Understanding 2DSA

Understanding 2D Structural Analysis:
Learning Modules in the Modeling and Analysis of

Framed Structures using GRASP
Andres Winston C. Oreta

Department of Civil Engineering
De La Salle University
Manila, Philippines
This project was funded by the

University Research Coordination Office (URCO)
De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines
2004
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis:
Learning Modules in the Modeling and Analysis of Framed Structures
Using GRASP
CONTENTS
Preface
1 Understanding Structural Analysis
2 A Tour of GRASP
3 Loading Continuous Beams
4 Pattern Loading in Multistory Frames
5 Lateral Forces in Buildings
6 Pinned and Fixed Support Conditions
7 Soil Effects on Foundations
8 Support Settlements
9 Truss Analysis
10 Special Modeling Issues
About the Author

PREFACE
An exploratory-type of instructional and learning material consisting of ten

modules about modeling and analysis of framed structures in 2D is presented.
Each module focuses on a specific issue on structural modeling and analysis
which is discussed with the aid of graphical and tabular results obtained from the
2D structural analysis software, GRASP. The set of learning modules is not a
substitute to a textbook on structural analysis. The theory is not presented. No
derivations or equations can be found. The student or reader must refer to the
textbooks for definitions, equations and techniques. Each chapter begins with
background information and a “case study”. The reader explores the issues
raised in the case study through the “Things to Do” activities or by simply
observing and analyzing the “Observation” and graphical and tabular results
presented in the module. Included in the modules are “Things to Try” exercises
and “Things to Ponder” comments on the analysis and design of structures.
Using the set of learning modules, the reader or student with the aid of a
structural analysis software like GRASP discovers important insights on the
response and behavior of structures due to variations in the parameters of the
model and configurations of the structure, changes in member and material
properties, and also changes in the restraint and loading conditions. Through
the graphical results, the student can visualize the phenomena and this would
accelerate his understanding of concepts through the experience of seeing and
interpreting solutions to various structural modeling and analysis problems. The
implication and relevance of the case study to the safe and reliable design of
structures are also discussed. Each chapter ends with a set of references and
reading materials related to the issue presented in the module. The student is
encouraged to perform the “Things to Try” exercises which are related to the
case study. Since GRASP provides direct feedback graphically and numerically,
the student can explore and have fun by simple modification of the configuration
of the structural model or loading condition and will expand his knowledge and
understanding about modeling, analysis and design of framed structures.
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C.Oreta 1 - 1
CHAPTER 1
UNDERSTANDING STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
ROLE OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Structural analysis is an integral part of any structural engineering project. The
structural design process of a typical structural engineering project may be
divided in to three phases as shown in Figure 1.1. The conceptual design phase
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
Architectural
Functional Plans Final Design
Structural Detailing
System
Connection
Trial Sections Design
Yes
Revise Acceptable
Modeling
Sections
No
Member
Analysis Design
MODELING & ANALYSIS DESIGN & DETAILING
Figure 1.1 The Structural Design Process (ACECOMS ISCAAD Workshop Notes)
usually involves the formulation of the functional requirements of the proposed

structure, the preparation of the general layout and dimensions of the structures,
and the consideration of the possible types of structural system to be used. In the
modeling and analysis phase, a preliminary design of the structure is proposed
using trial sections. A model of the structure is developed and the loads that may
act on the structure are estimated. Structural analysis of the model is now
performed to determine the stresses or stress resultants in the members and the
deflections at various points of the structure. The results of the structural
analysis are used in design and detailing phase where the structural members
are designed to satisfy safety and serviceability requirements of the design codes.
If the code requirements are not satisfied, then the member sizes are revised and
a re-analysis of the model of the structure is carried out until all safety and
serviceability requirements are satisfied.
ANALYTICAL MODEL OF THE STRUCTURE
To determine the behavior and performance of a real structure, the structure

must be load tested. Testing and measurement of the real structure can only be
done after the structure has been built. However, load testing is not possible at
the planning and design stage of a new structure. Real structures can not be
analyzed. We need to model the structure and analyze the model of the structure
to determine approximately the response and behavior of the real structure due
to external loads and excitation (Figure 1.2). The response quantities of the
model which consists of internal forces and displacements are used in designing
the members of the real structure.
An analytical model is a simplified representation of a real structure. In

developing a model of a structure, certain idealizations about the real structure
must be made. How the members are supported and connected have to be
represented by simple models. Loads expected to occur during the lifespan of
the structure have to be estimated and applied to the model. The main objective
in modeling a structure is that the characteristics of the real structure must be

represented as accurately as practically possible by a mathematical model so
that the structural response predicted from the analysis of the model using
computer tools may be relevant to the real structure. It is therefore imperative
that the model represents the real structure with an appropriate likeness to
capture the desired response.
EXCITATION RESPONSE
Loads Stresses
Vibration Strains
Settlements Displacements
Thermal Stress Resultants
Changes Structural Model Support Reactions
STRUCTURE
Figure 1.2 Structural Analysis
The process of modeling is more of an art than a science. The engineer, through
his practical experience and insight, must convert the real structure to an
appropriate model (Figure 1.3) by making simplifying assumptions with regards
to the type of structural model (3D or 2D), level of modeling (global or local),
choice of model type (frame, grid, membrane, plate or solid), choice of elements
(line, plate or solid), size and number of elements, type of restrains, properties of
members and type of loads and excitations.
Modeling of Structures in 2D
If all the members of a structure and the loads acting on the structure lie on a
single plane, the structure is modeled as a plane or two-dimensional (2D)
(a) Real Structure
(b) Solid Model (c) 3D Plate-Frame (d) 3D Frame
(e) 2D Frame
Figure 1.3 Various Ways of Modeling a Structure (Anwar 2000)
structure. Figure 1.4 shows two-dimensional models of plane structures. In these

models, the members are represented as line elements with the line element
corresponding to the centroid of the member. Beams are horizontal members
used primarily to carry vertical loads – distributed and concentrated loads.
Beams resist external forces through bending moment and shear forces. Trusses
are structural members made by assembling short, straight members connected
by smooth pins at the joints and primarily designed to carry tensile and
compressive axial forces. The loads in a truss are assumed to act at the joints
which connect the members. Frames are composed of beams and columns that
are either pinned or fixed connected at the joints. When the joints connecting the
horizontal and vertical elements are fixed or rigid, the structure is said to be a
rigid frame. The forces developed internally in a frame member consist of axial
force, shear force and bending moment.
(a) Beam (b) Plane Truss
(c) Plane Frame
Figure 1.4 Two-Dimensional Models of Structures
Structures, in general, are three-dimensional. However, there are many actual

three-dimensional (3D) structures which can be divided into planar or two-
dimensional (2D) structures to simplify the analysis.
A continuous bridge (Figure 1.5) is

one example of a structure which
can be modeled as a plane
structure. The bridge deck
supported by the piers and
foundations and the traffic loads
carried by the deck may be
considered to lie on one plane and
Figure 1.5 Continuous Bridge
the bridge deck can be modeled as (http://nisee.berkeley.edu.ph/godden)
a beam.
The truss of a bridge can be analyzed as a 2D structure (Figure 1.6). The bridge
deck rests on beams called as stringers, which are then supported by floor
beams. The floor beams are

connected at their ends to the
joints on the bottom panels of
the two longitudinal trusses.
Thus, the weights of the
vehicles, bridge deck, stringers
and beams are transmitted to
the supporting trusses at their
joints; the trusses, in turn, Figure 1.6 Truss Bridge
(http://nisee.berkeley.edu.ph/godden)
transfer the load to the
foundation. Since the truss and the applied loads at the joints of the truss lie on
one plane, the longitudinal truss can be treated as a plane truss.
A multistory building (Figure 1.7) which consists of interconnected beams,

columns, walls and footings may be modeled as a system consisting of several
rigid plane frames (Figure 1.8). At each story of a building, the floor slab rests on
floor beams, which transfer the floor loads including the weight of the slab and
beams to the girders of the rigid frames. The loads are then transferred from the
girders to the columns and then finally to the foundation. Since the applied loads
and the rigid frame consisting of
the girders, columns and
foundations all lie on one plane,
each frame can be analyzed
separately as a plane structure.
Buildings which are highly
symmetrical in plan and framing
system can ideally be
represented as a system of 2D
Figure 1.7 Multistory Building frames.
Frame F1 Frame F2
F1
F2 F1 F2
F1
Building Plan 3D Building made from F1 and F2
Figure 1.8 A 3D Building as a System of Two Typical 2D Frames
Although many three-dimensional structures can be subdivided into plane

structures for the purpose of 2D structural analysis, some structures which are
Figure 1.9 Space Structures (a) Tower (b) Dome

referred to as space structures (Figure 1.9) such as domes, transmission towers,

and highly unsymmetrical and irregular buildings are difficult to simplify into plane
structures because of the complexity of the arrangement of the structural
elements. A three-dimensional modeling and analysis has to be carried out for
these types of structures to accurately predict their behavior.
Modeling the Supports and Joints
One of the most critical

aspects in the modeling of a
structure is the representation
of the restraint conditions at
the supports or at the joints.
Depending on the type of
restraint expected in the
actual structure, the engineer
has to decide on what
appropriate model to use
(Figure 1.10). The restraint
Figure 1.10 Various Models for Supports
conditions can be any of the
following:
o Roller - relative rotations at the joint and only translation parallel to the
plane of the roller are allowed
o Pinned - relative rotations at the joint are allowed but no translations
o Fixed or Rigid - rotation and translation are not allowed
o Flexible - spring models used to represent the relative stiffness of the
joint
Modeling the External Loads
In analyzing or designing a structure, it is necessary to determine the external

forces that are expected to occur during its design life. Depending on the type of
structure being analyzed, the following loads may have to be considered:
(a) Dead loads are forces acting vertically downward that represent the
weight of the structure and other permanent or fixed objects.
(b) Live loads are vertical forces that may or may not be present on the
structure at any given time. These loads are movable and can be applied
anywhere on the structure. Occupancy loads in buildings and truck loading
are examples of live loads.
(c) Wind loads are cause by the pressure or suction due to wind at a point on
a structure. These loads depend on various factors such as wind velocity,
dimensions and orientation of the structure and geographical location of
the structure.
(d) Earthquake loads are developed when the structure vibrates due to
ground excitation. Their magnitude depends on the type of ground
accelerations, mass and stiffness of the structure, soil properties and
location of structure with respect to seismic faults.
(e) Other Environmental loads such as temperature changes, differential
settlement of the foundation, vehicle loads, hydrostatic forces, soil
pressure, etc. have to be considered depending on the type of the
structure.
The various loads mentioned are determined approximately. In most cases,

these forces are modeled into two types of loads:
(a) Nodal loads – these are loads applied at the ends of the members or
nodes. The loads can be vertical or horizontal forces or moments.
(b) Member loads – these loads are applied directly on the members or
between the ends of the members. Various models of member loads are
shown in (Figure 1.11) :
(1) Point or concentrated load

(2) Distributed load (rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal)
(3) Concentrated moment or couple
(4) Temperature
Figure 1.11 Types of Member Loads
Load Combinations
A great number of different types of loadings act on a structure. These loads do
not act simultaneously on the structure. When these forces occur at the same
time, the design loads are usually determined using load combinations. The
combination which results to the worst condition is used in design. Load factors
are multiplied on the basic loads and these factors depend on the design method
being used. The basic load combinations can be found in the code. Examples of
combination of factored loads from the NSCP 2001 Section 203.3, when Load
and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) is used, are:
o 1.4 DL
o 1.2 DL + 1.6 LL + 0.5 Lr
o 0.9 DL ± (1.0 EQ or 1.3 W)
On the other hand, when the Strength Design for concrete is used, NSCP 2001
Section 409.3 provides these load combinations:
o 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL
o 0.75 (1.4 DL + 1.7 LL + 1.7 W)
o 1.3 DL + 1.1 LL + 1.1 EQ

In these equations, the following notations were used: DL = dead load, LL = live
load, Lr = roof live load, W = wind load and EQ = earthquake load.
Results of Structural Analysis

The main objective of structural analysis is to determine the behavior and
response of the model of a structure. Various analytical methods are available -
from approximate methods such as slope-deflection or moment distribution
methods to the more refined finite element methods. The important structural
response quantities that any structural analysis procedure must produce are:
o Displacements at the nodes
o Shear forces at various sections (Figure 1.12)
o Bending moments at various sections (Figure 1.13)
o Axial forces at the ends of members (Figure 1.14)
o Reactions at the supports
The results of the structural analysis are usually presented in tabular or graphical
form (Figure 1.15). The engineer must be familiar with the sign convention used
so that he can properly interpret the results. These results are used in the
structural design of members assuring that safety and serviceability
requirements of the design codes are satisfied.
Figure 1.13 Bending Moment

Figure 1.12 Shear Force
Figure 1.14 Axial Force Figure 1.15 Moment Diagram
Using the Computer as a Learning Tool
Software for structural analysis are now available commercially – from simple to
more sophisticated software and affordable to expensive ones (e.g. MicroFEAP,
GRASP, BATS, STAAD, ETABS, SAP2000). Some textbooks in structural
analysis (e.g., Kassimali 1999, Hibbeler 2000) also contain CD-ROM with
software. In this notes, GRASP, a user-friendly software is introduced for two-
dimensional analysis of framed structures to enhance the learning and
understanding of structural analysis. An advantage of using structural analysis
software is that more complex and larger structures may be analyzed and
designed by the students, which is not possible in the regular class in structural
analysis where the calculator or general math solvers are used by students in
their calculations. Another advantage of using software, especially those with
graphics, is that students can visualize the behavior of complex systems. The
software can be used to simulate a variety of structural and loading
configurations and to determine cause and effect relationships between loading
and various structural parameters, thereby increasing the students’
understanding on the behavior of structures. This develops the student’s “feel” to
real life problems.
An exploratory-type of instructional and learning material consisting of a set of

modules are presented in the succeeding chapters. Each module focuses on a
structural analysis issue which is presented through a case study. Included in the
modules are hands-on exercises and problems on two-dimensional analysis of
framed structures (beams, trusses and rigid frames). Using the set of learning
modules, the student with the aid of GRASP discovers the behavior of structures
due to variations in the parameters of the model and configurations of the
structure, changes in member and material properties, and also changes in the
restraint and loading conditions. Through the graphical results, students can
visualize the phenomena and this would accelerate their understanding of
concepts through the experience of seeing and interpreting solutions to many
different problems.
The set of learning modules is not a substitute to a textbook on structural

analysis. The theory will not be presented. No derivations or equations can be
found. The student must refer to the textbooks for definitions, equations and
techniques. Each module will focus on a specific issue. A case study on the
issue will be presented and walk through. The student by observing the graphical
results and by interpreting the numerical output discovers important insight and
can make conclusions. The implication and relevance of the structural analysis
issue to the safe and reliable design of structures are also discussed. The
module ends with a similar or related problem which the student has to solve
using GRASP. Since GRASP provides direct feedback graphically and
numerically, the student can explore and have fun by simple modification of the
configuration of the structural model or loading condition and will discover new
knowledge related to the structural analysis issue of the module.
CASE STUDY: How do I represent a real structure as a line model?

Structures can be modeled using line elements to represent the members. In
modeling the structure, locate the centroids of the members and draw the lines
with respect to these centroids. For the portal frame shown, draw the model of
the structure by representing the members as line elements.
CASE STUDY 1 : Modeling a Portal Frame

Reference: GRASP Help (Step by Step Examples) or User’s Manual (1997)
References
ACECOMS (AIT, Thailand) and Superior Software Solutions (Pakistan), GRASP

Version 1.0 User’s Manual, 1997
Anwar, N. (2000). “Structural Modeling,” ACECOMS News & Views, Jan-Jun

2000, pp. 8-10, AIT, Bangkok, Thailand
http://nisee.berkeley.edu.ph/godden, Godden Structural Engineering Slide

Library
Hibbeler, R.C. (2000). Structural Analysis, 4th Edition, Chapter 1, Prentice Hall,
New Jersey, USA
Kassimali, A. (1999). Structural Analysis, 2nd Edition, Chapters 1-2, Brooks-Cole

Publishing Co., USA
National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP 2001), Volume 1 : Buildings,

Towers, and Other Vertical Structures, Chapter 2 and Sections 409, Association
of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP), Quezon City, Philippines
Schodek, D.L. (1998). Structures. Chapters 1-3, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey,
USA
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : A Tour of GRASP 2 - 1
CHAPTER 2
A TOUR OF GRASP
INTRODUCING THE SOFTWARE

GRASP stands for Graphical Rapid Analysis of Structures Program. It is a user-friendly
software for two dimensional analysis of framed structures which includes beams, trusses
and rigid frames. Especially developed for Windows, GRASP uses a Graphical User
Interface(GUI) which provides an interactive, easy to use, graphical environment for
modeling and analysis. GRASP is primarily based on a graphical means of interaction with
the user and can provide direct feedback and effect of modifications. The major features
of GRASP include:
• Modeling and analysis of multiple models in one file

• Presetting of default load cases and load factors
• Internal and automatic tracking of node numbers and member incidences
• Display the structural model at all times on the screen during analysis and
superimposition of the analysis results on the model after analysis
• A Structure Wizard provides a step-by-step guideline for the generation of multistory
structural models
• Supports SI, US and metric units and use of mixed units
• Apply loads on nodes and on members in multiple load cases
• Eight pre-defined types of cross-sections
• Set values of material properties
• Various restraint conditions including spring supports
• Apply member releases at the ends of members
• Diagram of results with values and tables
• View and print the analysis results for the full structure up to 20 sections for a
member
CASE STUDY: How do you model and analyze a rigid frame using GRASP?
In this example, you will model a two-story rigid frame shown in the figure. The frame will
carry uniform dead and live loads which will be applied fully on the beams. Wind loads will
also be applied at specified nodes. The basic loads will then be combined using the
following load combination cases:
o Dead Load (incl. Self Load) : 1.4 DL
o Combined Dead and Live Loads : 1.2 DL + 1.6 LL
o Combined Dead, Live and Wind Loads : 1.2 DL + 1.0 LL + 1.3 WL
Things to Do
Modeling and analysis using GRASP can be divided into five general steps. Follow the
step-by-step procedure described by the figures for the following general steps.
1. Start analysis software and set basic parameters
2. Create geometry (in the figure assume dimensions are referred with respect to the
centroids)
3. Apply basic loads
4. Define load combinations
5. Perfom analysis and view the results
wDL = 15 kN/m , wLL = 7 kN/m 6 kN
10 kN
Vertical Loading Wind Loading

CASE STUDY 2
3.0 m
4.0 m
3.0 m 4.0 m 3.0 m

Frame geometry 100 mm
1200 mm
300 mm
300 mm
300 mm
Column cross-section
250 mm
Modulus of Elasticity = 21 kN/mm2 Beam cross-section
Unit Weight = 24 kN/m3
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion = 11 x 10 -6/C
1. Start analysis software and set basic parameters
Step 1-1 : Select ‘units’ option from ‘Options’ menu to specify the working unit.
To fix the working unit for future use ‘Customize’ option and select the system
that you prefer.
Step 1-3: Select ‘Structure’ => ‘Materials’ and

input material parameters. Change material
properties of the default material if necessary.
You may also add a new material by pressing
‘Add Material’.
Step 1-2 : Select the main unit system (SI,

Metric or US) and other related measurement
parameters (m, cm, mm; kg, k Not ton) from
the options as shown in the dialog box above.
2. Create geometry
Step 2-1: There are two ways of creating the geometry

in GRASP. You may draw the model using the mouse Step 2-2: Select an appropriate typical frame
and GRASP graphical tools or use the ‘Structure based on bay width, story height and
Wizard’. Let us use the second method for step by step configuration. For this example, select type 2. If
and quick creation of typical building models. Select the frame that you want to model do belong to the
‘Structure’ => ‘Frame’ => ‘Structure Wizard’. four types, you can change the configuration of
selected model later.
Step 2-3: Specify the number of bays (3) ,

number of stories (2) and typical values of bay
Step 2-4: Select the type and specify the
width (3 m) and story height (4 m). You may
dimensions for a typical column.
also input the bay width (e.g., width = 4 m for
bay 2) that is different from the default width.
Step 2-5: Select the type and specify the Step 2-6: Displaying the frame generated by
dimensions for a typical beam. Structure Wizard.
Step 2-7: To define the type of supports,

select ‘Structure’ => ‘Nodal Restraints’ and
click at the node where restraints will be
defined. Select the type of restraint.
Step 2-8: To display the dimension line between

selected nodes, select ‘Structure’ => ‘Add
Dimensions’ and click any two nodes and double
click at a position where the dimension line will be
displayed . To delete, select ‘Del Dimensions’
and click each line.
Step 2-9: To view the Node and Member Step 2-10: Here is the display of the frame with
numbers or labels, select ‘View’ => ‘Node dimensions, member and node numbers. Observe
Numbers’ and ‘Member Numbers’. that the height of the second story is 4.0 m. This
must be changed to 3.0 m resulting to7.0 m as the
total height of the frame.
Step 2-11: To change the coordinates of the

top most nodes, go to ‘Structure’ => ‘Change
Nodal Coordinates’ and then click the node
and enter the new Y-coordinate (7 m)
Step 2-13: You may also view the outline of the

members by selecting ‘View’ => ‘Member Outline’.
To remove the node numbers, member numbers and
member outline, select ‘View’ => ‘Node Numbers’,
‘Member Numbers’ and ‘Member Outline’.
Step 2-12: Display of the corrected model of the

2D frame.
3. Apply basic loads
Step 3-1: Let us first apply the uniform loads in the Step 3-2: If you want to display only the horizontal
horizontal members. You may apply the loads one members, select “View’ => ‘Members to Show’ =>
member at a time by simply clicking the specific ‘Horizontal’. Let us now apply the Dead Load.
member or to all horizontal members. Let us select Select ‘Dead Load’ option from the load cases,
all horizontal members. Select “Edit’ => ‘Select combination and envelope list (rightmost-top).
Member’ and click on all horizontal members while
pressing the shift key. Note the change of color of
the selected members.
Step 3-4: Press ‘Add’, select the appropriate

member load and enter the magnitude of the load.
Step 3-3: Select ‘Loading’ => ‘Member Loads’

and click on the selected members.
Step 3-5: Displaying the Dead Load on horizontal Step 3-6: Select ‘Live Load’ option from the
members. load cases, combination and envelope list
(rightmost-top).
Step 3-7: Select ‘Loading’ => ‘Member Loads’

and click on the selected members. Press ‘Add’,
select the appropriate member load and enter the Step 3-8: Displaying the Live Load on
magnitude of the load. horizontal members.
Step 3-10: Define the new load case –

Wind Load and select the option ‘Basic
Step 3-9: To apply the Wind Load, let us add a load Load Case’.
case. Select ‘Loading’ => ‘Add Load Case’.
Step 3-12: Input the magnitude and sign

Step 3-11: : Select ‘Wind Load’ option from the of the load. Follow the sign convention
load cases, combination and envelope list. Select shown in the figures.To apply in
opposite direction, use a negative value.
‘Loading’ => ‘Nodal Loads’ and click on the node
where the loads will be applied.
Step 3-13: Displaying the

Wind Loads
4. Define load combinations
Step 4-2: Specify the name of the load

and select ‘Combination Load Case’.
Step 4-1: Define load combinations by pressing

‘Loading’ => ‘Add Load Case’.
Step 4-3: Input appropriate load factors for the

defined load combination case.
Step 4-4 : Repeat the same steps (4-1 to 4-3) for

the load combination case combining dead load
and live load.
Step 4-5 : Repeat the same steps (4-1 to 4-3) for

the load combination case combining dead load,
5. Analysis and Results
Step 5-1: Carry-out the analysis using ‘Perform’ => ‘Self Load Calculation’
and ‘Analysis’ in the menu option.
Step 5-2: To display graphical results, select the load case or load combination first.
Step 5-3: Select the type of result from the menu option ‘View’ => ‘Bending
Moment’. Select ‘View’ => ‘Result Values’ if you want numerical values
displayed in diagram.
Step 5-4 : Select the type of result from the menu option ‘View’ => ‘Shear Force’.
Step 5-5 : Select the type of result from the menu option ‘View’ => ‘Axial Force’.
Step 5-6 : Select the type of result from the menu option ‘View’ => ‘Reactions’.
Step 5-7: You can view the nodal displacements by simply pointing the mouse at a node
or the member results by pointing the mouse at a member.
Step 5-8: To view the displacements, select the type of result from the menu option
‘View’ => ‘Deflected Shape’
Step 5-9: Double click on any member to display the detailed results and
diagrams for that member.
Step 5-10: Display the results in tabular form using ‘Tables’.
Step 5-11: Prepare the report using ‘File’ => ‘Report Set-up’.
Step 5-12: Select / Deselect the items to be included in the analysis report.
Step 5-13: Select the ‘File’ => ‘Print Preview Report’ to preview the
analysis report.
Step 5-14: Select the ‘File’ => ‘Print Preview Report’ to preview member results
Step 5 -15: Select the ‘File’ => ‘Print Preview Report’ to view graphical results
You may print a hard copy of the report by selecting ‘File’ => ‘Print Report’.
GRASP Toolbar
GRASP has a toolbar which provides shortcuts in using the software. The toolbar buttons
may be used instead of the commands in the menu.
GRASP Help and Manual
If you want a step-by-step guide on

the use of GRASP, you may refer to
the document published by
ACECOMS (AIT, Thailand) and
Superior Software Solutions
(Pakistan), GRASP Version 1.0
User’s Manual, 1997 or click on the
“Help” button and detailed
information of various topics can be
found.
Things to Try : Test Your GRASP Skills. Analyze the following planar structures using
GRASP and fill in the blanks.
A. BEAM: The beam has a rectangular cross-section of 250 mm x 400 mm. Assume the
following material properties: Modulus of Elasticity, E = 21 kN/mm2 , Unit weight, γ = 24
kN/m3 and coefficient of thermal expansion, α = 12E-6.
250 kN
20 kN/m
A
12 m 12 m
B 4m 4m C
1. The reactions at A are ____________ kN (vertical) and ___________ kN-m (moment).

2. The shear and moment at the left end in BC are ____________ kN and ____________
kN-m, respectively.
3. The maximum bending moment in member BC is about _____________ kN-m and is
located at ______________ m from point B.
B. PLANE TRUSS: All members are double angles 4 x 3 x 3/8, short legs back to back
(A = 4.97 in2; I = 3.84 in4 and ytop= 0.782 in, modulus of elasticity, E = 29,000 ksi,
unit weight, γ = 491 lb/ft3 and coefficient of thermal expansion, α = 6.5 x 10 -6/F)
A B C
2.0 kips
20 ft
E F
4 @ 15 ft = 60 ft
D G
1.2 kips 1.5 kips
4. The reactions at D are ___________ kips (horizontal) and ____________ kips (vertical).
5. The axial force in bar AE is ___________ kips and bar BE is ___________ kips.
6. The nodal displacements at C are _____________ in (horizontal) and _____________
in (vertical).
C. RIGID FRAME : Assume the following material properties: Modulus of Elasticity, E =

21 kN/mm2 , Unit weight, γ = 24 kN/m3 and coefficient of thermal expansion, α = 12E-6.
° LOADS : DL = 31 kN/m and LL = 10 kN/m applied in all beams
WL = 40 kN at the top level and 20 kN at the lower level
° LOAD COMBINATIONS:
CASE NO. 1 = 1.4 D + 1.7 L
CASE NO. 2 = 1.05 D + 1.275 L + 1.275 W
° SECTION PROPERTIES
COLUMNS ( 400 mm x 400 mm) BEAMS (250 mm x 350 mm)
A B
40 kN
4.0 m
C D E
20 kN
5.0 m
F G
H
6.0 m 4.0 m
7. The reactions at the support F due to dead load (DL) are :

° Vertical Force = ____________ kN
° Horizontal Force = ____________ kN
° Moment = ____________ kN-m
8. The end moments of the beam CD due to Combination Load Case 1 are :
° Moment at C = ____________ kN-m
° Moment at D = ____________ kN-m
9. The end moments of the beam CD due to Combination Load Case 2 are :
° Moment at C = ______________ kN-m
° Moment at D = ______________ kN-m
10. The axial force in the column CF for the different load cases are:
° P (WL only) = __________ kN
° P (DL only) = ___________ kN
° P (Combination Load Case 2) = __________ kN
11. The maximum left end moment for beam CD is _____________ kN-m and occurs at
loading case: ___________________ .
12. The maximum right end shear for beam AB is ____________ kN and occurs at loading
case : ___________________ .
13. The displacements at joint B due to wind load (WL) are :

o Horizontal : _______________ mm
o Vertical : _______________ mm
o Rotation: _______________ rad
14. The maximum span moment for beam CD due to Load Case 2 is ____________ kN-m.
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : Loading Continuous Beams 3 - 1
CHAPTER 3
LOADING CONTINUOUS BEAMS
BACKGROUND
Beams and girders are straight horizontal members in structures which resist forces
applied transversely to their lengths. This types of structural elements can be found
in buildings supporting the floor slabs or resting on columns. Bridge decks which are
frequently supported by piers
and abutments are usually
modeled as continuous beams.
Beams are primarily designed
to resist bending moments.
Shear forces in beams must
also be checked especially when the beams carry loads of large magnitude. The
important basic variables which affect the behavior of beams include the magnitudes
and arrangement of the loads, the nature of the support conditions and the section
properties. This chapter explores the effect of loading conditions on the internal
forces and moments in continuous beams.
CASE STUDY : How should live loads be placed to produce the maximum
and minimum bending moments and shear forces in continuous beams?
The individual members of a structure must be designed for the worst

combination of loads that can reasonably be expected to occur during its useful
life. The internal forces developed in beams such as moments and shears are
caused by the combined effect of two types of loads: dead loads and live loads.
Dead loads, which include the weight of the beam, are constant and are placed
fully on the beams. On the other hand, live loads such as floor loads from human
occupancy or moving loads due to traffic can be placed on the beam in various
ways. Is the positioning of the live loads critical in the design of beams and
girders? What positions of live loads would produce maximum effects on a

continuous beam?
Things to Do
1. Model the three-span continuous beam shown in the figure using the given
material and section properties. Using the GRASP toolbar, click the button for
adding a member and draw graphically the geometry of the beam. Draw the
continuous beam four times as shown in Figure 3.1.
2. Apply the dead load (WDL = 20 kN/m) on all spans.
3. Apply live load (WLL = 12 kN/m) for four basic load cases shown in Figure 3.1.
4. Combine the dead load and the corresponding basic live load:
Service Load : DL + LL
Ultimate Load : 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL
5. Perform analysis and view graphical and tabular results.
CASE STUDY 3
3 @ 4.0 m = 12.0 m
Three-span Continuous Beam
Material Properties
Modulus of elasticity = 20,500 N/mm2
400 mm
Unit weight = 24 kN/m3
Coefficient of thermal expansion =
0.00099 / oC
250 mm
Beam cross-section
(a) Case 1: Full Live Load (b) Case 2: Adjacent Spans
(c) Case 3: Alternate Spans A (d) Case 4: Alternate Spans B
Figure 3.1 Live Loading Cases and Deflection Curves
Figure 3.2 Moment Diagrams due to Dead Load

Observation
One of the more interesting aspects of the behavior of statically indeterminate
structures such as continuous beams is the structure’s response under load. The
response quantities which are affected by the loading conditions are the deflections,
moments and shear forces. A three-span continuous beam when subjected to
uniform load applied similarly at all spans will bend with a deflection curve similar to
Figure 3.1 (a). The corresponding shape of the moment diagram for full loading
conditions will have a shape similar to the diagrams in Figure 3.2. This figure shows
the resulting moment diagram due to the dead load. Observe the location of the
maximum (negative and positive) moments. The maximum negative moments occur
at the internal pin supports while the maximum positive moments occur near the
midspan.
What is the effect of partially loading the spans of the continuous beam? Two types
of partial loading conditions are shown in Figure 3.1. In Figure 3.1 (b), two adjacent
spans are loaded with live load and the other span is not loaded. In Figures 3.1 (c)
and (d), on the other hand, the live load is placed at alternate spans with the
adjacent spans unloaded. These conditions reflect different loading patterns and
each loading pattern will affect the internal forces at various sections (e.g. near the
support or at midspan) of the beam. Figure 3.3 shows the resulting moment
diagrams for the four cases of live loading.
Maximum Negative Moment at a Support : Consider first the maximum negative

moment at the second support. An inspection of the moments associated with the
four cases reveals some curious results. The maximum negative moment at the
second pin support does not occur when the structure is fully loaded (Case 1) but
rather under a partial loading condition at adjacent spans (Case 2). The maximum
negative moment under full live loading condition is 19.2 kN-m while the maximum
negative moment when the adjacent spans are loaded is 22.4 kN-m. When the
dead and live loads are now combined either under service load (Figure 3.4) or
ultimate load (Figure 3.5), the same loading case produces the maximum negative
moment at that support. This means that the maximum negative moment at a
support will occur when the loads are placed on the two spans adjacent to that
particular support and the next span unloaded Hence, if the maximum negative
moment at the third pin support is desired, we must apply the live loads at the
second and third spans which are adjacent to the support while the first span is
unloaded. In case of more than three spans, the alternate spans must be loaded.
Figure 3.3 Moment Diagram due to Live Load
Maximum Span Moments : Observe the other two cases (Case 3 and 4) for
alternate span loading. Figure 3.1 (c) and (d) shows the deflection curves due to
alternate live loading. It can be seen that at the loaded spans, the curvatures are
positive or concave upwards and since the bending moments are proportional to
curvatures, the resulting span moment for the loaded spans are also positive.
Figures 3.3 (c) and (d) show that the maximum span moments in the loaded spans
do not also occur under full live loading condition (Case 1) but under partial loading
Figure 3.4 Moment Diagram for Service Load
Figure 3.5 Moment Diagram for Ultimate Load

when alternate live loading is applied. A comparison of the magnitudes of the

maximum positive moments for the first span is given in Figure 3.6 for Case 1 and
Case 3. Under full live load, the maximum span moment of the beam is about
15.360 kN-m. However, under alternate live load, the maximum span moment of the
(a) Full Live Loading Condition (Case 1)
(b) Alternate Live Loading Condition (Case 3)
Figure 3.6 Moment Diagram of First Span due to Live Load

same beam is about 19.440 kN-m. This means that the maximum positive span
moment in a continuous beam may occur at the loaded span for the alternate
loading condition. Combining now the moments due to dead and live loads will
produce the maximum positive span moments in the loaded spans as shown in
Figures 3.4 and 3.5. Figure 3.7 shows member results for the Service Load
Condition. Compare the results for B-1, B-4, B-7 and B-10 which correspond to the
first span. The Maximum positive span moment is about 46 kN-m for B-7, a loaded
span in the alternate loading condition (Case 3).
Minimum Span Moments: Observe again the two cases (Case 3 and 4) for
alternate span loading. This time observe the unloaded spans of the continuous
beam. Notice that the curvatures in Figures 3.1 (c) and (d) are now negative or
Figure 3.7 Member Results for Service Load Condition

concave downwards meaning that the resulting span moments will be negative.
Figures 3.3 (c) and (d) clearly show that the moments in the unloaded span are
negative. If the moments due to dead and live loads are now combined for either
service load (Figure 3.4) or ultimate load (Figure 3.5) conditions, the resulting span
moments for the unloaded beams using the alternate span loading condition will be
minimum (which may be negative) since the signs of the moments due to dead and
live loads are not the same. This means that the minimum span moment in a
continuous beam may occur at the unloaded span for the alternate loading condition.
An inspection of the results for B-1, B-4, B-7 and B-10 in Figure 3.7 shows that the
minimum span moment is about 22 kN-m for B-10, an unloaded span in the alternate
loading condition (Case 4).
Maximum Shear at a Support:

Compare the shear diagrams under service load condition for the four cases as
shown in Figure 3.8. Specifically, observe the shear forces at the second support.
Figure 3.8 Shear Diagram for Service Load

Which case produces the maximum shear? The maximum shear at the second
support occurs under Case 2. It can be seen that the maximum shear at the support
occurs when the support is between two spans which are loaded using the adjacent
loading condition. Hence, placing the live load in the second and third spans will
result to a maximum shear in the third pin support. It is also interesting to note here
that the maximum shear at the end supports does not occur under full live load
condition but under partial loading condition (Case 3).
Things to Ponder
Loading conditions that produce the maximum effects on a structure are called
critical loading conditions. These conditions do not always occur when the live load
is placed fully on the structure. Partial loading conditions may produce the critical
moments and shear forces at a beam section. The occurrence of the critical values
do not simultaneously occur under one loading condition. Hence, various loading
arrangements have to be checked to determine what loading conditions are critical
on a structure.
In the design of beams , the code (e.g., NSCP 2001 sections 205) permits that the
arrangement of live load may be limited and states that “where uniform floor loads
are involved, consideration maybe limited to full dead load on all spans in
combination with full live load on adjacent spans and alternate spans.”
Things to Try
1. Analyze a continuous beam to obtain the maximum possible span and end
moments. Model a continuous RC beam of 250 mm x 400 mm rectangular section
consisting of four spans with pin supports. Each span has a distance of 5.0 m. The
beams will carry uniformly distributed vertical loads consisting of the dead load (WDL
= 20 kN/m) and live load (WLL = 15 kN/m). Consider various combination load cases
for dead load and live load. Use the basic load combination factors for dead and live
load specified in the NSCP 2001 section 203.3. Obtain the possible maximum and
minimum span and end moments. Observe also the effect of loading arrangement
on the shear forces.
4 @ 5.0 m = 20
2. Repeat the same steps in Exercise No. 1 for the beam shown below which has
fixed supports at both ends.
4 @ 5.0 m = 20 m
3. For the same continuous beams above, try changing the magnitude of the live
load and apply alternative live loadings. Observe if the span moments due to
dead and live loads becomes positive or negative. What is the ratio of live load to
dead load such that the combined effects produce a negative span moment?
4. For the same continuous beams above, change the distance between spans by
moving the second and fourth pin supports one meter towards the end supports
resulting to the span distances of 4.0 m – 6.0 m – 6.0 m – 4.0 m. Apply the same
loading conditions and observe the effect of spacing on the moments and shear
forces.
References and related readings

Towers, and Other Vertical Structures, Sections 203 and 205, Association of
Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP), Quezon City, Philippines
Nilson, A.H., Darwin, D. and Dolan, C.W. (2004). Design of Concrete Structures, 13th
Edition, Chapter 12, McGraw-Hill, Inc. NY, USA
Schodek, D.L. (1998). Structures. Chapter 8, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey, USA
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : Pattern Loading 4 - 1
CHAPTER 4
PATTERN LOADING IN MULTISTORY FRAMES
BACKGROUND
Design codes specify that every building and every portion of the structure must be
designed and constructed to sustain appropriate combinations of vertical loads and
lateral forces. The individual members of a building frame which consists of beams
and columns must be designed against loads which are reasonably expected to
occur during the structure’s useful life. The internal forces induced in the frame such
as moments, shears and axial forces are caused by the combined effect of both
vertical and lateral loads. Let us first consider the effect of vertical loads in a building
frame. The vertical loads which consist of dead and live loads are carried by the
horizontal members of the building. These loads are usually placed on the girders or
beams when a model of the structure is analyzed. The dead loads are constant and
are placed fully on the beams. On
the other hand, live loads such as
floor loads from human occupancy
can be placed in various ways, some
of which may result in larger effects
than others. Chapter 3 demonstrated
the effect of live load arrangement to
the moments and shear forces in
beams. These loading schemes also
apply to beams of rigid frames. However, the live loading schemes must be
extended to consider also the effect to the vertical elements or columns. This
chapter explores the various schemes that the live load can be placed on the
horizontal elements of a rigid frame and the corresponding effects on the internal
forces in the beams and columns.
CASE STUDY : How should live loads be placed to obtain the possible
maximum internal effects in beams and columns of rigid frames?
A four-story rigid frame building with three bays will be analyzed. The girders or
beams will carry uniformly distributed vertical loads consisting of the dead load
(WDL = 15 kN/m) and live load (WLL = 7 kN/m).
Things to Do
1. Model the four-story rigid frame shown in the figure assuming fixed supports
and using the following material properties:
Coefficient of thermal expansion = 0.00099 / oC
2. Place the dead load and live load on all spans.
3. Place the live load on the specified spans only as shown in Figures 4.1 to 4.6.
4. Apply seven combination load cases using the load factors of 1.4 for dead
load and 1.7 for live load:
DL & Full LL
DL & Alternate LL 1
DL & Alternate LL 2
DL & Adjacent LL 1
DL & Adjacent LL 2
DL & Column LL 1
DL & Column LL 2
5. Perform analysis and view graphical and tabular results.

CASE STUDY 4
4 @3.0 m
= 12.0 m
3 @ 5.0 m = 15.0 m
Frame geometry
350 mm 400 mm
350 mm
250 mm
Column cross-section Beam cross-section

Figure 4.1 Alternate Live Load No. 1
Figure 4.2 Alternate Live Load No. 2

Figure 4.3 Adjacent Live Load No. 1
Figure 4.4 Adjacent Live Load No. 2

Figure 4.5 Column Live Load No. 1
Figure 4.6 Column Live Load No. 2

Observation
Maximum and Minimum Moments in Beams: From the results of Chapter 3 for
continuous beams, the same principles can be applied to rigid frames in determining
the maximum negative support moments, maximum span moments and minimum
span moments in the beams. Hence two alternate live loading cases (Figures 4.1
and 4.2) were applied to determine the possible maximum and minimum span
moments of the beams. On the other hand, two adjacent live loading cases (Figures
4.3 and 4.4) were applied to determine the maximum possible negative moments at
the supports of the beams. The span and end moments of the beams for each
combination load case can be compared with the combined dead and full live load
case in Figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7 Moment Diagram for Combined Dead Load and Full Live Load
To view the detailed results for a selected beam for the various load cases, prepare
a report and display the “Comparison of Results” using the “Print Preview Report”
as in Figure 4.8 (B-17) and Figure 4.9 (B-26) For these two beam examples, identify
the combination load cases where the maximum and minimum span moments occur.
For beam B-17, the minimum span moment (26.0404 kN-m) occurs under “DL &
Alternate LL 1” case while the maximum positive span moment (44.5745 kN-m )
occurs under “DL & Alternate LL 2” Case. Beam B-17 is an unloaded span for “DL &
Alternate LL 1” case and a loaded span for “DL & Alternate LL 2” case. The same
observation can be found for beam B-26 where the maximum positive span moment
(44.6703 kN-m) and the minimum span moment (24.5816 kN-m) occur when the
span is loaded (DL & Alternate LL 1) and unloaded (DL & Alternate LL 2),
respectively.
Figure 4.8 Member Results for Beam B-17

Figure 4.9 Member Results for Beam B-26
The maximum negative support moments, on the other hand, can be observed in
the other load cases particularly the adjacent live loading cases, especially if the
support is between loaded spans (e.g., the right end moment of B-17 of - 81.5235
kN-m is maximum at “DL & Adjacent LL 1” case).
Maximum End Moments of Columns: For columns, the largest moment occurs at
the top or bottom. Two loading cases (Figures 4.5 and 4.6) illustrate a live loading
arrangement which may produce the maximum possible column end moments. View
the moment diagrams for the combination load cases -“DL & Column LL 1 “ and “DL
& Column LL 2” (e.g., Figure 4.10) and compare the resulting column end moments
with those due to the combined dead and full live load in Figure 4.7. Observe
specifically the columns, C-8, C-9, C-11 or C-12 and the live load positions on the
beams connected to the columns at the top and bottom. For these columns, the
maximum end moments do not occur under full live loading condition, but under
partial loading condition given in Figure 4.5 or 4.6. A sample of the member results
is shown in Figure 4.11 for column C-8. It can be seen that the top and bottom
Figure 4.10 Moment Diagram for DL and Column LL No. 2
moments (-2.1564 kN-m and 1.5908 kN-m) due to the combined dead load and full
live load are relatively small compared to top and bottom moments (-13.6512 kN-m
and 14.1499 kN-m) for the “DL & Column LL No. 2” case. The same observation can
be made for the other columns (C-9, C-11 or C-12) if you view the detailed member
results. This means that If the spans exactly above and below a column are loaded,
the top and bottom moments of that column may produce the maximum end
moments. This is an alternative live loading arrangement that can be applied to
building frames to obtain the possible maximum end moments of a column.
Figure 4.11 Member Results for Column C-8
Things to Ponder
Placing the live load fully on a structure does not always produce the critical
moments in beams and columns. Partial loading of the frame sometimes produces
the worst condition. Live loads can be placed in various ways on the structure ,
some of which will result in larger effects than others. By proper positioning of live
load, the maximum combined effect due to dead and live loads on the member can
be obtained - the effect can be both negative or positive. The load patterns in a
continuous frame that produce the maximum positive and negative moments in the
beams are different from those of the critical moments in the columns. Hence,
alternative live loadings must be considered separately for beams and columns to
obtain the worst combination of loads. The problem now results to predicting which
type of loading pattern produces the maximum internal forces. There are many
different live loading schemes that can be tried to obtain the maximum effects on the
structure. Trying all possible loading arrangements is of course not practical. By
considering the relative magnitude of the effects of the loading schemes, an
experienced designer can limit the analysis to a small number of significant cases.
In the design of beams , the code (e.g., NSCP 2001 sections 205 and 408.10)
permits that the arrangement of live load maybe limited and states that “where
uniform floor loads are involved, consideration maybe limited to full dead load on all
spans in combination with full live load on adjacent spans and alternate spans.” In
the analysis and design of concrete columns, on the other hand, the code (NSCP
2001 section 408.9 or ACI code 8.8) states that “columns must be designed to resist
the axial load from factored dead and live loads on all floors or roof and the
maximum moment from factored loads on a single adjacent span of the floor or roof
under consideration.” In the design of columns, the end moment and the axial force
are used simultaneously in proportioning the member and determining the amount
of steel (in the case of RC columns). However, the maximum values of the moment
and the axial force at the critical sections do not always occur at the same
combination load case. In one case, the moment may be large but the axial force is
small or vice versa. Which combination of moment and axial force results to the
most probable critical condition? This problem complicates the analysis process
enormously. Hence, the code (NSCP 2001 section 408.9.1), recognizing the
characteristic shape of the column strength interaction , specifies that in the design
of RC columns, “the loading condition giving the maximum ratio of moment to axial
load shall be considered.”
Things to Try
1. (a) Model the building shown using the following material properties:
(b) Apply the basic load case for dead load (WDL = 15 kN/m) by placing the dead
load on all beams) and live load (WLL = 7 kN/m) by using full loading and several
pattern loading conditions.
(c) Combine the dead load and the corresponding basic live load using the load
factors of 1.4 for dead load and 1.7 for live load.
4 @3.0 m
= 12.0 m
3 @ 5.0 m = 15.0 m
Frame geometry
350 mm
400 mm
350 mm
250 mm
Beam cross-section
(d) Perform analysis to obtain the maximum and minimum span moments, and
maximum negative support moments of the beams and the maximum end
moments of columns. Choose a beam and a column for a detailed discussion
about your observations.
References and related readings:

Towers, and Other Vertical Structures, Sections 203, 408 and 409, Association of
Hibbeler, R.C. (2000). Structural Analysis. 4th Edition, Section 9.11, Pearson
Education, Asia Pte. Ltd, New Jersey, USA
Schodek, D.L. (1998). Structures. Chapter 9, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey, USA
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : Lateral Forces in Buildings 5 - 1
CHAPTER 5
LATERAL FORCES IN BUILDINGS
BACKGROUND
Lateral forces due to wind and earthquakes may act on a building during the lifespan
of the structure. Buildings when subjected to lateral forces would undergo horizontal
displacement or drift and must be checked against story drift limitations to prevent
the structure from collapsing laterally. The way a building resists lateral forces not
only influences the design of vertical members or columns but the horizontal
members or beams as well. How do lateral forces affect the behavior and response
of the structural members of building frames? This chapter aims to explore the effect
of lateral forces in the internal resultant forces of the structural members of rigid
frames.
CASE STUDY : How do lateral forces affect the bending moment of beams
in rigid frames?
A two-story rigid frame with three bays will be analyzed. The frame will carry
uniformly distributed vertical loads consisting of the dead load and live load fully
applied on the beams. The lateral loads which will be assumed as earthquake
loads shall be applied at the 1st floor and 2nd floor levels of the frame in three
stages.
Things to Do
1. Model the two-story rigid frame shown in the figure using the following
concrete properties:
Coefficient of thermal expansion = 11 x 10-6 / oC
CASE STUDY 5
3.0 m
4.0 m
3.0 m 4.0 m 3.0 m

Frame geometry
1200 mm
100 mm
300 mm
300 mm
300 mm
250 mm
wDL = 15 kN/m , wLL = 7 kN/m

F2
F1
Vertical Loading Lateral Loading
Three Stages of Lateral Loading

Lateral Load EQ1 EQ2 EQ3
2nd Level : F2 40 kN 80 kN 120 kN
1st Level : F1 20 kN 40 kN 60 kN
2. Apply the basic load cases for dead load (DL), live load (LL) and the three
stages of lateral loads (EQ1, EQ2 and EQ3) applied from left to right.
3. Apply the following combination load cases :
Ultimate Load : 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL
Comb EQ1 : 1.3 DL + 1.1 LL + 1.1 EQ1
Comb EQ2 : 1.3 DL + 1.1 LL + 1.1 EQ2
Comb EQ3 : 1.3 DL + 1.1 LL + 1.1 EQ3
4. Perform the analysis and display graphical and tabular results.

5. Display the bending moment diagrams for the four combination load cases.
6. Display the bending moment diagrams for two beams (e.g., B-5 and B-6).
7. Display the member results comparison for a selected beam (e.g., B-5) using
the “Print Preview Report.”
EQ2
Figure 5.1 Bending moment for combination load case : 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL
Figure 5.2 Bending moment for combination load case : 1.3 DL + 1.1 LL + 1.1 EQ1
Observation
Figure 5.1 presents the bending moment diagrams of the combination load case for
vertical loads only. This represents the effect of combining the dead load and live
load using appropriate load factors. Observe the bending moment diagrams of the
beams. The moments at the sections near the columns are negative, while the
moments near the midspan are positive.
Now observe the bending moment diagrams when the lateral forces are applied from
left to right. In Figure 5.2, the moments at the left ends of the leftmost beams (B-5
and B-12) in the first and second floors have changed from negative to positive. In
Figure 5.3, the moment at the left end of beam B-6 in the first floor also changed to
positive. Finally, in Figure 5.4, the moment at the left end of beam B-7, also in the
first floor, also changed to positive.
Figure 5.5 Bending moment for beam (B -5) Figure 5.6 Bending moment for beam (B - 6)
This change in shape and sign of the moment diagram in beams in the first floor can
also be observed by displaying the respective bending moment diagrams of the
beams as shown in Figure 5.5 and 5.6 for two combination load cases: one case
when the frame was subjected to vertical loads only and the other case when the
lateral forces, EQ3, were applied.
Figure 5.7 Member results for beam (B-5)
Figure 5.7 shows the comparison of results for a selected beam (B-5) for the basic
load cases and combination load cases. Observe the moments at the ends for
various cases. Mzi, is the moment at the left end, while Mzj is the moment at the right
end. The moment at the left end is negative when the applied loads are vertical (.e.g.,
basic load case for dead load and live load or the combination load cases such as
service load, ultimate load). On the other hand, the moment at the left end is positive
when only lateral forces are applied (e.g., basic load cases EQ1, EQ2 and EQ3).
When the vertical loads and lateral loads are combined (e.g. Comb EQ1, Comb Eq2
and Comb EQ3) , the moment at the left end may be negative or positive, depending
on the magnitude of the lateral forces. For beam, B-5, for example, the left end
moment due to dead and live loads at ultimate condition is -14.7130 kN-m. This
moment changed to positive when combined with the moment due to lateral forces
and the final left end moment is 113.3387 kN-m. This means that a section of a
beam may resist both negative and positive moments when lateral forces act on the
building.
If you now observe the moment at the right end of the beams, what conclusions can
you make? If the lateral forces are applied from the right to left, what would you
expect about the moments of the left end of the beams? What about the span
moments of the beams?
Things to Ponder
Lateral forces must be applied on the plane structure in two directions to the left and
to the right since earthquakes or wind can come from any direction. The case study
illustrates the effect of lateral forces on the beam’s response, particularly on
bending moment at the supports of beams for rigid frames. Depending on the
direction of the lateral forces, the moments may become negative or positive when
combined with the vertical loads. The phenomenon where the type of the moment
changes from negative to positive and vice versa is referred to as “moment reversal”.
What is the implication of this phenomenon with respect to design of reinforced

concrete (RC) beams? In the RC design, longitudinal reinforcements are provided to
resist tension due to bending moment. When the moment is negative, tension occurs
at the top portion of the beam section and longitudinal reinforcements should be
provided near the top. On the other hand, when the moment is negative, tension
occurs at the bottom portion of the beam section and longitudinal reinforcements
should be provided near the bottom. In designing RC beams, we should consider
both negative and positive moments, meaning longitudinal reinforcements must be
provided at the top and bottom portion of the beam section.
The “Special Provisions for Seismic Design” for structural

concrete in the code (e.g. NSCP 2001 section 421.4 or ACI
code Chapter 21) addresses the phenomenon of moment
reversal in the design of flexural members of frames. Can
you locate the specific sections of the code where these
special provisions are ?
“At any section of a flexural member for top as well as bottom reinforcement, the
amount of reinforcement shall not be less than the minimum reinforcement and
the reinforcement ratio shall not exceed 0.025. At least two bars shall be
provided continuously both top and bottom.”
“Positive-moment strength at joint face shall not be less than one half of the
negative-moment strength provided at that face of the joint. Neither the negative
nor the positive-moment strength at any section along member length shall be
less than one fourth the maximum moment strength provided at face of either
joint.”
Bending moments are not the only internal forces that are affected by lateral forces.
Shear and axial forces are also significantly influenced by the lateral forces – in most
cases the combination loading with wind or seismic loads produces the worst
condition in a building. One other response and probably the most important
structural response that is affected by lateral forces is the horizontal displacement or
side sway. Buildings when subjected to lateral forces would undergo horizontal
displacement or drift and must be checked against story drift limitations to prevent
the structure from collapsing laterally. All these structural response quantities must
be checked against the effects of lateral forces.
Things to Try
1. Explore the same frame in the case study and observe the effect of lateral forces
to the other response quantities of the structure, such as :
Span moments in beams
Bending moment in the columns
Axial force in the columns
Shear in the beams
Shear in the columns
Write a report listing down your observations about the effect of lateral forces for
each structural response. Support your observations with figures and/or tables
for specific members. State the implications of your observations to design.
2. How much should the lateral force F2 be increased so that the moment at the left
end of all beams in the second level will also change to positive when dead, live
and lateral loads are combined?
Hibbeler, R.C. (2000). Structural Analysis. Chapter 7, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey,
USA

Towers, and Other Vertical Structures, Sections 409 and 421, Association of
Nawy, E. G. (1996). Reinforced Concrete: A Fundamental Approach, Chapter 15,

Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Schodek, D.L. (1998). Structures. Chapters 14, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey, USA
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : Pinned &Fixed Support Conditions 6 - 1
CHAPTER 6
PINNED AND FIXED SUPPORT CONDITIONS
BACKGROUND
Supports are used to attach structures to the ground to restrict their movement
due to external loads. The loads tend to move the structure; but the supports
prevent the movements by exerting reactions to neutralize the effects of the
forces; thereby keeping the structure under equilibrium. The type of reaction a
support exerts on a structure depends on the type of supporting device used and
the type of movement it
prevents. Figure 6.1
represents models of
supports for plane structures.
Consider first the idealized
models at the left portion of
the figure. A roller support
Figure 6.1 Models for Supports
prevents translation normal
to the plane of the roller and produces a corresponding normal reactive force,
while a pinned or hinged support prevents translation in any direction but allows
rotation and thus produces reaction forces. A fixed support prevents rotation and
translation and thus produces reaction forces and a moment.
The pinned (or roller) and fixed support conditions are idealized models of
support conditions. What type of model for the support should you use when
you want to represent the actual support conditions? The answer to this question
depends on degree of constraints provided by the foundation. One factor which
affects the constraints at the support is the type and detail of the connection
between the column and the footing. Figure 6.2 shows two examples of
connections at the footing and the corresponding idealized models. The steel
column is welded to a base plate and the base plate is connected to a concrete
footing by bolts. The degree of fixity

between the column and the footing will
depend on the bolted connections. Figure
6.3 is a detail of a rolling expansion
bearing which consists of a hinge on top
of a pedestal whose base rests on a
series of rollers. In the building in Figure
Pinned Fixed
6.4, the frame consists of tapered
Figure 6.2 Types of Connections
columns pinned at the base. As the top of
the columns is rigidly built into a stiff
beam, the columns are effectively fixed at the top and pinned at the base.
Schodek (1998) provides more examples of different types of connections and
idealized models. Another factor which affects the constraints or fixity at the
supports is the soil condition. A column supported on a relatively small footing
and resting on compressible soil may be assumed to be hinged at the end, since
such soils offer but little resistance to rotation of the footing. On the other hand, a
footing resting on solid rock, or a column supported by a pile foundation may be
assumed to have sufficient fixity to prevent rotation and a fixed support may be
assumed. Columns supported by a continuous foundation mat should likewise be
assumed fixed (Nilson et al 2004).
Figure 6.4 Fixed-Pinned Columns

Figure 6.3 End Bearing Detail (http://nisee.berkeley.edu.ph/godden)
How important is the assumed model of the support in the behavior and
response of the structure? This chapter aims to explore the effects of the support
conditions on the response of a structure.
CASE STUDY : What are the implications of pinned and fixed support
conditions to structural design?
Two identical steel gabled frames with different support conditions similar to
Figure 6.2 will be analyzed subjected to two basic load cases – dead load and
wind load. Compare the behavior and response of the two structures.
Things to Do
1. Draw two identical frames with different support conditions - one frame
with pin supports and the other frame with fixed supports.
2. Apply dead load (WL = 0.5 k/ft) and display the diagrams for the bending
moment, shear and axial forces.
3. Apply the wind loads as shown acting on the windward and leeward walls
and the roofs. Display the diagrams for the bending moment, shear and
axial forces.
4. Apply combination load case : 0.9 DL + 1.3 WL
Observation
Displacements: Figures 6.5 and 6.6 show the deformed shapes of the two
frames due to dead and wind loads. Which frame has relatively larger
displacements? If you view the nodal displacements at the nodes, you will find
that the nodal displacements for the pinned supported frame are almost twice
that of the fixed supported frame. As an example, for the top node, the vertical
displacements due to dead load is about 2.4 in for the pinned case, while 1.28 for
the fixed case. On the other hand, for the same node the vertical displacements
due to wind load is about 12.0 in for the pinned case, while 6.40 for the fixed
case.
CASE STUDY 6
Rafter
W 21 x 68
15 ft
Column
W 27 x 84 20 ft
90 ft
Section Properties (Ref. AISC manual)

W 21 x 68 A = 20.0 in2 I = 1480 in4 d = 21.13 in
W 27 x 84 A = 24.8 in2 I = 2830 in4 d = 26.69 in
Material Properties (A36 steel)

E = 29 x 103 ksi
Specific weight = 0.284 lb/in3
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion = 6.5 x 10-6 /F
DL = 0.5 k/ft
Uplift = 3.0 k/ft Uplift = 3.0 k/ft
windward Leeward
wall wall
0.35 k/ft 0.25 k/ft
Dead Load Wind Load

(a) Pinned (b) Fixed
Figure 6.5 Dead Load and Deformation Diagram
Figure 6.6 Wind Load and Deformation Diagram

Figure 6.7 Bending Moments due to Dead Load
Figure 6.8 Bending Moments due to Wind Load

Bending Moments : Figures 6.7 and 6.8 shows the bending moment diagrams
for each frame for the two basic load cases. The bending moments for the
pinned-base frame are relatively larger than the fixed-base frame for both loading
conditions. The maximum end moment of the column for the pinned case due to
dead load is 259.6 kip-ft at the top end compared to 240.5 kip-ft at the bottom
end for the fixed case. The maximum end moment at the rafter due to dead load
is 259.6 kip-ft for the pinned case and only 196.7 kip-ft for the fixed case. Similar
observations can be found for the bending moments due to wind load. If the
loads are now combined using appropriate load factors as shown in Figure 6.9,
the end moments in the pinned case are about 12% more in the columns and
about 25% more in the rafters compared with the fixed case.
Figure 6.9 Bending Moments for Combination Load Case : 0.9 DL + 1.3 WL
Figure
Figure6.10 Shear Forces
6.5 Shear Forces due
due to
to Dead
Dead Load
Load
Figure 6.11 Shear Forces due to Wind Load

(a) Pin Supports (b) Fixed Supports
Figure 6.12 Axial Forces due to Dead Load
Figure 6.13 Axial Forces due to Wind Load

Shear Forces: Compare now the shear forces in Figures 6.10 and 6.11. The
magnitudes of the shear forces in the columns in the fixed-base condition are
greater than the pinned-base condition, but the shear forces in the rafters in the
pinned case are greater than the fixed case. This is true for both dead and wind
loading conditions.
Axial Forces: In Figures 6.12 and 6.13 are shown the comparison of the axial
forces. There is not much of a difference between the magnitudes of the axial
forces in the columns between the two frames, although the axial forces in the
fixed supported frame are slightly larger for the rafters.
What are the implications of the observations about the two gabled frames with
different support conditions? In the design of these structures, the size of the
members is determined based on the internal moments and forces. The size of
the rafters is usually determined based on the critical moments, while the size of
the columns is obtained for the combined effects of the moments and axial forces.
Based on the member size obtained, the shear requirements are checked. As
observed earlier, the maximum moments developed in the frame which has
fixed-base connections are relatively less than those developed in the pinned
supported frame. This means that the members of the fixed supported frame
may be designed with smaller sections. Moreover, there is a reduction in
deflections in the fixed case. However, to achieve these advantages of
minimizing moments and reducing deflections in the gabled frame using fixed
supports, special attention should be given in the design of the foundation so that
full fixity of the column will be achieved. Does this mean a fixed supported frame
is more superior than a pin supported frame? Not really! There are cases where
the design of the foundation is a problem and full fixity at the base is difficult to
achieve. In this case, a pinned-base connection may be the best overall solution.
Besides, there also advantages in a pinned supported frame. The foundation for
a pinned-base frame need not be designed to provide moment resistance.
Horizontal thrusts associated with vertical loads are usually smaller in a pinned
condition. Each specific design must be evaluated in its own context to see which
approach proves most desirable.
Things to Ponder
The modeling of the supports of any structure should be based on actual

conditions at the site. The engineer should make sure what is assumed in the
modeling, analysis and design of the supports should be realized when the
structure is constructed. When full fixity is assumed in the modeling and analysis
of the structure, this condition should be assured when the design and
construction of the foundation is done. Similarly, the condition of no moment
resistance at the base should likewise be assured in the foundation design and
construction to simulate a pinned-base assumption. If the assumptions and
actual conditions are entirely different, the outcome may be catastrophic.
Things to Try
1. Analyze the frame shown. Compare the results between pinned-supported

frame and fixed-supported frame. Consider the effects of vertical loads (WDL =
15 kN/m and WLL = 7 kN/m) applied fully and earthquake loads applied at
each floor (F4 = 80 kN, F3 = 60 kN, F2 = 40 kN and F1 = 20 kN), separately.
And then combine the loads (1.4 DL + 1.7 LL and 1.3 DL + 1.1 LL + 1.1 EQ).
Assume the following material properties:
2. Make sketches of possible details of column and footing connections for
reinforced concrete structures. When can the footing be assumed pinned or
fixed?
4 @3.0 m
= 12.0 m
3 @ 5.0 m = 15.0 m
Frame geometry
350 mm
400 mm
350 mm
250 mm
Beam cross-section
References

Library
Kassimali, A. (1999). Structural Analysis, 2nd Edition, Section 3.3, Brooks-Cole

Publishing Co., USA
Nilson, A.H., Darwin, D. and Dolan, C.W. (2004). Design of Concrete Structures,
13th Edition, Section 12.5, McGraw-Hill, Inc. NY, USA
Schodek, D.L. (1998). Structures. Section 3-3-2, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey,
USA
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : Soil Effects on Foundations 7 - 1
CHAPTER 7
SOIL EFFECTS ON FOUNDATIONS
BACKGROUND
Foundations of structures are supported by the soil. The effect of the soil on the
behavior of the structure is significant especially for soft soils since the required
fixity between the column and footing may be difficult to realize. A simple isolated
footing may rotate, settle or
shift sideways by some
amount depending on the
load and soil conditions. Isolated Footing
Modeling the foundation
considering the soil stiffness
falls between the pinned or
fixed conditions. When the
effect of the soil in the
structural model is
Pile Foundation
considered, this becomes a
Figure 7.1 Modeling of Foundations (Anwar 1998)
“soil–structure interaction”
problem. One popular and simple approach of modeling the soil is by the used of
“springs”. An isolated footing or a pile foundation may be represented by three
springs – one for vertical settlement, one for rotation and one for lateral
movement (Figure 7.1).
GRASP provides an option
of representing the
constraint at a support by
springs as shown in Figure
7.2. You first choose a basic
support condition from the
six idealized models shown Figure 7.2 Spring Models in GRASP
at the left and then modify the restraint at one or more degrees of freedom by
spring models by inputting the appropriate spring stiffness. The stiffness of the
spring can be derived by the modulus of sub-grade reaction of the soil or by the
method suggested by Gazetas (1991) which is adapted by ATC-40 (1996), where
the footing dimensions, depth of embedment and soil properties (modulus of
elasticity, shear modulus, poisson’s ratio) are parameters. This chapter explores
the option of modeling foundations using springs and compares the results to the
idealized pinned or fixed conditions.
CASE STUDY : How can footings resting on soil be modeled to

incorporate soil-structure interaction?
Two identical steel gabled frames with different support conditions will be
analyzed. The supports will be represented by three springs – one frame
resting on dense soil and the other frame resting on soft soil. Two basic load
cases – dead load and wind load – will be applied. Observe the behavior and
response of the two structures supported by springs resting on two types of
soils and then compare the results with the frames supported by idealized
pinned and fixed supports in Chapter 6.
Things to Do
1. Draw two identical frames supported by three springs.
2. Input the stiffness of the springs for two types of soils : (a) dense soil and
(b) soft soil
3. Apply dead load on the rafters.
4. Apply the wind loads as shown acting on the windward and leeward walls
and the roofs.
5. Apply combination load case : 0.9 DL + 1.3 WL
6. Perform analysis and display the diagrams for the bending moment, shear
and axial forces. Compare the results with the case study in Chapter 6.
CASE STUDY 7
Rafter
W 21 x 68
15 ft
Column
W 27 x 84 20 ft
90 ft
Dense Soil
Section Properties (Ref. AISC manual) Kx = 4500 kip/in
W 21 x 68 A = 20.0 in2 I = 1480 in4 d = 21.13 in Ky = 1500 kip/in
W 27 x 84 A = 24.8 in2 I = 2830 in4 d = 26.69 in Kz = 200,000 kip-ft/rad
Material Properties (A36 steel) Soft Soil
E = 29 x 103 ksi Kx = 240 kip/in
Specific weight = 0.284 lb/in3 Ky = 100 kip/in
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion = 6.5 x 10-6 /F Kz = 12,800 kip-ft/rad
DL = 0.5 k/ft
Uplift = 3.0 k/ft Uplift = 3.0 k/ft
windward Leeward
wall wall
0.35 k/ft 0.25 k/ft
Dead Load Wind Load

(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
Figure 7.4 Wind Load and Deformation Diagram

Observation
Displacements: Figures 7.3 and 7.4 show the deformed shapes of the two
frames due to dead and wind loads. Which frame has relatively larger
displacements? If you view the nodal displacements at the nodes, you will find
that the frame resting on soft soil is more flexible and had displacements about
40% more than that of the frame resting on dense soil. Observe for example the
top node. The vertical displacements due to dead load is about 2.5 in for the soft
soil case, while 1.5 in for the dense soil case. On the other hand, the vertical
displacement due to wind load is about 12.6 in for the soft soil condition, while
7.6 in for the dense soil condition.
Bending Moments : Figures 7.5 and 7.6 shows the bending moment diagrams
for each frame for the two basic load cases. The bending moments for the frame
resting on soft soil are relatively larger than the dense soil condition for both
loading conditions. The magnitude of the maximum end moments of the rafters
(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
Figure 7.5 Bending Moments due to Dead Load

(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
Figure 7.6 Bending Moments due to Wind Load
(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
Figure 7.7 Bending Moments for Combination Load Case : 0.9 DL + 1.3 WL
(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
Figure 7.8 Shear Forces due to Dead Load
(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
Figure 7.9 Shear Forces due to Wind Load

(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
(a) Dense Soil
(b) Soft Soil
Figure 7.11 Axial Forces due to Wind Load

and columns for the soft soil case due to dead load is 246.6 kip-ft compared to
209.5 kip-ft for the dense soil case. On the other hand, The magnitude of the
maximum end moments of the rafters and columns for the soft soil case due to
wind load is 1,400 kip-ft compared to 1,100 kip-ft for the dense soil case. The
maximum end moments for the combined dead and wind loads in Figure 7.7, for
the soft soil case are about 13% more than the moments in the dense soil case.
In all loading cases, smaller moments at the bottom end of the columns occur in
the frame resting on soft soil.
Shear Forces: Compare now the shear forces in Figures 7.8 and 7.9. The
magnitudes of the shear forces in the columns in the dense soil condition are
greater than the soft soil condition, but the shear forces in the rafters in the soft
soil case are greater than the dense soil case. This is true for both dead and
wind loading conditions.
Axial Forces: In Figures 7.10 and 7.11 are shown the comparison of the axial
forces. There is not much of a difference between the magnitudes of the axial
forces in the columns between the two frames, although the axial forces in the
rafters for dense soil case are slightly larger than for the soft soil case. The axial
forces for both soil conditions are almost the same.
Comparing with pinned and fixed conditions: How do the results of the
analysis of the frames supported by spring models compare with the idealized
pinned-base and fixed-base conditions in Chapter 6? By simply comparing the
diagrams, we can see that the response of the frame resting under soft soil
conditions is similar to the pinned-base frame. The only difference between the
two models is that moments are developed at the bottom ends of the columns
for the spring model compared to zero moments for the pinned case. As a result,
the maximum end moments under the soft soil condition are slightly smaller than
the pinned-base condition. The response of the frame under the dense soil
condition is very similar to the fixed-base frame. However, the maximum end
moments of the columns for the frame under dense soil condition are slightly
smaller than the fixed-base condition. On the other hand, the rafter moments are
slightly larger than the dense soil case than the fixed-base case.
Things to Ponder
A pinned-base support assumes zero moment resistance at the base, while a

fixed-base support assumes a rigid base connection. Foundations rest on soil
whose properties are variable from soft clay to hard rock. Depending on the soil
and load conditions, the actual restraint developed at the base may fall between
the pinned-base and fixed-base conditions. The modeling of the supports of any
structure should be based on actual conditions at the site. Spring models to
represent the soil may be a simple approach when soil-structure interaction is
considered. However, one of the problems that the designer should confront
when considering the soil effects is the soil property, particularly what appropriate
value of soil stiffness to use in the model. An unreasonable assumption of the
soil stiffness may lead to an unconservative design. In the absence of information
about the soil, the pinned-base or fixed-base models may be used appropriately
with the designer introducing additional safety factors in the design (e.g.,
introducing some moment at the base even if a pinned-base support is assumed).
Things to Try
1. Analyze the same gabled frame of the case study. Instead of using three
springs to model the soil, represent the support by a pin with a rotational
spring. Use the soil stiffness, kz values given for the dense and soft soil.
Compare the results of the “pin-rotational spring” supported frames with the
“three-spring” supported frames for both types of soil.
Anwar, N. (1998). “Modeling of Foundations,” ACECOMS News & Views, April –

June, page 17, AIT, Thailand
Gazetas, G. (1991). Foundation Vibrations, Principles and Practices. Prentice-

Hall, New Jersey, USA
Applied Technology Council (1996), “Foundation Effects”, Seismic Evaluation

and Retrofit of Concrete Buildings (ATC-40), Vol. 1, Chapter 10
De La Cruz, L., Florendo, C. and Santiago, H. (2003). The Effect of Soil-Spring

Modeling in 2D Frame Analysis. Undergraduate Thesis, De La Salle University,
Manila
Obrien E. and Keogh, D. (1999). Bridge Deck Analysis., Chapter 4, E & FN Spon,
London
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : Support Settlements 8 - 1
CHAPTER 8
SUPPORT SETTLEMENTS
BACKGROUND
The foundations supporting the structures can settle for a variety of reasons with
the most common being consolidation of the soil beneath a support. The larger
the load on the soil, the more likely is consolidation to occur. Rarely is the
amount of settlement exactly the same beneath for all supports. Differential
settlement is a common occurrence in structures which must be checked since
additional internal forces and moments are induced. This phenomenon of “soil-
structure interaction” is
usually incorporated in the
modeling of the structure by
representing the soil by
“springs”. Modeling of
foundations using springs was
presented in the previous
chapter. Another approach,
Figure 8.1 Defining Support Settlements
specifically to predict the in GRASP
effect of differential settlement
is to introduce a prescribed amount of settlement in a foundation support.
GRASP has an option of introducing displacements (horizontal, vertical or
rotation) at a support (Figure 8.1). You first choose a basic support condition
from the six idealized models shown at the left and then modify the restraint at
one or more degrees of freedom by introducing a specified amount of
displacement. This chapter explores the effects of differential settlements of
support on the internal forces and moments of structures.
CASE STUDY: What are the effects of differential settlements of

supports to the internal forces and moments of a rigid frame?
A two-story rigid frame with fixed-base supports will be analyzed. Support
settlement will be introduced in two locations: (a) exterior support; and (b)
interior support. No loads will be applied. Observe the effects of the
settlement on the response of the members of structure when the settlement
occurs at the exterior and interior support.
Things to Do
1. Draw two identical frames with fixed-base supports as shown in Figure 8.2.
2. Input a 20 mm vertical displacement downwards at a support – at the
exterior support for one frame and at the interior support for the other
frame.
3. Perform analysis and display the diagrams for the deformation, bending
moment, shear and axial forces.
Observation
The deformation of the frames when a settlement of 20 mm is introduced at the

exterior support and interior support are shown in Figure 8.2(a) and Figure 8.2(b),
respectively. Observe the effect of the settlement in the members especially in
the beams supported by the columns where the support settlement was
introduced. Beams connected to columns along the line where the support
settled have relatively significant vertical and horizontal displacements. For
example, a 20 mm settlement at the interior support produces about 18 mm
vertical displacement and 6.8 mm horizontal displacement at the uppermost node
as shown in Figure 8.2(b). There is also a significant amount of sidesway
produced in the columns. Because of these relative displacements, curvatures
are developed in the members. Associated with these curvatures are internal
bending moments. Figure 8.3 shows the bending moment induced in the
members. Members with larger curvatures have larger induced moments. For
example, the beams in the first floor have the largest end moments about 213
CASE STUDY 8
3.0 m
4.0 m
3.0 m 4.0 m 3.0 m
Frame geometry
1200 mm
300 mm 100 mm
300 mm
300 mm
250 mm
Modulus of Elasticity = 20, 500 N/mm2

Unit Weight = 24 kN/m3
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion = 0.00099/C
kN-m and 345.6 kN-m for the frames with settlements at the exterior and interior
supports, respectively. The further the beams from the location of the settlement,
the smaller the induced moments. On the other hand, it can be observed that
curvatures in the columns in Figure 8.2 are larger for the upper columns resulting
to larger induced end moments than the lower columns in Figure 8.3. Figures
8.4 and 8.5 present the effect of the support settlement on the shear and axial
forces. The magnitude of shear forces are largest in the beams connected to the
columns supported by the foundation where the settlement occurred. On the
other hand, axial forces are significant in the columns near the support where
settlement was applied. Clearly, the greater differential settlement, the greater
the induce internal forces and moments in the beams and columns of the
structure. These internal effects on the frame may lead to failures in the design if
not anticipated. For this reason, special attention must be taken with the design
of foundations for rigid structures to minimize the risk.
(a) Exterior Support (b) Interior Support
Figure 8.2 Deformation due to Support Settlement

Figure 8.3 Bending Moments due to Support Settlement
Figure 8.4 Shear Forces due to Support Settlement

Figure 8.5 Axial Forces due to Support Settlement
Things to Ponder
Differential settlement of supports has

the effect of generating “sagging
moment” at the support which settles.
This is significant in rigid continuous
structures since the fixed-ended nature
of the connections restrains the
members from rotating and translating.
The increase in internal forces and
moments in the members may be
significant especially in soft soils.
Figure 8.6 Tilting Building
Settlement of supports frequently occurs
when the ground shakes during an earthquake (Figure 8.6). If the member is not
sufficiently sized to carry this increased internal moments and forces, the
member could potentially fail or become seriously overstressed.
Things to Try
1. Analyze the same rigid frame in the case study. Replace the fixed-base
supports by pinned-base supports. How does support settlement affect the
response of the members of a pinned-base supported frame? Is the effect of
differential settlement more pronounced in a pinned-based frame or a fixed-
base frame?
2. Compare the induced moments for two cases of the continuous beam shown
below:
a. Introduce vertical settlements of 20 mm at the roller and 40 mm at the
adjacent pin support.
b. Introduce a vertical settlement of 40 mm at the pin support adjacent to
the roller.
3 @ 4.0 m = 12.0 m
Three-span Continuous Beam
Material Properties
400 mm
Coefficient of thermal expansion =
0.00099 / oC
250 mm
Beam cross-section
Bowles, J. (1982). Foundation Analysis and Design, Chapter 5, McGraw-Hill, Inc.,

New York, USA
Hibbeler, R. (2000). Structural Analysis, Section 10.5 and 11.5, Pearson

Education Asia Pte Ltd., Singapore
Obrien E. and Keogh, D. (1999). Bridge Deck Analysis. Chapter 3, E & FN Spon,
London
Orense, R. (2003). Geotechnical Hazards: Nature, Assessment and Mitigation,

Part 4, UP Press, Quezon City, Philippines
Schodek, D.L. (1998). Structures. Section 8-3-4 and 9-3-4, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
New Jersey, USA
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : Truss Analysis 9 - 1
CHAPTER 9
TRUSS ANALYSIS
BACKGROUND
A truss is an assemblage of slender straight members arranged in triangles to
form rigid framework. The individual elements are typically assumed to be
connected at the joints with smooth pinned connections. The joint connections
are usually formed by bolting or
welding the ends of the members to
a gusset plate (Figure 9.1). Loads
and reactions are assumed to act at
the joints. As a result of the joint
loading and smooth hinge conditions,
the truss members are usually
designed to resist axial forces
(tension and compression) only. The Figure 9.1 Detail of a Truss Joint
truss, through its stable configuration,
resists external loads by deflection of the structure which occurs only when one
or more of its members are deformed. Planar trusses lie in a single plane and are
often used to support roofs of buildings and bridges. This chapter presents an
analysis of a typical roof truss subjected to dead, live and wind loads.
CASE STUDY : Analysis of a Roof Truss
The following case study illustrates the procedure for the analysis of a light steel
truss for a gable-form roof. The roof construction, truss configuration, and design
loads are shown. The truss will consist of double angles of A36 steel as
members. Joints will use gusset plates and bolts. Trusses are to be spaced 8 ft
on centers.
CASE STUDY 9 Truss weight at 20 lb/ft
Live Load at 15 psf

Glass sky
light at 5 psf
Steel deck +
insulation at 5 psf
Wind Load
15 psf 10 ft
NoNo
ceiling
ceiling Trusses at 8 ft c/c
4 @ 10 ft = 40 ft
Truss Geometry and Loads
Dead Load and Live Load Computation: The weight of the truss is assumed to
be 20 lb/ft. The dead load on the truss is computed as follows: 20 lb/ft + (5 psf)(8
ft) = 60 lb/ft. Similarly, the live load on the truss is computed as : (15 psf)(8 ft) =
120 lb/ft. The joints loads corresponding to the dead and live loads are then
computed using tributary horizontal projection of the lengths of the truss
members. For example at the interior joint, the nodal force due to dead load is
(60 lb/ft)(10 ft) = 600 lb as shown in Figure 9.2.
Wind Load Computation: Wind pressure on roof surfaces depend on wind

velocity, wind direction, and the building’s exterior form and dimensions. The
computation of the wind pressure can be found in design codes (e.g. see NSCP
2001). The wind ordinarily induces a direct, inward pressure on surfaces of the
building facing the wind, and an outward suction pressure on surfaces on sides
opposite the wind. Pressures on roof surfaces depend partly on the slope. Flat
and near-flat surfaces tend to have uplift pressure. As the slope increases, the
roof surfaces facing the wind develop inward pressures. Since the wind direction
changes, the building has to be investigated for two wind directions – wind from
the left and wind from the right of the structure.
600 lb
600 lb
600 lb
300 lb
300 lb
Dead Load applied at joints
1200 lb
1200 lb
1200 lb
600 lb
600 lb
Live Load applied at joints
Figure 9.2 Dead and Live Loading on Truss

Consider a wind force pressure of 15 psf acting normal to the roof surface. The
uniform wind force on the truss is computed as : (15 psf)(8 ft) = 120 lb/ft. By
multiplying the wind force (120 lb/ft) by the tributary length of the inclined
members, the joint loads can be computed. For example the nodal force at the
interior joint is (120 lb/ft)(10.54 ft) = 1,265 lb as shown in Figures 9.3 and 9.4 for
the wind from the left and from the right, respectively. The wind loads act
perpendicular to the surface of the truss. However, for the purpose of using the
forces in GRASP, the wind loads are resolved to vertical and horizontal
components.
1265/2 lb
Wind Left 1265 lb
1265 lb 849 lb
1265/2 lb
849 lb
Wind Loads Left on Truss
1200 lb
1200 lb
1200 lb 400 lb
400 lb
600 lb 400 lb
600 lb
200 lb 600 lb
Wind Loads (Left) Resolved to X & Y Components
Figure 9.3 Wind Loads (Left) for Truss Analysis

Wind Right
1265/2 lb
1265 lb
1265 lb 849 lb
1265/2 lb
849 lb
Wind Loads Right on Truss
1200 lb
1200 lb 800 lb
400 lb
600 lb 400 lb
600 lb
200 lb 600 lb
Wind Loads (Right) Resolved to X & Y Components
Figure 9.4 Wind Loads (Right) for Truss Analysis
Things to Do
1. Model the structure as a “truss.” Use the GRASP toolbars.

2. Assume the following material properties for steel:
modulus of elasticity = 29,000 ksi
unit weight = 491 lb/ft3
coefficient of thermal expansion = 6.5 x 10 -6/F
3. Assign the following sections for the truss members:
Top and bottom chord members : double angles 4 x 3 x 3/8, short legs
back to back (A = 4.97 in2; I = 3.84 in4 and ytop= 0.782 in)
Web members : double angles 3 x 2 x 3/16, short legs back to back
(A = 1.80 in2; I = 0.613 in4 and ytop= 0.470 in)
4. Apply the basic load cases for the vertical loads for dead load (DL) and
roof live load (Lr) as shown in Figure 9.2.
5. Apply the basic load cases for wind load (WL) : wind left and wind right as
shown in Figure 9.3 and 9.4, respectively.
6. Apply the combination load cases for allowable stress design (NSCP 2001
section 203):
DL + Lr
DL + WL left and DL + WL right
DL + 0.75(Lr + WL left) and DL + 0.75(Lr + WL right)
7. Choose structure to analyze as “truss” and perform analysis. Display
results for deformation and member forces.
Observation
Axial deformation of the truss members due to external loads result to joint
displacements. This results to the deformed shape of the truss. Figure 9.5 and
9.6 present the resulting deformed configuration of the truss due to dead loads
and wind loads from the left, respectively. Because of gravity loads, the
deflection of the truss is downwards (Figure 9.5). On the other hand, the joints of
the truss tend to move upwards due to uplift force produced by the wind loads
(Figure 9.6). The axial forces due to dead load and wind load from the left are
shown in Figures 9.7 and 9.8. Observe the type of axial force (positive for tension
and negative for compression) developed in the members. For example, the
bottom chord members resist tensile forces under gravity loads and compressive
forces under wind loads. On the other hand, diagonal web members carry
compressive forces under gravity loads and tensile forces due to wind loads. The
top chord members, however, carry only tensile forces. This means that a
member may resist a tensile force under one loading case and a compressive
force in another loading case. Truss members must be designed for both tensile
and compressive axial forces. Figure 9.9 shows the combined effect of the axial
forces for the two basic load cases. Using the preview report of GRASP, the
comparison of member results for the different loading cases can be viewed as
shown in Figure 9.10. Observe the axial forces including the sign for various load
cases. For what loading case does a specific member has the largest positive
and negative axial forces? Are there changes in the type of forces (stress
reversal)? From the results, you can obtain the design envelope which
represents the maximum and minimum values of the design forces. Figure 9.11
presents the maximum and minimum axial forces for some members. By
selecting the maximum and minimum forces, a member can now be designed for
tensile and/or compressive stresses. There are two methods for designing steel
members – the allowable stress design (ASD) and the load resistance factor
design (LRFD).
Figure 9.6 Deformations due to Wind Load (Left)

Figure 9.8 Axial Forces due to Wind Load (Left)
Figure 9.9 Axial Forces for Combined Load Case DL + WL (Left)

Figure 9.10 Member Results of Selected Members
Figure 9.11 Member Forces Envelope (Maximum and Minimum Forces)

Things to Try
1. Analyze the truss shown

subject to the same loading
conditions and using the
same member properties and
dimensions as given in the
case study. What is the effect of changing the arrangement of the web
members? Compare the results with those in the case study. Which truss
configuration resists larger axial forces? Which truss has smaller defections?
2. Compare the response of two types of roof trusses – a Pratt truss and a Fink
truss. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the each truss?
3. Analyze two types of bridge trusses – a Pratt truss and a Howe truss.
Compare the resulting axial forces due to various loads.
Ambrose, J. (1994). Design of Building Trusses. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
Canada

Library
Hibbeler, R. (2000). Structural Analysis, Chapters 3 and 13, , Pearson Education

Asia Pte Ltd., Singapore

Towers, and Other Vertical Structures, Sections 203, 204, 205 and 207,
Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP), Quezon City,
Philippines
Understanding 2D Structural Analysis by A.W.C. Oreta : Special Modeling Issues 10 -1
CHAPTER 10
SPECIAL MODELING ISSUES
Modeling of structures is an art which is developed by a structural engineer

through experience and research. Every structure is unique. The same structure
may be modeled and analyzed by two engineers differently. The assumptions
made by each engineer may be different in one way or another. What is
important in structural analysis is that the model represents the real structure with
an appropriate likeness to capture the desired response. Presented in this
chapter are special topics in the modeling and analysis of structures that are
interesting to explore and investigate.
1. A Frame or a Truss?
The typical simple analysis for the internal forces in a truss assumes smooth
“pin” joints meaning there is no moment resistance at these joints. The loads are
also assumed to act at these joints. As a result of these idealized loading and
joint conditions, the truss members become two-force members and carry only
axial forces. In reality, these ideal conditions may not be satisfied completely.
The truss member may not only carry axial forces but also bending moment and
shear forces. A pure truss action may not occur and the truss may function as a
rigid frame in resisting deformations. For what actual conditions do these occur?
(See Ambrose 1994).
(a) Semi-rigid and rigid joints: The connections at the joints of trusses rarely
are ideal pinned connections. Rigid or semi-rigid connections using welds or
bolts are common. Depending on the detail of the joint, a considerable
magnitude of moment resistance may be developed at the joint and
transferred to the members.
(b) Continuous chords: The members used in an actual truss are sometimes
continuous and come from one piece. Using a continuous top and bottom
chords is common in the design of trusses. If the chords are continuous
through any of the joints, the members will not act as two-force members but
will be subjected to both axial forces and bending moments.
(c) Member forces: Loads may not always be applied directly at a joint. Cases
where the roofing material is resting on the top chord or the ceiling is attached
at the bottom chord results to loads applied to the members. The truss
members will be subjected to combined bending and axial forces.
Top & bottom chords

Semi-rigid or maybe continuous
rigid joints members
Ceiling may be attached

directly to bottom chord
Figure 10.1 Actual Conditions in a Truss
Things to Try
Select a typical roof truss configuration and analyze the truss for three
different cases:
(a) A pure truss with smooth pins
(b) A frame with rigid joints
(c) A frame with rigid joints but with moment releases at the ends of the web
members (GRASP has the option to introduce moment releases at the
end of members as shown in Figure 10.2)
Compare the resulting axial forces in the members among the three cases
and observe the moment developed in the members for the rigid frames.
Figure 10.2 Introducing moment release results to zero moments

in the web members of the rigid frame
2. Shear Walls
A shear wall-frame or dual system is commonly used as a structural framing
system in reinforced concrete buildings. A shear wall in a plane frame analysis
can be modeled by various techniques (Figure 10.3) in GRASP(Anwar and
Sharma 1997).
(a) Modeling the shear wall as a column: In this technique, the shear wall is
represented as a column with the column line coinciding with the centerline of
wall. The cross-section of the column is the same as the shear wall
dimensions. Connecting the beams to the column can be done two ways. The
length of the connecting beams may be taken from the center line of the
shear wall to the other end of the beam. Another approach is to divide the
beam into two segments. The first segment consists of the end portion of the
beam within the shear wall width and the other part is the main portion of the
beam outside the shear wall. The first part of the beam within the shear wall is
given an extra stiffness by modifying the cross-section dimensions of that
portion to be equal to the thickness of the wall and the height equal to the full
story height. This stiffened end of the

beam may be considered as a rigid
end zone (Anwar and Sharma 1997).
(b) Modeling the shear wall as a
truss: The shear wall is
represented as a truss or braced
Shear Wall – Frame System
frame consisting of columns and
diagonal members.
3. Lateral Stability
Structures must be designed to resist
lateral forces due to wind and
earthquakes. Lateral displacements Shear wall modeled as a column
must be limited to prevent large

deformations occurring in the structure.
The basic mechanisms for assuring
lateral stability depend on the type of
structural system. Buildings with
moment resisting space frames resist
lateral forces through frame action of the Shear wall modeled as a truss
columns and beams which are Figure 10.3 Modeling Shear Walls
Figure 10.4 Shear Wall – Frame Figure 10.5 X-Bracing of a Rigid Frame
Interactive System (http://nisee.berkeley.edu.ph/godden)
connected by rigid joints. Another method used to assure stability is through

shear walls (Figure 10.4). These are rigid planar surface elements made of
reinforced concrete or masonry wall that inherently resist shape change because
of its high rigidity. Braced frames where diagonal members are used to form a
rigid framework have started to become popular especially in strengthening of
existing buildings against earthquakes (Figure 10.5). A dual system combines
moment-resisting frames and shear walls or braced frames to resist lateral forces.
Other types of lateral force resisting systems are listed in the codes (NSCP 2001
section 208).
Rigid Frame
Braced Frame Shear Wall - Frame
Figure 10.6 Deformed Shape of a 2D Frame
Things to Try
Model a multistory building using three types of lateral force resisting systems
similar to Figure 10.6:
(a) rigid frame
(b) rigid frame with a shear wall
(c) rigid frame with one or two bays with bracing
Analyze the frame when subjected to lateral forces and compare the response
quantities (lateral displacements, moments, shear and axial forces) of the
structures.
4. Construction Joints
Because of construction difficulties, a long continuous beam out of one piece is
difficult to install. The continuous beam may consist of several pieces of beams
connected by construction joints. The joints need carry no moment and are
sometimes designed as simple pinned connections. Using construction joints
usually results to an assembly of statically determinate structures which function
together in a way that reflects the behavior of the continuous member (Figure
10.7). Where should the construction joints be located? The most ideal location
are points of inflection or points of zero moment when the beam is assumed to
be continuous. However placing the joints at the point of inflection is not always
possible. Design moments can be controlled by proper location of these joints.
Hence the effect of these joints on the bending of the structure must be
investigated (Figure 10.8)
(a) A Continuous Beam
(b) Construction Joints at the End Spans
(c) Construction Joints at the Middle Span
Figure 10.7 Use of Construction Joints in Continuous Members

Continuous Beam
Construction Joints at end spans
Figure 10.8 Controlling Moments using Construction Joints.

(Zero moments occur at the construction joints)
Ambrose, J. (1994). Design of Building Trusses. Sections 7.7, 8.5, 11.1, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., Canada
Anwar, N. and Sharma, B. (1997). “Modeling 2D Shear Walls”, ACECOMS News

& Views, July – Sept, pp. 4-5 & 17, AIT, Bangkok, Thailand

Library

Towers, and Other Vertical Structures, Sections 208, Association of Structural
Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP), Quezon City, Philippines
Schodek, D.L. (1998). Structures. Sections 1-3-2, 8-4-4 and Chapter 14,
Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey, USA
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Andres Winston C. Oreta graduated D. Eng. and M. Eng. (Structural

Engineering) at the Nagoya University (Japan) and BSCE at UP Diliman. He is
presently a professor in civil engineering at the De La Salle University (DLSU) in
Manila, Philippines. He was the chair of the Civil Engineering Department in
1994-1997 and Director of the Engineering Graduate Studies in 1997 – 2000. He
has published papers in the ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, Engineering
Structures, JSCE journals, JCI Transaction, Philippine Engineering Journal,
DLSU Engineering Journal, PATE Philippine Journal of Engineering Education
and Wiley’s Computer Applications in Engineering Education. His research
focuses on the areas of applications of artificial neural networks in civil
engineering, structural dynamics, earthquake engineering, reinforced concrete
structures and computer applications in engineering education. He can be
contacted at andyoreta@yahoo.com.

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Understanding 2D Structural Analysis:

Learning Modules in the Modeling and Analysis of

Andres Winston C. Oreta

This project was funded by the

1 Understanding Structural Analysis

3 Loading Continuous Beams

4 Pattern Loading in Multistory Frames

5 Lateral Forces in Buildings

6 Pinned and Fixed Support Conditions

7 Soil Effects on Foundations

10 Special Modeling Issues

About the Author

An exploratory-type of instructional and learning material consisting of ten

 ROLE OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

MODELING & ANALYSIS DESIGN & DETAILING

usually involves the formulation of the functional requirements of the proposed

 ANALYTICAL MODEL OF THE STRUCTURE

To determine the behavior and performance of a real structure, the structure

An analytical model is a simplified representation of a real structure. In

in modeling a structure is that the characteristics of the real structure must be

Figure 1.2 Structural Analysis

(a) Real Structure

(b) Solid Model (c) 3D Plate-Frame (d) 3D Frame

Figure 1.3 Various Ways of Modeling a Structure (Anwar 2000)

structure. Figure 1.4 shows two-dimensional models of plane structures. In these

(a) Beam (b) Plane Truss

(c) Plane Frame

Figure 1.4 Two-Dimensional Models of Structures

Structures, in general, are three-dimensional. However, there are many actual

A continuous bridge (Figure 1.5) is

beams. The floor beams are

A multistory building (Figure 1.7) which consists of interconnected beams,

Building Plan 3D Building made from F1 and F2

Figure 1.8 A 3D Building as a System of Two Typical 2D Frames

Although many three-dimensional structures can be subdivided into plane

Figure 1.9 Space Structures (a) Tower (b) Dome

referred to as space structures (Figure 1.9) such as domes, transmission towers,

 Modeling the Supports and Joints

One of the most critical

 Modeling the External Loads

In analyzing or designing a structure, it is necessary to determine the external

The various loads mentioned are determined approximately. In most cases,

(1) Point or concentrated load

Figure 1.11 Types of Member Loads

o 1.3 DL + 1.1 LL + 1.1 EQ

 Results of Structural Analysis

Figure 1.13 Bending Moment

Figure 1.14 Axial Force Figure 1.15 Moment Diagram

 Using the Computer as a Learning Tool

An exploratory-type of instructional and learning material consisting of a set of

The set of learning modules is not a substitute to a textbook on structural

 CASE STUDY: How do I represent a real structure as a line model?

CASE STUDY 1 : Modeling a Portal Frame

ACECOMS (AIT, Thailand) and Superior Software Solutions (Pakistan), GRASP

Anwar, N. (2000). “Structural Modeling,” ACECOMS News & Views, Jan-Jun

http://nisee.berkeley.edu.ph/godden, Godden Structural Engineering Slide

Kassimali, A. (1999). Structural Analysis, 2nd Edition, Chapters 1-2, Brooks-Cole

National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP 2001), Volume 1 : Buildings,

 INTRODUCING THE SOFTWARE

• Modeling and analysis of multiple models in one file

wDL = 15 kN/m , wLL = 7 kN/m 6 kN

Vertical Loading Wind Loading

3.0 m 4.0 m 3.0 m

1. Start analysis software and set basic parameters

ROLE OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

ANALYTICAL MODEL OF THE STRUCTURE

Modeling the Supports and Joints

Modeling the External Loads

Results of Structural Analysis

Using the Computer as a Learning Tool

CASE STUDY: How do I represent a real structure as a line model?

INTRODUCING THE SOFTWARE

GRASP Help and Manual

1. The reactions at A are __ kN (vertical) and _ kN-m (moment).

References and related readings