Professional Documents
Culture Documents
– The cardiovascular system is made up of the blood, heart, and blood vessels.
– The lymphatic system is made up of the lymph, lymph nodes, and the lymph vessels.
• The heart is the central organ of the cardiovascular system.
Patterns of Circulation
• The heart and blood vessels work together to form a continuous, closed system of circulation.
• This system contains two subsystems: the pulmonary circulation and the systemic circulation.
• Pulmonary circulation is the circulation of the blood as it travels between the heart and lungs.
• Pulmonary circulation brings the deoxygenated blood that comes into the heart to the lungs,
and returns oxygenated blood back to the heart for distribution to the body.
• Systemic Circulation
• Systemic circulation is the circulation of the blood between the heart and all other body
tissues.
• Systemic circulation has several subsystems, including coronary circulation, hepatic portal
circulation, and renal circulation.
• Coronary circulation is the systemic circulation that supplies blood to the heart itself.
• If blood flow in the coronary arteries (arteries that supply blood to the heart) is
reduced or cut off, muscle cells will die.
• Hepatic portal circulation is the systemic circulation that supplies blood between the liver
and the small intestines.
• Renal circulation is the systemic circulation that supplies blood to the kidneys.
• The circulatory system also includes the lymphatic system.
• The lymphatic system returns fluids that have collected in the tissues to the bloodstream.
• Excess fluid in the tissues, called lymph, moves into the tiny vessels of the lymphatic system by
diffusion.
• Lymph vessels are similar to blood vessels but are also different in many ways.
• Lymph is filtered through small organs known as lymph nodes to trap tissue debris and other foreign
particles.
• Lymph nodes also store lymphocytes, white blood cells that are specialized to fight disease.
• Blood is composed of a liquid medium—plasma—and blood solids–red and white blood cells and
platelets.
• Plasma
• Plasma is a sticky, straw-colored fluid that is about 90 percent water and includes
metabolites, nutrients, wastes, salts, and proteins.
• Plasma provides cells with nourishment and carries various proteins.
• Red Blood Cells
• A red blood cell is a disc-shaped cell that has no nucleus and transports oxygen to cells in all
parts of the body.
• Immature red blood cells synthesize large amounts of an iron-containing protein called
hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the molecule that transports oxygen.
• White Blood Cells
• White blood cells are cells in the blood that destroy bacteria, viruses, and toxic proteins and
helps the body develop immunities.
• In addition to different functions, white blood cells also have a different structure and life
span than red blood cells.
• White Blood Cells, continued
• There are several types of white blood cells, including phagocytes and antibodies.
• Phagocytes are cells that engulf and digest foreign matter or microorganisms.
• Antibodies are proteins that react to a specific type of invader or inactivate or destroy
toxins.
• Red blood cells have surface proteins that are used to classify a person’s blood. The type of surface
protein determines a person’s blood type.
• The surface proteins on a red blood cell or on an invading pathogen are called antigens.
• The most important human antigens are A, B, and Rh. They form two systems of blood typing: the A-
B-O system and the Rh system.
• A-B-O System
• The A-B-O system is a means of classifying blood by the antigens located on the surface of
the red blood cells and the antibodies circulating in the plasma.
• If blood of a different type is introduced into the body it will be treated as a foreign invader
and the antigen-antibody reaction will be produced, with some exceptions.
• Rh System
• The Rh system is based on the presence or absence of the Rh antigen.
• A person with Rh antigens is Rh positive; a person without Rh antigens is Rh negative.
• Similar complications to those of the ABO system can occur if blood containing the wrong Rh
antigens is transfused into a person.
• The thyroid gland is located near the larynx and helps maintain a normal heart rate, blood pressure,
and body temperature by increasing or decreasing cellular metabolic rates.
• The thyroid gland is also important for development.
• Abnormal thyroid activity can result in hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism.
• Overproduction of thyroid hormones is called hyperthyroidism and can have symptoms that vary
from overactivity to high body temperature.
• A deficiency in a thyroid hormone is known as hypothyroidism and can have symptoms that vary
from weight gain to retardation.
• Humans have an adrenal gland located above each kidney. Each adrenal gland has an inner core, the
medulla, and an outer core, also called the cortex.
• The medulla and the cortex function as separate endocrine glands.
• The medulla is controlled by the nervous system, and the cortex is controlled by the anterior
pituitary.
• The adrenal medulla secretes the hormones that stimulate a “flight-or-fight” response to a
stress.
• In this response, the hormones epinephrine, also called adrenaline, and norepinephrine are
released.
• These hormones increases heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels, and blood flow
into the heart and lungs so the body can respond to the initial stress.
• In the presence of some stresses the pituitary gland will secrete the adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH).
• This hormone stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce the hormone cortisol.
• Cortisol promotes the production of glucose from proteins to help cells make usable
energy.
• Gonads are the gamete-producing organs that also produce a group of steroid sex hormones.
• Gonads, ovaries in females and the testes in males, are regulated by sex hormones, which
begin production at puberty.
• Puberty is the adolescent stage during which the sex organs mature and secondary sex
characteristics appear.
• The production of sex hormones is stimulated by the release of two hormones by the pituitary.
• The first hormone is luteinizing hormone (LH). This hormone stimulates ovulation and the
release of progesterone in females and the release of androgens, such as testosterone, in
males.
• The second hormone is follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). This hormone stimulates the
growth and maturation of the ovarian follicles in females and sperm production in males.
• The pancreas contains both exocrine and endocrine cells. The endocrine cells are called islets of
Langerhans.
• These cells secrete hormones that regulate the level of sugar in the blood. The hormone insulin is
one of the hormones produced.
• Insulin lowers the blood sugar level by stimulating body cells to store glucose or use it
for energy.
• A condition called diabetes mellitus occurs when cells are unable to obtain glucose from the blood.
This results in a high glucose level in the blood
• There are two types of diabetes: Type I and Type II.
• Type I occurs when immune cells attack and destroy the islet of Langerhans cells.
• Type II occurs when cells don’t have sufficient insulin levels or when the organism’s cells
have become less responsive.
• A condition called hypoglycemia occurs when excessive insulin is stored and not properly delivered
to body cells.
• This leads to a lowered blood glucose concentration, which can cause such symptoms as
overactivity and dizziness.
• There are several other glands in the endocrine system, including thymus gland, the pineal gland and
the parathyroid glands.
• Thymus Gland
• The thymus gland is located beneath the sternum and plays a role in the development of the
immune system by secreting thymosin.
• This amino acid-based hormone stimulates formation of T cells.
• Pineal Gland
• The pineal gland is located near the base of the brain and helps regulate sleep patterns by
secreting melatonin.
• Parathyroid Gland
• The parathyroid glands is made up of four glands embedded in the two thyroid glands.
• These glands secrete the parathyroid hormone, which stimulates the transfer of
calcium ions from the bones to the blood.
• The endocrine system plays an important role in the maintenance of a stable internal environment, or
homeostasis.
• Maintenance of homeostasis is controlled by feedback mechanisms. A feedback mechanism is one
in which the last step in a series of events controls the first.
• Feedback mechanisms can be either negative or positive.
• Positive Feedback
• Positive feedback occurs when the release of an initial hormone stimulates release or
production of other hormones or substances.
• An example of positive feedback is the stimulation and increase in luteinizing hormone by
estrogen.
• Antagonistic Hormones
• Antagonistic hormones work together in pairs to regulate the levels of critical substances.
• Example: Both glucagon and insulin regulate blood sugar levels.