the
time available to the oil to squeeze out is less. The force required to move the block over the surface
depends upon the weight of the block, the speed of movement, and the thickness or viscosity of the oil.
This force divided by the pressure caused by the weight of the block is called the coefficient of friction.

A higher coefficient of friction signifies a greater force to move the block. The flat surface lubrication of
the kind referred above exists at places such as thrust bearings, valve tips and cam lifters. Many other
surfaces which use hydrodynamic lubrication are cylinder wall, valve guide, main bearings, connecting
rod bearings, and camshaft bearings.

b) Elastohydrodynamic lubrication. When the load acting on the bearings is very high, the material itself
deforms elastically against the pressure built up of the oil film. This type of lubrication, called
elastohydrodynamic lubrication, occurs between cams and followers, gear teeth, and rolling bearings
where the contact pressures are extremely high.

(c) Boundary lubrication. If the film thickness between the two surfaces in relative motion becomes so
thin that formation of hydrodynamic oil film is not possible and the surface high spots or asperities
penetrate this thin film to make metal-to-metal contact then such a lubrication is called boundary
lubrication. Such a situation may arise due to too high a load; too thin an oil or insufficient supply of oil
due to low speed of movement. Most of the wear associated with friction occurs during boundary
lubrication due to metal-to-metal contact. A condition of boundary lubrication always exists when the

22
engine is first started. The shaft is in contact with the bottom of the bearing with only a thin surface film
of oil formed on them. The bearing surfaces are not perfectly smooth—they have 'hills' and 'valleys'
which tear this thin film which is constantly formed while the crankshaft is turning slowly. As the speed
increases it switches on to hydrodynamic lubrication. Boundary lubrication may also occur when the
engine is under very high loads or when the oil supply to the bearing is insufficient,

(d) Hydrostatic lubrication. In hydrostatic lubrication a thin oil film resists its instantaneous squeezing-
out under reversal of loads with relatively slow motions. The oil film acts as a cushion. If oil supply is
sufficient the oil film thickness is restored before next reversal of load. In internal combustion engines
there are a variety of different types of bearings and motions as given in Table below. Various bearings
and motions encountered in internal engines

Bearing Lubrication
The following figure shows the action of lubricant in the bearing. When the shaft is not rotating,
there is metal-to-metal contact between the shaft and bearing due to squeezing out of oil from
under the journal because of shaft weight. As the shaft starts to rotate, due to high starting

23
friction, the journal momentarily rolls slightly up the side wall. If some surface oil remains on
the bearing the shaft will slide back to the bearing bottom when it hits the oil. This climbing and
sliding back continues till sufficient oil is supplied by the pump so that the climbing shaft grabs
the oil instead of the bearing wall and a curved wedge-shaped oil film is formed. This film now
supports the shaft in the bearing. The only friction encountered is the small fluid friction
caused by the rapid shear of the oil particles as they slip over one another.

This phenomenon of shift from boundary lubrication to hydrodynamic lubrication is shown in

figure below with the help of the relation between coefficient of friction μ and a
dimensionless number ZN/P where Z is the oil viscosity, P is the pressure and N is the speed.
The coefficient of friction μ is minimum only at one value of ZN/P. To the left of this point the
hydrodynamic pressure developed by the film is too low to lift the shaft and metal-to-metal
con- o tact ensues. This is the zone of boundary lubrication. Reduction in viscosity or speed or
increase in load (P), all move the operating point to left. The operation of bearing in this zone is
unstable because under boundary lubrication the coefficient of friction is high which results in
more heat generation. This further decreases the viscosity of the oil which, in turn, leads to
higher value of coefficient of friction through lower values of ZN/P. This ultimately leads to
seizure of metallic surfaces.

The bearing operation to the right of this minimum ZN/P point is stable. An increase in
bearing temperature reduces the oil viscosity and hence, results in a lower friction coefficient
which gives rise to lower bearing temperature due to reduced heat generation, thereby,

24
stabilizing the bearing temperature. It should be noted that a continuous new oil supply is
essential for maintaining the wedge-shaped oil film because of leakage of oil from the side of
the bearing. This leakage removes wear particles as well as the heat generated in the bearings.
The pressure generated due to the wedge-type film may be over 65 bar compared to the
relatively low pressure of 2 to 4 bar developed by the oil pump. It is the film pressure which
carries the engine load, not the oil pump pressure. The pump pressure only ensures a
continuous oil supply.

Functions of the Lubrication System

The following are the important functions of a lubricating system

1. Lubrication: The main function of the lubricating system is to keep the moving parts sliding
freely past each other and, thus, reduce the engine friction and wear.

2. Cooling. To keep the surfaces cool by taking away a part of their heat through the oil passing
over them. This cooling action usually takes place simultaneous to the lubricating function.
However, under certain conditions lubrication system is used to keep certain engine parts
which due to their typical location do not come in direct contact with the cooling water. One
typical example is the oil cooling of pistons of high specific output engines.

While performing its cooling function the lubricant is exposed to heating and agitation which
promote oxidation. This requires oil to Possess good oxidation stability. The heat input to the oil
increases if the cooling function is extended to piston cooling. For a naturally aspirated diesel
engine the heat input to the oil can be equal to some 6-8% of engine Power output. This value
is further increased by 50% for an indirect injection engine and doubled for turbocharged
engines.

3. Cleaning. To keep the bearings and piston rings clean of the products of wear and the
products of combustion, especially the carbon, by washing them away and then, not allowing
them to agglomerate to form sludge.

4. Sealing. The lubricating oil must form a good seal between piston rings and cylinder walls.
The oil should be physically capable of filling the minute leakage paths and surface irregularities
of the mechanical sealing elements, i.e., cylinders, pistons and piston rings. The oil as a sealant
is subjected to high temperatures and hence must possess adequate viscosity stability.

5. Reduction of noise. Lubrication reduces the noise of the engine. These functions are
conflicting functions. The oil cools best when it is thin but seals best when it is thick. The oil
must collect dirt to scavenge and clean, but to lubricate it must be clean. The engine produces

25
not only power but a number of oil contaminants also. The oil should be able to absorb these
contaminants without affecting its main functions. Increased speed, compression ratio and,
hence, increased power output all result in higher pressures and temperatures. The shock
loading of bearings is also severe. Larger valves require suffer valve springs which in turn, result
in increased stresses and elevated temperatures for many related parts. All these conflicting
and difficult to meet requirements require skillful juggling at the hands of the engine designer.

26
 UNIT 3 - LUBRICANTS

Specific requirements for automotive lubricants

The basic functions of a lubricant are, of course, to reduce friction and prevent wear. In
practice, lubricants are called upon to fulfill other functions, some of which are equally vital to
the operation of the equipment in which they are employed. The automobile and engine
manufacturer Mercedes-Benz (now DaimlerChrysler) has listed more than 40 properties
required from engine Specialized lubricants such as hydraulic or transmission oils will add
other properties for our consideration, whereas solid and semi-solid products such as greases
have more restricted functions and properties measured in special ways.

The desired properties can have positive aspects (e.g., the oil shall prevent wear) or negative
aspects (e.g., the oil shall not corrode the engine parts). The ability of oil to meet any particular
requirement is usually a matter of degree, rather than an absolute fact. Therefore, questions
of testing and test limits and the acceptance of limitations of both lubricants and machine
must be taken into account.

A simplified list of the positive properties particularly applicable to motor oil can be given as
follows:

Friction reduction. This reduces the energy requirements to operate the mechanism and
reduces local heat generation.

Wear reduction. An obvious need for keeping the equipment operating for a longer period
and in an efficient manner.

Cooling. In an engine, the lubricant is an initial heat transfer agent between some parts
heated by combustion (e.g., pistons) and the heat dissipating systems (e.g., sump, cooling
jacket). In addition, and in other systems, the lubricant dissipates heat generated by friction
or the mechanical work performed.

Anti-corrosion. Either from its own degradation or by combustion contamination, the oil could
become acidic and corrode metals. Moist environments and lack of use can also cause rusting
of ferrous components. The lubricant should counter all of these effects.

Cleaning action. The oil should prevent fouling of mechanical parts from its own degradation
products or from combustion contamination. Deposits, usually classified by descriptive terms
such as “solid carbon,” “varnish,” or “sludge,” can interfere with the correct and efficient

27
operation of the equipment. In extreme cases, piston rings may become stuck and oil passages
blocked, if the oil does not prevent these effects. Deposit prevention and the dispersion of
contaminants are included under this heading.

Sealing. The oil should assist in forming the seals between pistons and cylinders (pistons to
rings, and rings to cylinder walls). In addition to providing these functions on a continuing
and economical basis, a lubricant must have certain properties that are dictated by the
equipment in which it is used. There are necessary compromises between antagonistic
requirements, some listed as negative limitations, as summarized next.

An oil should not:

1. Have too low a viscosity. This will allow metal-to-metal contact and subsequent wear, and
can increase oil leakage.
2. Have too high a viscosity. This will waste power and, in the case of engines, cause starting
difficulties.
3. Have too low a viscosity index. This means that it must not thin down too much when hot
( or thicken too much when cold).
4. Be too volatile. High volatility will appear as a loss of oil (i.e., high oil consumption) from
the boiling away of the lighter constituents, and it has been said to also cause deposits.
5. Foam unduly in service. If an oil foams, this can result in loss of the lubricating
properties of the oil, and or loss of the oil itself from the engine.
6. Be unstable to oxidation or chemical attack. Engine oils in particular are subject to high
temperatures and contamination by acids and other chemicals. The oils must be resistant to
these to preserve their beneficial properties.
7. Attack emission systems components, coatings, or seals. Some equipment contains paints
or coatings, and most have elastomeric sealing components. None of these should be
seriously degraded by the oil.
8. Produce deposits from residues. If an oil decomposes on hot metal components (e.g., in
the ring zone), it produces oxidation products that polymerize to form a yellow or brown
layer known either as “varnish” or “lacquer.” This can build up and further carbonize to
“solid carbon.” Either type of deposit can prevent movement of parts that should be free to
move (e.g., the piston rings). Apart from not producing deposits on moving parts in an
engine, the lubricant should also not cause significant deposits in the combustion chamber,
which would lead to pre-ignition.
9. Be unduly toxic or of unpleasant odor. This requirement is for the comfort and health of
the user.
10. Be unduly costly. This is often a real restraint, not because expensive oils are not
worthwhile in terms of engine operating economics, but because competition among

28
 suppliers limits the price that can be charged to the user, and hence the acceptable
ingredient cost.

Oxidation deterioration and degradation of lubricants

Manufacturing modern engine oil is a precision operation. From the time that the crude
oil goes into processing, until the finished lubricating oil is stored, careful control of
temperatures, pressures and process time is exercised. Elaborate equipment takes undesirable
components from the oil. Small, precise amounts of desired compounds are added at certain
stages. Throughout the entire operation, extreme care is taken to keep contamination out of
the product. Painstaking work is required to produce oils that will give first rate lubrication to
engines of all types, under all conditions of operation and service. Such wide performance
standards require that the oil be refined to meet exacting specifications such as viscosity,
viscosity index, pour point, cloud point, flash point, fire point, ash, carbon residue, color and
resistance to oxidation and corrosion.

When new oil is poured from its sealed container into an engine, it goes from the
controlled environment of the oil refinery into a completely uncontrolled chemical factory - the
engine. There is little control of temperature, pressure, time or contamination in the engine.
The oil is subjected to temperatures from below zero to perhaps 1500°F (816°C) on the
cylinder walls and to pressures from atmospheric up to thousands of pounds per square inch
in the bearings. The length of time the oil is exposed to this uncontrolled environment depends
simply on the whim of the operator with regard to operating conditions and drain intervals.

In addition to the variations in time, temperature and pressure, the oil now becomes
exposed to a great variety of contaminants. The burning of the gasoline or diesel fuel itself
yields a host of chemicals which find their way into the crankcase oil. When a pound of gasoline
is burned, about a pound of water is produced. Combustion also creates oxides of nitrogen
from the air, and these oxides may form acids. Small amounts of carbonic acid, sulfuric and
sulfurous acids, lead sulfate, compounds of chlorine and bromine, and other complex
compounds may be formed. If combustion is incomplete, aldehydes are formed, and when
knock or detonation occurs, even more complex reactions take place. During combustion,
unburned or partially burned carbon or soot also forms, and it forms more heavily when the air
fuel mixture is rich.

Most of these compounds leave the engine through the exhaust, but a small amount
goes into the crankcase from blow-by. Some fuels also form other undesirable decomposition
products. These products are not only oil contaminants, but may interfere with the action of
piston rings and affect engine cleanliness. Further contamination occurs from the heavy ends
of the fuel which reach the crankcase during cold engine operation. Dust and dirt find their way

29
into the oil. The water, chemicals, heavy fuel ends, dirt, dust and the air in the crankcase are
then completely mixed with the oil by the motion of the internal parts of the engine. The oil
itself will tend to deteriorate because of oxidation. Even though it is well inhibited, high
temperatures will speed its oxidation. This chemical union produces oil oxidation products
which in themselves can be harmful. With these processes continuing over wide ranges of
speed and temperatures between oil drain intervals, it is no wonder that the oil may eventually
deteriorate as a lubricant. Let us examine the various types of engine operating conditions and
the effects of some of these contaminants so that they can be brought under some degree of
control. It is not possible to eliminate oil contamination or to avoid the influence of
temperature and time. However, it is possible to minimize their effects to some extent and thus
prolong oil life.

The oil deterioration mechanism, various deterioration indicators (viscosity change,

total base number (TBN), total acid number (TAN), insoluble concentration, etc.) have been
proposed and their respective detecting methods were reported. The oil deterioration
component is divided into two general categories: deterioration of the base oil and ingression
of foreign matter. Ultimately, however, particles are considered to exist in engine oil in the
form of insoluble elements. Fig. 6. 1 shows the mechanism of the oil deterioration

The engine oil is required to function in a very hostile environment. It is subjected to high
temperatures, high shear stress and chemical attack by fuel combustion products 'blow-by'.
These products are corrosive and also cause degradation of the lubricating oil, resulting in
viscosity increase, the formation of sludge in the bulk oil and carbonaceous deposits on the
piston and rings. Effective lubrication of the internal combustion (IC) engine will minimize
friction and wear.Oil additives must be used to minimize the degradation of the lubricant.

Initially, the degradation rate is slow due to the protective action of the additives; however, the
rate dramatically increases as soon as the additive package is depleted. Without such additives,

30
modem engines would quickly cease to function. The engine lubricating oil contains a balanced
mixture of additives to minimize the effect of deterioration. Inorganic acids lead directly to
corrosive wear if not neutralized by basic additives. A particularly critical example is the
formation of sulfuric acid from high sulfur content of diesel fuels, such as commonly used i n
marine engines. Acidity in the lubricant can also lead to rusting of critical moving parts such as
valve lifters, and to degradation of the oil producing insoluble products which are precursors of
carbonaceous piston deposits. Acids resulting from fuel combustion are neutralized by basic
additives. Organic acids resulting from oil oxidation processes are deactivated by inverse
micelles which are formed in the lubricating formulations (low acidity products are not
neutralized). Oxidation is catalyzed by free radicals i n the blow-by and by soluble iron salts
formed by reaction of wear debris with oil-soluble acids. Wear taking place in regions of
boundary lubrication such as the valve train is controlled by zinc dialkyldithiophosphate
antioxidant. Insoluble sludge can build up in the crankcase. This is especially true at low
temperatures, when appreciable quantities of dispersed water are present. The surfactant
additives are very effective at keeping the sludge materials and the carbonaceous precursors
dispersed in oil. Fig. 6.3 (Marsh, 1977) is a summary of the overall processes taking place.

Low Temperature Operation

Wintertime operation of engines in stop-and-go service with considerable idling and

very short runs, impose low temperature conditions on the crankcase oil. Under these
conditions, the cooling water temperature may not exceed 120°F (49°C), and the crankcase oil
temperature may not even be this warm. When the engine is started in cold weather, heavy
fuel fractions enter the combustion chamber in liquid form and wash down the walls.
Combustion is liable to be erratic. Contamination from water and other products of combustion
is also higher during low temperature operation because of the condensing effect of cold
cylinder walls. It might be pointed out here that low temperature operation is not specifically
limited to extreme cold weather. Many times, even in warm weather and in southern parts of
the country, the same problems exist with light duty engines that never get sufficiently warmed

31
up. Under low temperature operation the oil essentially deteriorates by contamination rather
than by oxidation. The mixture of water, oil and contaminants forms a mayonnaise-like sludge
which tends to settle out of the oil on the bottom of the oil pan and in other areas of the engine
not sufficiently washed by the oil. After about 1500 miles in an average gasoline engine
crankcase, the major contaminants may be as follows:

0.125% abrasives, sand and dirt, 3.00% gasoline, 0.25% soot and carbon

0.125% metals, 0.50% water and glycol, 0.50% tars, gums and resins

These low temperature effects can be reduced by any number of steps that increase the
temperature of the cylinder walls and the crankcase oil. Water temperature can be increased
by using higher temperature thermostats, blocking off a portion of the radiator and/or using a
fan which is thermostatically controlled. A direct method of increasing oil temperature levels is
to insulate the outside surface of the crankcase. In addition to good oil filtering, adequate
crankcase ventilation is helpful. Care should be taken to keep any breather openings clean, and
if equipped with positive crankcase ventilation, the valves and tubes should be checked
regularly to see that they are clean and free. One of the best answers to the problems of oil
contamination under low temperature conditions is to drain the crankcase at more frequent
intervals than usual.

High Temperature Operation

Hot weather operation at sustained high speed and heavy loads will result in high
crankcase oil temperature. It is not uncommon to find crankcase temperatures over 275°F
(135°C). Under these conditions, oil deterioration is mostly the result of oxidation at high
temperatures rather than by contamination. When thoroughly mixed with air, oils tend to
oxidize faster and this rate of oxidation doubles with every 18°F increase in temperature.
Oxidation tendencies are also increased by metallic contaminants which act as catalysts. The
minute particles of iron that are scraped from cylinder walls accelerate oil oxidation at high
temperatures.

Oxidation of the oil forms many compounds such as oil soluble acids, resins and varnish like
materials. Some of these materials also occur from fuel decomposition. These compounds tend
to adhere to hot metal surfaces producing the stain, varnish or lacquer coatings frequently seen
on piston skirts. Under higher temperatures, they may completely plug oil control rings and
piston ring grooves. Another class of products are the materials formed when oil strikes metal,
which is hot enough to "crack" the oil. These materials are not oil soluble, and form the "coffee
grounds" type sludge. The amount of oil deterioration through oxidation and the formation of
undesirable compounds depends on the total combination of oil type, fuel type, operating
temperature, engine design and oil drain interval. Under adverse conditions, even a slight

32
reduction in operating temperature may relieve the situation, as well as the change to better
quality oils.

Additives and Additive Mechanism

Base fluids – mineral oil and also synthetic products – generally cannot satisfy the
requirements of high performance lubricants without using the benefit of modern additive
technology. Additives are synthetic chemical substances that can improve lots of different
parameters of lubricants. They can boost existing properties, sup-press undesirable properties
and introduce new properties in the base fluids.

Additives can be classified regarding different aspects. Important and helpful for the
understanding of additives is the following differentiation that takes into consideration which
part of the tribo system is influenced by the additives. According to these considerations
additives can be classified into types that

1) Influence the physical and chemical properties of the base fluids

– Physical effects: e.g. VT characteristics, demulsibility, low temperature properties,

etc.,

– Chemical effects: e.g. oxidation stability

2) Affect primarily the metal surfaces modifying their physicochemical proper-ties, e.g.
reduction of friction, increase of EP behavior, wear protection, corrosion inhibition.

Additives are used at treat rates of a few ppm (antifoam agents) up to 20 or even more
weight percentages. They can assist each other (synergism) or they can lead to antagonistic
effects. Some additives are multifunctional products that decrease the possibility of additives
interfering with each other negatively. Also additives have a very big influence on the
performance of lubricants that make it possible to fulfill new performance levels, of course
there are some proper-ties that cannot be influenced by additives, e.g. volatility, air release
properties, thermal stability, thermal conductivity, compressibility, boiling point etc.

Also well balanced and optimized additive systems can improve the performance of
lubricants enormously the formulation of high performance lubricants requires also excellent
high quality base fluids. The present trend to use more and more hydrocracked and severely
hydrotreated highly refined mineral oils as well as to synthetic esters and PAOs underlines this
statement.

Antioxidants

Industrial lubricants must fulfill many different functions, e.g. power transmission and
wear protection just to name two of them. Mostly the function of a lubricant is limited by the

33
aging of the lubricant base stock. Typical characteristics of aged lubricants are discoloration and
a characteristic burnt odour. In advanced stages the viscosity will begin to rise significantly,
acidic oxidation products are build, which in turn may induce corrosion and lubricant problems.
This aging process can be delayed tremendously by the use of antioxidants.

Mechanism of Oxidation and Antioxidants

The aging of lubricants can be differentiated into two processes: the oxidation process
by reaction of the lubricant molecules with oxygen and the thermal decomposition (cracking) at
high temperatures. In practice the oxidative aging of the lubricant is the dominating process
which influences significantly the lifetime of the lubricant. Caused by steadily increased power
density and reduced lubricant volumes (higher load-to-oil ratio) as well as extended service life
in the last years, the thermal stress on the lubricant molecules grows constantly.

The oxidation of hydrocarbons can be described by the well-known free radical

mechanism via alkyl and peroxy radicals. The main reaction steps are shown in Fig. 6.1.The
initiation of the so-called auto oxidation consists in the hydrogen abstraction of the
hydrocarbon by oxygen attack that will lead to the formation of an alkyl radical. The alkyl
radical can react with oxygen to form an alkyl peroxy radical.

The next step in the chain propagation scheme is the hydrogen abstraction by a peroxy radical
from another hydrocarbon that will lead to hydro peroxide and an alkyl radical which can again
react with oxygen as described above. The difference in reactivity of the miscellaneous radicals
explains why linear and unbranched hydrocarbons exhibit a much higher oxidation stability
compared to branched, aromatic and unsaturated hydrocarbons. Further steps are chain
branching (homolytic cleavage of hydro peroxides, increasing number of reactive free radicals,
autocatalytic phase of the autoxidation) and the termination of the radical chain reaction by
recombination of two radicals to yield unreactive, non-radical species. The typical oxidation
products that will be formed by these oxidation processes are alkylhydroperoxides (ROOH),
dialkyl peroxides (ROOR’), alcohols (ROH), aldehydes (RCHO), ketones(RR’C=O), carboxylic acids
(RCOOH), esters (RCOOR’ ) and so forth. By polycondensation processes high molecular weight
34
oxidation products are formed. These products are responsible for the typical viscosity increase
of aged oil. Further polycondensation and polymerization of these still oil soluble oxidation
products lead finally to oil-insoluble polymers that can be observed as sludge and varnish-like
deposits.

Because of the acidic character of most of the oxidation products the danger of
corrosion is increased. Also the attack of alkylperoxy radicals on the metal surface may be
responsible for corrosive wear. Furthermore such dissolved metals can form salts which also
precipitate as sludge. Non-hydrocarbon based lubricants may behave totally different. Thus the
aging of polyalkylene glycols will lead to a decreasing of the viscosity caused by the
decomposition of the polymeric structure.

Normally refined mineral base stocks contain traces of nitrogen-, sulfur- and oxygen-
containing heterocycles as well as mercaptans (RSH), thioethers(RSR) and disulfides (RSSR) that
may act as so-called natural antioxidants’ or as pro-oxidants that will accelerate the oxidation of
the lubricant. Usually the antioxidants are dominating thus providing a relatively good oxidation
stability of the base oil. On the other hand hydrocracked base stocks (API group II and III) as
well as synthetic lubricants like PAOs (API group IV) demand a well balanced antioxidant
combination in order to benefit the advantages of that kind of lubricants. Antioxidants can be
differentiated as primary antioxidants (radical scavengers) and secondary antioxidants
(peroxide decomposers).Radical scavengers compete successfully with the lubricant molecules
in the reaction with reactive radicals of the propagation process. They react preferably with the
radical oxidation products forming resonance-stabilized radicals that are so un-reactive that
they will stop the propagation of the auto-oxidation. Peroxide decomposers convert
hydroperoxides into non-radical products thus also preventing the chain propagation reaction.

Viscosity Index Improvement Mechanisms

In the simplest of cases, a desired viscosity index can be achieved by mixing fluids with
corresponding VIs. Usually, however, the viscosity requirements of modern lubricant
specifications can be met only by addition of viscosity modifiers (VMs) also known as viscosity
index improvers (VIIs). As opposed to those present in low-molecular base fluids, viscosity
modifiers have a polymer nature These molecules are described as being chain-like molecules
whose solubility depends on chain length, structure and chemical composition .As a rule, the
base oil solubility of these polymer chains deteriorates as the tem-perature falls and improves
with increasing temperature so that an increase in viscosity induced by viscosity modifiers also
increases the viscosity index.

In 1958 T. W. Selby published a descriptive explanation of the mechanism of VMs.

Because of poor solubility at low temperatures the chain-like VM molecules form coils of small

35
volume and as the temperature is increased these molecules expand and unravel, resulting in
an increasing beneficial effect on high-temperature viscosity. The absolute increase in viscosity
and the VI depends on the type, the molecular weight and the concentration of viscosity
modifiers in the formulation. In practice and depending on the projected application, molecular
weights of 15 000 to 250 000 g mol–1 for PAMAs and 2 000 to 5 000 g mol–1 for PIBs, to name
just two, are used. Concentrations are usually between 3 and 30 % (w/w). As a result of their
high molecular weight, viscosity modifiers are always dissolved in a base fluid.

Detergents and Dispersants

Detergents and dispersants, often called DD or HD (heavy-duty) additives have been

indispensable for the development of modern engine oils for gasoline and diesel combustion
motors. These lubricants are especially severely stressed due to the high temperatures that
they are exposed to and the additional influence of aggressive blow-by gases of the combustion
process. DD additives keep oil-insoluble combustion products in suspension and also prevent
resinous and asphalt-like oxidation products from agglomerating into solid particles. The over
based metal-containing compounds additionally are able to neutralize acidic combustion
products as well as oxidation products by their alkaline reserve. Thus, DD additives prevent oil
thickening, sludge and varnish deposition on metal surfaces and corrosive wear. The original
definition of detergents refers to their cleaning properties similar to the detergents in washing
agents although their function appears to be more the dispersing of particulate matter like
abrasive wear and soot particles rather than cleaning up existing dirt. Historically these kinds of
additives have been metal-containing compounds, often with high alkaline reserve.

To meet the dramatically increased requirements of modern high-performance engine

oils new ashless dispersants with improved dispersing properties have been developed. As
these ashless compounds possess also cleansing properties in fact there is no real difference
between detergents and dispersants and it is more an arbitrary definition to call the metal-
containing compounds as detergents and the ashless types as dispersants. Thus it seems to be
more appropriate to speak of metal-containing and ashless DD or HD additives.

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Mechanism of DD Additives

Detergents and dispersants are generally molecules having a large oleophilic hydro-
carbon `tail’ and a polar hydrophilic head group. The tail section serves as a solubilizer in the
base fluid, while the polar group is attracted to contaminants in the lubricant. A multitude of
dispersant molecules are able to envelope solid contaminants forming micelles whereby the
non-polar tails prevent the adhesion of polar soot particles on metal surfaces as well as the
agglomeration into larger particles. Fig. 6.6 illustrates this process that is generally known as
peptidization.

Synthetic Lubricants

Synthetic engine oils have been available for years for military, commercial, and general
public use. The term synthetic means that it is a manufactured product and not refined from a
naturally occurring substance, as engine oil (petroleum base) is refined from crude oil. Synthetic
oil is processed from several different base stocks using several different methods.

API GROUPS According to the American Petroleum Institute, engine oil is classified into the
following groups

Group I. Mineral, non-synthetic base oil with few if any additives; suitable for light lubricating
needs and rust protection, not for use in an engine.

Group II. Mineral oil with quality additive packages; includes most conventional engine oils.

Group III. Hydrogenated (hydroisomerized) synthetic compounds commonly referred to as

hydrowaxes or hydrocracked oil; the lowest costing synthetic engine oil; includes Castrol
Syntec.

Group IV. Synthetic oils made from mineral oil and monomo-lecular oil called polyalpholefin
(POA); includes Mobil 1.

Group V. Nonmineral sources such as alcohol from corn called diesters or polyolesters;
includes Red Line synthetic oil.

Groups III, IV, and V are considered to be synthetic because the molecular structure of the
finished product does not occur naturally, but is man-made through chemical processes. All
synthetic engine oils per-form better than group II (mineral) oils, especially when tested
according to the Noack Volatility Test ASTM D-5800. This test procedure mea-sures the ability
of an oil to stay in grade after it has been heated to 300°F (150°C) for one hour. The oil is then
measured for percentage of weight loss. As the lighter components boil off, the oil’s viscosity
will increase.

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Advantages Of Synthetics The major advantage of using synthetic engine oil is its ability to
remain fluid at very low temperatures. This characteristic of synthetic oil makes it popular in
colder climates where cold-engine cranking is important.

Disadvantages Of Synthetics The major disadvantage is cost. The cost of synthetic engine oils
can be four to five times the cost of petroleum-based engine oils.

Synthetic Blends A synthetic blend indicates that some synthetic oil is mixed with petroleum
base engine oil; however, the percentage of synthetic used in the blend is unknown.

CLASSIFICATION OF LUBRICATING OILS

The lubricating oils are normally classified according to their viscosity. The SAE (Society
of Automotive Engineers) method of assigning number to different oils is in universal use. SAE
has assigned a number to an oil whose viscosity at given temperature falls in certain range (see
Table 14.4). There are two temperature used as reference in assigning the numbers to oils -
180C and 990C. SAE5W, 10W and 20W grades are defined in terms of viscosity at -180C and are
oils which render starting in cold climates easily, while SAE 20, 30, 40, and 50 grades are
defined in terms of viscosity at 990C, are oils which work satisfactorily in normal and hot
climates. These numbers are merely for classification of oils according to viscosity and do not
indicate the quality of the oils since these do not consider factors like stability, oiliness, etc.

With the advent of additives such as V.I improvers it is possible to develop an oil with more
than one viscosity at different temperatures. Thus an SAE 20W/50 oil has a viscosity equal to
that at SAE 20W oil at -180C and a viscosity equal to that of SAE50W. Such oils are called multi-
grade oils.

Properties of Lubricating Oils

The quality of a lubricating oil is tested for the following various properties to evaluate its
suitability and merits for certain service conditions.

Viscosity

Viscosity is a measure of the flow ability of oil under a particular temperature and
pressure.

Flash point or Fire point

The lowest temperature at which the oil flashes and fires is known as flash point or fire
point. These two temperatures must be sufficiently high for any lubricating oil to avoid flash or
fire during use.

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Cloud point

The low temperature at which the lubricant changes from liquid state to plastic or solid
state is called cloud point. In some cases the oil appears to be cloudy at the start of
solidification.

Carbon residue

Lubricating oil being the chemical compounds of carbon and hydrogen, when burnt
deposit carbon on the engine parts. This should be as low as possible as lubricating oil.

Corrosion

A lubricant should not corrode the working parts.

Pour point

The lowest temperature at which the oil pours is called its pour point. Below this
temperature the oil becomes plastic so it does not produce hydrodynamic lubrication and
therefore cannot be used below this temperature.

Colour

This test is not so important except for checking the uniformity of any given grade of oil.

Dilution of crank case oil

Petrol vapour may escape past the piston rings during the compression stroke, which
mixes with oil and affects its lubricating property. The test, which determines the amount of
dilution in crank case oil, indicates the suitability of such oil.

Emulsification

A lubricant when mixed with water tends to separate. The emulsification number is an
index of the tendency of any oil to emulsify with water.

Oxidation at high temperature

Lubricating oils may break down at high temperature due to oxidation producing hard
carbon and varnish, which deposits on the engine parts. Therefore, lubricant must resist
oxidation.

Evaporation

Evaporation test is conducted to find the quantity of oil that may evaporate at high
temperatures. Lubricating oil should have low evaporation characteristic.

39
Sulphur content

Sulphur in a corrosive form is detrimental in lubricating oil. Thus its presence should be
avoided.

Specific gravity

Specific gravity of lubricating oil varies considerably and hence should not be regarded
as the main indication of its lubricating property.

Neutralisation number

Oil may contain impurities, if not removed during refining, which have deleterious effect
on the properties of the oil.

Types of Lubricants

1. Animal Oils

2. Vegetable Oils

3. Mineral Oils

4. Synthetic Lubricants

The examples of synthetic lubricants are silicon fluids, polyglycol ethers and aliphatic diester
oil. In general, they have superior property than the mineral oil but the high cost limits their
use.

5. Greases

They are suspension of metallic soaps dispersed in lubricating oil. Greases find use in
automobile at places where retention of liquid lubricants is difficult and the high temperature is
encountered.

Testing Of Lubricants

Physical tests

1. Viscosity test

2. Flash point and fire point test

3. Loss due to evaporation

4. Cold or pour point test

40
5. Specific gravity test

Chemical Tests

1. Acid value test

2. Saponification value test

3. Insoluble residue test

4. Moisture and emulsification test

Viscosity Tests

1. Redwood viscometer

2. Saybolt viscometer

3. Engler viscometer

Tests for Lubricants

In testing lubricants in general, a great deal depends upon the class of work in which they are to
be employed. In dealing with lubricating greases the specific gravity should always be
determined. The viscosity is, of course, also a matter of the utmost importance. If possible the
viscosity should be taken at the temperature, at which the grease is to be subjected when used,
but this cannot always be done; 300° F. will be found to be a very suitable temperature for the
determination of the viscosity of heavy lubricants. Although one of the standard viscosimeters
is the most satisfactory instrument with which to carry out the test, yet it is not a necessity.
Provided the test be always conducted in exactly the same manner, and at a fixed temperature,
using a standard sample for comparison, the form of apparatus used is not of great importance.
Most dealers in scientific apparatus will provide a simple and cheap instrument, the results
obtained with which will be found reliable.

Acidity is another important point to note in dealing with lubricating greases. Calculated as
sulphuric acid, the free acid should not exceed .01 per cent, and free fatty acids should not be
present to any extent. Cylinder oil should dissolve completely in petroleum benzene (specific
gravity, .700), giving a clear solution. In dealing with machine oils the conditions are somewhat
different. Fatty oils in mixture with mineral oils are very useful, as they give better lubrication
and driving power, especially for heavy axles, for which these mixtures should always be used.
The specific gravity should be from .900 to .915 and the freezing point should not be above 58°
F. The flash point of heavy machine oils is not a matter of great importance. The viscosity of
dynamo oils, taken in Engler's apparatus, should be 15-16 at 68°F. and 3.5-4 at 122° F. In

41
dealing with wagon oils and greases it should be remembered that the best kinds are those
which are free from rosin and rosin products, and their flash point should be above 212° F.

OIL ADDITIVES

1. Oxidation Inhibitors

These inhibit formation of varnish by preventing the oxidation of the oil at the engine
operating condition

2. Corrosion Inhibitors

These prevents are at least reduce the formation of acids which would cause baring
corrosion .These consists of oxidation inhibitors with the addition of metal salt of
thiophosphoric acid and sulphurized waves.

3. Detergents

These are also called dispersant additives. This inhibits the formation of low temperature
sludge binders and breaks the sludge particles into finely divided particles, which stay in the oil
in fine suspension and are removed when the engine oil changed.

4. Viscosity Index Improvers

These are the additive which do not allow or at least minimize the decrease of oil
viscosity with the increase in temperature.

5. Anti foaming additives

Antifoaming additives are available which suppress the foaming tendency of the oil.
Polyorganosiloxanes are the most common anti foaming additives

6. Extreme pressure Additives

These cater for more difficult condition of lubrication .e.g. the one arising between the highly
stressed cams and valve tappets. These prevents metal to metal by forming a chemical film. The
polymeric materials such as polyisobutane form such additives.

7. Pour Point depressants

These are to lower the pour point of the oil by coating wax crystals in the oil so that
they would not stick together and thus facilitate oil flow.

8. Others

Apart from above a large variety of additives are available some of these are rust inhibitors,
water repellents, emulsifiers, dyes, odour controllers.

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GREASES

Greases are prepared by saponification of fat followed by adding hot lubricating oil under
agitation .The total amount of mineral oil added determine the consistency of the
finished greases.

Greases have higher shear or frictional resistance than oil and, therefore can support much
heavier loads at lower speeds. They also do not require as much attention unlike the lubricating
liquids. But greases have tendency to separate into oil and soap.

1.Calcium based greases are emulsion of petroleum oil with calcium soap, they are generally
,prepared by adding requisite amount of calcium hydroxide to a hot oil, like allow while under
agitation .These greases are cheapest and most commonly used .They are insoluble in water, so
water resistant. However they are satisfactory for use at low temperature, because above 80
degree Celsius, oil and soap begins to separate out.

2. Soda based greases are petroleum oil, thickened by mixing sodium soap, they are not water
resistant, because the sodium soap content is soluble in water .However they can be used up to
175 degree Celsius. They are suitable for use in ball bearing, where the lubricants gets heated
due to friction.

3. Lithium based greases are petroleum oils are thickened by mixing lithium soap. They are
water resistant and suitable for use at lower temperature (up to 15 degree Celsius) only.

4. Axle greases are very cheap resin greases prepared by lime to resin and fatty oil. The mixture
is thoroughly mixed and allowed to stand, when grease floats are stiff mass. Fillers like talc and
mica are also added to them. They are water resistant and suitable for less delicate equipments
working under high loads and at low speeds.

43
Greases are used in wheel bearings, chassis joints and universal joints. Some components are
equipped with grease fittings for replenishing grease. Others must be disassembled to replace
the grease. Grease is a combination of oil and thickening agent. In some situations, grease has
certain advantages over oil. When grease is used, oil circulation systems are unnecessary, the
tendency for leakage is reduced and the lubricant remains in place after a long shutdown.

Grease does not leak or flow out of a bearing like oil would. It acts like a liquid lubricant when a
shearing force is applied to it, but the direction of fluid flow is only is in the direction that the
bearing turns. It does not flow out of the bearings because it is not fluid at right angles to the
direction that the bearing is turning.

Because the rate of oil oxidation doubles with every 20 o F increase in temperature, when a
bearing runs hot its grease will require more frequent changing. Grease with a life expectancy
of 1,000 hours at 100o F has a 500-hour life expectancy if used at 120o F. Grease made from
petroleum should not be used at temperatures in excess of 325o F unless it is being changed
every hour or two.

Grease Classification
Automotive grease is classified by the National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI) for
performance. This standard is based on an American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
standard grease specification approved in May 1990

Automotive grease is classified into two general NLGI groups:

1. If the standard has an “L” prefix, the grease is for the lubrication of suspension and
steering components such as ball joints and steering pivot points.
2. If the prefix is “G”, the grease is intended for wheel bearings.

LA Service typical of chassis components and universal joints in passenger cars, trucks, and
other vehicles under mild duty only. Mid duty will be encountered in vehicles operated
with frequent lubrication in noncritical applications.
LB Service typical of chassis components and universal joints in passenger cars, trucks, and
of vehicles under mild to severe duty. Severe duty will be encountered in vehicles
operated under conditions which may include prolonged lubrication intervals, or high
loads, severe vibration, exposure to water or other contaminants. etc.

GA Service typical of wheel bearings operating in passenger cars, trucks, and other vehicles
under mild duty. Mild duty will be encountered in vehicles operated with frequent
lubrication in noncritical applications.
GB Service typical of wheel bearings operating in passenger cars, trucks, and other vehicles

44
 under mild to moderate duty. Moderate duty will be encountered in most vehicles
operated under normal urban, highway, and off highway service.
GC Service typical of wheel bearings operating in passenger cars. trucks, and other vehicles
under mild to severe duty. Severe duty will be encountered in certain vehicles operated
under conditions resulting in high bearing temperatures (disc brakes). This includes
vehicles operated under frequent stop-and-go service (buses, taxis, urban poke cars.
etc.) or under severe braking service (trailer towing, mountain driving. etc.).

Properties of Grease

Testing of Grease
Penetration/Grease Consistency Test
Outline of the Test
Simple, aged, but sturdy characterization of grease on stiffness.
Reference to Standard(s)
ISO 2137 / ASTM D217.
Test Conditions
A standard cone is allowed to sink into the grease at 25 ◦C for 5 seconds. A higher penetration
value means softer grease. When sufficient grease is available, a full size cone is preferred. Alternatives
are half size and quarter size cones. Penetration depths can be recalculated into full cone penetration,
but are less accurate.

Outcome
The depth of penetration is reported in tenths of a mm (10−1 mm). Lubricating greases are classified by
the NLGI consistency number, indicating that the penetration is in a specified range.

Relevance
The penetration depth does not have a straight correlation with performance of greases in bearings. For
different greases with the same penetration result, the actual rheology can be quite different
(elastic/plastic characteristics). Nevertheless, in most grease specifications the NLGI number is given as
the first parameter. The penetration change of a grease after being subjected to mechanical shear is
often more important for bearing applications

45
Utilization
The penetration value/NLGI classification is used for: • Indication of grease stiffness level; • quality
control parameter (comparison of batches versus originally qualified batch); • estimation of suitability
for applications where the grease flow plays a role (vibrating applications, vertical shaft, pumpability,
etc.).

Worked Penetration Test

Outline of the Test
Penetration change of a grease after being subjected to mechanical shear in a grease worker for
a certain number of strokes.
Reference to Standard(s)
ISO 2137, ASTM D217.

Test Conditions
The grease is worked by a specified number of double strokes (once per second) in a full size,
half size or quarter size grease worker. The penetration is measured after conditioning at room
temperature. Typical conditions for the working treatment are: • Unworked (this is a poorly defined
condition, as the minor shear that is applied when filling the equipment can already affect the results). •
60 strokes (base value, better defined than unworked). • 100 000 strokes (also called ‘prolonged
penetration’).

Outcome
Penetration change, that is the increase or decrease of penetration, expressed in 10−1 mm.
Both values (before and after working) must be measured with the same cone size.

Relevance
The 60 strokes worked penetration is used for the NLGI classification. The 100 000 strokes
(change) value is used as an indication for the thinning tendency of greases during the churning
processes that can occur in freshly lubricated bearings (before grease has settled in the unswept
volume) or when conditions prohibit settling of grease.

46
Utilization
The penetration change after 100 000 strokes is one of the criteria for judgement of suitability
for vertical applications. The penetration change after 100 000 strokes is also widely used as a quality
control parameter. The penetration change after 1000 strokes is used for determination of compatibility
with residual process fluids, for example, preservative oils and so on (mixture subjected to test).

47