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Performance Analysis of Industrial Battery
Thesis · May 2009

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.1944.1521
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PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF INDUSTRIAL BATTERY
By
Md. Anuar Husen Pathan

Md. Mehedi Rakib Siddiki
Md. Ibne Hassan
Sujoy Barua
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC

ENGINEERING IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE
Bachelor of Science
In
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
UNITED INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

April 2009
Performance Analysis of Industrial Battery i
Declaration
I hereby declare that the Thesis/Project submitted for the degree of B.SC. in
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Technology, at United International
University and entitled “Performance Analysis of Industrial Battery‖ has
been completed satisfactorily and no part of the work has been published
elsewhere for the requirement or fulfillment of any degree.
Shahriar Ahmed Chowdhury

Assistant Professor and Supervisor
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Sujoy Barua
ID#022061010
Md. Ibne Hassan

ID#022061011
Md. Anuar Husen Pathan

ID#022061033
Md. Mehedi Rakib Siddiki

ID#022061051
Performance Analysis of Industrial Battery ii
Dedication
With gratitude to God, we dedicate this work to our Parents whose love,
support, motivation and encouragement helped us overcome all the difficulties
that we met during the graduate course and achieve our goals.
Performance Analysis of Industrial Battery iii
Acknowledgement
We would like to take this opportunity to express our deep gratitude to our project
supervisor, Mr. Shahriar Ahmed Chowdhury, for his constant support, guidance and
advice throughout the year, which proved valuable for the success of this
Project/thesis.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to Prof. Dr. M. Rezwan Khan, Vice
Chancellor of the University for giving us a very good environment in the University. We
would also like to thank all the honorable faculties of the department of Electrical and
electronic Engineering, who encouraged us and supported us throughout the graduate
course in the University.
Our special thank to Lab Assistant Mr. Md. Khalid Saifullah and all other stuffs of
Computer Lab, Digital and Electronics Lab, Communication Lab, Machine Lab in United
International University.
Not forgotten also, our friends and family, heartfelt thanks to all of them for their
support and encouragement throughout our period of Course.
All glory belongs to god. He is worthy of all the praises.

Performance Analysis of Industrial Battery iv
Abstract
In the present world most popular form of usable energy is electrical energy.
Sometimes it is needed to store this energy. The most convenient way of storing
electrical energy is storing in the battery. The electrical energy is stored as chemical
energy in a battery. When the terminals of a battery are connected through a resistive
load, electrical energy passes through the circuit. Since the electricity can be practically
stored in the battery almost in a pollution free way. Easy control and store of electrical
energy in batteries make it attractive in comparison with other forms of energy storage
medium. People are becoming more and more comfortable with electrical power. One
can find electricity from the Battery in numerous uses in home, industry and vehicle
systems.
The economic development of a nation is directly involved with usage of electrical

energy. Thus there is always need of increase in electrical power usage for the
industrial development of a country and various uses as well as to raise economical
status. But there is always a shortage of electrical power in our country. The demand is
likely to increase in the years to come. On the hand there is a great demand of
Electrical energy in Rural off grid areas too. To meet the electrical demand of the rural
areas the Solar Home system is gradually getting popularity. The lead acid battery is a
vital component of solar home system as storage medium.
The aim of this work is to analyze the performance of industrial batteries. The main
responsibility was to test different elements such as specific gravity, nominal voltage,
capacity, cycle efficiency, maximum depth of discharge (at lower cutoff voltage) of
battery in the laboratory. Tests also showed the relationship between battery terminal
voltage and SOC as well as the change in battery performance at different
temperatures. Laboratory test cells were calculated and compared to their electrical and
electronics properties.
Performance Analysis of Industrial Battery 1
Table of Contents
Declaration ……….………………………………………………….…………………………………..…………. .i
Dedication………………………………………………………………..………………………………….…………ii
Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………..………………………….………iii
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………..…..………….………iv
Table of contents
Chapter 1: Background Ideas

1.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….......................4
1.2 History………………………………………………..……………………………...........................5
1.3 Working Principal of Battery…………………………………………………………………… ...6
1.4 Battery Performance…………………………………………………………………….………..….7
Chapter 2: Battery Classification

2.0 Battery classification………………………………………………..………………………………...9
2.1 Physical Battery…………………………………………………………….…………………….…...10
2.2 Chemical Battery………………………………….…………………………………………………..10
2.2.1 Fuel Cell…………………………………………..……………………………………….….11
2.2.2 Non Rechargeable Battery…………………….…………………………………....12
2.2.3 Rechargeable Battery......................................................................12
2.2.3.1 Nickel Cadmium Battery………………………….………………….….12
2.3.3.2 Nickel Metal Hydride Battery…….………………………….…….….13
2.3.3.3 Lithium Ion Battery……………………………………………………......15
2.3.3.4 Lead Acid Battery………………………………….………………………..16
2.4 Comparative analysis of the different types of rechargeable battery……..…19
Chapter 3: Industrial Battery

3.0 Industrial Battery…………………..………………..….……………………………………………20
3.1 Charging and Discharging Profile……………………….………………………….….………21
3.2 State of Charge and Depth on Discharge……………………………………………..…...22
3.3 Capacity and Regulation………………………………………………………………...…………24
3.4 Relation between voltage and Electrolyte………………………………………….…....25
3.5 Cell characteristic of Industrial Battery……………………………………………………..26
3.6 Cautions of Industrial Battery……………………………………..……………….…..………26
3.7 Basic Battery Management System…………………………………………………………..27
3.8 Construction of Industrial Battery……………………….………….………….………….…30

3.8.1 Chemical Reactions…………………………………………….………….………..….31
3.8.2 Electrolyte, Specific Gravity and Water Levels……….……….…….……..32
3.8.3 Plate and Paste…………………………….………………………….…………….…...33
3.8.4 Plate Shedding……………………………………………………………….……………38
3.8.5 Separator……………………………….…………………………………….……………..41
3.8.6 Jars…………………………………………………………………….……….……………….42
3.8.7 Covers………………………………………………………………………………..………..43
Chapter 4: Methodology of the Performance Analysis of Batteries

4.1Testing Methodology………….……………………..…………………………...…..……………44
4.1.1 Specific gravity test………………………………………………………………………44
4.1.2 Nominal voltage test…………………………………………………….…….……….46
4.1.3 Capacity test………………………………….…………….…………….………………..46
4.1.4 Cycle efficiency test……………………………………..……………..……………….46
4.1.5 Maximum depth of discharge (at lower cutoff voltage) test…………46
4.2 Battery charging and discharging Procedure ..………………………………………….47
Chapter 5: Test Result Analysis

5.0Test Result Analysis…………………………………………….…………………………………….49
Chapter 6: Conclusion and out look

6.0 Conclusion and out look……………………………………….…………………………….…...59
Appendix I
Battery Terms……………………………………………………………………………………..………….61
Appendix II
Sulfuric Acid………………………………………………………………………………………..…………67
Appendix III
List of Figure……….………………………………………………………………………………..………..69
Appendix IV
List of Tables………………………….……….……………………………………………..………………70
Appendix V
References………………………….………………………………………………………………..…….….71
Chapter-1
Background Ideas
1.1 Introduction
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy contained within its active materials directly
into electric energy by means of an electrochemical oxidation-reduction reaction. This type of
reaction involves the transfer of electrons from one material to another via an electric circuit.
Figure 1.1: Process of Battery [3]
While the term battery is often used, the basic electrochemical element being referred to is the
cell. A battery consists of two or more cells electrically connected in series to form a unit. In
common usage, the terms battery and cell are used interchangeably.
An understanding of the operating principles and safety precautions for storage batteries will
help prevent problem and damage to facilities.
Upon completion of this Primer the reader should be able to do the following:
• Identify the differences between primary and secondary batteries.
• Identify the major types of lead-acid storage batteries.
• Define the following terms: cell, battery, electrolyte, separator, terminal, electrode, thermal
runaway, gassing.
• Identify the active materials in the lead-acid cell.
• Describe the effects of temperature and discharge rate on battery capacity and life.
• Identify industry and government standards for maintenance, testing, replacement,

Sizing and installation of lead-acid batteries.
• Identify the three most common applications of lead-acid batteries.
• Identify and describe charging techniques.
• Identify safety precautions for operating and maintaining lead-acid batteries.
• Identify federal regulations governing lead-acid battery disposal.
• Identify the two basic types of "maintenance-free" batteries.
• Describe the effect that overcharging has on gassing and thermal runaway.
Batteries are either primary or secondary. Primary batteries can be used only once because the
chemical reactions that supply the electrical current are irreversible. Secondary (or storage)
batteries can be used, charged, and reused. In these batteries, the chemical reactions that
supply electrical current are readily reversed so that the battery is charged.
Primary batteries are common since they are cheap and easy to use. Familiar primary battery
uses are in flashlights, watches, toys, and radios. The most common use for secondary
(storage) batteries is for starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) in automobiles and engine-
generator sets. Other applications include uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) for emergency
and backup power, electric vehicles (traction), telecommunications, and portable tools.
1.2 History
The first battery was developed by Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) who discovered a means of
converting chemical energy into electrical energy. Beginning his work in 1793, he found that in
order to produce electric current two different metals must be available and this system must
build a closed circuit. He had developed a basic model, which consisted of two plates of different
metals immerged in a chemical solution. This basic model was then modified to the so-called
Voltaic cell, which generated a consistent flow of electricity. However, it was not a rechargeable
type. The world has honored Volta by naming the unit of electric potential ―Volt‖ after him. The
next step in the evolution of electrical energy storage was the invention of the lead-acid storage
battery in 1859 by the French physicist Gaston Plante. This secondary battery was based on lead
acid, a chemistry that is still used today.
1.3 Working Principal of Battery
The liquid in the battery is called the electrolyte. It is made up about 37.52% sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) and about 62.48% water [5]. When sulfuric acid is placed between the Negative Plate
(Sponge Lead) and Positive Plate (Lead Peroxide), chemical actions take place. These actions
flow electrons from one group of plates and collect them at the other. This creates of 2.1 volts
between the two terminals of the battery cell. If the two terminals are not connected by any
circuit activity takes place.
However, when the two terminals do become connected by an electrical circuit electron (current)
will flow. They flow from the terminal where chemical activity has collected them. They flow
through the circuit to the other terminal, where the chemical activity has removed them.
Chemical actions now begin again so the 2 volt pressure is maintained. The current flow
continues.
Figure 1.2: Electrochemical processes in the lead-acid batteries
After a certain amount of current has been withdrawn, the battery is discharged. It is not
capable to delivering any additional current. When the battery has reached this state, it may be
recharged. This is done by supplying it with a flow current from an external source. The external
source forces current back through the battery. This reverses the chemical activities in the
battery. The plates are restored their original composition, and the battery becomes recharged.
It is then ready to deliver additional current.
The chemical actions take places are the rather complicated. The sponge lead (negative) and
lead peroxide (positive plate) change to lead sulfate during the discharge process. The sulfate
comes from the sulfuric acid. The electrolyte loses acid and gains water as the sulfate goes into
the plates. Therefore, discharging the battery changes the lead sulfate back to sponge lead in
the negative plates, and to lead peroxide in the positive plates. Meantime, the sulfuric acid
reappears in the electrolyte of the battery.
1.4 Performance
A cell has four major components: The Positive electrode, the negative electrode, Electrolyte
and porous separator.
The negative electrode supplies electrons to the external circuit (or load) during discharge. In a
fully charged lead-acid storage battery the negative electrode is sponge lead (Pb). The positive
electrode accepts electrons from the load during discharge. In a fully charged lead-acid battery
the positive electrode is lead dioxide (PbO2). The electrolyte completes the internal circuit in the
battery by supplying ions to the positive and negative electrodes. Diluted sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is
the electrolyte in lead-acid batteries.
In a fully charged lead-acid battery, the electrolyte is approximately 37.52% sulfuric acid and
62.48% water [5]. The separator is used to electrically isolate the positive and negative
electrodes. Materials used as separators must allow ion transfer between the electrolyte and
electrodes. A single lead-acid cell can develop a maximum potential difference of about 2.1 V
under load. A completely discharged lead-acid cell has a potential difference of about 1.75 V,
depending on the rate of discharge.
Figure 1.3 Major components of a cell [4].

Battery Performance depends on construction of battery, electrolyte, capacity, efficiency.

Construction of battery depends on manufactured company. Manufactured company is chosen
what types of electrode and others materials of battery are used for construction of battery. It is
the main condition for better performance. Charging and discharging system can be degraded
the performance of battery. Overrated current is flowed into the battery during charging and
discharging time which can be degraded the performance of battery. Over Discharging and
overcharging is affected on battery construction which can degrade the performance. So
efficiency of battery depends upon acting of battery and performance.
The battery should have some specific performance of battery which is known by some of
testing. The required testing are Specific gravity test, Nominal voltage test, Capacity test, Cycle
efficiency test, Maximum depth of discharge (at lower cutoff voltage) test, temperature.
Characteristics of Current, voltage, specific gravity and state of charge (SOC) and standard
deviation of specific gravity within six cells with changing time are known from above testing
which is represented performance of battery and efficiency.
Chapter-2
Battery Classification
2.0 Battery Classification
Batteries can be divided into physical and chemical batteries. Moreover physical batteries are
divided solar battery and thermal battery which are directly converted. Chemical batteries are
two types. These are non rechargeable and rechargeable. Rechargeable batteries are also
chemical battery which is reused by recharge. There are various types of rechargeable batteries:
lead-acid battery used for automobiles, nickel cadmium rechargeable battery called a small
rechargeable battery, nickel metal hydride battery, lithium ion rechargeable battery, etc.
Figure 2.1: Classification of Battery

2.1 Physical Battery

Physical Battery is battery, which directly convert and supplies electrical energy such as solar
battery, thermal cell. Physical battery is two types:
1. Solar Battery
2. Thermal Battery
2.1.1 Solar Battery

Solar battery can generate power from the sun and directly converts solar energy into electric
energy and supplied to Load by an electrochemical method called photovoltaic effect.
2.1.2 Thermal Battery

Thermal batteries are primary reserve batteries that are solid state at normal temperature.
Thermal batteries can generate voltages of 1.5V to 3.3V, depending on the battery’s
composition.
A thermal battery is high-temperature, molten-salt primary battery. At ambient temperatures,

the electrolyte is a solid, non-conducting inorganic salt. When power is required from the
battery, an internal pyrotechnic heat source is ignited to melt the solid electrolyte, thus allowing
electricity to be generated electrochemically for period from a few seconds to an hour. Thermal
batteries are completely inert until the electrolyte is melted and, therefore, have an excellent
shelf life, require no maintenance and can tolerate physical abuse between uses.
Due to the construction and absence of maintenance requirements, they are most often used for
military applications such as missiles, torpedoes and space missions and for emergency-power
situations such as those in aircraft or submarines. The high operating temperatures and short
active lives of thermal batteries limit their use to military and other large-institution
applications.
2.2 Chemical Battery

Chemical Battery is the battery which converts chemical energy to electric energy by chemical
reaction such as rechargeable batteries. Chemical Battery is three types:
1. Fuel Cell
2. Non Rechargeable Battery
3. Rechargeable Battery
2.2.1 Fuel Cell

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce
electricity, with water and heat as its by-product. As long as fuel is supplied, the fuel cell will
continue to generate power. Since the conversion of the fuel to energy takes place via an
electrochemical process, not combustion, the process is clean, quiet and highly efficient – two to
three times more efficient than fuel burning.
Working Principal [12]
In principle, a fuel cell operates like a battery. It will produce energy in the form of electricity
and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two electrodes sandwiched around an
electrolyte. Oxygen passes over one electrode and hydrogen over the other, generating
electricity, water and heat.
A fuel cell system which includes a "fuel

reformer" can utilize the hydrogen from any
hydrocarbon fuel - from natural gas to
methanol, and even gasoline. Since the fuel
cell relies on chemistry and not combustion,
emissions from this type of a system would
still be much smaller than emissions from the
cleanest fuel combustion processes.
The fuel cell consists of a negative electrode

(the anode), a positive electrode (the
cathode), and an electrolyte. Fuel gas (pure
hydrogen) is transported through the anode
towards the anode-electrolyte interface where
Figure 2.2: Fuel Cell [6] the following oxidation reaction occurs:
H2 (g) = 2H+ + 2e-
The positive hydrogen ions (H +) migrate across the electrolyte, towards the cathode, where they
ultimately react with oxygen gas and electrons to form water according to:
2H+ + 1/2 02 (g) + 2e- = H20
The overall fuel cell reaction then is simply:
H2 + 1/2 02 = H20
2.2.2 Non-Rechargeable Battery

Non-rechargeable battery is the battery which can not be recharged. Primary batteries can
produce current immediately on assembly.
2.2.3 Rechargeable Battery (Secondary Battery)

A rechargeable battery, also known as a storage battery, is a group of two or more secondary
cells. These batteries can be restored to full charge by the application of electrical energy. In
other words, they are electrochemical cells in which the electrochemical reaction that releases
energy is readily reversible. Rechargeable battery is four types:
1. Nickel Cadmium Battery

2. Nickel Metal Hydride Battery
3. Lithium Ion Battery
4. Lead Acid Battery
2.3.3.1 Nickel Cadmium Battery [1]

The nickel-cadmium battery (NiCd) is a type of rechargeable battery using nickel oxide
hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes.
Working Principal with chemical Reaction

Active materials in nickel-cadmium cells are nickel hydrate (NiOOH) in the charged positive plate
and sponge cadmium (Cd) in the charged negative plate. The electrolyte is an aqueous
potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution in concentration of 20-34 percent by weight pure KOH.
The chemical reactions in a NiCd battery during discharge are:
Cd+2OH- = Cd(OH)2+2e-
at the cadmium electrode,
2NiO(OH)+2H2O+2e-=2Ni(OH)2 +2OH-
at the nickel electrode. The net reaction during discharge is
2NiO(OH)+Cd+2H2O=2Ni(OH)2 +Cd(OH)2
During recharge, the reactions go from right to left.

Advantages of Nickel Cadmium Battery

 Fast and simple charge, even after prolonged storage.
 High number of charge/discharge cycles - if properly maintained, nickel-cadmium
provides over 1000 charge/discharge cycles.
 Good load performance - nickel-cadmium allows recharging at low temperatures.
 Long shelf life - five-year storage is possible. Some priming prior to use will be required.
 Simple storage and transportation - most airfreight companies accept nickel-cadmium
without special conditions.
 Good low temperature performance.
 Forgiving if abused - nickel-cadmium is one of the most rugged rechargeable batteries.
 Economically priced - nickel-cadmium is lowest in terms of cost per cycle.
 Available in a wide range of sizes and performance options - most nickel-cadmium cells
are cylindrical.
Limitations of Nickel Cadmium Battery

 Relatively low energy density.
 Memory effect - nickel-cadmium must periodically be exercised (discharge/charge) to
prevent memory.
 Environmentally unfriendly - nickel-cadmium contains toxic metals. Some countries
restrict its use.
 Relatively high self-discharge - needs recharging after storage
2.3.3.2 Nickel Metal Hydride Battery [1]

A nickel-metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH, is a type of rechargeable battery similar to a
nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery but using a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the negative electrode
instead of cadmium. As in NiCd batteries, the positive electrode is nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH).
Working Principal with chemical Reaction
The electrochemistry of the nickel-metal hydride cell is generally represented by the following
charge and discharge reactions:
Charge
At the negative electrode, in the presence of the alloy and with an electrical potential applied,
the water in the electrolyte is decomposed into hydrogen atoms, which are absorbed into the
alloy, and hydroxyl ions as indicated below.
Alloy + H2O + e- = Alloy (H) + OH-
At the positive electrode, the charge reaction is based on the oxidation of nickel hydroxide just
as it is in the nickel-cadmium couple.
Ni(OH)2 + OH- = NiOOH + H2O + e-
Discharge
At the negative electrode, the hydrogen is desorbed and combines with a hydroxyl ion
to form water while also contributing an electron to the circuit.
Alloy (H) + OH- = Alloy + H2O + e-
At the positive electrode, nickel ox-hydroxide is reduced to its lower valence state,
Nickel hydroxide.
NiOOH + H2O + e- = Ni(OH)2 + OH-
Advantages of Nickel Metal Hydride Battery

 30-40% higher capacity than standard nickel-cadmium. Nickel-metal-hydride has
potential for yet higher energy densities.
 Less prone to memory than nickel-cadmium - fewer exercise cycles are required.
 Simple storage and transportation - transport is not subject to regulatory control.
 Environmentally friendly - contains only mild toxins; profitable for recycling.
Limitations of Nickel Metal Hydride Battery

 Limited service life - the performance starts to deteriorate after 200-300 cycles if
repeatedly deeply cycled.
 Relatively short storage of three years. Cool temperature and a partial charge slow aging.
 Limited discharge current - although nickel-metal-hydride is capable of delivering high
discharge currents, heavy load reduces the battery's cycle life.
 More complex charge algorithm needed - nickel-metal-hydride generates more heat
during charge and requires slightly longer charge times than nickel-cadmium. Trickle
charge settings are critical because the battery cannot absorb overcharge.
 High self-discharge - typically 50% higher than nickel-cadmium.
 Performance degrades if stored at elevated temperatures - nickel-metal-hydride should
be stored in a cool place at 40% state-of-charge.
 High maintenance - nickel-metal hydride requires regular full discharge to prevent
crystalline formation. Nickel-cadmium should be exercised once a month, nickel-metal-
hydride once in every 3 months.
2.3.3.3 Lithium Ion Battery [1]
Lithium-ion batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-ion batteries) are a type of rechargeable

battery in which a lithium ion moves between the anode and cathode. The lithium ion moves
from the anode to the cathode during discharge and from the cathode to the anode when
charging.
The positive electrode (anode) of a conventional Li-ion cell is made from carbon, the the
negative electrode (cathode) is a metal oxide, and the electrolyte is a lithium salt in an organic
solvent.
Working Principal
The most popular material for the anode is graphite. The cathode is generally one of three
materials: a layered oxide, such as lithium cobalt oxide, one based on a polyanine, such as
lithium iron phosphate, or a spinal, such as lithium manganese oxide, although materials such
as TiS2 (titanium disulfide) were originally used. Depending on the choice of material for the
anode, cathode, and electrolyte the voltage, capacity, life, and safety of a lithium ion battery
can change.
The process of lithium moving into the anode or cathode is referred to as insertion (or
intercalation), and the reverse process, in which lithium moves out of the anode or cathode is
referred to as extraction (or de-intercalation). When a cell is discharging, the lithium is
extracted from the anode and inserted into the cathode. When the cell is charging, the reverse
process occurs: lithium is extracted from the cathode and inserted into the anode.
The negative (during discharge) electrode (anode) of a conventional Li-ion cell is made from
carbon, the positive (during discharge) electrode (cathode) is a metal oxide, and the electrolyte
is a lithium salt in an organic solvent.
Advantages of Lithium Ion Battery

 High energy density - potential for yet higher capacities.
 Does not need prolonged priming when new. One regular charge is all that's needed.
 Relatively low self-discharge - self-discharge is less than half that of nickel-based
batteries.
 Low Maintenance - no periodic discharge is needed; there is no memory.
 Specialty cells can provide very high current to applications such as power tools.
Limitations of Lithium Ion Battery

 Requires protection circuit to maintain voltage and current within safe limits.
 Subject to aging, even if not in use - storage in a cool place at 40% charge reduces the
aging effect.
 Transportation restrictions - shipment of larger quantities may be subject to regulatory
control. This restriction does not apply to personal carry-on batteries.
 Expensive to manufacture - about 40 percent higher in cost than nickel-cadmium.
 Not fully mature - metals and chemicals are changing on a continuing basis.
2.3.3.4 Lead Acid Battery

A lead-acid battery is a secondary (rechargeable) electrochemical device that stores chemical
energy and releases it as electrical energy upon demand. When a battery is connected to an
external device, such as a motor, chemical energy is converted to electrical energy and direct
current flows through the circuit.
Working Principal
The liquid in the battery is called the electrolyte. It is made up about 40% sulfuric acid (H 2SO4)
and about 60% water. When sulfuric acid is placed between the Negative Plate (Sponge Lead)
and Positive Plate (Lead Peroxide), chemical actions take place. These actions flow electrons
from one group of plates and collect them at the other. This creates of 2.1 volts between the
two terminals of the battery cell. If the two terminals are not connected by any circuit activity
takes place.
However, when the two terminals do become connected by an electrical circuit electron (current)
will flow. They flow from the terminal where chemical activity has collected them. They flow
through the circuit to the other terminal, where the chemical activity has removed them.
Chemical actions now begin again so the 2 volt pressure is maintained. The current flow
continues.
After a certain amount of current has been withdrawn, the battery is discharged. It is not
capable to delivering any additional current. When the battery has reached this state, it may be
recharged. This is done by supplying it with a flow current from an external source. The external
source forces current back through the battery. This reverses the chemical activities in the
battery. The plates are restored their original composition, and the battery becomes recharged.
It is then ready to deliver additional current.
The chemical actions take places are the rather complicated. The sponge lead (negative) and
lead peroxide (positive plate) change to lead sulfate during the discharge process. The sulfate
comes from the sulfuric acid. The electrolyte loses acid and gains water as the sulfate goes into
the plates. Therefore, discharging the battery changes the lead sulfate back to sponge lead in
the negative plates, and to lead peroxide in the positive plates. Meantime, the sulfuric acid
reappears in the electrolyte of the battery.
Chemical Reaction
Spongy lead Lead dioxide
Total discharge reaction
Figure 2.3: Chemical Reaction of Lead Acid Battery
Types of Lead Acid Battery

1. Industrial Battery /Deep cycle /Deep Discharge Battery
2. Car Starter Battery
2.3.4.1 Car Starter Battery

A car battery is a type of rechargeable battery that supplies electric energy to an automobile.
Usually this refers to an SLI battery (Starting - Lighting - Ignition) to power the starter motor,
the lights, and the ignition system of a vehicle’s engine. A car's battery is designed to provide a
very large amount of current for a short period of time.
Figure 2.4: Car Battery Construction [3]

2.4 Comparative analysis of the different types of Rechargeable battery
Rechargeable Lead Acid Nickel Nickel Metal Lithium Ion

Battery Types Cadmium Hydride
Electrolyte Sulfuric acid Potassium- Potassium- Lithium Ion

Hydroxide Hydroxide
(KOH) (KOH)
Positive Lead Dioxide Nickel Nickel Lithium Cobalt

Electrode (PbO2) Hydroxide OxyHydroxide Oxide
(Cathode) [Ni(OH)2] [NiOOH]
Negative Lead Metal (Pb) Cadmium [Cd] Nickel-Metal Graphite

Electrode Hydride cell
(Anode) [NiMH]
Energy/weight 30-40 Wh/kg 40–60 Wh/kg 30–80 Wh/kg 160 Wh/kg
Power/weight 180 W/kg 150W/kg 250–1000 W/kg 1800 W/kg
Temperature -20o to 60oc -40o to 60oc -20o to 60oc -20o to 60oc

(discharge only)
Charge/dischar 50%-92% 70%–90% 66% 80%-90%

ge efficiency
Self Discharge 20%/month 10%/month 30%/month 10%/month

(Room
temperature)
Cell Voltage 2.1 V 1.24V 1.2V 3.7V
Maintenance 3 to 6 months 30 to 60 days 30 to 60 days Not required

Requirement
Safety Thermally stable Thermally Thermally Protection circuit

stable, fuse stable, fuse recommended,
recommended recommended
Toxicity Toxic lead and Highly toxic, Relatively low Low toxicity, can
acids harmful harmful to toxicity, should be disposed in
to environment environment be recycled small quantities
Table 2.1: Caparison different type’s rechargeable battery

Chapter-3
Industrial Battery
3.0 Industrial Battery
An industrial battery is designed to deliver a consistent voltage as the battery discharges. A
deep cycle battery is designed to provide a steady amount of current over a long period of time
and as well as deeply discharged over and over again.
Figure 3.1: Basic function of Industrial Battery
A battery is created by alternating two different metals such as Lead Dioxide (PbO2), the
positive plates, and Sponge lead (Pb), the negative plates. Then the plates are immersed in
diluted Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4), the electrolyte. The types of metals and the electrolyte used will
determine the output of a cell. A typical fully charged lead-acid battery produces approximately
2.11 volts per cell. The chemical action between the metals and the electrolyte (battery acid)
creates the electrical energy. Electrical current flows as charged portions of acid (ions) between
the battery plates and as electrons through the external circuit. Chemicals used, State-of-
Charge, temperature, porosity, diffusion, and load determines the action of the lead-acid
storage battery. A cycle is defined as one discharge and one recharge of the battery.
PbO2+4H++2e- Pb2+ + 2H2O cathode

Pb2+ + SO42-  PbSO4
Pb  Pb2+ 2e- anode
Pb2+ + SO42-  PbSO4
Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4  2PbSO4 + 2H2O (discharge - charge reaction)

3.1 Charging and Discharging Profile [2]
Working during Discharge
Figure 3.2: Voltage Changes during Discharge [2]
At the end of a charge, the voltage of each cell is about 2.5 to 2.7 volts. As soon as the charging
circuit is opened, the cell voltage drops rapidly to about 2.1 volts within three or four minutes.
At the beginning of the discharge the voltage has already had a rapid drop from the final voltage
on charge, due to the formation of a thin layer of lead sulphate on the surface of the negative
plate and between the lead peroxide and the metal of the positive plate. After the initial drop,
the voltage decreases more slowly, the rate of decrease depending on the amount of current
drawn from the battery. The discharge should be stopped when the voltage of each cell has
dropped to 1.7.
Working during Charge

Voltage starting with a battery which has been discharged until its voltage has decreased to 1.7
per cell; we pass a current through it and cause the voltage to rise steadily.
Figure 3.3: Voltage Changes during Charge [2]

As shown in Figure. 3.3, the voltage remains almost constant between the points M and N. At N
the voltage begins to rise because the charging chemical reactions are taking place farther and
farther in the inside parts of the plate, and the concentrated acid formed by the chemical actions
in the plates is diffusing into the main electrolyte. This increases the battery voltage and
requires a higher charging voltage.
At the point marked 0, the voltage begins to rise very rapidly. This is due to the fact that the
amount of lead sulphate in the plates is decreasing very rapidly, allowing the battery voltage to
rise and thus increasing the charging voltage. Bubbles of gas are now rising through the
electrolyte.
At P, the last portions of lead sulphate are removed, acid is no longer being formed, and
hydrogen and oxygen gas are formed rapidly. The gas forces the last of the concentrated acid
out of the plates and in fact, equalizes the acid concentration throughout the whole cell. Thus no
further changes can take place, and the voltage becomes constant at R at a voltage of 2.5 to
2.7.
3.2 State of Charge (SOC) and Depth of Discharge (DOD)
State of Charge (SOC)

SOC or State of charge is the equivalent of a fuel gauge for a battery. SOC cannot be
determined by a simple voltage measurement, because the terminal voltage of a battery may
stay substantially constant until it is completely discharged. In some types of battery, electrolyte
specific gravity may be related to state of charge but this is not measurable on typical battery
pack cells, and is not related to state of charge on most battery types.
SOC cannot usually be determined directly. There are four methods to determine SOC indirectly:
 Chemical
 Voltage
 Current Integration
 Pressure
Chemical method
This method works only with batteries that offer access to their liquid electrolyte, such as non-
sealed Lead Acid batteries. The Specific Gravity or pH of the electrolyte can be used to indicate
the SOC of the battery.
Voltage method
This method converts a reading of the battery voltage to SOC, using the known discharge curve
(voltage vs. SOC) of the battery. However, the voltage is more significantly affected by the
battery current (due to the battery's internal resistance) and temperature. Therefore, this
method can be made more accurate by compensating the voltage reading by a correction term
proportional to the battery current.
Current Integration method

This method calculates the SOC as the integral of the battery current. Like all real life integrals,
this method suffers from long-term drift, and lack of a reference point. Therefore, the SOC must
be calibrated on a regular basis, such as by resetting the SOC to 100 % when a charger
determines that the battery is fully charged.
Pressure method
This method normally is not used for lead acid battery.
Depth of Discharge (DOD)

DOD means "depth of discharge". It is normally stated as a percentage of the nominal ampere-
hour capacity. DOD is an alternate method to indicate a battery's State of charge (SOC). The
DOD is the inverse of SOC: as one increases, the other decreases. While the SOC units are
percent points (0% = empty; 100% = full), the units for DOD can be Ah (0 = full, 50 Ah =
empty) or percent points (100% = empty; 0% = full).
Figure 3.4: Relation between SOC and DOD with Charge and Discharge [3]
3.3 Capacity and Regulation
Capacity
Battery capacity is determined by the amount of electrical energy the battery can deliver over a
certain period of time and is measured in Ampere hours (Ah) when discharged at a uniform rate
over a given period of time. Ampere hours (Ah) are calculated by multiplying the current (in
amperes) by time (in hours) the current is drawn.
Amp-hour battery rating is commonly used on sealed lead acid batteries used in Wind and Solar
systems. For example: A battery which delivers 1 ampere for 20 hours would have a 20 amp-
hour battery rating (1 * 20 = 20).
When a battery is discharged and then recharged it is said to have completed a battery cycle.
For example, if the battery is in a fully charged state and a load is applied (battery is used) then
the battery will start to discharge, some, if not all, of its charge. When it is recharged it to its full
state it completes one battery cycle. This is important because battery life is determined by the
number of cycles.
The amp-hour is a unit of battery energy capacity, equal to the amount of continuous current
multiplied by the discharge time that a battery can supply before exhausting its internal store of
chemical energy.
An amp-hour battery rating is only an approximation of the battery's charge capacity, and
should be trusted only at the current level or time specified by the manufacturer. Such a rating
cannot be extrapolated for very high currents or very long times with any accuracy.
Discharged batteries lose voltage and increase in resistance. The best check for a dead battery
is a voltage test under load.
Regulation
Batteries need to be properly regulated. Overcharging a battery raises its temperature; it raises
the temperature of the battery electrolyte, causing gassing, loss of still water and damage to the
battery plates.
Obviously proper charge regulators are essential with battery charging system to limit charging
current as the battery voltage rises. Charge regulators are also useful in keeping a battery close
to its fully charged rate as possible, thus ensuring maximum efficiency.
3.4 Relation between Voltage and Electrolyte
Battery Testing can be done in more than one way. The most popular is measurement of specific
gravity and battery voltage. To measure specific gravity buy a temperature compensating
hydrometer and measure voltage, use a digital D.C. Voltmeter.
Sulfation of Batteries starts when specific gravity falls below 1.225 or voltage measures less
than 12.4 (12v Battery) or 6.2 (6 volt battery). Sulfation hardens the battery plates reducing
and eventually destroying the ability of the battery to generate Volts and Amps.
Open circuit voltage is also affected by temperature, and the specific gravity of the electrolyte at
full charge.
Open Circuit Voltage (12V) Approximate charge Relative acid density

12.65 V 100% 1.265 g/cm3
12.45 V 75% 1.225 g/cm3
12.24 V 50% 1.190 g/cm3
12.06 V 25% 1.155 g/cm3
11.89 V 0% 1.120 g/cm3
Table 3.1: Relation table between voltage and Specific Gravity [5]
3.5 Cell characteristic of Industrial Battery [8]
These are general voltage ranges for six-cell industrial battery:

 Open-circuit (quiescent) at full charge: 12.6 V to 12.8 V (2.10-2.13V per cell)
 Open-circuit at full discharge: 11.8 V to 12.0 V
 Loaded at full discharge: 10.5 V.
 Continuous-preservation (float) charging: 13.4 V for gelled electrolyte; 13.5 V for
AGM (absorbed glass mat) and 13.8 V for flooded cells
 All voltages are at 20 °C, and must be adjusted -0.022V/°C for temperature changes.
 Float voltage recommendations vary, according to the manufacturer's
recommendation.
 Precise (±0.05 V) float voltage is critical to longevity; too low (sulfation) is almost as
bad as too high.
 Typical (daily) charging: 14.2 V to 14.5 V (depending on manufacturer's
recommendation)
 Equalization charging (for flooded lead acids): 15 V for no more than 2 hours. Battery
temperature must be monitored.
 Gassing threshold: 14.4 V
 After full charge the terminal voltage will drop quickly to 13.2V and then slowly to
12.6V.
3.6 Cautions of Industrial Battery

Abuse to Terminals
 Caused by incorrect fitting of cable clamps.
 Battery installed in reverse position.
 Short circuit applied to the terminals, which causes sparks, lead terminal melting down
and even explosion.
 Hole in the terminals to tighten a screw.
 Deformation caused by hammering the terminal.
Over Charged
 Charging system at over voltage
 Battery connected to an external charger at high current and/or voltage for too long
 Battery can become dry or even explode due to high gassing
Open Circuit
When there is a break in the internal circuit between the battery Terminals, due to excessive
vibrations, shocks and possibly old age. The hydrometer readings are ok, and the voltage
readings may indicate a fully charged battery but when a load test is applied for 10 seconds the
amp meter and the voltmeter readings drop down sharply thus indicating an internal break.
Discharged
Battery becomes flat with excessive discharges due to accessories misuse
Bad Fitting on the Tray

It can cause severe accidents, leakages, damage to the vehicle, and internal open circuits.
Battery case can deteriorate and loss of active material from the plates will reduce battery cycle
life and starting performance as well.
3.7 Basic Battery Management System (BMS)
A Battery Management System (BMS) is any electronic device that manages a rechargeable
battery (cell or battery pack), such as by monitoring its state, calculating secondary data,
reporting those data, protecting it, controlling its environment, and / or balancing it.
A BMS may monitor the state of the battery as represented by various items, such as:
 Voltage: total voltage, voltage of periodic taps, or voltages of individual cells

 Temperature: average temperature, air intake temperature, air output temperature, or
temperatures of individual cells
 State Of Charge (SOC) or Depth Of Discharge (DOD): to indicate the charge level of the
battery
 Sate Of Health (SOH), a variously-defined measurement of the overall condition of the
battery
 Air flow: for air cooled batteries
 Current: current in or out of the battery
Additionally, a BMS may calculate values based on the above items, such as:
 Maximum charge current as a Charge Current Limit (CCL)

 Maximum discharge current as a Discharge Current Limit (DCL)
 Total energy delivered since manufacture
 Total operating time since manufacture
A BMS may protect its battery by preventing it from operating outside its safe operating area,
such as:
 Over-current
 Over-voltage (during charging)
 Under-voltage (during discharging), especially important for Lead Acid and Li-Ion cells
 Over-temperature
 Under-temperature
 Over-pressure (NiMH batteries))
The BMS may prevent operation outside the battery's safe operating area by:
 Including an internal switch (such as a relay or solid state device) with is opened if the
battery is operated outside its safe operating area
 Requesting the devices to which the battery is connected to reduce its use of the battery
or even terminate it
 Actively controlling the environment, such as through heaters, fans or even air
conditioning
In order to maximize the battery's capacity, and to prevent localized under-charging or over-
charging, the BMS may actively ensure that all the cells that compose the battery are kept at
the same State Of Charge. It may do so by:
 Wasting energy from the most charged cells, such as by connecting them to a load (such
as through passive regulators)
 Shuffling energy from the most charged cells to the least charged ones (balancers)
 Reducing the charging current to a sufficiently low level that will not damage fully
charged cells, while less charged cells may continue to charge
BMS technology range in complexity and performance
 Simple passive regulators across cells bypass charging current when their cell's voltage
reached a certain level, to achieve balancing
 Active regulators intelligently turn on a load when appropriate, again to achieve
balancing
 A full BMS reports the state of the battery to a display, and protects the battery
BMS topologies mostly fall in 3 categories:
 Centralized: a single controller is connected to the battery cells through a multitude of

wires
 Distributed: a BMS board is installed at each cell, with just a single communication cable
between the battery and a controller
 Modular: few controllers, each handing a certain number of cells, communicate with each
other
3.8 Construction of Industrial Battery
Figure 3.5: Construction of Industrial Battery [7]
Different elements of Battery for construction
1. Chemical Reaction
2. Electrolyte, specific gravity and Water level
3. Plates and Paste
4. Plate Shedding
5. Separators
6. Jars and cover in which Plates, Separators, and Electrolyte are placed
3.8.1 Chemical Reactions

Battery (Cell) is the actual electrochemical unit used to generate or store electric energy. All
lead-acid batteries (industrial battery) operate on the same fundamental reactions. As the
battery discharges, the active materials in the electrodes (lead dioxide in the positive
electrode and sponge lead in the negative electrode) react with sulfuric acid in the electrolyte
to form lead sulfate and water. On recharge, the lead sulfate on both electrodes converts
back to lead dioxide (positive) and sponge lead (negative), and the sulfate ions (SO 42) are
driven back into the electrolyte solution to form sulfuric acid. The reactions involved in the
cell are:
The chemical reaction that occurs is best illustrated as follows:
1. Reaction at the negative plate (pure lead)

Pb + H2SO4 → PbSO4 + H2
2. Reaction at the positive plate (lead oxide)

PbO2 + H2SO4→ PbSO4 + (2OH)
Adding together 1 and 2 the chemical reaction for the cell is:
PbO2 + Pb + H2SO4→ 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
As the action proceeds and the discharge is completed, the plates are covered in the case of
the negative plate with lead sulphate and the positive plate with a mixture of lead
compounds, PbO2 and PbSO4. Recharging the cell involves converting the lead sulphate to
lead.
Thus, the reactions are now as follows:
PbSO4 + (2H) → H2SO4 + Pb
The peroxide is regenerated as follows:

PbSO4 + (2OH) → PbO2 + H2SO4
The complete reaction is thus expressed as:

2PbSO44 + 2H2O → Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4
3.8.2 Electrolyte, Specific Gravity and Water Levels
Electrolyte
Dilute (diluted with water) sulfuric acid, or Electrolyte as it is commonly referred to in the
battery industry, is in the ―strong acid‖ category, and a good electrolyte. It is highly ionized,
much of the heat released in dilution coming from hydration of the hydrogen ions. The dilute
acid has most of the properties of common strong acids. Each cell contains (in the charged
state) electrodes of lead metal (Pb) and lead dioxide (PbO2) in an electrolyte of about 36%
sulphuric acid. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is diluted with water (approx. 64% water) to produce
electrolyte. The electrolyte used in industrial batteries is typically 1.285 specific gravity.
Specific Gravity
One of the key parameters of battery operation is the specific gravity of the electrolyte. Specific
gravity is the ratio of the weight of a solution to the weight of an equal volume of water at a
specified temperature. The specific gravity of a fully charged Industrial Battery is the industry
standard of 1.285.
Specific gravity varies with temperature and the quantity of electrolyte in a cell. When the
electrolyte is near the low-level mark, the specific gravity is higher than nominal and drops as
water is added to the cell to bring the electrolyte to the full level. The volume of electrolyte
expands as temperature rises and contracts as temperature drop, therefore affecting the density
or specific gravity reading. As the volume of electrolyte expands, the readings are lowered and,
conversely, specific gravity increases with colder temperatures.
As mentioned earlier, the specific gravity of a fully charged industrial battery is generally 1.285,
depending on the manufacturer and type. Some manufacturers use specific gravities as high as
1.320 in an attempt to gain additional Ah capacity.
Water Levels
During normal operation, water is lost from a flooded industrial battery as a result of
evaporation and electrolysis into hydrogen and oxygen, which escape into the atmosphere. One
full charge cycle will result in a loss of about 18 g of water. Evaporation is a relatively small part
of the loss except in very hot, dry climates. With a fully charged battery, electrolysis consumes
water at a rate of 0.336 cm per ampere-hour overcharge. A 5000-Ah battery overcharged 10%
can thus lose 16.8 cm, or about 0.3%, of its water each cycle. It is important that the
electrolyte be maintained at the proper level in the battery. The electrolyte not only serves as
the ionic conductor, but is also a major factor in the transfer of heat from the plates. If the
electrolyte is below the plate level, then an area of the plate is not electrochemically efficient;
this causes a concentration of heat in other parts of the battery. Periodic checking of water
consumption can also serve as a rough check on charging efficiency and may warn when
adjustment of the charger is required.
Figure 3.6: Water Level [5]
Since replacing water can be a major maintenance cost, water loss can be reduced by
controlling the amount of overcharge and by using hydrogen and oxygen recombining devices in
each cell where possible. Addition of water is best accomplished after recharge and before an
equalization charge. Water is added at the end of the charge to reach the high level line.
Gassing during recharge will stir the water into the acid uniformly. In freezing weather, water
should not be added without mixing as it may freeze before gassing occurs. Distilled or
deionized (DI) water is best for batteries, but city tap water is generally acceptable. Automatic
watering systems can further reduce maintenance labor costs. Overfilling must be avoided
because the resultant overflow of acid (electrolyte) will cause tray corrosion, ground paths, and
loss of cell capacity. Although distilled water is no longer specified by most battery
manufacturers, good quality water, low in minerals and heavy metal ions such as iron, will help
prolong battery life.
3.8.3 Plates and Paste
A plate consists of a rectangular lead plate alloyed with a little antimony to improve the
mechanical characteristics. The plate is in fact a grid with rectangular holes in it, the lead
forming thin walls to the holes. The holes are filled with a mixture of red lead and 33% dilute
sulphuric acid. The paste is pressed into the holes in the plates, which are slightly tapered on
both sides to assist in retention of the paste. This paste remains porous and allows the acid to
react with the lead inside the plate increasing the surface area many fold. At this stage the
positive and negative plates are identical. Once dry the plates are then stacked together with
suitable separators and inserted in the battery container. An odd number of plates are always
used, with one more negative plate than positive. Each alternate plate is connected together.
After the acid has been added to the cell, the cell is given its first forming charge. The positive
plates gradually turn the chocolate brown color of Lead Dioxide, and the negative turn the slate
gray of 'spongy' lead. Such a cell is ready to be used.
One of the problems with the plates in a lead-acid battery is that the plates change size as the
battery charges and discharges, the plates increasing in size as the active material absorbs
sulphate from the acid during discharge, and decreasing as they give up the sulphate during
charging. This causes the plates to gradually shed the paste during their life. It is important that
there is plenty of room underneath the plates to catch this shed material. If this material
reaches the plates a shorted cell will occur.
The grid structure in both pasted and tubular plate batteries is made from a lead alloy. A pure
lead grid structure is not strong enough by itself to stand vertically while supporting the active
material. Other metals in small quantities are alloyed with lead for added strength and improved
electrical properties. The most commonly alloyed metals are antimony, calcium, tin, and
selenium.
The two most common alloys used today to harden the grid are antimony and calcium. Batteries
with these types of grids are sometimes called ―lead-antimony‖ and & ―lead-calcium‖ batteries.
Tin is added to lead-calcium grids to improve cyclability. The major differences between
batteries with lead-antimony and lead-calcium grids are as follows:
Lead-antimony batteries can be deep cycled more times than lead-calcium batteries. Flooded
lead-antimony batteries require more frequent maintenance as they near end-of-life since they
use an increasing amount of water and require periodic equalization charges.
Lead-calcium batteries have lower self-discharge rates as shown in the illustration below and
therefore, will draw less current while on float charge than lead-antimony batteries. Lead-
calcium positive plates may grow in length and width because of grid oxidation at the grain
boundaries. This oxidation is usually caused by long-term overcharging, which is common to
UPS and other batteries on constant-float changing. Grids may grow in size sufficiently to cause
buckling or rupture of their containers.
Types of Plate
 Tubular Plate
 Pasted Grid Plate
Tubular Plate
Positive electrodes are usually of pasted plate or tubular construction. Tubular electrodes are
popular positive plates for heavy cycling applications. This construction uses a frame structure
consisting of a series of vertical spines connected to a common bus. The paste is held in micro-
porous, nonconductive tubes, which are placed over the individual spines. A simplified view of
tubular plate construction is shown in below. Regardless of the plate type used, the capacity of
any battery is increased by adding multiple plates in parallel.
The design is more complex and the manufacturing process is more involved than for flat pasted
plates. The manufacturing process starts with the production of the grid which is usually a series
of fifteen parallel lead rods or spines cast on to a bar. This is usually fabricated from 6-10%
antimonial lead alloy.
Following the casting process, a series of parallel porous glass fiber tubes are fitted over the grid
spines, these tubes are then filled with a mixture of lead oxide and red lead powder by vibration.
Once the tubes are filled, they are sealed by knocking a plastic fitting onto the ends of the lead
grid spines. The resulting assembly is then ―pickled‖ by soaking in dilute sulfuric acid to convert
the lead oxides to lead sulfate. The finished product comprises a series of tubes filled with lead
sulfate with a center core of lead to carry the current. Compared to the processes used to make
flat pasted plates, this has considerably more steps and is more difficult to control.
Figure 3.7: Tubular Plate [5]
Batteries made from tubular plates have the following characteristics:
1. Good Electrical Performance

2. Sufficient Life
3. Low reserve of lead
4. Low reserve of active material
5. Sensitive to active material shedding which shortens cell life.
6. Sensitive to top bar breakage with significant loss of area.
7. Sensitive to spines being off center of the tube with significant
loss of plate capacity.
Figure 3.8: Grid Plate [4]

The Pasted Grid Plate
The manufacturing process begins with a rugged cast grid usually made from a lead alloy
containing from 3-6% antimony. The pasted Grid plate is popular for negative plates. The grids
are pasted on an automatic machine with a specially
compounded mixture of lead oxide water and sulfuric acid.
Following the pasting operation, the plates are ―cured‖ by a
process that converts the active material in the plate to the
desired composition and which causes the paste to set to
hard cement- like mass. Plates made this way are extremely
rugged and will ―ring like a bell‖ when struck. The plates and
cells made in this process are very consistent and have the
following characteristics:
1. Good Electrical Performance

2. Long Cycle Life
3. Tough and Durable
4. Good Reserve of Pasted Material for Long Life
5. Good Reserve of Lead for Long Life
6. With Their Glass Wrap the Plate is Well Protected against
Life Limiting Shedding.
Figure 3.9: Pasted Grid [4]
Plate
Paste
The paste used in an industrial battery’s ―plates‖ is one of the most critical aspects of the
manufacturing process. There are many formulas for pastes, which are later converted into
active material, and each is considered a trade secret by the manufacturer using it. The basis of
all, however, is oxide of lead, either Red Lead (Pb304), Litharge (PbO), or a mixture of the two,
made into a paste with a liquid, such as dilute sulphuric acid. The object of mixing the oxides
with the liquid is to form a paste of the proper consistency for application to the grids, and at
the same time introduce the proper amount of binding, or setting agent which will give porosity,
and which will bind together the active material, especially in the positive plate. Red lead usually
predominates in the positive paste, and litharge in the negative, as this combination requires
the least energy in forming the oxides to active material.
The oxides of lead used in preparing the pastes which are applied to the grids are powders, and
in their dry condition could not be applied to the grids, as they would fall out. Mixing them with
a liquid to make a paste gives them greater coherence and enables them to be applied to the
grids. Sulphuric acid puts the oxides in the desired pasty condition, but has the disadvantage of
causing a chemical action to take place which changes a considerable portion of the oxides to
lead sulphate, the presence of which makes the paste stiff and impossible to apply to the grids.
When acid is used, it is therefore necessary to work fast after the oxides are mixed with
sulphuric acid to form the paste. In addition to the lead oxides, the pastes may contain some
binding material such as ammonium or magnesium sulphate, which tends to bind the particles of
the active material together. The paste used for the negatives may contain lamp black to give
porosity.
Applying the Paste to the Grid

After the oxides are mixed to a paste they are applied to the grids. In the hand pasting process,
the pastes are applied from each face of the grid by means of a wooden paddle or trowel, and
are smoothed off flush with the surface of the ribs of the grid. This work is done quickly in order
that the pastes may not stiffen before they are applied.
Typically, plates are pasted in a machine which applies the paste to the grid, subjecting it at the
same time to a pressure which forces it thoroughly into the grid, and packs it in a dense mass.
Drying the Paste

The freshly pasted plates are now allowed to dry in the air, or are dried by blowing air over
them. In any case, the pastes set to a hard mass, in which condition the pastes adhere firmly to
the grids. The plates may then be handled without a loss of paste from the grids.
3.8.4 Plate Shedding

Industrial batteries are made up of groups of 2 volt ―cells‖. Each cell is made up of groups of
―plates‖. Plate shedding refers to the gradual loss of active material from a plate’s grid, and is
normal and unavoidable. This is particularly true for the positive plates. The lead peroxide
material they are composed of is a powder-like substance, and the particles of which do not
naturally hold together. A small amount of sulphate will cement the particles together to a
considerable extent. At the surface of the plate, however, this sulphate is soon changed to
active material, and the peroxide loses its coherence. Particles of peroxide drop from the plates,
and fall into the space in the bottom of the jar is provided for this purpose.
Bubbles of gas, which occur at the end of a charge, blow some of the peroxide particles from the
plate. Electrolyte moving about as the battery is jolted by the motion of the forklift also washes
particles of peroxide from the positive plates. Any slight motion between positive plates and
separators rubs some peroxide from the plates. It is therefore entirely natural for shedding to
occur. The spongy lead of the negatives is much more elastic than the peroxide, and hence very
little shedding occurs at the negative plates. The shedding at the positives explains why the
grooved side of the separator is always placed against the positive plate.
The result of shedding, provided no other troubles occur, is simply to reduce the capacity of the
plates. The positives, of course, suffer more from shedding than the negatives do, shedding
being one of the chief weaknesses of the positives. There is no remedy for this condition. When
the shedding has taken place to such an extent that the capacity of the battery has fallen very
low, the battery should be replaced. Also, over time, the sediment space in the bottom of the jar
becomes filled with sediment, which touches the plates. This short-circuits the cell, of course,
and a new cell must be installed.
Excessive Charging Rate or Overcharging
If a battery is charged at too high a rate, only part of the current is used to produce the
chemical actions by which the battery is charged. The balance of the current decomposes the
water of the electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen, causing gassing. As the bubbles of gas force
their way out of the plates, they blow off particles of the active material.
Charging sulphated Plates at too High a Rate
In sulphated plates, the chemical actions which take place as a battery is charged can proceed
but very slowly, because the sulphate, besides being a poor conductor, has formed larger
crystals which present only a small surface for the electrolyte to act upon, and has also covered
up much of the remaining active material. Since the chemical actions take place slowly, the
charging current must be kept at a low value. If too heavy a charging current is used, the
battery will be overheated, and some of the current will simply cause gassing. The gas bubbles
will break off pieces of the sulphate, which then fall to the bottom of the jars as "mud."
Charging Only a Part of the Plate
If the electrolyte falls below the tops of the plates, and the usual charging current is sent into
the battery, the current will be too great for the plate area through which it passes, and hence
gassing and shedding will result as already explained. The same condition exists in a battery in
which one or more plates have been broken from the strap, either because of mechanical
vibration or because of impurities such as acetic acid in improperly treated separators. The
remaining plates are called upon to do more work, and carry the entire charging current.
Gassing and shedding will result.
Freezing
If a battery is given any care whatever, there is little danger of freezing. The electrolyte of a
fully charged battery with specific gravity of 1.285 is frozen at about 92° below zero. With a
specific gravity of 1.150, the electrolyte freezes at about 5° above zero. A frozen battery
therefore indicates gross neglect. As the electrolyte freezes, the water of the electrolyte
expands. Since there is electrolyte in all the inner parts of the plate, the expansion as the water
in the paste freezes forces the pastes out of the grids. The expansion also cracks the rubber
jars, and sometimes bulges the cell covers.
Loose Active Material

This refers to a condition in which the active materials are no longer in contact with the grid.
Corrosion, or sulphation, of the grids themselves is generally present at the same time, since
the chemical actions are shifted from the active material to the grids themselves.
Over discharge
As a battery discharges, the lead sulphate which forms causes an expansion of the active
material. If a battery is repeatedly over-discharged, this results in the positives shedding. In the
negatives, the spongy lead is puffed out, resulting in the condition known as "bulged negatives‖.
Plate Buckling
As a plate grid is bent out of shape, the active material, especially the peroxide, breaks loose
from the grid, since the peroxide cannot bend as much as the grids. This occurs in the negatives
also, though not to such an extent as in the positives. If the plates are buckled to such an
extent that the element will not go back into the jar, the positives should be discarded. If the
positives are buckled, the negatives will be also, but not to the extent that the positives are.
Active Material
A term used to describe the lead ―paste‖ that is held in place by grids that make up a battery
cell. This term usually refers to both the positive and negative plate material. The material
reacts chemically to produce electrical energy by releasing free electrons. In an industrial
battery, the materials are: lead peroxide (positive) and sponge lead (negative). One active
material is oxidized, while the other is reduced.
3.8.5 Separator
Separators are used between the positive and
negative plates of a lead acid battery to prevent
short circuit through physical contact, Dendrites
most and shredded active material. Separators cause
some obstructions for the flow of ions between the
plates and increase the internal resistance of the cell.
Separators therefore must have the following
characteristics:
Figure 3.10: Wooden Separators [2]
 They must be porous—high porosity gives a high rate of flow of ions.

 Pore size must be small enough to restrict the flow of colloid particles but not restrict the
ions.
 They must be as thin as possible.
 Electrical resistance must be very high.
 They are a little larger than the plates to prevent material shorting the plates.
Separators obstruct the flow of ions various materials have been used to make separators:
 wood
 rubber
 glass fiber mat
 cellulose
 sintered PVC
 Microporous PVC/polyethylene.
An effective separator must possess a number of mechanical properties; applicable

considerations include permeability, porosity, pore size distribution, specific surface area,
mechanical design and strength, electrical resistance, ionic conductivity, and chemical
compatibility with the electrolyte. In service, the separator must have good resistance to acid
and oxidation. The area of the separator must be a little larger than the area of the plates to
prevent material shorting between the plates. The separators must remain stable over the
operating temperature range of the battery. Wooden separators were originally used, but
deteriorated in the acid electrolyte. Rubber separators were stable in the battery acid.
Figure 3.11: Cross-Section of Cover Battery [2]
3.8.6 Jars
The jars which contain the plates, separators, and electrolyte are made of a tough, hard rubber
compound. They are made either by the moulding process, or by -wrapping sheets of rubber
compound around metal mandrels. In either case the jar is subsequently vulcanized by careful
heating at the correct temperature.
The battery manufacturers do not, as a rule, make their own jars, but have them made by the
rubber companies who give the jars a high voltage test to detect any flaws, holes, or cracks
which would subsequently cause a leak. The jars as received at the battery maker's factory are
ready for use.
Across the bottom of the jar are several stiff ribs which extend up into the jar so as to provide a
substantial support for the plates, and at the same time form several pockets below the plates
in which the sediment resulting from shedding of active material from the plates accumulates.
3.8.7 Covers
No part of a battery is of greater importance than the hard rubber cell covers, from the
viewpoint of the repairman as well as the manufacturer. The repairman is concerned chiefly with
the methods of sealing the battery, and no part of his work requires greater skill than the work
on the covers. The manufacturers have developed special constructions, their aims being to
design the cover so as to facilitate the escape of gas which accumulates in the upper part of a
cell during charge, to provide space for expansion of the electrolyte as it becomes heated, to
simplify inspection and filling with pure water, to make leak proof joints between the cover and
the jar and between the cover and the lead posts which project through it, and to simplify the
work of making repairs.
Advantages
 Inexpensive and simple to manufacture.
 Mature, reliable and well-understood technology - when used correctly, lead-acid is
durable and provides dependable service.
 The self-discharge is among the lowest of rechargeable battery systems.
 Capable of high discharge rates.
Limitations
 Low energy density - poor weight-to-energy ratio limits use to stationary and wheeled
applications.
 Cannot be stored in a discharged condition - the cell voltage should never drop below
2.10V.
 Allows only a limited number of full discharge cycles - well suited for standby applications
that require only occasional deep discharges.
 Lead content and electrolyte make the battery environmentally unfriendly.
 Transportation restrictions on flooded lead acid - there are environmental concerns
regarding spillage.
 Thermal runaway can occur if improperly charged
 Low electrolyte
Chapter-4
Methodology of the Performance Analysis of Batteries
4.1 Testing Methodology
Lead-acid batteries are the most commonly used rechargeable batteries today. They are
electrochemical storage for high grade of energy. Electrical energy is used to produce energized
chemical compounds during the charging of the lead acid battery. The chemical energy stored in
the compounds is released again, when the battery is discharged. So Specific gravity of
individual battery cells was measured during charging and discharging time as well as the
nominal voltage, observation for gassing, level of electrolyte was taken into consideration.
There are five ways of testing which are below
(a) Specific gravity test
(b) Nominal Voltage Test
(c) Capacity test
(d) Cycle efficiency test
(e) Maximum depth of discharge (at lower cutoff voltage) test
4.1.1 Specific gravity test
Specific gravity is used as an indicator of the state of charge of a cell or

battery. This measurement is usually measured using a Hydrometer.
However, specific gravity measurements cannot determine a battery's
capacity. During discharge, the specific gravity decreases linearly with
the ampere-hours discharged as indicated in the (Figure 4.2).
Therefore, during fully charged steady-state operation and on

discharge, measurement of the specific gravity of the electrolyte
provides an approximate indication of the state of charge of the cell.
The specific gravity decreases during the discharging of a battery to a
value near that of pure water and it increases during a recharge. The
battery is considered fully charged when specific gravity reaches its
highest possible value.
Figure 4.1: Hydrometer [4]

Figure 4.2: Changes in voltage and specific gravity during charge and discharge [5].
The following table shows some of the battery performance depending on the battery’s
electrolytes specific gravity.
Higher Gravity Lower Gravity
More capacity Less capacity
Shorter life Longer life
Higher momentary discharge rates Lower momentary discharge rates
Less adaptable to "floating: operation More adaptable to "floating" operation
More standing loss Less standing loss
Table 4.1: Specific Gravity Characteristics over Industrial Battery [4]
A solution of higher specific gravity is heavier per unit volume than one of lower specific gravity.
Therefore the more concentrated electrolyte created during charging sinks to the bottom of the
battery jar creating a gradient in specific gravity. The gassing that occurs on overcharge serves
as a "mixer" and makes the specific gravity uniform throughout the cell. To avoid erroneous
readings, specific gravity measurements should only be taken after an equalizing charge and
subsequent float charge for at least 72 hours.
4.1.2 Nominal voltage test
Nominal voltage is the normal open circuit voltage in normal condition. Nominal voltage is the
sum of all the voltages of series connected cells.
4.1.3 Capacity test
The industrial batteries are normally rated in ampere-hours (Ah). A battery with an ampere-hour
rating of 100 will theoretically provide a steady current of 1A for 100hours, 2A for 50 hours and
so on, as determined by the following equation:
Life (hours) = ampere-hour rating (Ah)/ ampere drawn (A)
The capacity of DC battery decreases with an increase the current demand and the capacity of
DC battery decreases relatively low and high temperatures. Usually batteries are tested in C/10
discharge rate. That is if a battery has a capacity of 100 Ah, then the capacity in C/10 discharge
is tested in a current of 10 amperes.
battery capacity in Ah
C/10 discharge (Ampere) =
10 Hrs
100 Ah
= = 10 Amperes.
10 Hrs
4.1.4 Cycle efficiency test
Cycle efficiency is defined as the ratio of discharging to charging capacity of a battery. To

determine the cycle efficiency a fully discharged battery is charged with a C/10 charging current,
the time is measured until the battery is fully charged. Then the fully charged battery is
discharged with a C/10 discharging current, the time required to discharge the battery is
measured. The ratio of discharging current multiplied by the discharging time to the charging
current multiplied by the charging time is the cycle efficiency. For a industrial Lead acid battery
the typical cycle efficiency is 85 to 95%.
4.1.5 Maximum depth of discharge (at lower cutoff voltage) test
The DOD is an important variable affecting the battery's cycle-life expectancy. The effect of DOD
on cycle life is a nonlinear relationship, so the shallower the DOD, the higher the number of
available cycles. The number of cycles obtained from a battery can be significantly increased
simply by over-sizing the battery, if the increased size and weight can be tolerated, thereby
lowering the depth of discharge in each cycle. Over a large range of DOD (about 25% to 100%),
the number of cycles a battery can deliver is approximately proportional to the DOD. However,
as the discharge becomes shallower and shallower, the linearity fails.
Figure 4.3: Nominal Discharging Performance
4.2 Battery charging and discharging Procedure
Battery Charging Procedure
To charge the batteries used variable capacitance based constant current source. The circuit
diagram is as below:
Figure 4.4: Constant current simulator with variable capacitor (Charging Current)
The capacitor was varied unless desired current reading is observed in the DC ammeter. As the
battery end voltage changes very slowly, a slight change in capacitance is required throughout
the charging cycle (around 12 Hours) after it is set for the desired current value. The
transformer rating was chosen so as to accommodate for secondary currents in the range of
20A. For batteries with same nameplate ratings, we used series configuration of two batteries
and took the individual voltages across them.
In primary side a variable capacitor is used to control the current of the secondary side. Battery
is normally charged in C/10 charging/ discharging current. The capacity of the battery was
100Ah. So the 10A charging current was provided in the circuit.
Charging terminal voltage=>VT= Vb + Icharge * R
The open circuit voltage and specific gravity of the electrolyte of the fully discharged battery was
12.11 V and 1160 respectively. After charging the final specific gravity of the electrolyte
becomes 1220. The temperature rise during charging the battery was from 30oC to 38oC.
Battery discharging procedure
High power rheostats were used for discharging the battery. The discharging circuits were
designed as follows:
Figure 4.5: Battery discharging circuit
Standard measuring equipments were used for measuring specific gravity, nominal voltage etc.
a variable resistance was used in series with the battery for discharging the 12-v battery. A
resistance had to change to keep the current constant at C/10 current.
Discharging terminal voltage=>VT=Vb - Idischarge*R [13]
The open circuit voltage and specific gravity of the electrolyte of the fully charged battery was
12.94 V and 1250 respectively. After charging the final specific gravity of the electrolyte
becomes 1100. The temperature rise during discharging the battery was from 30oC to 31oC.
Chapter- 5
Test Result Analysis
Experimental data table during charging period
The battery under test was a commercial industrial deep discharge cycle battery which is
commonly used in the solar home system in Bangladesh.
Cycle(1) Charging 21.03.09 Charging Current 8A

date
o
O.C 12.14V Initial 30 c Initial Specific 1200
voltage Temperature Gravity
Table 5.1: Manufacture and initial rate at full discharge
The battery under test was charged and discharged in C/10 current. Before the charging circuit
was energized the initial voltage was 12.14 volts (The battery was fully discharged), the initial
temperature was 30oC and specific gravity was 1160. When the Battery charging circuit was
connected across the battery then voltage was 12.55 volts, temperature was 30oC and specific
gravity was 1160. The temperature, voltage, specific gravity of battery was measured each cell
of battery by the thermometer, the digital volt meter and hydrometers respectively during the
test analysis process of the lead acid industrial battery. The voltage, temperature and specific
gravity was gradually increased and measured in every hour until full charge. It was taken 11
hours to reach the full charge condition. The data that were taken during charging is given in
the following table.
Cells Time Initial 0:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00
No. (Hour)
Voltage 12.14 12.55 13.09 13.29 13.5 13.7 13.93 14.42 14.82 15.2 15.38 15.53 15.58
One Specific 1160 1160 1160 1160 1160 1165 1165 1170 1175 1190 1195 1200 1210
Gravity
o
Temp.( C) 30 30 30 31 31 31 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
Two Specific 1160 1160 1160 1160 1160 1165 1165 1170 1170 1185 1195 1200 1210
Gravity
Temp. (oC) 30 30 30 31 31 31 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
Three Specific 1160 1160 1160 1160 1160 1165 1165 1167 1170 1185 1195 1200 1210
Gravity
o
Temp. ( C) 30 30 30 31 31 31 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
Four Specific 1160 1160 1160 1160 1160 1160 1160 1170 1170 1185 1200 1205 1210
Gravity
Temp. (oC) 30 30 30 31 31 31 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
Five Specific 1160 1160 1160 1160 1160 1165 1165 1175 1175 1190 1200 1205 1210
Gravity
Temp. (oC) 30 30 30 31 31 31 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
Six Specific 1160 1160 1160 1160 1160 1165 1170 1175 1175 1195 1200 1205 1210
Gravity
Temp.(oC) 30 30 30 31 31 31 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
Average Specific 1160 1160 1160 1160 1160 1164 1165 1171 1172 1188 1197 1202 1210
Gravity
Average Temp. (oC) 30 30 30 31 31 31 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
Standard Deviation 0 0 0 0 0 1.86 2.88 2.91 2.5 3.72 2.5 2.5 1.86
Table 5.2: Charging rate of a lead acid battery
Experimental data table during discharging period
The battery under test was a commercial industrial deep discharge cycle battery which is
commonly used in the solar home system in Bangladesh.
Cycle 1 Charging date 21.03.09

Charging 8A
Current
O.C 12.76V Initial 30oc Initial
voltage Temperature Specific
Gravity
Table 5.3: Manufacture and initial rate at full charge
The battery under test was charged and discharged in C/10 current. Before the discharging
circuit was energized the initial voltage was 12.76 volts (The battery was fully charged), the
initial temperature was 30oC and specific gravity was 1210. When the Battery discharging circuit
was connected across the battery then voltage was 12.30 volts, temperature was 30oC and
specific gravity was 1210. The voltage, temperature and specific gravity was gradually increased
and measured in every hour until full discharge. It was taken 8 hours to reach the full discharge
condition. The data that were taken during discharging is given in the following table.
Cell Time 00:00 01:0 02:0 03:0 04:0 05:0 06:0 07:0 08:0
No. (Hour) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Voltage 12.3 12.1 12 11.9 11.7 11.6 11.3 10.9 10.7
4 8 1 7 8 1
One Specific 1210 1210 1200 1200 1185 1180 1170 1160 1160
Gravity
Temp(oC) 30 30 29 29 29 30 30 30 30
Two Specific 1210 1210 1200 1195 1180 1180 1170 1160 1160
Gravity
Temp(oC) 30 30 29 29 29 30 30 30 30
Three Specific 1210 1210 1200 1195 1180 1180 1170 1160 1160
Gravity
Temp(oC) 30 30 29 29 29 30 30 30 30
Four Specific 1210 1210 1200 1190 1175 1175 1165 1160 1160
Gravity
Temp(oC) 30 30 29 29 29 30 30 30 30
Five Specific 1210 1210 1200 1195 1185 1180 1170 1160 1160
Gravity
Temp(oC) 30 30 29 29 29 30 30 30 30
Six Specific 1210 1210 1200 1200 1185 1180 1170 1160 1160
Gravity
Temp(oC) 30 30 29 29 29 30 30 30 30
Average Specific Gravity 1210 1210 1200 1195 1181 1179 1169 1160 1160
Average Temp (oC) 30 30 29 29 29 30 30 30 30
Standard Deviation 0 0 0 3.44 3.73 1.86 1.86 0 0
Table 5.4: Discharging rate of a lead acid battery

The charging and discharging profile of the battery is given in the table (5.2 &5.4)
Figure 5.1: Charging and discharging Profile of a lead acid battery
Voltage starting with a battery which has been discharged until its voltage has decreased to
10.7 volts of the lead acid industrial battery. Initially current is passed through it and cause the
voltage to rise rapidly.
As shown in Figure 5.1, the voltage remains almost constant for charging during the second to
fifth hours. After five hours of charging, the battery voltage begins to rise because the charging
chemical reactions are taking place and plates is diffusing into the main electrolyte. This
increases the battery voltage and requires a higher charging voltage. After the six hours of
charging gassing was formed from the electrolyte. After 10 hours of charging, the last portions
of lead sulphate are removed, acid is no longer being formed, Now the electric energy input are
being used to electrolysis water. Water is then breaks into hydrogen and oxygen. These
Hydrogen and oxygen are then coming out from the battery electrolyte are gas. Thus no further
changes can take place, and the voltage becomes constant at eleven hour at a voltage of 15.53
to 15.58 volt.
At the end of a charge, the voltage of the Lead acid Industrial Battery is about 15 to 15.8 volts.
As soon as the charging circuit is opened, the cell voltage drops rapidly to about 12.6 to 12.8
volts within ten or twelve minutes. At the beginning of the discharge the voltage has already
had a rapid drop from the final voltage on charge. After the initial drop, the voltage decreases
more slowly, the rate of decrease depending on the amount of current drawn from the battery.
The discharge should be stopped when the voltage of the lead acid Industrial battery has
dropped to 10.7 volts.
Cycle efficiency
Cycle efficiency of the lead acid industrial battery is the ratio of discharging to charging capacity
of a battery. The ratio of discharging current multiplied by the discharging time to the charging
current multiplied by the charging time is the cycle efficiency. The cycle efficiency is the ratio of
the discharging ampere hour and charging ampere hour. It is represented by percentage of the
cycle efficiency measuring by the experimental data in the given bellow:
Cycle efficiency =
 V  I (disch arg ing)dt
 V  I (ch arg ing)dt
Disch arg ingAmpereHour
=
Ch arg ingAmperHo ur
From the experimental data (table 5.2 and 5.4)
The discharging Ampere hour: 58Ah
The charging Ampere Hour: 88Ah
58
So, the cycle efficiency: = *100
88
= 65.91%
Cycle efficiency of a standard lead acid Industrial battery is above 85%. But the battery under
test was lower than the standard. The cycle efficiency of the battery is found 66% which is very
low.
Specific gravity Test
Specific gravity of lead acid industrial battery is represented the state of charge of a cell or
battery. The specific gravity is measured by hydrometer in every hour until full charged or full
discharged. The specific gravity of battery was increased linearly during charging. During
discharging, the specific of the battery was decreased linearly. Measurement of the specific
gravity of the electrolyte is provided an approximate indication of the state of charge of the cell.
It is also represented characteristics of battery which is indicated battery efficiency.
Figure 5.2: Specific Gravity of electrolyte during Charging and discharging.
During the charging period sulfuric acid density of electrolyte is increased and water of the
electrolyte is decreased, as a result specific gravity of the lead acid battery is increased with
time. On the other hand, during the discharging period sulfuric acid density of electrolyte is
decreased and water of the electrolyte is increased as a result specific gravity of the lead acid
battery is decreases with time.
Capacity test
The quantity of electricity is delivered by a battery under specified conditions, usually expressed
in ampere-hours. The industrial batteries are normally rated in ampere-hours (Ah). A battery
with an ampere-hour rating of 100 will theoretically provide a steady current of 1A for 100hours,
2A for 50 hours and so on, as determined by the following equation:
Life (hours) = ampere-hour rating (Ah)/ ampere drawn (A)
Experimentally full charging time is 11 hours and constant current is 8A. So
Battery capacity in Ah= Full Charged time *Constant current
=11*8
=88 Ah
And experimentally full discharging time is 7.25 hours and constant current is 8A.
So, Battery capacity in Ah= Full discharged time *Constant current
=7.25*8
= 58 Ah
The battery under test had capacity less than that was written in the name plate data. This
could be because of the following reasons: Plate and paste quality not good, separator does not
work properly (leakage current flow). For the above reason the capacity of the lead acid
industrial battery can be lower than the rated value or the battery had design fault.
Maximum depth of discharge (at lower cutoff voltage) test
Maximum depth of discharge (DOD) of the lead acid industrial battery is the ratio of total energy
delivered till lower cutoff voltage and the full energy delivered by a battery till the battery is
fully discharged. It is represented by percentage of discharge. Battery voltage is measured in
every hour until full discharged. Average voltage of battery is calculated from given voltage.
Battery power is determined from rated current of discharge and average voltage of battery in
every hour span. Finally energy is determined by the power is multiple by 3600 sec.
Time in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7.25
hour
voltage 12.3 12.14 12 11.9 11.78 11.61 11.37 10.98 10.71
Average 12.22 12.07 11.95 11.84 11.69 11.49 11.17 10.84

Voltage
Power 97.76 96.56 95.6 94.72 93.52 91.92 89.36 86.72

(VA)
Energy 351936 347616 344160 340992 336672 330912 321696 312192

(Joule)
Total 2686176
Energy
Table 5.5: Changes Power (VA) Energy (Joule), and Total Energy with Time during discharging
The battery under investigation was discharged until the battery voltage reach to 11.6 volts. It
takes 5 hours to reach the voltage at that level from fully charged condition.
Total energy discharge at 5 hours =351936+347616+344160+340992+336672
=1721376 Jules and
Total energy discharge at time 7.25 hours =2686176 Jules.
TotalEnergyDisch arg eAtFiveHours

So depth of discharge (DOD) = *100
TotalEnergyDisch arg e
1721376Jules
= *100
2686176 Jules
= 64.08%
And the State of charge (SOC) at Lower cut off voltage = (1-DOD)*100
= (1-0.6407)*100 = 35.92%
Standard Deviation of specific gravity of six cells
The standard deviation is a measure of how widely specific gravity values are dispersed from
the specific gravity average value of six cells into each cell. To maintain the standard charging
profile, the specific gravity of the lead acid industrial battery of each cell increase uniformly in
each hour at the charging period also maintain the standard discharging profile the specific
gravity of the lead acid industrial battery of each cell decrease uniformly in each hour at the
discharging period. If the specific gravity of the lead acid industrial battery of each cell does
not increase and decrease uniformly in each hour at the charging and discharging period
respectively as a result Charging and discharging profile does not maintain their sequence.
Actually to known the charging and discharging profile of the lead acid industrial battery
standard deviation calculated is required. Standard deviation uses the following formula:
(X i  X )2
SD 
n
Where x is the specific gravity of each cell.
Figure 5.6: Standard deviation of specific gravity during charging

The standard deviation of specific gravity of six cells graph is represented of changing specific
gravity of battery with time in hour. First three hours the cells were charged uniformly but after
three hours the charging profile was different for different cells.
Figure 5.7: Standard deviation of specific gravity during discharging
Here, standard deviation of six cells is represented changing specific gravity with time in hour.
From figure, first three hours it is uniformly change. But at intermediate time during
discharging, it does not change uniformly and it is represented difference of specific gravity and
voltage among six cells at intermediate time during discharging.

Chapter-6
Conclusion and Outlook
The objective of the thesis work was to analyze the performance of an industrial battery. Though
the topic was to study and analyze industrial batteries, general concepts of other batteries were
studied rigorously throughout the thesis work. Different types of batteries like the solar grade
industrial batteries, thermal batteries, and chemical batteries were also studied. The history of
the battery, its chemical reaction, working principle, advantages, limitations and maintenance
were also studied during the thesis work. The relationship between the battery’s charging
condition, its terminal voltage and specific gravity of electrolytes were studied, tested and
analyzed rigorously.
Industrial batteries are one kind of lead acid battery with a thicker (tubular) positive plate.
These batteries are designed for deep discharging. They are very suitable for solar Home
Systems. As in the solar system, storage medium is needed for storage energy during the day
time and comparatively long discharging period during the night time.
During the charging and discharging of the battery, the change of different parameters were
observed and measured minutely. The voltage developed in different cells could not be
measured but the hourly data of the battery’s terminal voltage, Specific gravity of different cells,
temperatures of different cells were observed and tested. The correlation and the standard
deviation of the different parameters were established. From the experimental data it is found
that during charging or discharging at initial stage the different cells are charged uniformly but
after some time (2/3 hours of charging or discharging) the charging profile of different cells
becomes different, but in the final stage they again become uniform. The capacities of the
battery were also determined. The batteries tested were found to have less capacity than the
rated value.
During the charging and discharging period of the lead acid battery some guide line was
maintained strictly. The batteries were charged and discharged in C/10 or 0.1C charging
current. During discharging the minimum terminal voltage of the battery was maintained at
10.5V and during charging the maximum terminal voltage of the battery was 15.8V. The
electrolyte level was maintained at optimum level.
As a part of the thesis work, the entire test has been done in the university laboratory. The
team has also acquired the knowledge of possible problems that may occur in a battery analysis.
The importance of Industrial batteries is gradually increasing day by day, as renewable energy is
coming out as a prime solution for the upcoming energy crisis of the world. The renewable
energy technology needs storage medium to store energy as its availability is intermittent but
we need an uninterrupted and continuous power solution. The battery is becoming very popular
because of many times of the day people use battery in numerous uses in home, industry and
vehicle systems.
Appendix I: Battery terms

Ampere-Hour -- One ampere-hour is equal to a current of one ampere flowing for one hour. A
unit-quantity of electricity used as a measure of the amount of electrical charge that may be
obtained from a storage battery before it requires recharging.
Ampere-Hour Capacity -- The number of ampere-hours, which can be delivered by a storage

battery on a single discharge. The ampere-hour capacity of a battery on discharge is determined
by a number of factors, of which the following are the most important: final limiting voltage;
quantity of electrolyte; discharge rate; density of electrolyte; design of separators; temperature,
age, and life history of the battery; and number, design, and dimensions of electrodes.
Anode -- In a primary or secondary cell, the metal electrode that gives up electrons to the load
circuit and dissolves into the electrolyte.
Aqueous Batteries -- Batteries with water-based electrolytes.
Available Capacity -- The total battery capacity, usually expressed in ampere-hours or mill
ampere-hours that are available to perform work. This depends on factors such as the endpoint
voltage, quantity and density of electrolyte, temperature, discharge rate, age, and the life
history of the battery.
Battery -- A device that transforms chemical energy into electric energy. The term is usually
applied to a group of two or more electric cells connected together electrically. In common
usage, the term "battery" is also applied to a single cell, such as a household battery.
Battery Types -- There are, in general, two type of batteries: primary batteries, and secondary
storage or accumulator batteries. Primary types, although sometimes consisting of the same
active materials as secondary types, are constructed so that only one continuous or intermittent
discharge can be obtained. Secondary types are constructed so that they may be recharged,
following a partial or complete discharge, by the flow of direct current through them in a
direction opposite to the current flow on discharge. By recharging after discharge, a higher state
of oxidation is created at the positive plate or electrode and a lower state at the negative plate,
returning the plates to approximately their original charged condition.
Battery Capacity -- The electric output of a cell or battery on a service test delivered before
the cell reaches a specified final electrical condition and may be expressed in ampere-hours,
watt-hours, or similar units. The capacity in watt-hours is equal to the capacity in ampere-hours
multiplied by the battery voltage.
Battery Charger -- A device capable of supplying electrical energy to a battery.
Battery-Charging Rate -- The current expressed in amperes at which a storage battery is

charged.
Battery Voltage, final -- The prescribed lower-limit voltage at which battery discharge is
considered complete. The cutoff or final voltage is usually chosen so that the useful capacity of
the battery is realized. The cutoff voltage varies with the type of battery, the rate of discharge,
the temperature, and the kind of service in which the battery is used. The term "cutoff voltage"
is applied more particularly to primary batteries, and "final voltage" to storage batteries.
Synonym: Voltage, cutoff.
Ci -- The rated capacity, in ampere-hours, for a specific, constant discharge current (where i is
the number of hours the cell can deliver this current). For example, the C5 capacity is the
ampere-hours that can be delivered by a cell at constant current in 5 hours. As a cell's capacity
is not the same at all rates, C5 is usually less than C20 for the same cell.
Capacity -- The quantity of electricity delivered by a battery under specified conditions, usually
expressed in ampere-hours.
Cathode -- In a primary or secondary cell, the electrode that, in effect, oxidizes the anode or
absorbs the electrons.
Cell -- An electrochemical device, composed of positive and negative plates, separator, and
electrolyte, which is capable of storing electrical energy. When encased in a container and fitted
with terminals, it is the basic "building block" of a battery.
Charge -- Applied to a storage battery, the conversion of electric energy into chemical energy
within the cell or battery. This restoration of the active materials is accomplished by maintaining
a unidirectional current in the cell or battery in the opposite direction to that during discharge; a
cell or battery which is said to be charged is understood to be fully charged.
Charge Rate -- The current applied to a secondary cell to restore its capacity. This rate is
commonly expressed as a multiple of the rated capacity of the cell. For example, the C/10
charge rate of a 500 Ah cell is expressed as,
C/10 rate = 500 Ah / 10 h = 50 A.
Charge, state of -- Condition of a cell in terms of the capacity remaining in the cell.
Charging -- The process of supplying electrical energy for conversion to stored chemical
energy.
Constant-Current Charge -- A charging process in which the current of a storage battery is

maintained at a constant value. For some types of lead-acid batteries this may involve two rates
called the starting and finishing rates.
Constant-Voltage Charge -- A charging process in which the voltage of a storage battery at

the terminals of the battery is held at a constant value.
Cycle -- One sequence of charge and discharge. Deep cycling requires that all the energy to an
end voltage established for each system be drained from the cell or battery on each discharge.
In shallow cycling, the energy is partially drained on each discharge; i.e., the energy may be
any value up to 50%.
Cycle Life -- For secondary rechargeable cells or batteries, the total number of
charge/discharge cycles the cell can sustain before it becomes inoperative. In practice, end of
life is usually considered to be reached when the cell or battery delivers approximately 80% of
rated ampere-hour capacity.
Depth of Discharge -- The relative amount of energy withdrawn from a battery relative to how
much could be withdrawn if the battery were discharged until exhausted.
Discharge -- The conversion of the chemical energy of the battery into electric energy.
Discharge, deep -- Withdrawal of all electrical energy to the end-point voltage before the cell
or battery is recharged.
Discharge, high-rate -- Withdrawal of large currents for short intervals of time, usually at a
rate that would completely discharge a cell or battery in less than one hour.
Discharge, low-rate -- Withdrawal of small currents for long periods of time, usually longer
than one hour.
Drain -- Withdrawal of current from a cell.
Dry Cell -- A primary cell in which the electrolyte is absorbed in a porous medium, or is
otherwise restrained from flowing. Common practice limits the term "dry cell" to the Leclanché
cell, which is the common commercial type.
Electrochemical Couple -- The system of active materials within a cell that provides electrical
energy storage through an electrochemical reaction.
Electrode -- An electrical conductor through which an electric current enters or leaves a

conducting medium, whether it be an electrolytic solution, solid, molten mass, gas, or vacuum.
For electrolytic solutions, many solids, and molten masses, an electrode is an electrical
conductor at the surface of which a change occurs from conduction by electrons to conduction
by ions. For gases and vacuum, the electrodes merely serve to conduct electricity to and from
the medium.
Electrolyte -- A chemical compound which, when fused or dissolved in certain solvents, usually
water, will conduct an electric current. All electrolytes in the fused state or in solution give rise
to ions, which conduct the electric current.
Electropositivity -- The degree to which an element in a galvanic cell will function as the
positive element of the cell. An element with a large electropositivity will oxidize faster than an
element with a smaller electropositivity.
End-of-Discharge Voltage -- The voltage of the battery at termination of a discharge.
Energy -- Output capability; expressed as capacity times voltage, or watt-hours.
Energy Density -- Ratio of cell energy to weight or volume (watt-hours per pound, or watt-
hours per cubic inch).
Float Charging -- Method of recharging in which a secondary cell is continuously connected to

a constant-voltage supply that maintains the cell in fully charged condition.
Galvanic Cell -- A combination of electrodes, separated by electrolyte, that is capable of

producing electrical energy by electrochemical action.
Gassing -- The evolution of gas from one or both of the electrodes in a cell. Gassing commonly
results from self-discharge or from the electrolysis of water in the electrolyte during charging.
Internal Resistance -- The resistance to the flow of an electric current within the cell or
battery.
Memory Effect -- A phenomenon in which a cell, operated in successive cycles to the same, but
less than full, depth of discharge, temporarily loses the remainder of its capacity at normal
voltage levels (usually applies only to Ni-Cd cells).
Negative Terminal -- The terminal of a battery from which electrons flow in the external circuit
when the cell discharges.
Nonaqueous Batteries -- Cells that do not contain water, such as those with molten salts or
organic electrolytes.
Ohm's Law -- The formula that describes the amount of current flowing through a circuit.
Voltage = Current × Resistance.
Open Circuit -- Condition of a battery which is neither on charge nor on discharge (i.e.,
disconnected from a circuit).
Open-Circuit Voltage -- The difference in potential between the terminals of a cell when the
circuit is open (i.e., a no-load condition).
Oxidation -- A chemical reaction that results in the release of electrons by an electrode's active
material.
Parallel Connection -- The arrangement of cells in a battery made by connecting all positive
terminals together and all negative terminals together, the voltage of the group being only that
of one cell and the current drain through the battery being divided among the several cells. See
Series Connection.
Polarity -- Refers to the charges residing at the terminals of a battery.
Positive Terminal -- The terminal of a battery toward which electrons flow through the
external circuit when the cell discharges.
Primary Battery -- A battery made up of primary cells. See Primary Cell.
Primary Cell -- A cell designed to produce electric current through an electrochemical reaction
that is not efficiently reversible. Hence the cell, when discharged, cannot be efficiently recharged
by an electric current. Note: When the available energy drops to zero, the cell is usually
discarded. Primary cells may be further classified by the types of electrolyte used.
Rated Capacity -- The number of ampere-hours a cell can deliver under specific conditions
(rate of discharge, end voltage, temperature); usually the manufacturer's rating.
Rechargeable -- Capable of being recharged; refers to secondary cells or batteries.
Recombination -- State in which the gasses normally formed within the battery cell during its
operation, are recombined to form water.
Reduction -- A chemical process that results in the acceptance of electrons by an electrode's

active material.
Seal -- The structural part of a galvanic cell that restricts the escape of solvent or electrolyte
from the cell and limits the ingress of air into the cell (the air may dry out the electrolyte or
interfere with the chemical reactions).
Secondary Battery -- A battery made up of secondary cells. See Storage Battery; Storage
Cell.
Self Discharge -- Discharge that takes place while the battery is in an open-circuit condition.
Separator -- The permeable membrane that allows the passage of ions, but prevents electrical
contact between the anode and the cathode.
Series Connection -- The arrangement of cells in a battery configured by connecting the

positive terminal of each successive cell to the negative terminal of the next adjacent cell so
that their voltages are cumulative. See Parallel Connection.
Stable Material-- A material at its equilibrium state. Typified by relatively low reactivity and
ability to remain in this state for longer periods of time.
Standby Battery-- A battery designed for emergency use in the vent of main power failure.
State of Charge Indicator-- A device indicating the condition of the battery in terms of
remaining available capacity
Shelf Life -- For a dry cell, the period of time (measured from date of manufacture), at a
storage temperature of 21°C (69°F), after which the cell retains a specified percentage (usually
90%) of its original energy content.
Short-Circuit Current -- That current delivered when a cell is short-circuited (i.e., the positive
and negative terminals are directly connected with a low-resistance conductor).
Starting-Lighting-Ignition (SLI) Battery -- A battery designed to start internal combustion

engines and to power the electrical systems in automobiles when the engine is not running. SLI
batteries can be used in emergency lighting situations.
Stationary Battery -- A secondary battery designed for use in a fixed location.
Storage Battery -- An assembly of identical cells in which the electrochemical action is

reversible so that the battery may be recharged by passing a current through the cells in the
opposite direction to that of discharge. While many non-storage batteries have a reversible
process, only those that are economically rechargeable are classified as storage batteries.
Synonym: Accumulator; Secondary Battery. See Secondary Cell.
Storage Cell -- An electrolytic cell for the generation of electric energy in which the cell after
being discharged may be restored to a charged condition by an electric current flowing in a
direction opposite the flow of current when the cell discharges. Synonym: Secondary Cell. See
Storage Battery.
Taper Charge -- A charge regime delivering moderately high-rate charging current when the
battery is at a low state of charge and tapering the current to lower rates as the battery
becomes more fully charged.
Terminals -- The parts of a battery to which the external electric circuit is connected.
Thermal Runaway -- A condition whereby a cell on charge or discharge will destroy itself
through internal heat generation caused by high overcharge or high rate of discharge or other
abusive conditions.
Trickle Charging -- A method of recharging in which a secondary cell is either continuously or

intermittently connected to a constant-current supply that maintains the cell in fully charged
condition.
Turnaround Efficiency-- The ratio of average voltage during discharge to average voltage
during recharge under specified conditions of charge and discharge.
Vent -- A normally sealed mechanism that allows for the controlled escape of gases from within
a cell.
Voltage, cutoff -- Voltage at the end of useful discharge. (See Voltage, end-point.)
Voltage, end-point -- Cell voltage below which the connected equipment will not operate or
below which operation is not recommended.
Volt-- The basic unit expressing a difference of potential.
Voltage-- Electromotive force or difference of potential. E=IR, where I is current and R is

resistance.
Voltage Delay-- The time delay required for a battery to deliver the required voltage after
being placed under load.
Volumetric Energy-- The ratio of available energy to cell volume. Expressed in Joules per cubic
centimeter.
Voltage, nominal -- Voltage of a fully charged cell when delivering rated current.
Wet Cell -- A cell, the electrolyte of which is in liquid form and free to flow and move.
Working Voltage-- The typical range of voltages of a battery during discharge.

Appendix II: Sulfuric Acid (Electrolyte)

Sulfuric acid is used both as an ingredient in the paste and as
an electrolyte. In each application, dilute sulfuric acid is
obtained by mixing concentrated sulfuric acid of 1.835
specific gravity with water to the strength required. Sulfuric
acid concentrations most frequently used in battery
manufacturing correspond to a specific gravity range of 1.050
to 1.400. Sulfuric acid should be of high purity. The presence of even very small amount of
certain impurities can affect both the life and capacity of the battery adversely.
Forms of sulfuric acid
Although nearly 100% sulfuric acid can be made, this loses SO 3 at the boiling point to produce
98.3% acid. The 98% grade is more stable in storage, and is the usual form of what is described
as concentrated sulfuric acid. Other concentrations are used for different purposes. Some
common concentrations are
 10%, dilute sulfuric acid for laboratory use,

 33.53%, battery acid (used in lead-acid batteries),
 62.18%, chamber or fertilizer acid,
 73.61%, tower or Glover acid,
 97%, concentrated acid.
Freezing point of Sulfuric acid solution

Appendix III: List of Figures

Figure 1.1: Process of battery
Figure 1.2: Electrochemical processes in the lead-acid batteries
Figure 1.3: Major components of a cell.
Figure 2.1: Classification of Battery
Figure 2.2: Fuel Cell
Figure 2.3: Chemical Reaction of Lead Acid Battery
Figure 2.4: Car Battery Construction
Figure 3.1: Basic function of Industrial Battery
Figure 3.2: Voltage Changes during Discharge
Figure 3.3: Voltage Changes during Charge
Figure 3.4: Relation between SOC and DOD with Charge and Discharge
Figure 3.5: Construction of industrial Battery
Figure 3.6: Water Level
Figure 3.7: Tubular Plate
Figure 3.8: Grid Plate
Figure 3.9: Pasted Grid
Figure 3.10: Wooden Separators
Figure 3.11: Cross-Section of Cover Battery
Figure 4.1: Hydrometer
Figure 4.2: Changes in voltage and specific gravity during charge and discharge.
Figure 4.3: Nominal Discharging Performance
Figure 4.4: Constant current simulator with variable capacitor (Charging Current)
Figure 4.5: Battery discharging circuit
Figure 5.1: Charging and discharging Profile of a lead acid battery
Figure 5.2: Changes Specific Gravity with time during Charging and discharging.
Figure 5.3: Standard deviation of specific gravity during charging
Figure 5.4: Standard deviation of specific gravity during discharging
Appendix IV: List of Tables
Table 2.1: Caparison different type’s rechargeable battery

Table 3.1: Relation table between voltage and Specific Gravity
Table 4.1: Specific Gravity Characteristics over Battery
Table 5.1: Manufacture and initial rate at full discharge
Table 5.2: Charging rate of a lead acid battery
Table 5.3: Manufacture and initial rate at full charge
Table 5.4: Discharging rate of a lead acid battery
Table 5.5: Changes Power (VA) Energy (Joule), and Total Energy with Time during discharging
Appendix IV: References
[1] www.batteryuniversity.com
[2] www.powerstream.com
[3] www.batteryfaq.org
[4] www.tpub.com/content/doe/hdbk1084/
[5] www.giantbatteryco.com/GLOSSARY/Glossary-Industrial.Batteries.html
[6] www.google.com
[7] www.globalspec.cc/reference/11098/121073/Chapter-7-3-Types-of-Cell-Plante-
Tubular-Pasted-Plate
[8] www.wikipedia.com
[9] www.encyclopedia.com
[10] www.mpoweruk.com
[11] www.batterystuff.com
[12] www.fuelcells.org/basics/how.html
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Performance Analysis of Industrial Battery

Thesis · May 2009

DC Power System View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Md. Anuar Husen Pathan

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC

UNITED INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

Shahriar Ahmed Chowdhury

Md. Ibne Hassan

Md. Anuar Husen Pathan

Md. Mehedi Rakib Siddiki

All glory belongs to god. He is worthy of all the praises.

The economic development of a nation is directly involved with usage of electrical

Chapter 1: Background Ideas

Chapter 2: Battery Classification

Chapter 3: Industrial Battery

3.8 Construction of Industrial Battery……………………….………….………….………….…30

Chapter 4: Methodology of the Performance Analysis of Batteries

Chapter 5: Test Result Analysis

Chapter 6: Conclusion and out look

Figure 1.1: Process of Battery [3]

• Identify the differences between primary and secondary batteries.

• Identify the major types of lead-acid storage batteries.

• Identify the active materials in the lead-acid cell.

• Identify industry and government standards for maintenance, testing, replacement,

Sizing and installation of lead-acid batteries.

• Identify the three most common applications of lead-acid batteries.

• Identify and describe charging techniques.

• Identify safety precautions for operating and maintaining lead-acid batteries.

• Identify federal regulations governing lead-acid battery disposal.

• Identify the two basic types of "maintenance-free" batteries.

1.3 Working Principal of Battery

Figure 1.2: Electrochemical processes in the lead-acid batteries

Figure 1.3 Major components of a cell [4].

Battery Performance depends on construction of battery, electrolyte, capacity, efficiency.

Figure 2.1: Classification of Battery

2.1 Physical Battery

2.1.1 Solar Battery

2.1.2 Thermal Battery

A thermal battery is high-temperature, molten-salt primary battery. At ambient temperatures,

2.2 Chemical Battery

2.2.1 Fuel Cell

Working Principal [12]

A fuel cell system which includes a "fuel

The fuel cell consists of a negative electrode

2.2.2 Non-Rechargeable Battery

2.2.3 Rechargeable Battery (Secondary Battery)

1. Nickel Cadmium Battery

2.3.3.1 Nickel Cadmium Battery [1]

Working Principal with chemical Reaction

at the cadmium electrode,

at the nickel electrode. The net reaction during discharge is

During recharge, the reactions go from right to left.

Advantages of Nickel Cadmium Battery

Limitations of Nickel Cadmium Battery

2.3.3.2 Nickel Metal Hydride Battery [1]

Working Principal with chemical Reaction

Advantages of Nickel Metal Hydride Battery

Limitations of Nickel Metal Hydride Battery

2.3.3.3 Lithium Ion Battery [1]

Lithium-ion batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-ion batteries) are a type of rechargeable

Advantages of Lithium Ion Battery