1806
3, JULY 2005
Definitions of Apparent Power and Power Factor in
a Power System Having Transmission Lines With
Unequal Resistances
Seong-Jeub Jeon, Member, IEEE
Abstract—Recently, disputes in power theory seem to be settled
and a new trial-use standard has been prepared as the IEEE Stan-
dard 1459-2000. However, since uniform line resistances are as-
sumed, it is not enough not only for increasing transmission sys-
tems, such as parallel ac/dc systems, but for a three-phase four-
wire system whose neutral line has a different thickness from the
other lines. In this paper, a generalized power theory applicable to
a system having transmission/distribution lines with unequal re-
sistances is proposed, which is applicable to any kind of power
system: from a single-phase system to a multiline system having
transmission lines with equal or unequal resistances under asym-
metric and/or nonsinusoidal conditions.
Index Terms—Apparent power, multiline system, power factor,
Schwarz inequality, transmission loss.
I. INTRODUCTION
I N POWER THEORY, only the active power has physical
meaning [1]. Definitions of apparent power and power
factor are made in the viewpoint of the economy in a system
having transmission/distribution lines with identical resistance.
A sound definition of apparent power should be a measure
of transmission power loss. The power factor should be unity
when the transmission loss is minimized. Reactive power is
only a byproduct of a magic of mathematics relating apparent
power with active power.
In this paper, power theory is developed for a system having
transmission lines with unequal resistances, where the square
of apparent power is proportional to transmission loss and its
power factor is unity when the transmission loss is minimized.
It is motivated by four applications.
The first application is a multipath transmission system.
Sometimes, recently constructed transmission lines are par-
alleled with old transmission lines to enhance transmission
capability [2], [3]. It is not easy to define an overall power
factor when two transmission paths have different per-unit
impedances. It is more complicated if dc transmission and ac
transmission are mixed [4], [5].
The second one is a three-phase four-wire system. In mea-
suring power in three-phase four-wire systems with asymmetric
source and/or nonsinusoidal waveforms, there were severe dis-
putes because the square of the apparent power defined in the
old IEEE Standard 100 is not proportional to transmission loss
Manuscript received April 7, 2004. Paper no. TPWRD-00167-2004.
The author is with the Department of Electronics, Pukyong National Univer-
sity, Busan 608-737, Korea (e-mail: jeub@pknu.ac.kr).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2005.848658
0885-8977/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO.
[1], [6]–[10], which have been settled recently and summarized
in IEEE Standard 1459-2000 [11]. Buchholz’s theory attracted
much attention and has been considered into the standard
[12]–[17]. However, since the use of identical conductors for
four lines is assumed, it is still disputable because the transmis-
sion loss is not proportional to the square of the apparent power
defined in IEEE Standard 1459-2000 when a thinner or thicker
conductor is used for the neutral line [3]. In unity power factor
control, it has been reported that harmonic currents flow at a
neutral line, contrary to the expected zero current [18]. They
exclaimed that their neutral line current should be zero because
their neutral line is weaker than active lines.
The third one is a nonstandard power system, such as a two-
phase three-wire system and a three-phase seven-wire system,
where neutral lines may have resistances different from other
active lines.
The fourth one is a single-phase system. There is not a mul-
tiline or polyphase power theory applicable to a single-phase
system without losing consistency. It is due to the fact that most
multiline power theories have a different assumption from the
single-phase power theory. An active line is assumed to have fi-
nite resistance and a neutral line is to have zero resistance in a
single-phase power theory. On the contrary, both lines are as-
sumed to have the same resistance in a multiline power theory
such as Buchholz’s theory [12]–[16].
It is thought that a sound power theory should give answers to
the above-mentioned situations and controversies. In this paper,
a power theory applicable to a power system with transmission
lines with unequal resistances is developed.
II. GENERALIZED POWER THEORY
The instantaneous power in an -line power system shown
in Fig. 1(a) is given by
(1)
In defining apparent power and power factor, an average power
over a period is used. The average power is given by
(2)
The average transmission loss in Fig. 1(a) is given by
(3)
JEON: DEFINITIONS OF APPARENT POWER AND POWER FACTOR 1807

where is the inner product of and . The effective current

defined in (5) can be expressed as a Euclidean norm of the rms
current space vector

(10)

The effective voltage is defined as a Euclidean norm of the rms

voltage space vector

(11)

As usual, the apparent power is defined by

(12)
Then, the transmission loss is proportional to the square of
the apparent power for a given voltage set. The power factor
showing effectiveness of the use of transmission lines is defined
by

(13)
Fig. 1. Multiline power system and its equivalent system at optimal condition.
(a) Multiline power system. (b) Equivalent system.
The meaning of the apparent power can be obtained by ap-
plying Schwarz inequalities two times. By the Schwarz integral
where is the root-mean-square (rms) value of defined by inequality

(4)

Equations (1)–(3) are basic properties that a power theory

should satisfy. The effective current causing the same trans- (14a)
mission loss in Fig. 1(b) should be defined as follows using Accordingly
reference resistance [19]:

(5)
(14b)
Let us define current and voltage space vectors as follows: By the Schwarz inequality for vector spaces

(6a)

(6b) (15)
where is the inner product of and , and equal to the
Likewise, space vectors represented with rms values are defined right side of (14b). Therefore, the relationship between and
by is obtained as follows by combining (14) and (15):

(7a) (16)
where the equality is satisfied only when and have the same
(7b) waveforms. The apparent power in Fig. 1(a) is the maximum
possible average power for a given effective current and a given
where is the rms value of defined by set of voltages as the power in Fig. 1(b) [15], [16], [20]. That
and have the same waveforms means two facts. First, each line
(8) current has the same waveform as the corresponding line-to-
fictitious neutral voltage from (14). Second, has also an
Equation (2) can be rewritten as follows using the current and rms value proportional to the weighted rms value of from
voltage space vectors: (15); the weight is . So, the current set yielding average
power with a unity power factor is unique and given by
(9)
(17a)
1808 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 3, JULY 2005

or

for (17b)

The current set given in (17) is the two-fold optimal solution.

It is spatially optimal because the definition (7) is incorporated
into (12), and is also optimal on the time interval because
the definitions (4) and (8) are incorporated into (7). Equation
(17) can be used to generate reference signals in active power
filters, power factor correction systems, or high-power-factor
rectifiers. The currents are subject to the Kirchhoff’s current law

(18)

From (17) and (18), it is known that

(19)

When the given source voltage set , referenced to a point

as shown in Fig. 1(a) does not satisfy the above condition, the
following operation is needed:
(20)
where is a common-mode voltage defined by
(21)
The point satisfying the condition (19) is called a fictitious
neutral point and is a very important concept without which the
equality in (16) is not attainable and the power factor of a current
set with minimum transmission loss is not unity. Through (20)
and (21), it is possible to simply calculate apparent power and
power factor using measured voltages referenced to an arbitrary
point. When a line, namely the th line, has zero resistance, the
common-mode voltage can be obtained by multiplying to
both the denominator and the numerator of (21), which results
in . The th line becomes a fictitious neutral point.
Thus, we have established a generalized power theory appli-
cable to a system having transmission lines with unequal resis-
tances. The effective voltage and the effective current are depen-
dent on reference resistance chosen. However, whatever value
is chosen as a reference resistance, the apparent power and the
power factor are uniquely given.
A. Single-Phase System
In viewpoint of a multiline power theory, such as Buchholz’s
theory, a single-phase system is a very special one. Fig. 2(a)
shows a circuit used in the single-phase power theory where the
voltage and current are given as follows:
(22a)
(22b)
The effective voltage is known to be and the effective current
. neutral line. It is interesting to note that a three-phase three-wire
Fig. 2. Two kinds of single-phase systems: (a) with unequal line resistances
and (b) with equal line resistance.
The circuit in Fig. 2(a) is conceptual and cannot be handled
in the Buchholz’s power theory because two power lines have
different resistances. The Buchholz’s power theory can handle
the circuit shown in Fig. 2(b), where the effective voltage is
, and the effective current is .
The proposed theory can handle both cases in Fig. 2. The fic-
titious neutral point is the actual neutral line in Fig. 2(a). The
effective voltage is and the effective current is . The same
result as the single-phase power theory is obtained. In Fig. 2(b),
the fictitious neutral point is the midpoint of the line-to-line
voltage. The effective voltage is , and the effective current
is . Although both circuits have the same apparent power
and power factor, the effective voltages and the effective cur-
rents are different from each other’s circuit. In the proposed
power theory, the fictitious neutral point, the effective voltage,
and the effective current are dependent on line resistances. The
results are summarized in Table I.
B. Three-Phase Four-Wire System
The theory established by Buchholz can be obtained from the
proposed theory by confining line resistances to an identical one,
which theory is a basis of IEEE Standard 1459 and can be ap-
plied to a three-phase three-wire systems and three-phase four-
wire systems by setting to 3 or 4 as shown in Fig. 3. However,
since identical line resistances are assumed, the square of the ap-
parent power is not proportional to the transmission loss when a
weaker neutral line is used in a three-phase four-wire system. It
is true that weaker neutral lines are widely used in three-phase
four-wire distribution systems. The proposed theory can be ap-
plied to any kind of three-phase four-wire system: with zero-re-
sistance neutral line; with an equal-resistance neutral line; with
a weaker or stronger neutral line; and with an infinite-resistance
JEON: DEFINITIONS OF APPARENT POWER AND POWER FACTOR 1809

TABLE I
POWER COMPONENTS IN CIRCUITS OF FIG. 2(a) AND (b)

Fig. 4. Balanced nonlinear load currents. (a) Circuit diagram. (b) Current
Fig. 3. Three-phase systems with different neutral lines.
waveforms.

system can be treated as a three-phase four-wire system with an

currents. The effective voltage is irrelevant to neutral line resis-
infinite-resistance neutral line.
tance because is zero and given by
An example is given to show how harmonic currents affect
the transmission loss and the power factor according to a neu-
tral line resistance in a three-phase four-wire system. A sym- (25)
metric source and a balanced but nonlinear load are assumed.
In case of a symmetric source, the fictitious neutral point is the The rms line currents are given by
actual neutral line. Symmetric three-phase ac transmission volt-
ages referenced to the fictitious neutral point are given by (26a)
(23a) (26b)
The average power is given by
(23b)

and (23c)
(23d)
Single-diode rectifiers are generally nonlinear. Although these
loads connected in three-phase four-wire system are balanced,
rich triplen harmonics flow through a neutral line [10], [21]. The
line current for one cycle is approximated by
(24)
otherwise.
The other two line currents are symmetrically shifted from
as shown in Fig. 4. The neutral current is the sum of three
(27)
The effective current depends on the neutral line resistance. Ac-
cordingly, the apparent power and the power factor also do.
1) Case I ( , ): In this case, the
neutral line is assumed to have zero resistance. This situation is
an extension of the single-phase circuit in Fig. 2(a) and is the
situation assumed in IEEE Standard 100. The effective current
is given by
(28)
1810 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 3, JULY 2005

TABLE II The power factor is given by

EFFECTIVE CURRENT, APPARENT POWER, AND POWER FACTOR ACCORDING
TO NEUTRAL LINE RESISTANCE

(36)

The results are summarized in Table II. Transmission losses

when are also shown. Transmission loss is greatly
increased according to the neutral line resistance and is propor-
tional to the square of the effective current and the square of the
apparent power. In the proposed theory, the apparent power and
the power factor obviously and clearly reflect the transmission
loss.

The apparent power is given by III. CONCLUSION

A power theory applicable to a power system having trans-
(29)
mission lines with unequal resistances is developed. The square
of apparent power is proportional to transmission loss and the
The power factor is given by power factor is unity when the transmission loss is minimized.
It is consistently applicable for any kind of power system: from
a single-phase system to a multiline system having transmis-
(30)
sion lines with equal or unequal resistances under asymmetric
and/or nonsinusoidal conditions. The following systems require
The power factor is relatively high because the triplen harmonics the proposed theory and only this theory can give a correct mea-
do not cause transmission loss at the neutral line. sure for transmission/distribution loss:
2) Case II : In this case, all the 1) combined ac/dc transmission system;
lines are assumed to have the same resistance. This is the situ- 2) three-phase four-wire system with weaker or stronger
ation assumed in Buchholz’s theory and IEEE Standard 1459. neutral line;
The effective current is given by 3) two-phase three-wire system or three-phase seven-wire
system with unequal line resistances.
And it suggests how to generate reference signals in active
(31) power filters, power factor correction systems, or high-power-
factor rectifiers operating with the above-mentioned power sys-
tems.
The apparent power is given by

REFERENCES
(32)
[1] P. S. Filipski, Y. Baghzouz, and M. D. Cox, “Discussion of power defi-
nitions contained in the IEEE dictionary,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol.
The power factor is given by 9, no. 3, pp. 1237–1244, Jul. 1994.
[2] J. L. Willems, “A new approach to the analysis of mixed three-phase and
six-phase power systems,” Int. J. Elect. Energy Power Syst., vol. 11, pp.
115–122, 1989.
(33) [3] F. Li, R. Broadwater, and A. Sargent, “Cable impedance calculations
with parallel circuits and multi-neutral returns in distribution networks,”
in Proc. IEEE Power Engineering Soc. Winter Meeting, 2001, pp.
The power factor is low compared with the case I because the 898–902.
triplen harmonics cause transmission loss at the neutral line. [4] E. V. Larsen, R. A. Walling, and C. J. Bridenbaugh, “Parallel AC/DC
transmission lines: steady-state induction issues,” IEEE Trans. Power
3) Case III ( , ): In this case, Del., vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 667–674, Jan. 1989.
the neutral line is assumed to have three times higher resistance [5] A. E. Hammad, “Stability and control of HVDC and AC transmissions
than the other lines. The effective current is given by in parallel,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 1545–1554, Oct.
1999.
[6] H. L. Curtis and F. B. Silsbee, “Definitions of power and related quanti-
ties,” AIEE Trans., vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 394–404, Apr. 1933.
[7] IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Terms,
(34) ANSI/IEEE Std. 100-1988, 1988.
[8] P. S. Filipski, “Polyphase apparent power and power factor under dis-
torted waveform conditions,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 6, no. 3, pp.
1161–1165, Jul. 1991.
The apparent power is given by [9] IEEE Working Group on Nonsinusoidal Situations, “Practical defini-
tions for powers in systems with nonsinusoidal waveforms and unbal-
anced loads: A discussion,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 11, no. 1, pp.
(35) 79–87, Jan. 1996.
JEON: DEFINITIONS OF APPARENT POWER AND POWER FACTOR
[10] M. Depenbrock and V. Staut, “Practical definitions for powers in sys-
tems with nonsinusoidal waveforms and unbalanced loads: A discus-
sion,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 89–90, Jan. 1996.
[11] IEEE Trial-Use Standard: Definition for the Measurement of Electric
Power Quantities Under Sinusoidal, Nonsinusoidal, Balanced, or Un-
balanced Conditions, IEEE Std. 1459, 2000.
[12] S. Fryze, “Active, reactive and apparent power in circuit with sinusoidal
voltage and current,” Electrotechnische Z., vol. 53, no. 25, pp. 596–599,
1932.
[13] F. Buchholz, “Apparent power in unbalanced three-phase systems,” Licht
und Kraft., no. 2, pp. 9–11, 1920.
[14] W. M. Goodhue, “Discussion to ‘reactive power concept in need of clar-
ification’,” AIEE Trans., vol. 52, p. 787, Sep. 1933.
[15] M. Depenbrock, “The FBD-method, a generally applicable tool for an-
alyzing power relations,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 8, no. 2, pp.
381–387, May 1993.
[16] A. E. Emanuel, “The Buchholz-Goodhue apparent power definition:
the practical approach for nonsinusoidal and unbalanced system,” IEEE
Trans. Power Del., vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 344–350, Apr. 1998.
[17] , “Apparent power definition for three-phase systems,” IEEE Trans.
Power Del., vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 767–772, Jul. 1999.
[18] A. Nabae and T. Tanaka, “A new approach to individual-phase reactive
power compensator for nonsinusoidal and unbalanced three-phase
system-proposal for a quasi- instantaneous reactive power compen-
sator-,” in Proc. IEEE/Power Engineering Soc. NTUA Harmonics
Quality Power Conf., 1998, pp. 532–536.
1811
[19] L. S. Czarnecki, “Orthogonal decomposition of the currents in a 3-phase
nonlinear asymmetrical circuits with a nonsinusoidal voltage source,”
IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 30–34, Mar. 1988.
[20] D. Sharon, “Power factor definitions and power transfer quality in non-
sinusoidal situations,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 45, no. 3, pp.
728–733, Jun. 1996.
[21] T. M. Gruzs, “A survey of neutral currents in three-phase computer
power system,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 719–725,
Jul./Aug. 1990.
Seong-Jeub Jeon (M’82) was born in Busan, Korea,
in 1957. He received the B.S. degree from Soong-Jun
University, Seoul, Korea, in 1980 and the M.S. and
Ph.D. degrees from the Korea Advanced Institute of
Science and Technology, Taejeon, in 1982 and 2001,
respectively.
Currently, he is a Professor in the Department
of Electronic Engineering, Pukyong National Uni-
versity, Busan. He was with Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, Blacksburg, from
2001 to 2004. His interests include motor drive
systems, dc–dc converters, high-power factor control of ac–dc converters, and
power theory.