&20387(5)81'$0(17$/6

$1'

s
es
352*5$00,1*,1&

Pr
Second Edition
ity
rs
ve
ni

Pradip Dey
U

RCC Institute of Information Technology

Manas Ghosh
d

RCC Institute of Information Technology

or
xf
O

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 3
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries.

Published in India by
Oxford University Press
YMCA Library Building, 1 Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001, India

© Oxford University Press 2006, 2013

The moral rights of the author/s have been asserted.

s
First Edition published in 2006
Second Edition published in 2013

es
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted

Pr
by law, by licence, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.
ity
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
rs
ISBN-13: 978-0-19-808456-3
ISBN-10: 0-19-808456-0
ve

Typeset in Times New Roman

by Pee-Gee Graphics, New Delhi
Printed in India by Rajkamal Electric Press, Kundli, Haryana
ni
U
d
or
xf
O

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Brief Contents
Preface to the Second Edition ............iii
Preface to the Fisrt Edition ............... vii
Contents .............................................. xi

s
  &RPSXWHU)XQGDPHQWDOV .................................................................................................................................................

es
  1XPEHU6\VWHPVDQG%LQDU\$ULWKPHWLF.......................................................................................................................
  %RROHDQ$OJHEUDDQG/RJLF*DWHV.................................................................................................................................
  ,QWURGXFWLRQWR6RIWZDUH ...............................................................................................................................................

Pr
  %DVLF&RQFHSWVRI2SHUDWLQJ6\VWHPV ..........................................................................................................................
  7KH,QWHUQHW .................................................................................................................................................................
  ,QWURGXFWLRQWR$OJRULWKPVDQG3URJUDPPLQJ&RQFHSWV ............................................................................................
ity
  %DVLFVRI& ..................................................................................................................................................................
  ,QSXWDQG2XWSXW .........................................................................................................................................................
rs
  &RQWURO6WDWHPHQWV ......................................................................................................................................................
  $UUD\VDQG6WULQJV .......................................................................................................................................................
ve

  )XQFWLRQV .....................................................................................................................................................................

  3RLQWHUVLQ& ................................................................................................................................................................
  8VHUGH¿QHG'DWD7\SHVDQG9DULDEOHV .......................................................................................................................
ni

  )LOHVLQ& .....................................................................................................................................................................

  $GYDQFHG& .................................................................................................................................................................
U

Bibliography and References ....... 

Index .............................................. 
d
or
xf
O

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Contents
Preface to the Second Edition iii
Preface to the Fisrt Edition vii
Brief Contents x

s
1. COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS 1 3. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LOGIC

es
  ,QWURGXFWLRQ²:KDWLVD&RPSXWHU" 1 GATES 43
  (YROXWLRQRI&RPSXWHUV²$%ULHI+LVWRU\ 1   ,QWURGXFWLRQWR%RROHDQ$OJHEUD 43

Pr
  *HQHUDWLRQVRI&RPSXWHUV 2   7KHRUHPV 44
  &ODVVL¿FDWLRQRI&RPSXWHUV 3   Some Applications of Boolean Laws and
  $QDWRP\RID&RPSXWHU 3 Theorems 45
  %RROHDQ([SUHVVLRQ 45
ity
  Hardware 3
  6LPSOL¿FDWLRQRI%RROHDQ([SUHVVLRQV 45
  Software 9
  %RROHDQ)XQFWLRQVDQG7UXWK7DEOHV 47
  0HPRU\5HYLVLWHG 10   &RQVWUXFWLQJ%RROHDQ)XQFWLRQVIURP7UXWK
rs
  Primary Memory 10 7DEOHV 47
  Secondary Memory 12   &DQRQLFDODQG6WDQGDUG)RUPV 47
ve

  ,QWURGXFWLRQWR2SHUDWLQJ6\VWHPV 14   1XPHULFDO5HSUHVHQWDWLRQRI%RROHDQ)XQFWLRQVLQ

  Loading an Operating System 14 &DQRQLFDO)RUP 48
  2SHUDWLRQDO2YHUYLHZRID&38 15   /RJLF*DWHV 49
ni

  AND Gate 49

  OR Gate 50
2. NUMBER SYSTEMS AND BINARY   NOT Gate or Inverter 50
U

ARITHMETIC 18   NAND Gate 51

 
,QWURGXFWLRQWR1XPEHU6\VWHPV 18   NOR Gate 51
  Exclusive-OR or XOR Gate 52
d

 
%DVHRID1XPEHU6\VWHP 19
  Exclusive-NOR or XNOR Gate 52
 
:HLJKWLQJ)DFWRU 19
or

  'HVFULELQJ/RJLF&LUFXLWV$OJHEUDLFDOO\ 53
 
7\SHVRI1XPEHU6\VWHPV 19   5HDOL]DWLRQRI/RJLF&LUFXLWVIURP%RROHDQ
  Decimal Number System [Base-10] 19 ([SUHVVLRQV 53
xf

  Binary Number System [Base-2] 20   8QLYHUVDOLW\RI1$1'DQG125*DWHV 54

  Octal Number System [Base-8] 20
O

  Hexadecimal Number System [Base-16] 20

 ,1752'8&7,217262)7:$5( 
  Common Rules of Number Systems 20
  1XPEHU6\VWHP&RQYHUVLRQV 21   ,QWURGuction 59
  Working with Integer Numbers 21   3URJUDPPLQJ/DQJXDJHV 60
2.5.2 Working with Fractional Numbers 25   Generation of Programming Languages 60
  Classi¿cation of Programming Languages 62
  %LQDU\$ULWKPHWLF 28
  &RPSLOLQJ/LQNLQJDQG/RDGLQJD3URJUDP 64
  Addition 28   7UDQVODWRU/RDGHUDQG/LQNHU5HYLVLWHG 65
2.6.2 Subtraction 29   Translators 65
2.6.3 Multiplication 33   Linker 65
  Division 34   Loader 65
  %LQDU\&RGHV 36   'HYHORSLQJD3URJUDP 66
  Numeric Codes 36   6RIWZDUH'HYHORSPHQW 66
2.7.2 Alphanumeric Codes 37   Steps in Software Development 66

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 xii Contents

5. BASIC CONCEPTS OF OPERATING   URL 107

  Search Engines 108
SYSTEMS 70
  7\SHVRI,QWHUQHW&RQQHFWLRQV 108
 
,QWURGXFWLRQ 70   Dial-up Connection 108
 
,QWURGXFWLRQWR2SHUDWLQJ6\VWHP 71 6.5.2 Leased Lines 109
 
)XQFWLRQVRIDQ2SHUDWLQJ6\VWHP 71 6.5.3 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) 109
 
&RPSRQHQWVRIDQ2SHUDWLQJ6\VWHP 73   Satellite Internet 109
 
,QWHUDFWLRQZLWK2SHUDWLQJ6\VWHP 74 6.5.5 Broadband Versus Power Line 109
 
+LVWRU\RI2SHUDWLQJ6\VWHPV 74 6.5.6 Cable Modem Broadband 109
  First Generation (1945–55) 75 6.5.7 Other Forms of Internet Connectivity 110
5.6.2 Second Generation (1956–63)—Transistors   8VHVRI,QWHUQHW 110
and Batch System 75   Communication 110

s
5.6.3 Third Generation (1964–80)—Integrated 6.6.2 Information 110

es
Chips and Multiprogramming 76 6.6.3 Entertainment 111
  Fourth Generation (1980–present)—Personal   Services 111
Computers 77 6.6.5 E-commerce 111

Pr
  7\SHVRI2SHUDWLQJ6\VWHPV 78   +D]DUGVRI,QWHUQHW 111
  Batch Process Operating System 78
5.7.2 Multiprogramming Operating System 78
5.7.3 Time-sharing Operating Systems 79
7. INTRODUCTION TO ALGORITHMS AND
  Real-time Operating Systems 80
ity PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS 114
5.7.5 Network Operating System 80   $OJRULWKPV 114
5.7.6 Distributed Operating System 81   What is an Algorithm? 114
rs
  $Q2YHUYLHZRI81,;2SHUDWLQJ6\VWHP 82   Different Ways of Stating Algorithms 114
  Reasons for Success of UNIX 82   Key Features of an Algorithm and the
ve

  Components of UNIX 82 Step-form 115

  The UNIX File System 83   What are Variables? 116
  Account and Password 87   Subroutines 117
ni

  Logging In 87   Strategy for Designing Algorithms 128

  UNIX Shell Commands 87   Tracing an Algorithm to Depict Logic 129
  Wildcards: The Characters * and ? 89   Speci¿cation for Converting Algorithms
U

  $Q2YHUYLHZRI06'26 93 into Programs 129

  A Brief History 93   6WUXFWXUHG3URJUDPPLQJ&RQFHSW 130
  Role of Disk Drive for Loading DOS 94
d

  Top–Down Analysis 131

  Starting DOS 94 7.2.2 Modular Programming 131
or

  The Command Prompt 94 7.2.3 Structured Code 132

  Communicating with DOS 95   The Process of Programming 132
  DOS Commands 96
xf

  Wildcards in DOS 99

8. BASICS OF C 136
  Redirection 99
O

  Pipelines 99   ,QWURGXFWLRQ 136

  Why Learn C? 137
  The Future of C 137
6. THE INTERNET 104
  6WDQGDUGL]DWLRQVRI&/DQJXDJH 137
  ,QWURGXFWLRQ 104   'HYHORSLQJ3URJUDPVLQ& 138
  (YROXWLRQRI,QWHUQHW 105   Writing or Editing 138
  :RUOG:LGH:HE 105   Compiling the Program 139
  %DVLF,QWHUQHW7HUPLQRORJ\ 106   Executing the Program 139
  Web Page 106   $6LPSOH&3URJUDP 141
  Web Browser 106   3DUWVRI&3URJUDP5HYLVLWHG 142
  Web Server 107   6WUXFWXUHRID&3URJUDP 144
  Internet Service Provider 107   &RQFHSWRID9DULDEOH 144
  Gateway 107   'DWD7\SHVLQ& 145

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.


  3URJUDP6WDWHPHQW 150
  'HFODUDWLRQ 151
  +RZGRHVWKH&RPSXWHU6WRUH'DWDLQ0HPRU\" 151
  How are Integers Stored? 151
 How are Floats and Doubles Stored? 152
  7RNHQ 154
  Identi¿er 154
  Keywords 154
  Constant 155
  Assignment 157
  Initialization 157
  2SHUDWRUVDQG([SUHVVLRQV 158
  Arithmetic Operators in C 159
  Relational Operators in C 163
  Logical Operators in C 164
  Bitwise Operators in C 164
  Conditional Operator in C 165
  Comma Operator 165
  sizeof Operator 166
  Expression Evaluation—Precedence and
Associativity 166
  ([SUHVVLRQV5HYLVLWHG 168
  /YDOXHVDQG5YDOXHV 169
rs
  7\SH&RQYHUVLRQLQ& 169
  Type Conversion in Expressions 169
ve
  Conversion by Assignment 170
  Casting Arithmetic Expressions 172
  :RUNLQJZLWK&RPSOH[1XPEHUV 177
ni
 ,1387$1'287387 
U
  ,QWURGXFWLRQ 183
  %DVLF6FUHHQDQG.H\ERDUG,2LQ& 184
  1RQIRUPDWWHG,QSXWDQG2XWSXW 184
d
  Single Character Input and Output 184
or
  Single Character Input 185
  Single Character Output 185
  Additional Single Character Input and Output
xf
Functions 185
 )RUPDWWHG,QSXWDQG2XWSXW)XQFWLRQV 188
O
  Output Function print f ( ) 188
  Input Function scanf ( ) 193
10. CONTROL STATEMENTS 202
  ,QWURGXFWLRQ 202
  6SHFLI\LQJ7HVW&RQGLWLRQIRU6HOHFWLRQDQG
,WHUDWLRQ 203
  :ULWLQJ7HVW([SUHVVLRQ 204
  Understanding How True and False is
Represented in C 205
  6HOHFWLRQ 208
  Selection Statements 208
© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.
Contents xiii
  The Conditional Operator 214
  The switch Statement 215
  ,WHUDWLRQ 219
  while Construct 220
  for Construct 224
  do-while Construct 232
  :KLFK/RRS6KRXOGEH8VHG" 233
  Using Sentinel Values 234
  Using Prime Read 234
  Using Counter 235
  goto6WDWHPHQW 236
  6SHFLDO&RQWURO6WDWHPHQWV 236
s
  1HVWHG/RRSV 238
es
11. ARRAYS AND STRINGS 246
  ,QWURGXFWLRQ 246
Pr
  2QHGLPHQVLRQDO$UUD\ 247
  Declaration of a One-dimensional Array 247
  Initializing Integer Arrays 249
ity


 Accessing Array Elements 250
 Other Allowed Operations 251
  Internal Representation of Arrays in C 252
  Variable Length Arrays and the C99
Changes 253
  Working with One-dimensional Array 253
  6WULQJV2QHGLPHQVLRQDO&KDUDFWHU$UUD\V 257
  Declaration of a String 257
  String Initialization 257
  Printing Strings 258
  String Input 259
  Character Manipulation in the String 264
  String Manipulation 265
  0XOWLGLPHQVLRQDO$UUD\V 271
  Declaration of a Two-dimensional Array 271
  Declaration of a Three-dimensional
Array 272
  Initialization of a Multidimensional
Array 272
  Unsized Array Initializations 273
  Accessing Multidimensional Arrays 273
  Working with Two-dimensional Arrays 274
  $UUD\RI6WULQJV7ZRGLPHQVLRQDO&KDUDFWHU
$UUD\ 277
  Initialization 277
  Manipulating String Arrays 277
12. FUNCTIONS 282
  ,QWURGXFWLRQ 282
  &RQFHSWRI)XQFWLRQ 283
  Why are Functions Needed? 283
  8VLQJ)XQFWLRQV 283
 xiv Contents
  Function Prototype Declaration 284
  Function De¿nition 284
  Function Calling 287
  &DOOE\9DOXH0HFKDQLVP 288
  :RUNLQJZLWK)XQFWLRQV 288
  3DVVLQJ$UUD\VWR)XQFWLRQV 290
  6FRSHDQG([WHQW 293
  Concept of Global and Local Variables 293
  Scope Rules 295
  6WRUDJH&ODVVHV 296
  Storage Class Speci¿ers for Variables 296
  Storage Class Speci¿ers for Functions 299
 Linkage 299
  7KH,QOLQH)XQFWLRQ 299
 5HFXUVLRQ 300
  What is Needed for Implementing
Recursion? 300
  How is Recursion Implemented? 304
  Comparing Recursion and Iteration 305
 6HDUFKLQJDQG6RUWLQJ 305
  Searching Algorithms 305
  Sorting Algorithms 306
 $QDO\VLVRI$OJRULWKPV 311
rs
  Asymptotic Notation 313
  Ef¿ciency of Linear Search 314
ve
  Binary Search Analysis 315
  Analysis of Bubble Sort 316
  Analysis of Quick Sort 317
ni
  Disadvantages of Complexity Analysis 317
U
13. POINTERS IN C 324
  ,QWURGXFWLRQ 324
d
  8QGHUVWDQGLQJ0HPRU\$GGUHVVHV 325
 3RLQWHUVWR3RLQWHUV 352
 $UUD\RI3RLQWHUV 354
 3RLQWHUWR$UUD\ 357
 7ZRGLPHQVLRQDO$UUD\VDQG3RLQWHUV 359
  Passing Two-dimensional Array to a
Function 360
  Three-dimensional Arrays 366
  Pointers to Functions 367
  Declaration of a Pointer to a Function 367
  Initialization of Function Pointers 367
  Calling a Function Using a Function
Pointer 367
s
  Passing a Function to Another Function 368
es
  How to Return a Function Pointer 369
  Arrays of Function Pointers 370
 '\QDPLF0HPRU\$OORFDWLRQ 370
Pr
  Dynamic Allocation of Arrays 372
  Freeing Memory 374
  Reallocating Memory Blocks 376

ity  Implementing Multidimensional Arrays
Using Pointers 377
 2IIVHWWLQJD3RLQWHU 380
 0HPRU\/HDNDQG0HPRU\&RUUXSWLRQ 381
 3RLQWHUDQG&RQVW4XDOL¿HU 382
  Pointer to Constant 382
  Constant Pointers 383
  Constant Parameters 383
14. USER-DEFINED DATA TYPES AND
9$5,$%/(6 
  ,QWURGXFWLRQ 394
  6WUXFWXUHV 394
  Declaring Structures and Structure
  $GGUHVVRI2SHUDWRU  326
or
  3RLQWHU 327
  Declaring a Pointer 328
xf
  Initializing Pointers 329
  Indirection Operator and Dereferencing 331
  9RLG3RLQWHU 332
O
  1XOO3RLQWHU 333
  8VHRI3RLQWHUV 334
  $UUD\VDQG3RLQWHUV 336
  One-dimensional Arrays and Pointers 336
  Passing an Array to a Function 339
  Differences between Array Name and
Pointer 340
  3RLQWHUVDQG6WULQJV 342
 3RLQWHU$ULWKPHWLF 343
  Assignment 343
  Addition or Subtraction with Integers 344
  Subtraction of Pointers 350
  Comparing Pointers 351
© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.
Variables 395
  Accessing the Members of a Structure 397
  Initialization of Structures 398
  Copying and Comparing Structures 401
  Typedef and its Use in Structure
Declarations 403
  Nesting of Structures 404
  Arrays of Structures 405
  Initializing Arrays of Structures 406
  Arrays within the Structure 406
  Structures and Pointers 406
  Structures and Functions 408
  8QLRQ 410
  Declaring a Union and its Members 410
  Accessing and Initializing the Members of a
Union 411
  Structure versus Union 412
  (QXPHUDWLRQ7\SHV 413
  %LW¿HOGV 414

15. FILES IN C
  ,QWURGXFWLRQ 
  8VLQJ)LOHVLQ& 
  Declaration of File Pointer 422
  Opening a File 422
  Closing and Flushing Files 423
  :RUNLQJZLWK7H[W)LOHV 
  Character Input and Output 424
  End of File (EOF) 425
  Detecting the End of a File Using the feof()
Function 430
  :RUNLQJZLWK%LQDU\)LOHV 
  'LUHFW)LOH,QSXWDQG2XWSXW 
  Sequential Versus Random File Access 432
  )LOHVRI5HFRUGV 
  Working with Files of Records 433
  5DQGRP$FFHVVWR)LOHVRI5HFRUGV 
  2WKHU)LOH0DQDJHPHQW)XQFWLRQV 
  /RZ/HYHO,2 442
Bibliography and References 
Index 
rs
ve
ni
U
d
or
xf
O
© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.
Contents xv
420 16. ADVANCED C 445
  ,QWURGXFWLRQ 445
  %LWZLVH2SHUDWRU 446
  Bitwise AND 446
  Bitwise OR 448
  Bitwise Exclusive-OR 448
  Bitwise NOT 449
  Bitwise Shift Operator 449
  &RPPDQGOLQH$UJXPHQWV 451
  7KH&3UHSURFHVVRU 454
  The C Preprocessor Directives 454
s
  Prede¿ned Macros 457
es
  7\SH4XDOL¿HU 
  const Quali¿er 459
  volatile Quali¿er 461
  restrict Quali¿er 461
Pr
  9DULDEOH/HQJWK$UJXPHQW/LVW 462
  0HPRU\0RGHOVDQG3RLQWHUV 463
ity
 Computer Fundamentals 1
C
H
$
P
T

Computer Fundamentals E
R 1

s
es
Pr
LEARNING
ity OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, the readers will be able to
rs
∑ trace the evolution of computers—generations and ∑ explain the hardware and software of a personal
ve

classification of computers computer

∑ explain the basic units of a computer system ∑ load an operating system (OS) in a personal computer
ni
U
d
or

UePePEeUV Whe LQSXW E\ VWRULQJ LW LQ PePRU\ FeOOV ,W WheQ

1.1 INTRODUCTION—WHAT IS A
SURFeVVeV Whe VWRUeG LQSXW E\ SeUIRUPLQJ FDOFXODWLRQV RU
xf

COMPUTER? E\ PDNLQJ ORJLFDO FRPSDULVRQV RU ERWh ,W JLYeV RXW Whe

The Oxford Dictionary Ge¿QeV D FRPSXWeU DV µDQ DXWRPDWLF UeVXOW RI Whe DULWhPeWLF RU ORJLFDO FRPSXWDWLRQV DV RXWSXW
O

eOeFWURQLF DSSDUDWXV IRU PDNLQJ FDOFXODWLRQV RU FRQWUROOLQJ
RSeUDWLRQV WhDW DUe e[SUeVVLEOe LQ QXPeULFDO RU ORJLFDO
WeUPV¶
The Ge¿QLWLRQ FOeDUO\ FDWeJRUL]eV Whe FRPSXWeU DV DQ
eOeFWURQLF DSSDUDWXV DOWhRXJh Whe ¿UVW FRPSXWeUV ZeUe
PeFhDQLFDO DQG eOeFWURPeFhDQLFDO DSSDUDWXVeV The
Ge¿QLWLRQ DOVR SRLQWV WRZDUGV Whe WZR PDMRU DUeDV RI FRPSXWeU
DSSOLFDWLRQ GDWD SURFeVVLQJ DQG FRPSXWeUDVVLVWeG FRQWUROV RU
RSeUDWLRQV $QRWheU LPSRUWDQW FRQFOXVLRQ RI Whe Ge¿QLWLRQ LV
Whe IDFW WhDW Whe FRPSXWeU FDQ SeUIRUP RQO\ WhRVe RSeUDWLRQV
RU FDOFXODWLRQV WhDW FDQ Ee e[SUeVVeG LQ ORJLFDO RU QXPeULFDO
WeUPV
$ FRPSXWeU LV D GDWD SURFeVVRU ,W FDQ DFFeSW LQSXW ZhLFh
PD\ Ee eLWheU GDWD RU LQVWUXFWLRQV RU ERWh The FRPSXWeU
LQIRUPDWLRQ The FRPSXWeU DFFeSWV LQSXW DQG RXWSXWV GDWD LQ
DQ DOShDQXPeULF IRUP ,QWeUQDOO\ LW FRQYeUWV Whe LQSXW GDWD WR
PeDQLQJIXO ELQDU\ GLJLWV SeUIRUPV Whe LQVWUXFWeG RSeUDWLRQV
RQ Whe ELQDU\ GDWD DQG WUDQVIRUPV Whe GDWD IURP ELQDU\ GLJLW
IRUP WR XQGeUVWDQGDEOe DOShDQXPeULF IRUP
1.2 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS—A BRIEF
HISTORY
Computing in the mechanical era
The FRQFeSW RI FDOFXODWLQJ PDFhLQeV eYROYeG ORQJ EeIRUe
Whe LQYeQWLRQ RI eOeFWULFDO DQG eOeFWURQLF GeYLFeV The ¿UVW
PeFhDQLFDO FDOFXODWLQJ DSSDUDWXV ZDV Whe abacus ZhLFh

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 2 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C
ZDV LQYeQWeG LQ  %C LQ %DE\ORQ ,W ZDV XVeG e[WeQVLYeO\
ZLWhRXW DQ\ LPSURYePeQW XQWLO  ZheQ %ODLVe PDVFDO
GeVLJQeG D FDOFXODWRU WhDW ePSOR\eG JeDUV DQG ZheeOV
%XW LW ZDV QRW XQWLO Whe eDUO\ V WhDW D SUDFWLFDO JeDUeG
PeFhDQLFDO FRPSXWLQJ FDOFXODWRU EeFDPe DYDLODEOe ThLV
0eDQZhLOe DW Te[DV ,QVWUXPeQWV -DFN .LOE\ LQYeQWeG Whe
LQWeJUDWeG FLUFXLW LQ  WhDW OeG WR Whe GeYeORSPeQW RI GLJLWDO
LQWeJUDWeG FLUFXLWV LQ Whe V ThLV OeG WR Whe GeYeORSPeQW
RI ,%0  P'P  DQG HP  LQ  TheVe
FRPSXWeUV XVeG PeGLXP DQG VPDOOVFDOe LQWeJUDWeG FLUFXLWV
PDFhLQe FRXOG FDOFXODWe IDFWV EXW ZDV QRW DEOe WR XVe D
SURJUDP WR FRPSXWe QXPeULFDO IDFWV
,Q  ChDUOeV %DEEDJe DLGeG E\ $XJXVWD $GD %\URQ
Whe CRXQWeVV RI /RYeODFe VWDUWeG DQ DPELWLRXV SURMeFW RI
SURGXFLQJ D SURJUDPPDEOe FDOFXODWLQJ PDFhLQe IRU Whe RR\DO
1DY\ RI *UeDW %ULWDLQ ,QSXW WR WhLV PeFhDQLFDO PDFhLQe
QDPeG Whe Analytical Engine ZDV JLYeQ WhURXJh SXQFheG
FDUGV ThLV eQJLQe VWRUeG  GLJLW GeFLPDO QXPEeUV
DQG D PRGL¿DEOe SURJUDP ZhLFh FRXOG YDU\ Whe RSeUDWLRQ RI
Whe PDFhLQe VR WhDW LW FRXOG e[eFXWe GLIIeUeQW FRPSXWLQJ MREV
%XW eYeQ DIWeU VeYeUDO \eDUV RI eIIRUW Whe PDFhLQe WhDW hDG
PRUe WhDQ  PeFhDQLFDO SDUWV FRXOG QRW RSeUDWe UeOLDEO\
EeFDXVe Whe SDUWV FRXOG QRW Ee PDFhLQeG WR SUeFLVLRQ
Computing in the electrical era
:LWh Whe DYDLODELOLW\ RI eOeFWULF PRWRUV LQ  D hRVW RI
PRWRURSeUDWeG FDOFXODWLQJ PDFhLQeV EDVeG RQ PDVFDO¶V
FDOFXODWRU ZDV GeYeORSeG $ PeFhDQLFDO PDFhLQe GULYeQ E\
D VLQJOe eOeFWULF PRWRU ZDV GeYeORSeG LQ  E\ HeUPDQ
rs
HROOeULWh WR FRXQW VRUW DQG FROODWe GDWD VWRUeG RQ SXQFheG
FDUGV HROOeULWh IRUPeG Whe TDEXODWLQJ 0DFhLQe CRPSDQ\ LQ
ve
 ThLV FRPSDQ\ VRRQ PeUJeG LQWR ,QWeUQDWLRQDO %XVLQeVV
06, DQG 66,
TheUeDIWeU LQ  ,QWeO CRUSRUDWLRQ DQQRXQFeG Whe
GeYeORSPeQW RI Whe VLQJOeFhLS PLFURSURFeVVRU  D
YeU\ ODUJeVFDOe LQWeJUDWeG FLUFXLW ,Q  Whe  ELW
PLFURSURFeVVRU ZDV LQWURGXFeG 6XEVeTXeQWO\ Whe 
DQG 0C  DSSeDUeG LQ  ZhLFh ZeUe LPSURYeG
ELW PLFURSURFeVVRUV The ODVW RI Whe ELW PLFURSURFeVVRU
s
IDPLO\ IURP ,QWeO  ZDV LQWURGXFeG DV D JeQeUDOSXUSRVe
SURFeVVRU LQ  ,Q  Whe  DQG LQ  Whe 
es
PLFURSURFeVVRUV ZeUe UeOeDVeG
ThRXJh GeVNWRS FRPSXWeUV ZeUe DYDLODEOe IURP 
RQZDUGV QRQe FRXOG JDLQ DV PXFh SRSXODULW\ DV Whe ,%0 PC
Pr
,Q  ,%0 XVeG Whe  PLFURSURFeVVRU LQ Whe SeUVRQDO
FRPSXWeU The  ELW PLFURSURFeVVRU FDPe LQ 
DV DQ XSGDWeG YeUVLRQ RI  The ELW PLFURSURFeVVRU
 DUULYeG LQ  DQG Whe  DUULYeG LQ  :LWh
ity
Whe LQWURGXFWLRQ RI Whe PeQWLXP LQ  D hLJhO\ LPSURYeG
SeUVRQDO FRPSXWeU ZDV DYDLODEOe DW DQ DIIRUGDEOe SULFe
:LWh Whe GeYeORSPeQW RI Whe GeVNWRS FRPSXWeUV LQ Whe
IRUP RI SeUVRQDO FRPSXWeUV DQG QeWZRUNLQJ Whe ZhROe
VFeQDULR RI FRPSXWLQJ hDV XQGeUJRQe D VeD FhDQJe 1RZ
SRUWDEOe FRPSXWeUV VXFh DV Whe ODSWRS DQG SDOPWRS DUe
0DFhLQeV ,%0 DQG Whe PeFhDQLFDO FRPSXWLQJ PDFhLQe DYDLODEOe ZhLFh FDQ e[eFXWe SURJUDPV VWRUe GDWD DQG RXWSXW
EXVLQeVV WhULYeG LQIRUPDWLRQ DW VSeeGV hLJheU WhDQ WhDW SRVVLEOe ZLWh DOO Whe
ni

,Q  .RQUDG =XVe GeYeORSeG Whe ¿UVW eOeFWURQLF eDUOLeU FRPSXWeUV EIIRUWV DUe QRZ EeLQJ PDGe WR LQWeJUDWe D
FDOFXODWLQJ FRPSXWeU Z3. ,W ZDV XVeG E\ Whe *eUPDQV LQ :RUOG SDOPWRS FRPSXWeU ZLWh D PRELOe ShRQe XQLW
U

:DU ,, HRZeYeU $ODQ TXULQJ LV FUeGLWeG ZLWh GeYeORSLQJ $ORQJ ZLWh Whe GeYeORSPeQW RI FRPSXWeU hDUGZDUe
Whe ¿UVW eOeFWURQLF FRPSXWeU LQ  ThLV FRPSXWeU V\VWeP SURJUDPPLQJ ODQJXDJeV ZeUe GeYLVeG DQG SeUIeFWeG ,Q Whe
QDPeG Whe Colossus ZDV D ¿[eGSURJUDP FRPSXWeU LW ZDV V $VVePEO\ ODQJXDJe ZDV GeYeORSeG IRU 81,9$C
d

QRW SURJUDPPDEOe FRPSXWeUV ,Q  ,%0 GeYeORSeG FORTRAN ODQJXDJe TheQ

-: 0DXFhO\ DQG 6P EFNeUW RI Whe 8QLYeUVLW\ RI LQ Whe \eDUV WhDW IROORZeG FDPe SURJUDPPLQJ ODQJXDJeV VXFh
or

PeQQV\OYDQLD FRPSOeWeG Whe ¿UVW JeQeUDOSXUSRVe eOeFWURQLF DV ALGOL, COBOL, BASIC, PASCAL, C/C++, ADA DQG JAVA
GLJLWDO FRPSXWeU LQ  ,W ZDV FDOOeG Whe ENIAC EOeFWURQLF
xf
1XPeULFDO ,QWeJUDWRU DQG CDOFXODWRU ,W XVeG  YDFXXP
WXEeV RYeU  PLOeV RI ZLUeV ZeLJheG  WRQV DQG SeUIRUPeG
DURXQG  RSeUDWLRQV SeU VeFRQG The IAS FRPSXWeU
O
V\VWeP XQGeU GeYeORSPeQW WLOO  E\ -RhQ YRQ 1eXPDQQ
DQG RWheUV DW Whe PULQFeWRQ ,QVWLWXWe ODLG Whe IRXQGDWLRQ RI
Whe JeQeUDO VWUXFWXUe RI VXEVeTXeQW JeQeUDOSXUSRVe FRPSX
WeUV ,Q Whe eDUO\ V 6SeUU\RDQG CRUSRUDWLRQ ODXQFheG
Whe 81,9$C , 81,9$C ,, 81,9$C  VeULeV ZhLOe ,%0
EURXJhW RXW 0DUN , DQG  VeULeV $OO WheVe PDFhLQeV XVeG
YDFXXP WXEeV
The WUDQVLVWRU ZDV LQYeQWeG DW %eOO /DEV LQ  ,Q
)XUWheU ZLWh Whe FUeDWLRQ RI Whe RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP 26
D VXSeUYLVRU SURJUDP IRU PDQDJLQJ FRPSXWeU UeVRXUFeV DQG
FRQWUROOLQJ Whe CP8 WR SeUIRUP YDULRXV MREV Whe FRPSXWeU¶V
RSeUDWLRQDO FDSDELOLW\ WRXFheG D QeZ GLPeQVLRQ TheUe DUe
D YDULeW\ RI RSeUDWLQJ V\VWePV WRGD\ 6RPe ZhLFh JDLQeG
SRSXODULW\ DUe UNIX IRU ODUJe DQG PLQLFRPSXWeUV DQG MSDOS
DQG MS-WINDOWS IRU SeUVRQDO FRPSXWeUV HRZeYeU ZLWh Whe
DYDLODELOLW\ RI LINUX D WUeQG WR FhDQJe RYeU WR WhLV RSeUDWLQJ
V\VWeP LV RQ
1.3 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
:hDW JeQeUDWLRQ D FRPSXWeU EeORQJV WR LV GeWeUPLQeG E\ Whe
 ,%0 ,QWeUQDWLRQDO CRPSXWeUV /LPLWeG ,C/ 'LJLWDO WeFhQRORJ\ LW XVeV TDEOe  VhRZV Whe WeFhQRORJ\ XVeG LQ Whe
ETXLSPeQW CRUSRUDWLRQ 'EC DQG RWheUV EURXJhW RXW GLIIeUeQW JeQeUDWLRQV RI FRPSXWeUV :LWh DGYDQFePeQW LQ Whe
JeQeUDOSXUSRVe FRPSXWeUV XVLQJ WUDQVLVWRUV WhDW ZeUe IDVWeU JeQeUDWLRQ Whe SeUIRUPDQFe RI FRPSXWeUV LPSURYeG QRW RQO\
VPDOOeU LQ VL]e ZeLJheG OeVV QeeGeG OeVV SRZeU DQG ZeUe GXe WR Whe LPSOePeQWDWLRQ RI EeWWeU hDUGZDUe WeFhQRORJ\ EXW
PRUe UeOLDEOe DOVR VXSeULRU RSeUDWLQJ V\VWePV DQG RWheU VRIWZDUe XWLOLWLeV

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Computer Fundamentals 3
Table 1.1 Technology used in different generations of computers

Generation Technology Operating Year of introduction 5RGEKſEEQORWVGTU

number system
1 Vacuum Tube None 1945 Mark 1
2 Transistor None 1956 IBM 1401, ICL 1901, B5000, MINSK-2
3 SSI and MSI Yes 1964 IBM S/360/370, UNIVAC 1100,
HP 2100A, HP 9810
4 LSI and VLSI Yes 1971 ICL 2900, HP 9845A, VAX 11/780, ALTAIR 8800, IBM PC
5 HAL Yes Present and beyond –

s
YDULRXV ,2 SRUWV W\SLFDOO\ UeVLGeG LQ D PRWheUERDUG TheUe
1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

es
DUe PDQ\ W\SeV RI PLFURFRPSXWeUV DYDLODEOe
0RVW GeVLJQV RI FRPSXWeUV WRGD\ DUe EDVeG RQ FRQFeSWV Ge
Desktop computer $ PLFUR FRPSXWeU VXI¿FLeQW WR ¿W RQ D GeVN
YeORSeG E\ -RhQ YRQ 1eXPDQQ DQG DUe UeIeUUeG WR DV Whe YRQ

Pr
1eXPDQQ DUFhLWeFWXUe CRPSXWeUV FDQ Ee FODVVL¿eG LQ YDULeW\ Laptop computer $ SRUWDEOe PLFURFRPSXWeU ZLWh DQ LQWe
RI ZD\V RQ Whe EDVLV RI YDULRXV SDUDPeWeUV VXFh DV XVDJe JUDWeG VFUeeQ DQG Ne\ERDUG
FRVW VL]e SURFeVVLQJ SRZeU DQG VR RQ The FODVVL¿FDWLRQ RI
Palmtop computer/Digital diary/Notebook/PDAs $ hDQG
FRPSXWeUV LV SUeVeQWeG EeORZ EDVeG RQ WheLU SRZeU DQG WheLU
VL]eG PLFURFRPSXWeU hDYLQJ QR Ne\ERDUG The VFUeeQ VeUYeV
ity
XVe
ERWh DV DQ LQSXW DQG RXWSXW GeYLFe
Supercomputer
rs
6XSeUFRPSXWeU LV Whe PRVW e[SeQVLYe DQG IDVWeVW W\Se RI 1.5 ANATOMY OF A COMPUTER
FRPSXWeU WhDW SeUIRUPV DW RU QeDU Whe FXUUeQWO\ hLJheVW
RSeUDWLRQDO UDWe IRU FRPSXWeUV $ CUD\ VXSeUFRPSXWeU LV $ FRPSXWeU FDQ DFFeSW LQSXW SURFeVV RU VWRUe GDWD DQG
ve

D W\SLFDO e[DPSOe TheVe DUe ePSOR\eG IRU VSeFLDOL]eG SURGXFe RXWSXW DFFRUGLQJ WR D VeW RI LQVWUXFWLRQV ZhLFh
DSSOLFDWLRQV WhDW UeTXLUe LPPeQVe DPRXQWV RI PDWhePDWLFDO DUe IeG LQWR LW $ FRPSXWeU V\VWeP FDQ Ee GLYLGeG LQWR
FDOFXODWLRQV VXFh DV ZeDWheU IRUeFDVWLQJ QXFOeDU eQeUJ\ WZR FRPSRQeQWV ZhLFh DUe UeVSRQVLEOe IRU SURYLGLQJ Whe
ni

UeVeDUFh DQG SeWUROeXP e[SORUDWLRQ eWF PeFhDQLVPV WR LQSXW DQG RXWSXW GDWD WR PDQLSXODWe DQG
SURFeVV GDWD DQG WR eOeFWURQLFDOO\ FRQWURO Whe YDULRXV LQSXW
Mainframe
U

RXWSXW DQG WheLU VWRUDJe The\ DUe NQRZQ DV hDUGZDUe DQG

$ PDLQIUDPe FRPSXWeU VXSSRUWV D YDVW QXPEeU RI XVeUV WR VRIWZDUe The hardware LV Whe WDQJLEOe SDUWV RI Whe FRPSXWeU
ZRUN VLPXOWDQeRXVO\ DQG UePRWeO\ $SDUW IURP SURYLGLQJ :heUeDV Whe software LV Whe LQWDQJLEOe VeW RI LQVWUXFWLRQV
d

PXOWLXVeU IDFLOLW\ LW FDQ SURFeVV ODUJe DPRXQWV RI GDWD DW YeU\ WhDW FRQWURO Whe hDUGZDUe DQG PDNe LW SeUIRUP VSeFL¿F WDVNV
hLJh VSeeGV DQG VXSSRUW PDQ\ LQSXW RXWSXW DQG DX[LOLDU\ :LWhRXW VRIWZDUe D FRPSXWeU LV eIIeFWLYeO\ XVeOeVV
or

VWRUDJe GeYLFeV TheVe FRPSXWeUV DUe YeU\ ODUJe LQ VL]e DQG

e[SeQVLYe The PDLQ GLIIeUeQFe EeWZeeQ D VXSeUFRPSXWeU 1.5.1 Hardware
xf

DQG D PDLQIUDPe LV WhDW D VXSeUFRPSXWeU FDQ e[eFXWe D VLQJOe HDUGZDUe LV Whe Sh\VLFDO FRPSRQeQWV RI D FRPSXWeU WhDW
SURJUDP IDVWeU WhDQ D PDLQIUDPe ZheUeDV D PDLQIUDPe XVeV LQFOXGeV DOO PeFhDQLFDO eOeFWULFDO eOeFWURQLF DQG PDJQeWLF
LWV SRZeU WR e[eFXWe PDQ\ SURJUDPV FRQFXUUeQWO\ The ,%0 SDUWV DWWDFheG WR LW $ FRPSXWeU FRQVLVWV RI Whe IROORZLQJ
O

 DQG ,%0  DUe e[DPSOeV RI PDLQIUDPe FRPSXWeUV PDMRU hDUGZDUe FRPSRQeQWV
Minicomputers ∑ ,QSXW DQG RXWSXW GeYLFeV
$ PLQLFRPSXWeU LV SRZeUIXO eQRXJh WR Ee XVeG E\ PXOWLSOe ∑ CeQWUDO SURFeVVLQJ XQLW CP8
XVeUV EeWZeeQ  WR  EXW LV VPDOOeU LQ VL]e DQG PePRU\
FDSDFLW\ DQG FheDSeU WhDQ PDLQIUDPeV TZR FODVVLF e[DPSOeV
ZeUe Whe 'LJLWDO ETXLSPeQW CRUSRUDWLRQ 9$; DQG Whe ,%0
$6
Microcomputers
The PLFURFRPSXWeU hDV EeeQ LQWeQGeG WR PeeW Whe SeUVRQDO
FRPSXWLQJ QeeGV RI DQ LQGLYLGXDO ,W W\SLFDOO\ FRQVLVWV RI D
PLFURSURFeVVRU FhLS D PePRU\ V\VWeP LQWeUIDFe XQLWV DQG
∑ 0ePRU\ XQLW DQG VWRUDJe GeYLFeV
∑ ,QWeUIDFe XQLW
$ EULeI GeVFULSWLRQ RI Whe PRVW FRPPRQ hDUGZDUe IRXQG LQ
D SeUVRQDO FRPSXWeU LV JLYeQ LQ Whe Qe[W IeZ VeFWLRQV
Input devices
The GDWD DQG LQVWUXFWLRQV DUe W\SeG VXEPLWWeG RU WUDQVPLWWeG
WR D FRPSXWeU WhURXJh LQSXW GeYLFeV ,QSXW GeYLFeV DUe
eOeFWURQLF RU eOeFWURPeFhDQLFDO eTXLSPeQW WhDW SURYLGe

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 4 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C
D PeDQV RI FRPPXQLFDWLQJ ZLWh Whe FRPSXWeU V\VWeP IRU
IeeGLQJ LQSXW GDWD DQG LQVWUXFWLRQV 0RVW FRPPRQ LQSXW
GeYLFeV DUe EULeÀ\ GeVFULEeG EeORZ
Keyboard .e\ERDUG LV OLNe D W\SeZULWeU $ Ne\ERDUG
QRUPDOO\ FRQVLVWV RI  Ne\V TheVe Ne\V DUe FODVVL¿eG LQWR
GLIIeUeQW FDWeJRULeV ZhLFh DUe EULeÀ\ GeVFULEeG EeORZ
Character keys TheVe Ne\V LQFOXGe OeWWeUV QXPEeUV
DQG SXQFWXDWLRQ PDUNV 2Q SUeVVLQJ DQ\ FhDUDFWeU Ne\ Whe
FRUUeVSRQGLQJ FhDUDFWeU LV GLVSOD\eG RQ Whe VFUeeQ
Function keys TheUe DUe  IXQFWLRQDO Ne\V DERYe Whe Ne\
ERDUG ZhLFh DUe XVeG WR SeUIRUP FeUWDLQ IXQFWLRQV GeSeQGLQJ
RQ Whe RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP RU Whe VRIWZDUe FXUUeQWO\ EeLQJ
e[eFXWeG TheVe Ne\V DUe SODFeG DW Whe WRS RI Whe Ne\ ERDUG
DQG FDQ eDVLO\ Ee LGeQWL¿eG ZLWh Whe OeWWeU ) IROORZeG E\ D
QXPEeU UDQJLQJ IURP  WR 
Control keys $OW CWUO 6hLIW ,QVeUW 'eOeWe HRPe EQG
PJ8S PJ'Q EVF DQG $UURZ Ne\V DUe FRQWURO Ne\V
Navigation keys TheVe LQFOXGe IRXU DUURZV PDJe 8S DQG
PDJe 'RZQ HRPe DQG EQG TheVe Ne\V DUe QRUPDOO\ XVeG WR
QDYLJDWe DURXQG D GRFXPeQW RU VFUeeQ
Toggle keys 6FUROO /RFN 1XP ORFN CDSV /RFN DUe WhUee
rs
WRJJOe Ne\V The WRJJOe VWDWe LV LQGLFDWeG E\ WhUee /E'V DW Whe
RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP RU Whe VRIWZDUe FXUUeQWO\ EeLQJ e[eFXWeG
DQG e[eFXWLQJ YDULRXV WDVNV ,W hDV WZR RU WhUee EXWWRQV IRU
FOLFNLQJ The PRXVe WUDFNV Whe PRWLRQ RI Whe PRXVe SRLQWeU
DQG VeQVeV Whe FOLFNV DQG VeQGV WheP WR Whe FRPSXWeU VR LW FDQ
UeVSRQG DSSURSULDWeO\
The PRXVe FDQ Ee FRQQeFWeG WR Whe V\VWeP eLWheU WhURXJh
D 86% FRQQeFWRU RU ZLUeOeVVO\ WhURXJh LQIUDUeG UDGLDWLRQ $
ZLUeOeVV PRXVe QeeGV WR Ee SRZeUeG WhURXJh EDWWeULeV
Scanner $ VFDQQeU LV D GeYLFe
WhDW FDSWXUeV SLFWXUeV RU GRFXPeQWV
VR WhDW Whe\ FDQ Ee VWRUeG LQ VWRUDJe
s
GeYLFeV VeeQ RQ Whe YLGeR VFUeeQ
PRGL¿eG VXLWDEO\ WUDQVSRUWeG WR RWheU
es
FRPSXWeUV RU SULQWeG RQ D SULQWeU $ SeUVRQDO FRPSXWeU ZLWh
D VFDQQeU DQG SULQWeU FDQ IXQFWLRQ DV D ShRWRFRSLeU
Output devices
Pr
2XWSXW GeYLFeV PLUURU Whe LQSXW GDWD RU VhRZ Whe RXWSXW
UeVXOWV RI Whe RSeUDWLRQV RQ Whe LQSXW GDWD RU SULQW Whe GDWD
The PRVW FRPPRQ RXWSXW GeYLFe LV PRQLWRU RU YLVXDO GLVSOD\
ity
XQLW The SULQWeU LV XVeG WR SULQW Whe UeVXOW $ hDUG FRS\ UeIeUV
WR D SULQWRXW VhRZLQJ Whe LQIRUPDWLRQ 2Q Whe RWheU hDQG VRIW
FRS\ PeDQV LQIRUPDWLRQ VWRUeG RQ D VWRUDJe GeYLFe
Monitor CRPSXWeU GLVSOD\ GeYLFeV DUe FRPPRQO\ NQRZQ
ULJhWWRS VLGe RI Whe Ne\ERDUG )RU e[DPSOe RQ SUeVVLQJ FDSV DV 9LVXDO 'LVSOD\ 8QLW 9'8 RU PRQLWRU ,W RSeUDWeV RQ D
ve

ORFN OeWWeUV W\SeG E\ Whe XVeU ZLOO DSSeDU LQ XSSeU FDVe 2Q SULQFLSOe VLPLODU WR WhDW RI D QRUPDO WeOeYLVLRQ VeW 9DULRXV
SUeVVLQJ DJDLQ OeWWeUV DUe W\SeG RQ Whe VFUeeQ LQ ORZeU FDVe WeFhQRORJLeV hDYe EeeQ XVeG
Miscellaneous keys TheVe Ne\V LQFOXGe ,QVeUW GeOeWe IRU FRPSXWeU PRQLWRUV The\
ni

eVFDSe SULQW 6FUeeQ eWF DUe DOVR RI GLIIeUeQW VL]eV

CRT CDWhRGeUD\ WXEe DQG
The Ne\V RQ Whe Ne\ERDUG
U

/C' OLTXLG FU\VWDO GLVSOD\

DUe SODFeG LQ D VeULeV RI URZV
PRQLWRUV DUe Whe WZR FRPPRQ
DQG FROXPQV FDOOeG Whe key
W\SeV ZhLFh DUe ZLGeO\ XVeG
d

matrix EDFh Ne\ hROGV D

The CRT LV FRPSRVeG RI
SRVLWLRQ ZLWh UeVSeFW WR D
D YDFXXP JODVV WXEe ZhLFh
or

URZ DQG FROXPQ :heQ D

LV QDUURZeU DW RQe eQG 2Qe
Ne\ LV SUeVVeG Whe Ne\ VZLWFh LQ WhDW SRVLWLRQ FORVeV D FLUFXLW
eOeFWURQ JXQ LV SODFeG DW WhLV
VeQGLQJ D VLJQDO WR Whe FLUFXLW ERDUG LQVLGe Whe Ne\ERDUG
xf

eQG ZhLFh ¿UeV eOeFWURQV The eOeFWURQ JXQ LV PDGe XS RI

The Ne\ERDUG FRQWUROOeU XVeV Whe [ DQG \ FRRUGLQDWeV RI Whe
FDWhRGe QeJDWLYeO\ FhDUJeG DQG RQe DQRGe SRVLWLYeO\
PDWUL[ SRVLWLRQ WR GeWeUPLQe ZhLFh Ne\ ZDV SUeVVeG WheUeE\
O

FhDUJeG 2Q Whe RWheU VLGe LW hDV D ZLGe VFUeeQ FRGeG ZLWh

GeWeUPLQLQJ ZhDW FRGe LV WUDQVPLWWeG WR Whe FRPSXWeU E\ Whe
ShRVShRU The EeDP RI eOeFWURQ VWULNeV RQ Whe VXUIDFe RI
Ne\ERDUG
VFUeeQ DQG SURGXFeV DQ LPDJe E\ ShRWR OXPLQDQFe SURFeVV
Mouse $ PRXVe LV Whe TheUe LV VRPe YeUWLFDO DQG hRUL]RQWDO FRLO WR GeÀeFW Whe
SRLQWLQJ GeYLFe DWWDFheG eOeFWURQ EeDP LQ DQ\ SRVLWLRQ RI Whe VFUeeQ $Q LPDJe LV
WR D FRPSXWeU ,W LV XVeG WR IRUPeG E\ FRQVWDQWO\ VFDQQLQJ Whe VFUeeQ TR VeQG DQ LPDJe
PRYe Whe FXUVRU DURXQG Whe WR Whe VFUeeQ Whe FRPSXWeU ¿UVW DVVePEOeV LW LQ D PePRU\
VFUeeQ DQG WR SRLQW WR DQ DUeD FDOOeG D YLGeR EXIIeU The JUDShLFV DUe VWRUeG DV DQ
REMeFW VXFh DV LFRQ PeQX DUUD\ RI PePRU\ ORFDWLRQV WhDW UeSUeVeQW Whe FRORUV RI Whe
FRPPDQG EXWWRQ eWF RQ LQGLYLGXDO VFUeeQ GRWV RU SL[eOV The YLGeR FDUG WheQ VeQGV
Whe FRPSXWeU YLGeR VFUeeQ WhLV GDWD WhURXJh D 'LJLWDO TR $QDORJ CRQYeUWeU '$C
IRU Whe SXUSRVe RI VeOeFWLQJ ZhLFh FRQYeUWV Whe GDWD WR D VeULeV RI YROWDJe OeYeOV WhDW DUe
RU DFWLYDWLQJ REMeFWV RQ JUDShLFDO LQWeUIDFe SURYLGeG E\ Whe IeG WR Whe PRQLWRU

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.


CRT PRQLWRUV DUe WRR EXON\ DQG FRQVXPe hLJh SRZeU
$SDUW IURP WheVe XVeUV DUe YeU\ PXFh FRQFeUQeG DERXW
SRWeQWLDOO\ GDPDJLQJ QRQLRQL]LQJ UDGLDWLRQ IURP CRT
PRQLWRU
1RZDGD\V /C' PRQLWRUV DUe UeSODFLQJ CRTV DQG
EeFRPLQJ Whe GeIDFWR FhRLFe WR Whe XVeUV EeFDXVe RI LWV
VL]e, GLVSOD\ FODULW\, ORZ UDGLDWLRQ ePLVVLRQ DQG SRZeU
FRQVXPSWLRQ.
$Q /C' GLVSOD\ SURGXFeV DQ
LPDJe E\ ¿OWeULQJ OLJhW IURP D
VeULeV RI FROG FDWhRGe ÀXRUeVFeQW
Computer Fundamentals 5
Whe SDSeU VXUIDFe ThXV Whe VPDOO GURSV RI
LQN DUe DUUDQJeG LQ Whe VXUIDFe DFFRUGLQJ
WR Whe FhDUDFWeU LW SULQWV TheVe SULQWeUV DUe
IDVW DQG FDSDEOe RI SULQWLQJ JRRG TXDOLW\
JUDShLFV The laser printer XVeV D ODVeU
EeDP WR FUeDWe Whe LPDJe
Central processing unit (CPU)
CeQWUDO PURFeVVLQJ 8QLW RU CP8
FDQ Ee WhRXJhW RI DV Whe EUDLQ RI Whe
FRPSXWeU 0RVW RI Whe SURFeVVLQJ
ODPSV CC)/VWhURXJh D OD\eU WDNeV SODFe LQ CP8 'XULQJ

s
RI OLTXLG FU\VWDO FeOOV *UDGXDOO\ SURFeVVLQJ LW ORFDWeV DQG e[eFXWeV

es
CC)/ EDFNOLJhWLQJ WeFhQRORJ\ Whe SURJUDP LQVWUXFWLRQV ,W DOVR
LV EeLQJ UeSODFeG E\ ORZSRZeU IeWFheV GDWD IURP PePRU\ DQG
OLJhWePLWWLQJ GLRGeV /E'V $ FRPSXWeU VFUeeQ WhDW XVeV LQSXWRXWSXW GeYLFeV DQG VeQGV GDWD
EDFN

Pr
WhLV WeFhQRORJ\ LV VRPeWLPeV UeIeUUeG WR DV DQ /E' GLVSOD\
Ph\VLFDOO\ LW LV DQ LQWeJUDWeG FLUFXLW ,C VLOLFRQ FhLS
Printer The SULQWeU LV D GeYLFe WhDW SULQWV DQ\ GDWD UeSRUW PRXQWeG RQ D VPDOO VTXDUe SODVWLF VODE VXUURXQGeG E\
GRFXPeQW SLFWXUe GLDJUDPV eWF PULQWeUV DUe FDWeJRUL]eG PeWDO SLQV ,Q Whe ZRUOG RI SeUVRQDO FRPSXWeUV Whe WeUP
EDVeG RQ Whe Sh\VLFDO ity
PLFURSURFeVVRU DQG CP8 DUe XVeG LQWeUFhDQJeDEO\ ,W LV PRUe
FRQWDFW RI Whe SULQW DFFXUDWe WR GeVFULEe LW DV D CP8 RQ D FhLS EeFDXVe LW FRQWDLQV
heDG ZLWh Whe SDSeU Whe FLUFXLWU\ WhDW SeUIRUPV SURFeVVLQJ
rs
WR SURGXFe D We[W RU The CP8 LWVeOI FDQ Ee GLYLGeG LQWR GLIIeUeQW IXQFWLRQDO
DQ LPDJe $Q impact XQLWV ZhLFh DUe GeVFULEeG EeORZ
printer LV RQe ZheUe
ve

Whe SULQW heDG ZLOO Ee Registers TheVe DUe hLJhVSeeG VWRUDJe GeYLFeV ,Q PRVW
LQ Sh\VLFDO FRQWDFW CP8V VRPe UeJLVWeUV DUe UeVeUYeG IRU VSeFLDO SXUSRVeV
ZLWh Whe SDSeU ,Q D Wide-carriage dot matrix printer. Courtesy: )RU e[DPSOe Whe ,QVWUXFWLRQ ReJLVWeU ,R hROGV Whe FXUUeQW
ni

non–impact printer Dale Mahalko

6JKUſNGKUNKEGPUGFWPFGT LQVWUXFWLRQ EeLQJ e[eFXWeG The PURJUDP CRXQWeU PC LV
the Creative Commons Attribution-
RQ Whe RWheU hDQG Whe Share Alike 3.0 Unported license; http:// D UeJLVWeU WhDW hROGV Whe DGGUeVV RI Whe Qe[W LQVWUXFWLRQ WR
U

SULQW heDG ZLOO hDYe creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ Ee e[eFXWeG ,Q DGGLWLRQ WR VXFh DQG RWheU VSeFLDOSXUSRVe
QR Sh\VLFDO FRQWDFW deed.en) UeJLVWeUV LW DOVR FRQWDLQV D VeW RI JeQeUDOSXUSRVe UeJLVWeUV
ZLWh Whe SDSeU The WhDW DUe XVeG IRU WePSRUDU\ VWRUDJe RI GDWD YDOXeV DV QeeGeG
d

'RW PDWUL[ SULQWeU LV FRQVLGeUeG DV DQ ,PSDFW SULQWeU DQG GXULQJ SURFeVVLQJ

/DVeU SULQWeU LV FRQVLGeUeG DV 1RQLPSDFW SULQWeU
or

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) ,W LV Whe SDUW RI Whe CP8

,Q D dot matrix printer Whe SULQWeU heDG Sh\VLFDOO\ µhLWV¶
WhDW SeUIRUPV DULWhPeWLF RSeUDWLRQV VXFh DV DGGLWLRQ DQG
Whe SDSeU WhURXJh Whe ULEERQ ZhLFh PDNeV Whe VSeeG RI
VXEWUDFWLRQ DV ZeOO DV ORJLFDO RSeUDWLRQV VXFh DV FRPSDULQJ
xf

Whe SULQWeU UeODWLYeO\ VORZ The

SULQWeU heDG FRQVLVW RI VRPe WZR WZR QXPEeUV WR Vee LI Whe\ DUe Whe eTXDO RU JUeDWeU RU OeVV
O

GLPeQVLRQDO DUUD\ RI GRW FDOOeG Control unit (CU) The FRQWURO XQLW FRRUGLQDWeV Whe
µGRW PDWUL[¶ EYeU\ WLPe ZheQ LW SURFeVVLQJ E\ FRQWUROOLQJ Whe WUDQVIeU RI GDWD DQG LQVWUXFWLRQV
VWULNeV Whe SDSeU WhURXJh ULEERQ EeWZeeQ PDLQ PePRU\ DQG Whe UeJLVWeUV LQ Whe CP8 ,W DOVR
LWV GRWV DUe DUUDQJeG DFFRUGLQJ WR
Whe FhDUDFWeU ZhLFh LV JRLQJ WR Ee
SULQWeG The LQN LQ Whe ULEERQ IDOOV
RQ Whe VXUIDFe RI Whe SDSeU DQG WhXV
Whe FhDUDFWeU JeW SULQWeG ,Q inkjet
printer LQVWeDG RI D ULEERQ RQe LQN
FDUWULGJe hROGV Whe LQN LQ LW The\ DUe SODFeG DERYe Whe LQNMeW
heDG The SULQWLQJ heDG WDNeV VRPe LQN IURP Whe FDUWULGJe
DQG VSUeDGV LW RQ Whe VXUIDFe RI Whe SDSeU E\ Whe MeW heDG ThLV
LQN LV eOeFWULFDOO\ FhDUJeG $Q eOeFWULF ¿eOG LV FUeDWeG QeDU
© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.
FRRUGLQDWeV Whe e[eFXWLRQ RI Whe DULWhPeWLF ORJLF XQLW $/8
WR SeUIRUP RSeUDWLRQV RQ GDWD VWRUeG LQ SDUWLFXODU UeJLVWeUV ,W
FRQVLVWV RI
∑ DQ instruction decoding circuit WhDW LQWeUSUeWV ZhDW DFWLRQ
VhRXOG Ee SeUIRUPeG
∑ D control and timing circuit GLUeFWV DOO Whe RWheU SDUWV RI Whe
FRPSXWeU E\ SURGXFLQJ Whe UeVSeFWLYe FRQWURO VLJQDOV
1RZDGD\V D hLJhVSeeG PePRU\ FDOOeG cache memory
LV ePEeGGeG ZLWh Whe CP8 FhLS ThLV LPSURYeV Whe FRPSXWeU
 6 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C
SeUIRUPDQFe E\ PLQLPL]LQJ Whe SURFeVVRU QeeG WR UeDG GDWD
IURP Whe VORZ PDLQ PePRU\
The CP8¶V SURFeVVLQJ SRZeU LV PeDVXUeG LQ WeUPV RI
Whe QXPEeU RI LQVWUXFWLRQV WhDW LW FDQ e[eFXWe SeU XQLW WLPe
EYeU\ FRPSXWeU FRPSULVeV RI DQ LQWeUQDO FORFN ZhLFh ePLWV
eOeFWURQLF SXOVeV DW D FRQVWDQW UDWe TheVe SXOVeV DUe XVeG WR
FRQWURO DQG V\QFhURQL]e Whe SDFe RI RSeUDWLRQV EDFh SXOVe LV
FDOOeG D clock cycle ZhLFh UeVePEOeV D UeFWDQJXODU ZDYe ZLWh
D ULVLQJ hDOI RI Whe VLJQDO DQG D IDOOLQJ hDOI ,Q RWheU ZRUGV
D IXOO FORFN F\FOe LV Whe DPRXQW RI WLPe WhDW eODSVeV EeWZeeQ
SXOVeV RI Whe RVFLOODWLQJ VLJQDO EDFh LQVWUXFWLRQ WDNeV RQe
RU PRUe FORFN F\FOeV WR e[eFXWe The hLJheU Whe FORFN VSeeG
Whe PRUe LQVWUXFWLRQV DUe e[eFXWeG LQ D JLYeQ SeULRG RI WLPe
UeJLVWeUV WheUe DUe PDLQO\ WZR W\SeV RI PePRU\ WhDW DUe XVeG
LQ D FRPSXWeU V\VWeP 2Qe LV FDOOeG primary memory DQG Whe
RWheU secondary memory
Primary memory PULPDU\ PePRU\ LV Whe DUeD ZheUe GDWD
DQG SURJUDPV DUe VWRUeG ZhLOe Whe SURJUDP LV EeLQJ e[eFXWeG
DORQJ ZLWh Whe GDWD ThLV PePRU\ VSDFe DOVR NQRZQ DV
main memory IRUPV Whe ZRUNLQJ DUeD RI Whe SURJUDP ThLV
PePRU\ LV DFFeVVeG GLUeFWO\ E\ Whe SURFeVVRU
$ PePRU\ PRGXOe FRQVLVWV RI D ODUJe EDQN RI ÀLSÀRSV
DUUDQJeG WRJeWheU ZLWh GDWD WUDI¿F FRQWURO FLUFXLWU\ VXFh WhDW
GDWD FDQ Ee VWRUeG RU UeDG RXW RQ RU IURP D VeW RI ÀLSÀRSV $
ÀLSÀRS FDQ VWRUe D ELQDU\ GLJLW TheVe ÀLSÀRSV DUe JURXSeG
s
WR IRUP D XQLW PePRU\ RI ¿[eG OeQJWh DQG eDFh RI ZhLFh
es
HeUW] H] LV Whe EDVLF XQLW RI FRPSXWeU FORFN IUeTXeQF\ LV LGeQWL¿eG E\ D VeTXeQFe QXPEeU NQRZQ DV D PePRU\
ZhLFh LV eTXDO WR RQe F\FOe SeU VeFRQG CP8 VSeeG hDV EeeQ DGGUeVV TheVe W\Se DUe FDOOeG RDQGRP $FFeVV 0ePRU\
LPSURYeG FRQWLQXRXVO\ ,W LV W\SLFDOO\ PeDVXUeG LQ PeJDheUW] RU R$0 ZheUe DQ\ ORFDWLRQ FDQ Ee DFFeVVeG GLUeFWO\ DQG

Pr
0H] RU JLJDheUW] *H] 2Qe PeJDheUW] LV eTXDO WR RQe
PLOOLRQ F\FOeV SeU VeFRQG ZhLOe RQe JLJDheUW] eTXDOV RQe
ELOOLRQ F\FOeV SeU VeFRQG
1RZDGD\V PXOWLSOe SURFeVVRUV DUe ePEeGGeG WRJeWheU RQ D
VLQJOe LQWeJUDWeGFLUFXLW FhLS NQRZQ DV PXOWLFRUe SURFeVVRU
eJ D dual-core processor hDV WZR CP8V DQG D quad core
processor hDV IRXU CP8V
rs
LWV VWRUeG FRQWeQWV JeW GeVWUR\eG Whe PRPeQW SRZeU WR WhLV
PRGXOe LV VZLWFheG RII HeQFe WheVe DUe YRODWLOe LQ QDWXUe
PULPDU\ PePRU\ GeYLFeV DUe e[SeQVLYe The\ DUe OLPLWeG LQ
VL]e FRQVXPe YeU\ ORZ SRZeU DQG DUe IDVWeU DV FRPSDUeG WR
ity
VeFRQGDU\ PePRU\ GeYLFeV
TheUe LV DQRWheU NLQG RI SULPDU\ PePRU\ LQFUeDVLQJO\
EeLQJ XVeG LQ PRGeUQ FRPSXWeUV ,W LV FDOOeG cache memory
Note
ve
∑ An integrated circuit, or IC, is a matrix of transistors and
other electrical components embedded in a small slice of
silicon.
ni
∑ A microprocessor is a digital electronic component with
miniaturized transistors on a single semiconductor
U
integrated circuit (IC). One or more microprocessors
typically serve as a central processing unit (CPU) in a
computer system or handheld device allocating space to
hold the data object.
d
or
Memory unit
CRPSRQeQWV VXFh DV Whe LQSXW GeYLFe RXWSXW GeYLFe DQG
CP8 DUe QRW VXI¿FLeQW IRU Whe ZRUNLQJ RI D FRPSXWeU $
xf
VWRUDJe DUeD LV QeeGeG LQ D FRPSXWeU WR VWRUe LQVWUXFWLRQV DQG
GDWD eLWheU WePSRUDULO\ RU SeUPDQeQWO\ VR WhDW VXEVeTXeQW
O
UeWULeYDO RI Whe LQVWUXFWLRQV DQG GDWD FDQ Ee SRVVLEOe RQ
GePDQG 'DWD DUe VWRUeG LQ PePRU\ DV ELQDU\ GLJLWV FDOOeG
bits 'DWD RI YDULRXV W\SeV VXFh DV QXPEeUV FhDUDFWeUV DUe
eQFRGeG DV VeULeV RI ELWV DQG VWRUeG LQ FRQVeFXWLYe PePRU\
ORFDWLRQV EDFh PePRU\ ORFDWLRQ FRPSULVeV RI D VLQJOe E\We
ZhLFh LV eTXDO WR eLJhW ELWV DQG hDV D XQLTXe DGGUeVV VR WhDW
Whe FRQWeQWV RI Whe GeVLUeG PePRU\ ORFDWLRQV FDQ Ee DFFeVVeG
LQGeSeQGeQWO\ E\ UeIeUULQJ WR LWV¶ DGGUeVV $ VLQJOe GDWD LWeP
LV VWRUeG LQ RQe RU PRUe FRQVeFXWLYe E\WeV RI PePRU\ The
DGGUeVV RI Whe ¿UVW E\We LV XVeG DV Whe DGGUeVV RI Whe eQWLUe
PePRU\ ORFDWLRQ
CP8 XVeV UeJLVWeUV e[FOXVLYeO\ WR VWRUe DQG PDQLSXODWe
GDWD DQG LQVWUXFWLRQV GXULQJ Whe SURFeVVLQJ $SDUW IURP
© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.
SURQRXQFeG DV ³FDVh´ ,W LV D W\Se RI hLJhVSeeG PePRU\
WhDW DOORZV Whe SURFeVVRU WR DFFeVV GDWD PRUe UDSLGO\ WhDQ
IURP PePRU\ ORFDWeG eOVeZheUe RQ Whe V\VWeP ,W VWRUeV
RU FDFheV VRPe RI Whe FRQWeQWV RI Whe PDLQ PePRU\ WhDW LV
FXUUeQWO\ LQ XVe E\ Whe SURFeVVRU ,W WDNeV D IUDFWLRQ RI Whe
WLPe FRPSDUeG WR PDLQ PePRU\ WR DFFeVV FDFhe PePRU\
The PDQDJePeQW RI GDWD VWRUeG LQ Whe FDFhe PePRU\ eQVXUeV
WhDW IRU  SeU FeQW RI Whe WRWDO WLPe GXULQJ ZhLFh Whe FDFhe
LV VeDUFheG Whe GDWD QeeGeG LV IRXQG WR Ee VWRUeG LQ FDFhe $V
D UeVXOW Whe SeUIRUPDQFe RI Whe FRPSXWeU LPSURYeV LQ WeUPV
RI VSeeG RI SURFeVVLQJ
Secondary memory 6eFRQGDU\ PePRU\ SURYLGeV ODUJe
QRQYRODWLOe DQG LQe[SeQVLYe VWRUDJe IRU SURJUDPV DQG GDWD
HRZeYeU Whe DFFeVV WLPe LQ VeFRQGDU\ PePRU\ LV PXFh
ODUJeU WhDQ LQ SULPDU\ PePRU\ 6eFRQGDU\ VWRUDJe SeUPLWV
Whe VWRUDJe RI FRPSXWeU LQVWUXFWLRQV DQG GDWD IRU ORQJ SeULRGV
RI WLPe 0RUeRYeU VeFRQGDU\ PePRU\ ZhLFh LV DOVR NQRZQ
DV auxiliary memory VWRUeV D hXJe QXPEeU RI GDWD E\WeV DW D
OeVVeU FRVW WhDQ SULPDU\ PePRU\ GeYLFeV
Note
∑ The memory unit is composed of an ordered sequence of
storage cells, each capable of storing one byte of data.
Each memory cell has a distinct address which is used to
refer while storing data into it or retrieving data from it.
∑ Both RAM and cache memory are referred to as primary
memory. Primary memory is comparatively expensive,
and loses all its data when the power is turned off.
Secondary memory provides less expensive storage that
is used to store data and instructions on a permanent
basis.
 Computer Fundamentals 7
Memory operations TheUe DUe VRPe RSeUDWLRQV FRPPRQ QRQYRODWLOe :hLOe GeVLJQLQJ D FRPSXWeU V\VWeP WheUe PXVW
WR ERWh SULPDU\ DQG VeFRQGDU\ PePRU\ GeYLFeV TheVe DUe DOZD\V Ee D EDODQFe RQ DOO RI Whe DERYe IDFWRUV QDPeO\ VSeeG
DV IROORZV FRVW YRODWLOLW\ eWF DW eDFh OeYeO LQ Whe hLeUDUFh\
Read 'XULQJ WhLV RSeUDWLRQ GDWD LV UeWULeYeG IURP PePRU\
Write ,Q WhLV RSeUDWLRQ GDWD LV VWRUeG LQ Whe PePRU\
Registers
8VLQJ UeDG DQG ZULWe RSeUDWLRQV PDQ\ RWheU PePRU\
UeODWeG IXQFWLRQV VXFh DV FRS\ DQG GeOeWe DUe FDUULeG RXW
Cache
Unit of memory The PePRU\¶V LQWeUIDFe FLUFXLW LV

Speed

Cost
GeVLJQeG WR ORJLFDOO\ DFFeVV D E\We RU D PXOWLSOe RI D E\We
Main memory
RI GDWD IURP Whe PePRU\ GXULQJ eDFh DFFeVV The VPDOOeVW

s
EORFN RI PePRU\ LV FRQVLGeUeG WR Ee D E\We ZhLFh FRPSULVeV

es
eLJhW ELWV The WRWDO PePRU\ VSDFe LV PeDVXUeG LQ WeUPV RI Secondary memory
E\WeV ThXV Whe XQLW RI PePRU\ LV D E\We The FDSDFLW\ RI
PePRU\ LV Whe PD[LPXP DPRXQW RI LQIRUPDWLRQ LW LV FDSDEOe

Pr
RI VWRULQJ 6LQFe Whe XQLW RI PePRU\ LV D E\We Whe PePRU\¶V Fig. 1.1 Memory hierarchy
FDSDFLW\ LV e[SUeVVeG LQ QXPEeU RI E\WeV 6RPe XQLWV XVeG WR
e[SUeVV Whe PePRU\ FDSDFLW\ DUe DV IROORZV The GeYLFeV LQ D FRPSXWeU V\VWeP RWheU WhDQ Whe CP8 DQG
PDLQ PePRU\ DUe FDOOeG peripherals. PRSXODU SeULSheUDO
ity
∑ .LORE\We .%  E\WeV
GeYLFeV LQFOXGe SULQWeUV GLJLWDO FDPeUDV VFDQQeUV MR\VWLFNV
∑ 0eJDE\We 0%  .LORE\WeV DQG VSeDNeUV
∑ *LJDE\We *%  0eJDE\WeV
rs
Interface unit
∑ TeUDE\We T%  *LJDE\WeV
The LQWeUIDFe XQLW LQWeUFRQQeFWV Whe CP8 ZLWh PePRU\
∑ PeWDE\We P%  TeUDE\WeV
ve

DQG DOVR ZLWh Whe YDULRXV LQSXWRXWSXW ,2 GeYLFeV The

∑ E[DE\We E%  PeWDE\WeV LQVWUXFWLRQV DQG GDWD PRYe EeWZeeQ Whe CP8 DQG RWheU
∑ =eWWDE\We =%  E[DE\WeV hDUGZDUe FRPSRQeQWV WhURXJh LQWeUIDFe XQLW
ni

∑ <RWWDE\We <%  =eWWDE\WeV ,W LV D VeW RI SDUDOOeO ZLUeV RU OLQeV ZhLFh FRQQeFWV DOO Whe
The VL]e RI Whe UeJLVWeU LV RQe RI Whe LPSRUWDQW FRQVLGeUDWLRQV LQWeUQDO FRPSXWeU FRPSRQeQWV WR Whe CP8 DQG PDLQ PePRU\
'eSeQGLQJ RQ Whe W\Se RI GDWD WUDQVPLWWeG D EXV FDQ Ee
U

LQ GeWeUPLQLQJ Whe SURFeVVLQJ FDSDELOLWLeV RI Whe CP8 Word

FODVVL¿eG LQWR Whe IROORZLQJ WhUee W\SeV
size UeIeUV WR Whe QXPEeU RI ELWV WhDW D CP8 FDQ PDQLSXODWe
DW RQe WLPe :RUG VL]e LV EDVeG RQ Whe VL]e RI UeJLVWeUV LQ Whe Data bus The EXV XVeG WR FDUU\ DFWXDO GDWD
d

$/8 DQG Whe FDSDFLW\ RI FLUFXLWV WhDW OeDG WR WhRVe UeJLVWeUV Address bus memory or Input/output device $GGUeVVeV
$ SURFeVVRU ZLWh D ELW ZRUG VL]e IRU e[DPSOe hDV 
or

WUDYeO YLD Whe DGGUeVV EXV

ELW UeJLVWeUV SURFeVVeV  ELWV DW D WLPe DQG LV UeIeUUeG WR
DV D ELW SURFeVVRU PURFeVVRU¶V ZRUG VL]e LV D IDFWRU WhDW Control bus ThLV EXV FDUULeV FRQWURO LQIRUPDWLRQ EeWZeeQ
xf

OeDGV WR LQFUeDVeG FRPSXWeU SeUIRUPDQFe TRGD\¶V SeUVRQDO Whe CP8 DQG RWheU GeYLFeV ZLWhLQ Whe FRPSXWeU The FRQWURO
FRPSXWeUV W\SLFDOO\ FRQWDLQ ELW RU ELW SURFeVVRUV LQIRUPDWLRQ eQWDLOV VLJQDOV WhDW UeSRUW Whe VWDWXV RI YDULRXV
GeYLFeV RU DVN GeYLFeV WR WDNe VSeFL¿F DFWLRQV
O

Memory hierarchy The YDULRXV W\SeV RI PePRU\ XVeG LQ $ PRGeO RI Whe EXVEDVeG FRPSXWeU RUJDQL]DWLRQ LV VhRZQ
D FRPSXWeU V\VWeP GLIIeU LQ VSeeG FRVW VL]e DQG YRODWLOLW\ LQ )LJ 
SeUPDQeQFe RI VWRUDJe The\ FDQ Ee RUJDQL]eG LQ D
hLeUDUFh\ The PePRU\ hLeUDUFh\ LQ Whe FRPSXWeU V\VWeP LV
GeSLFWeG LQ )LJ 
)LJXUe  VhRZV WhDW RQ PRYLQJ GRZQ Whe hLeUDUFh\ Whe
FRVW SeU ELW RI VWRUDJe GeFUeDVeV EXW DFFeVV WLPeV LQFUeDVeV
0RVW RI Whe FRPSXWeU GeYLFeV DUe QRW GLUeFWO\ FRQQeFWeG
WR Whe FRPSXWeU¶V LQWeUQDO EXV 6LQFe eYeU\ GeYLFe hDV LWV
RZQ SDUWLFXODU ZD\ RI IRUPDWWLQJ DQG FRPPXQLFDWLQJ GDWD
D GeYLFe WeUPeG controller FRRUGLQDWeV Whe DFWLYLWLeV RI
VSeFL¿F SeULSheUDOV The SURFeVVRU UeDGV IURP Whe LQSXW
Le GeYLFeV DUe VORZ ,Q RWheU ZRUGV IURP WRS WR ERWWRP
Whe VSeeG GeFUeDVeV ZhLOe Whe FDSDFLW\ LQFUeDVeV DQG Whe
SULFeV EeFRPe PXFh ORZeU
2I Whe YDULRXV PePRULeV VSeFL¿eG LQ Whe hLeUDUFh\ WhRVe
DERYe Whe VeFRQGDU\ PePRU\ DUe YRODWLOe DQG Whe UeVW DUe
GeYLFeV RU ZULWeV RQ Whe RXWSXW GeYLFeV ZLWh Whe heOS RI Whe
GeYLFe FRQWUROOeUV EDFh LQSXW GeYLFe RU RXWSXW GeYLFe hDV D
VSeFL¿F DGGUeVV 8VLQJ WheVe DGGUeVVeV Whe SURFeVVRU VeOeFWV D
SDUWLFXODU ,2 GeYLFe WhURXJh Whe DVVRFLDWeG GeYLFe FRQWUROOeU
IRU eLWheU WUDQVIeUULQJ GDWD RU DQ\ FRQWURO FRPPDQGV

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 8 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

Primary Secondary
memory memory

Address bus

C Data bus System bus

P
U
Control bus

Input Output

s
device device

es
Fig. 1.2 Bus-based computer organization

Motherboard

Pr
$OO Whe FRPSRQeQWV LQ Whe FRPSXWeU V\VWeP DUe PRXQWeG DQG FRQQeFWeG WRJeWheU E\ DQ eOeFWURQLF FLUFXLW ERDUG FDOOeG PRWheUERDUG
RU PDLQ ERDUG
TR PDNe DOO WheVe WhLQJV ZRUN WRJeWheU Whe PRWheUERDUG SURYLGeV VRPe NLQG RI Sh\VLFDO FRQQeFWLRQ DPRQJ WheP 6ee )LJ
ity

rs
Power supply plugin CPU fan plugin
Mouse and keyboard
ve

Floppy controller

USB
ni

Parallel port
Memory slot
U

CPU socket IDE controller

(Hard drive,
CD-ROM)
d

AGP slot
or
xf

PCI slot
O

CMOS battery

ISA slot

Fig. 1.3 Motherboard

,Q JeQeUDO D PRWheUERDUG FRQVLVWV RI Whe IROORZLQJ
CPU socket ThLV hROGV Whe FeQWUDO SURFeVVRU ZhLFh LV DQ
LQWeJUDWeG FhLS DORQJ ZLWh Whe V\VWeP FORFN FDFhe FRROLQJ
IDQ eWF
Memory sockets TheVe VRFNeWV hROG Whe R$0 FDUG WhDW
FRQWDLQV R$0V
Interface module ThLV LV IRU Whe hDUG GLVN ÀRSS\ GLVN DQG
C'R20 GULYeV
ROM integrated chip ThLV LV ePEeGGeG ZLWh Whe EDVLF
LQSXWRXWSXW V\VWeP VRIWZDUe
Ports and expansion slots $ SRUW LV XVeG WR FRQQeFW D
GeYLFe ZLWh Whe EXV Ph\VLFDO SRUWV LQFOXGe VeULDO DQG SDUDOOeO

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Computer Fundamentals 9
SRUWV WR ZhLFh SeULSheUDO GeYLFeV VXFh DV SULQWeUV VFDQQeUV $T FDELQeWV DUe VPDOOeU DQG FheDSeU WhDQ $T; FDELQeWV
DQG e[WeUQDO VWRUDJe GeYLFeV FDQ Ee DWWDFheG The VORWV DUe DQG DUe SRSXODUO\ FDOOeG PLQLWRZeU FDELQeWV The\ DUe
XVeG WR DWWDFh DFFeVVRULeV VXFh DV JUDShLFV YLGeR FDUGV XVeG IRU ROGeU SURFeVVRUV DQG VPDOOeU PRWheUERDUGV $T;
GLVN FRQWUROOeUV DQG QeWZRUN FDUGV TheUe DUe WZR GLIIeUeQW FDELQeWV RQ Whe RWheU hDQG DUe PDUJLQDOO\ ODUJeU LQ VL]e WhDQ
VWDQGDUGV IRU e[SDQVLRQ VORWV ,6$ ,QGXVWU\ 6WDQGDUG $T FDELQeWV DQG DUe PRUe e[SeQVLYe DV Whe\ FRPe ZLWh PRUe
$UFhLWeFWXUe DQG PC, PeULSheUDO CRPSRQeQW ,QWeUFRQQeFW
0RVW FRPPRQ W\SeV RI SRUWV DQG VORWV DUe EULeÀ\ GeVFULEeG
EeORZ
ISA slots TheVe DUe IRU FRQQeFWLQJ ,6$ FRPSDWLEOe FDUGV
PCI slots TheVe DUe IRU FRQQeFWLQJ ,2 GeYLFeV
Advanced graphics port (AGP) 9LGeR FDUG LV LQVeUWeG LQWR
WhLV VORW
Parallel port The SDUDOOeO SRUW LV DOVR NQRZQ DV Whe SULQWeU
SRUW RU /PT ,W LV FDSDEOe RI VeQGLQJ eLJhW ELWV RI LQIRUPDWLRQ
DW D WLPe
Serial ports WheVe DUe VRPeWLPeV FDOOeG FRPPXQLFDWLRQ
SRUWV RU C20 SRUWV TheUe DUe WZR C20 SRUWV C20 DQG
C20 VL]e RI C20 LV ODUJeU WhDQ WhDW RI C20 C20
hDV  SLQV DQG XVeG IRU FRQQeFWLQJ 0RGePV C20 LV  SLQ
SRUW XVeG IRU LQWeUIDFLQJ VeULDO PRXVe 'W\Se FRQQeFWRUV DUe
XVeG WR ZLWh WheUe SRUWV
rs
USB (universal serial bus) ThLV LV DOVR D VeULDO SRUW EXW GDWD
UDWe LV PRUe WhDQ Whe VeULDO SRUW 86% LV XVeG DV D JeQeUDO
ve
SXUSRVe FRPPXQLFDWLRQ FhDQQeO LQ PeUVRQDO CRPSXWeUV
0DQ\ GLIIeUeQW GeYLFeV VXFh DV PRXVe Ne\ERDUGV hDUG GLVN
GULYeV SRUWDEOe C'R20'9' GULYeV SeQGULYeV VFDQQeUV
ni
FDPeUDV PRGePV DQG eYeQ SULQWeUV DUe XVXDOO\ FRQQeFWeG WR
WheVe SRUWV
U
CMOS The C026 LQ D PeUVRQDO CRPSXWeU VWDQGV IRU
CRPSOePeQWDU\ 0eWDO 2[LGe 6ePLFRQGXFWRU PePRU\ ,W LV
D W\Se RI R$0 WhDW VWRUeV Whe QeFeVVDU\ DWWULEXWeV RI V\VWeP
d
FRPSRQeQWV VXFh DV Whe VL]e RI Whe hDUG GLVN Whe DPRXQW RI
or
IeDWXUeV VXFh DV SRZeUeG VOLGLQJ IURQW SDQeOV DQG e[WUD GLVN
VWRUDJe FRPSDUWPeQWV
Note
∑ The motherboard is a printed circuit board which contains
the circuitry and connections that allow the various
s
components of the computer system to communicate
with each other. In most computer systems, the CPU,
es
memory, and other major components are mounted to
wiring on the motherboard.
∑ The input, output, and storage equipment that might be
Pr
added to a computer system to enhance its functionality
are known as peripheral devices. Popular peripheral
devices include printers, digital cameras, scanners,
joysticks, and speakers.
ity
1.5.2 Software
6RIWZDUe SURYLGeV Whe LQVWUXFWLRQV WhDW WeOO Whe hDUGZDUe
e[DFWO\ ZhDW LV WR Ee SeUIRUPeG DQG LQ ZhDW RUGeU ThLV VeW
RI LQVWUXFWLRQV LV VeTXeQFeG DQG RUJDQL]eG LQ D FRPSXWeU
SURJUDP TheUeIRUe D SURJUDP LV D VeULeV RI LQVWUXFWLRQV ZhLFh
LV LQWeQGeG WR GLUeFW D FRPSXWeU WR SeUIRUP FeUWDLQ IXQFWLRQV
DQG LV e[eFXWeG E\ Whe SURFeVVRU ,Q D EURDGeU VeQVe VRIWZDUe
FDQ Ee GeVFULEeG DV D VeW RI UeODWeG SURJUDPV %XW VRIWZDUe LV
PRUe WhDQ D FROOeFWLRQ RI SURJUDPV ,W UeIeUV WR D VeW RI FRPSXWeU
SURJUDPV ZhLFh SURYLGe GeVLUeG IXQFWLRQV DQG SeUIRUPDQFe
Whe GDWD ZhLFh Whe SURJUDPV XVe GDWD VWUXFWXUeV WhDW IDFLOLWDWe
Whe SURJUDPV WR eI¿FLeQWO\ PDQLSXODWe GDWD DQG GRFXPeQWV
WhDW GeVFULEe Whe RSeUDWLRQ DQG XVe RI Whe SURJUDPV
$ FRPSDULVRQ EeWZeeQ FRPSXWeU SURJUDP DQG VRIWZDUe LV

R$0 DQG Whe UeVRXUFeV XVeG E\ Whe VeULDO DQG SDUDOOeO SRUWV OLVWeG EeORZ TDEOe 
eWF 6LQFe R$0 ORVeV LWV FRQWeQW ZheQ Whe SRZeU LV VZLWFheG
RII D VPDOO EDWWeU\ RQ Whe PRWheUERDUG SRZeUV Whe C026 Table 1.2 Comparison between computer program and software
xf

R$0 eYeQ ZheQ Whe FRPSXWeU SRZeU LV VZLWFheG RII WheUeE\ Computer program Software
UeWDLQLQJ LWV VWRUeG GDWD
O

Programs are developed A large number of developers are

System unit by individuals. A single involved.
developer is involved.
The 6\VWeP 8QLW hROGV DOO Whe V\VWeP
FRPSRQeQWV LQ LW ,W LV VRPeWLPeV FDOOeG Small in size and have Extremely large in size and has
limited functionality enormous functionality.
FDELQeW The PDLQ FRPSRQeQWV OLNe
PRWheUERDUG SURFeVVRU PePRU\ XQLW The user interface may For a software product, user
SRZeU VXSSO\ XQLW DQG DOO Whe SRUWV WR not be very important, interface must be carefully designed
because the programmer and implemented because
LQWeUIDFe FRPSXWeU¶V SeULSheUDOV ,QVLGe
is the sole user. developers of that product and users
Whe XQLW DOO Whe FRPSRQeQWV ZRUN WRJeWheU of that product are totally different.
WR JLYe Whe VeUYLFe WhDW Whe XVeU QeeGV
%DVeG RQ LWV XVe FDELQeWV DUe RI WZR W\SeV 1RZDGD\V PRVW RI Whe VRIWZDUe PXVW Ee LQVWDOOeG
L $T FDELQeWV RU PLQLWRZeU SULRU WR WheLU XVe ,QVWDOODWLRQ LQYROYeV FRS\LQJ VeYeUDO
LL $T; FDELQeWV ¿OeV WR FRPSXWeU PePRU\ RU UeTXLUeV D VeULeV RI VWeSV DQG

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 10 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

FRQ¿JXUDWLRQV GeSeQGLQJ RQ Whe RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP DQG Whe ∑ 'DWDEDVe PDQDJePeQW VRIWZDUe eJ 2UDFOe '%
VRIWZDUe LWVeOI VR WhDW LW FDQ Ee UXQ RU e[eFXWeG ZheQ UeTXLUeG 0LFURVRIW 64/ VeUYeU eWF
6RIWZDUe LV JeQeUDOO\ FDWeJRUL]eG DV V\VWeP VRIWZDUe RU ∑ 6SUeDGVheeW VRIWZDUe eJ 0LFURVRIW E[FeO
DSSOLFDWLRQ VRIWZDUe RU XWLOLW\ VRIWZDUe ∑ :RUG SURFeVVLQJ eJ 0LFURVRIW :RUG CRUeO :RUGSeUIeFW
System software
6\VWeP VRIWZDUe LV GeVLJQeG WR IDFLOLWDWe DQG FRRUGLQDWe
Whe XVe RI Whe FRPSXWeU E\ PDNLQJ hDUGZDUe RSeUDWLRQDO ,W
LQWeUDFWV ZLWh Whe FRPSXWeU V\VWeP DW ORZ OeYeO E[DPSOeV RI
VXFh VRIWZDUe LQFOXGe ODQJXDJe WUDQVODWRU RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP
ORDGeU OLQNeU eWF HRZeYeU Whe PRVW LPSRUWDQW V\VWeP
VRIWZDUe LV Whe operating system ZhLFh LV D VeW RI SURJUDPV
GeVLJQeG WR FRQWURO Whe LQSXW DQG RXWSXW RSeUDWLRQV RI Whe
FRPSXWeU SURYLGe FRPPXQLFDWLRQ LQWeUIDFe WR Whe XVeU
DQG PDQDJe Whe UeVRXUFeV RI Whe FRPSXWeU V\VWeP VXFh DV
PePRU\ SURFeVVRU LQSXWRXWSXW GeYLFeV eWF DQG VFheGXOe
WheLU RSeUDWLRQV ZLWh PLQLPXP PDQXDO LQWeUYeQWLRQ 2WheU
DQG GeVNWRS SXEOLVhLQJ 'TP eJ PDJePDNeU
∑ *UDShLFV VRIWZDUe eJ CRUeO 'UDZ
∑ 6WDWLVWLFDO eJ 6P66 DQG RSeUDWLRQ UeVeDUFh VRIWZDUe eJ
TRUD
Note
s
∑ Without any software, the computer is called a bare
machine, having the potential to perform many functions
es
but no ability to do so on its own.
Pr
SURJUDPV V\VWeP DQG DSSOLFDWLRQ UeO\ RQ IDFLOLWLeV SURYLGeG
E\ Whe RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP WR JDLQ DFFeVV WR FRPSXWeU V\VWeP
UeVRXUFeV The loader LV Whe V\VWeP VRIWZDUe ZhLFh FRSLeV
D e[eFXWDEOe SURJUDP IURP VeFRQGDU\ VWRUDJe GeYLFe LQWR
PDLQ PePRU\ DQG SUeSDUeV WhLV SURJUDP IRU e[eFXWLRQ DQG
LQLWLDOL]eV Whe e[eFXWLRQ
rs
HDUGZDUe GeYLFeV RWheU WhDQ Whe CP8 DQG PDLQ PePRU\
hDYe WR Ee UeJLVWeUeG ZLWh Whe RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP E\ SURYLGLQJ D
ve
VRIWZDUe NQRZQ DV device driver IRU FRPPXQLFDWLRQ EeWZeeQ
Whe GeYLFe DQG RWheU SDUWV RI Whe FRPSXWeU ThLV W\Se RI
1.6 MEMORY REVISITED
The GLIIeUeQW W\SeV RI PePRULeV DYDLODEOe IRU D FRPSXWeU DUe
VhRZQ LQ )LJ 
ity
1.6.1 Primary Memory
$OO PRGeUQ FRPSXWeUV XVe VePLFRQGXFWRU PePRU\ DV SULPDU\
PePRU\ 2Qe RI Whe LPSRUWDQW VePLFRQGXFWRU PePRULeV XVeG
LQ GeVNWRS FRPSXWeUV LV Random Access Memory (RAM).
HeUe ³UDQGRP DFFeVV´ PeDQV WhDW DQ\ VWRUDJe ORFDWLRQ FDQ Ee
DFFeVVeG ERWh UeDG DQG ZULWe GLUeFWO\ ThLV PePRU\ LV IDVWeU
V\VWeP VRIWZDUe LV XVeG E\ SULQWeUV PRQLWRUV JUDShLFV FDUGV
FheDSeU DQG SURYLGeV PRUe VWRUDJe VSDFe LQ OeVVeU Sh\VLFDO
ni

VRXQG FDUGV QeWZRUN FDUGV PRGePV VWRUDJe GeYLFeV PRXVe

DUeD TheVe YeU\ ODUJeVFDOe LQWeJUDWeG VePLFRQGXFWRU
VFDQQeUV eWF 2QFe LQVWDOOeG D GeYLFe GULYeU DXWRPDWLFDOO\
PePRU\ FhLSV DUe PRXQWeG RQ SOXJJDEOe SULQWeG FLUFXLW ERDUGV
UeVSRQGV ZheQ LW LV QeeGeG RU PD\ UXQ LQ Whe EDFNJURXQG
U

0RGeUQ RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP UeFRJQL]eV DOPRVW DOO FRQQeFWeG
hDUGZDUe GeYLFeV DQG LPPeGLDWeO\ EeJLQV Whe LQVWDOODWLRQ
SURFeVV 6XFh D GeYLFe IRU ZhLFh Whe RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP
d
DXWRPDWLFDOO\ VWDUWV Whe LQVWDOODWLRQ SURFeVV LV FDOOeG D plug-
or
and-play GeYLFe HRZeYeU WheUe DUe IeZ hDUGZDUe GeYLFeV
IRU ZhLFh Whe XVeU hDV WR PDQXDOO\ LQLWLDWe Whe LQVWDOODWLRQ
SURFeVV
xf
Application software
O
$SSOLFDWLRQ VRIWZDUe LV GeVLJQeG WR SeUIRUP VSeFL¿F XVDJeV
RI Whe XVeUV 0LFURVRIW :RUG 0LFURVRIW E[FeO 0LFURVRIW
PRZeU PRLQW 0LFURVRIW $FFeVV PDJe 0DNeU CRUDO 'UDZ
PhRWRVhRS TDOO\ $XWRC$' $FUREDW :LQ$PS 0LFUR
0eGLD )ODVh L/eDS ;LQJ 0P POD\eU eWF DUe VRPe RI Whe
e[DPSOeV RI DSSOLFDWLRQ VRIWZDUe
TheUe DUe WZR FDWeJRULeV RI DSSOLFDWLRQ VRIWZDUe custom
software DQG pre-written software packages 6RIWZDUe WhDW LV
GeYeORSeG IRU D VSeFL¿F XVeU RU RUJDQL]DWLRQ LQ DFFRUGDQFe
ZLWh Whe XVeU¶V QeeGV LV NQRZQ DV custom software
A pre-written software package LV ERXJhW RII Whe VheOI DQG
hDV SUeGe¿QeG JeQeULF VSeFL¿FDWLRQV WhDW PD\ RU PD\ QRW
FDWeU WR DQ\ VSeFL¿F XVeU¶V UeTXLUePeQWV The PRVW LPSRUWDQW
FDWeJRULeV RI VRIWZDUe SDFNDJeV DYDLODEOe DUe DV IROORZV UeIUeVhLQJ FLUFXLWU\
© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.
PC%V EQhDQFePeQW RU UeSODFePeQW RI PePRU\ ZLWh VXFh
PC% PePRU\ PRGXOeV LV eDV\ TheVe FhDUDFWeULVWLFV hDYe
PDGe VePLFRQGXFWRU PePRU\ PRUe SRSXODU DQG DWWUDFWLYe
The RQO\ GUDZEDFN RI VePLFRQGXFWRU PePRU\ LV WhDW LW LV
YRODWLOe Le LW ORVeV LWV FRQWeQWV ZheQeYeU SRZeU LV VZLWFheG
RII R$0 hROGV Whe GDWD DQG LQVWUXFWLRQV ZDLWLQJ WR Ee
SURFeVVeG E\ Whe SURFeVVRU ,Q DGGLWLRQ WR GDWD DQG SURJUDP¶V
LQVWUXFWLRQV R$0 DOVR hROGV RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP LQVWUXFWLRQV
WhDW FRQWURO Whe EDVLF IXQFWLRQV RI D FRPSXWeU V\VWeP TheVe
LQVWUXFWLRQV DUe ORDGeG LQWR R$0 eYeU\ WLPe Whe FRPSXWeU LV
WXUQeG RQ DQG Whe\ UePDLQ WheUe XQWLO Whe FRPSXWeU LV WXUQeG
RII TheUe DUe WZR W\SeV RI R$0 XVeG LQ FRPSXWeU V\VWePV±
dynamic DQG static
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) LV D W\Se RI R$0 WhDW ePSOR\V
UeIUeVh FLUFXLWV WR UeWDLQ LWV FRQWeQW LQ LWV ORJLF FLUFXLWV EDFh
PePRU\ FeOO LQ 'R$0 FRQVLVWV RI D VLQJOe WUDQVLVWRU The
MXQFWLRQ FDSDFLWRU RI Whe WUDQVLVWRU LV UeVSRQVLEOe IRU hROGLQJ
Whe eOeFWULFDO FhDUJe WhDW GeVLJQDWeV D VLQJOe ELW DV ORJLFDO
 The DEVeQFe RI D FhDUJe GeVLJQDWeV D ELW DV ORJLFDO 
CDSDFLWRUV ORVe WheLU FhDUJe RYeU WLPe DQG WheUeIRUe QeeG WR
Ee UeFhDUJeG RU UeIUeVheG DW SUeGeWeUPLQeG LQWeUYDOV E\ D

$ PRUe e[SeQVLYe DQG IDVWeU W\Se RI R$0 Static RAM
(SRAM) GReV QRW UeTXLUe VXFh W\Se RI UeIUeVhLQJ FLUFXLWU\
,W XVeV EeWZeeQ IRXU WR VL[ WUDQVLVWRUV LQ D VSeFLDO µÀLS
ÀRS¶ FLUFXLW WhDW hROGV D  RU  ZhLOe Whe FRPSXWeU V\VWeP
LV LQ RSeUDWLRQ 6R$0 LQ FRPSXWeU V\VWePV LV XVXDOO\ XVeG
DV SURFeVVRU FDFheV DQG DV ,2 EXIIeUV PULQWeUV DQG OLTXLG
Computer Fundamentals 11
6R$0 LV DOVR ZLGeO\ XVeG LQ QeWZRUNLQJ GeYLFeV VXFh DV
URXWeUV VZLWFheV DQG FDEOe PRGePV WR EXIIeU WUDQVPLVVLRQ
LQIRUPDWLRQ
%RWh G\QDPLF DQG VWDWLF R$0 DUe YRODWLOe LQ QDWXUe DQG FDQ
Ee UeDG RU ZULWWeQ WR The EDVLF GLIIeUeQFeV EeWZeeQ 6R$0
DQG 'R$0 DUe OLVWeG LQ TDEOe 
FU\VWDO GLVSOD\V /C'V RIWeQ XVe 6R$0 WR EXIIeU LPDJeV

Memory

Primary memory Internal processor Secondary memory

s
memory

es
Read only Read/write Registers Disk drives
memory memory

Pr
Mask PROM EPROM EEPROM
ROM

Static Dynamic
ity Floppy Hard
disk
CD-ROM

RAM RAM
rs
Read Read
only write
ve

Cache Tape drive

memory
ni

Cartridge drive Cassette drive

U

Fig. 1.4 Types of memory

d

Table 1.3 Static RAM versus dynamic RAM LQe[SeQVLYe ,W LV QR PRUe XVeG LQ Whe SUeVeQW GD\ IRU SeUVRQDO
or

Static RAM Dynamic RAM FRPSXWeUV DV PXFh LPSURYeG R$0V DUe DYDLODEOe QRZ
The R'R$0 ZDV GeYeORSeG E\ RDPEXV CRUSRUDWLRQ DQG
∑ It does not require ∑ It requires extra electronic
refreshing. circuitry that ‘‘refreshes’’ LV LWV SURSULeWDU\ WeFhQRORJ\ ,W LV DOVR Whe PRVW e[SeQVLYe
xf

memory periodically; otherwise R$0 DQG LV XVeG PRVWO\ LQ YLGeR LQWeUIDFe FDUGV DQG hLJh
its content will be lost. eQG FRPSXWeUV WhDW UeTXLUe IDVW FRPSXWDWLRQ VSeeG DQG
O

∑ It is more expensive than
dynamic RAM.
∑ It is lower in bit density.
∑ It is faster than dynamic
RAM.
TheUe DUe VeYeUDO SRSXODU W\SeV RI G\QDPLF R$0 XVeG
∑ It is less expensive than static
RAM.
∑ It holds more bits of storage in
a single integrated circuit.
∑ It is slower than SRAM, due to
refreshing.
GDWD WUDQVIeU R'R$0V DUe SUeIeUUeG IRU hLJhSeUIRUPDQFe
SeUVRQDO FRPSXWeUV
The ''R R$0 LV D Ue¿QePeQW RI 6'R$0 ''R
VWDQGV IRU Double Data Rate ,W JLYeV IDVWeU SeUIRUPDQFe
E\ WUDQVPLWWLQJ GDWD RQ ERWh Whe ULVLQJ DQG Whe IDOOLQJ eGJeV
RI eDFh FORFN SXOVe ''R  ''R DUe RWheU hLJheUVSeeG
YeUVLRQV RI ''R R$0
$QRWheU W\Se RI R$0 WeUPeG 9LGeR R$0 9R$0 LV
LQ FRPSXWeUV The\ DUe 6'R$0 6\QFhURQRXV '\QDPLF
R$0 R'R$0 RDPEXV '\QDPLF R$0 DQG ''R R$0 XVeG WR VWRUe LPDJe GDWD IRU Whe YLVXDO GLVSOD\ PRQLWRU $OO
'RXEOe 'DWD RDWe R$0 W\SeV RI YLGeR R$0 DUe VSeFLDO DUUDQJePeQWV RI G\QDPLF
The 6'R$0 XVeG WR Ee Whe PRVW FRPPRQ W\Se RI R$0 'R$0 ,WV SXUSRVe LV WR DFW DV D GDWD VWRUDJe EXIIeU
R$0 IRU SeUVRQDO FRPSXWeUV ,W ZDV UeDVRQDEO\ IDVW DQG EeWZeeQ Whe SURFeVVRU DQG Whe YLVXDO GLVSOD\ XQLW

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 12 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

TheUe LV D SeUVLVWeQW PLVPDWFh EeWZeeQ SURFeVVRU DQG DOO Whe FeOOV hDYe EeeQ EURXJhW WR Whe VDPe LQLWLDO VWDWe Whe
PDLQ PePRU\ VSeeGV The SURFeVVRU e[eFXWeV DQ LQVWUXFWLRQ ZULWe RSeUDWLRQ RQ Whe EPR20 FDQ Ee SeUIRUPeG eOeFWULFDOO\
IDVWeU WhDQ Whe WLPe LW WDNeV WR UeDG IURP RU ZULWe WR PePRU\ TheUe LV DQRWheU W\Se RI EUDVDEOe PR20 NQRZQ DV
,Q RUGeU WR LPSURYe Whe DYeUDJe PePRU\ DFFeVV VSeeG RU EOeFWULFDOO\ EUDVDEOe PURJUDPPDEOe ReDG 2QO\ 0ePRU\
UDWheU WR RSWLPL]e Whe IeWFhLQJ RI LQVWUXFWLRQV RU GDWD VR EEPR20 /LNe Whe EPR20 GDWD FDQ Ee ZULWWeQ RQWR
WhDW WheVe FDQ Ee DFFeVVeG IDVWeU ZheQ Whe CP8 QeeGV LW Whe EEPR20 E\ eOeFWULFDO VLJQDOV DQG UeWDLQeG eYeQ ZheQ
FDFhe PePRU\ LV ORJLFDOO\ SRVLWLRQeG EeWZeeQ Whe LQWeUQDO SRZeU LV VZLWFheG RII The GDWD VWRUeG FDQ Ee eUDVeG E\
SURFeVVRU PePRU\ UeJLVWeUV DQG PDLQ PePRU\ The FDFhe
PePRU\ hROGV D VXEVeW RI LQVWUXFWLRQV DQG GDWD YDOXeV WhDW
ZeUe UeFeQWO\ DFFeVVeG E\ Whe CP8 :heQeYeU Whe SURFeVVeU
WULeV WR DFFeVV D ORFDWLRQ RI PePRU\ LW ¿UVW FheFNV ZLWh Whe
FDFhe WR GeWeUPLQe LI LW LV DOUeDG\ SUeVeQW LQ LW ,I VR Whe E\We
RU ZRUG LV GeOLYeUeG WR Whe SURFeVVRU ,Q VXFh D FDVe Whe
SURFeVVRU GReV QRW QeeG WR DFFeVV Whe PDLQ PePRU\ ,I Whe
GDWD LV QRW WheUe LQ Whe FDFhe WheQ Whe SURFeVVeU hDV WR DFFeVV
Whe PDLQ PePRU\ The EORFN RI PDLQ PePRU\ FRQWDLQLQJ Whe
GDWD RU LQVWUXFWLRQ LV UeDG LQWR Whe FDFhe DQG WheQ Whe E\We RU
ZRUG LV GeOLYeUeG WR Whe SURFeVVRU
TheUe DUe WZR OeYeOV RI FDFhe
Level 1 (Primary) cache ThLV W\Se RI FDFhe PePRU\ LV
ePEeGGeG LQWR Whe SURFeVVRU LWVeOI ThLV FDFhe LV YeU\ IDVW
DQG LWV VL]e YDULeV JeQeUDOO\ IURP  .% WR  .%
rs
Level 2 (Secondary) cache /eYeO  FDFhe LV VOLJhWO\ VORZeU
WhDQ / FDFhe ,W LV XVXDOO\  .% WR  0% LQ VL]e /eYeO 
ve
FDFhe LV DOVR VRPeWLPeV FDOOeG e[WeUQDO FDFhe EeFDXVe LW ZDV
e[WeUQDO WR Whe SURFeVVRU FhLS ZheQ LW ¿UVW DSSeDUeG
Read Only Memory (ROM)
ni
,W LV DQRWheU W\Se RI PePRU\ WhDW UeWDLQV GDWD DQG LQVWUXFWLRQV
VWRUeG LQ LW eYeQ ZheQ Whe SRZeU
U
LV WXUQeG RII R20 LV XVeG LQ
SeUVRQDO FRPSXWeUV IRU VWRULQJ
VWDUWXS LQVWUXFWLRQV SURYLGeG
d
E\ Whe PDQXIDFWXUeU IRU
or
FDUU\LQJ RXW EDVLF RSeUDWLRQV
VXFh DV ERRWVWUDSSLQJ LQ D PC
DQG LV SURJUDPPeG IRU VSeFL¿F
xf
SXUSRVeV GXULQJ WheLU IDEULFDWLRQ R20V FDQ Ee ZULWWeQ
RQO\ DW Whe WLPe RI PDQXIDFWXUe $QRWheU VLPLODU PePRU\
O
eOeFWULFDO VLJQDOV HRZeYeU LQ EEPR20V Whe ZULWLQJ WLPe LV
FRQVLGeUDEO\ hLJheU WhDQ UeDGLQJ WLPe The ELJJeVW DGYDQWDJe
RI EEPR20 LV WhDW LW LV QRQYRODWLOe PePRU\ DQG FDQ Ee
XSGDWeG eDVLO\ ZhLOe Whe GLVDGYDQWDJeV DUe Whe hLJh FRVW DQG
Whe ZULWe RSeUDWLRQ WDNeV FRQVLGeUDEOe WLPe
s
es
Note
∑ RAM holds raw data waiting to be processed as well as
the program instructions for processing that data. It also
Pr
stores the results of processing until they can be stored
more permanently on secondary storage media. Most
important point to be noted is that RAM holds operating
ity system instructions which are loaded at start-up and time
to time as and when required.
∑ Dynamic RAM is less expensive, consumes less electrical
power, generates less heat, and can be made smaller,
with more bits of storage in a single integrated circuit.
Static RAM provides faster access with lower bit density
and are more expensive than dynamic RAM.
∑ ROM contains a small set of instructions that tell the
EQORWVGTJQYVQCEEGUUVJGJCTFFKUMſPFVJGQRGTCVKPI
system, and load it into RAM. After the operating system
is loaded, the computer can accept input, display output,
run software, and access data.
∑ The programmable read-only memory (PROM) is non-
volatile and can be reprogrammed only once by a special
write device after fabrication. An erasable programmable
ROM (EPROM) can be erased by ultraviolet (UV) light or
by high-voltage pulses.
1.6.2 Secondary Memory
TheUe DUe IRXU PDLQ W\SeV RI VeFRQGDU\ VWRUDJe GeYLFeV

PURJUDPPDEOe R20 PR20 LV DOVR QRQYRODWLOe DQG FDQ DYDLODEOe LQ D FRPSXWeU V\VWeP
Ee SURJUDPPeG RQO\ RQFe E\ D VSeFLDO GeYLFe ∑ 'LVN GULYeV
%XW WheUe DUe LQVWDQFeV ZheUe Whe UeDG RSeUDWLRQ LV SeUIRUPeG ∑ C' GULYeV C'R C'R: DQG '9'
VeYeUDO WLPeV DQG Whe ZULWe RSeUDWLRQ LV SeUIRUPeG PRUe WhDQ ∑ TDSe GULYeV
RQFe WhRXJh OeVV WhDQ Whe QXPEeU RI UeDG RSeUDWLRQV DQG Whe
∑ 86% ÀDVh GULYeV
VWRUeG GDWD PXVW Ee UeWDLQeG eYeQ ZheQ SRZeU LV VZLWFheG
RII ThLV OeG WR Whe GeYeORSPeQW RI EPR20V EUDVDEOe HDUG GLVN ÀRSS\ GLVN FRPSDFW GLVN C' 'LJLWDO 9eUVDWLOe
PURJUDPPDEOe ReDG 2QO\ 0ePRULeV ,Q Whe EPR20 RU
EUDVDEOe PURJUDPPDEOe ReDG 2QO\ 0ePRU\ GDWD FDQ Ee
ZULWWeQ eOeFWULFDOO\ The ZULWe RSeUDWLRQ hRZeYeU LV QRW
VLPSOe ,W UeTXLUeV Whe VWRUDJe FeOOV WR Ee eUDVeG E\ e[SRVLQJ
Whe FhLS WR XOWUDYLROeW OLJhW WhXV EULQJLQJ eDFh FeOO WR Whe VDPe
LQLWLDO VWDWe ThLV SURFeVV RI eUDVLQJ LV WLPe FRQVXPLQJ 2QFe
'LVN '9' DQG PDJQeWLF WDSeV DUe Whe PRVW FRPPRQ
VeFRQGDU\ VWRUDJe PeGLXPV HDUG GLVNV SURYLGe PXFh IDVWeU
SeUIRUPDQFe DQG hDYe ODUJeU FDSDFLW\ EXW DUe QRUPDOO\
QRW UePRYDEOe WhDW LV D VLQJOe hDUG GLVN LV SeUPDQeQWO\
DWWDFheG WR D GLVN GULYe )ORSS\ GLVNV RQ Whe RWheU hDQG
DUe UePRYDEOe EXW WheLU SeUIRUPDQFe LV IDU VORZeU DQG WheLU

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.


FDSDFLW\ IDU VPDOOeU WhDQ WhRVe RI hDUG GLVNV $ C'R20 RU
'9' R20 LV DQRWheU SRUWDEOe VeFRQGDU\ PePRU\ GeYLFe
C' VWDQGV IRU CRPSDFW 'LVF ,W LV FDOOeG R20 EeFDXVe
LQIRUPDWLRQ LV VWRUeG SeUPDQeQWO\ ZheQ Whe C' LV FUeDWeG
'eYLFeV IRU RSeUDWLQJ VWRUDJe PeGLXPV DUe NQRZQ DV drives
0RVW RI Whe GULYeV XVeG IRU VeFRQGDU\ PePRU\ DUe EDVeG
Computer Fundamentals 13
JURXS RI WUDFNV DW Whe VDPe SRVLWLRQ RQ eDFh VXUIDFe RI eDFh
SODWWeU LV FDOOeG D F\OLQGeU C\OLQGeUV DUe LPSRUWDQW EeFDXVe
DOO heDGV PRYe DW Whe VDPe WLPe 2QFe Whe heDGV DUULYe DW
D SDUWLFXODU WUDFN SRVLWLRQ DOO Whe VeFWRUV RQ Whe WUDFNV WhDW
IRUP D F\OLQGeU FDQ Ee UeDG ZLWhRXW IXUWheU DUP PRWLRQ The
VWRUDJe FDSDFLW\ RI D hDUG GLVN LV YeU\ ODUJe DQG e[SUeVVeG LQ
RQ eOeFWURPeFhDQLFDO WeFhQRORJ\ 0eFhDQLFDO FRPSRQeQWV WeUPV RI JLJDE\WeV *% The GDWD WhDW LV VWRUeG RQ Whe hDUG
PRYe PXFh PRUe VORZO\ WhDQ GR eOeFWULFDO VLJQDOV ThDW¶V GLVN UePDLQV WheUe XQWLO LW LV eUDVeG RU GeOeWeG E\ Whe XVeU
Zh\ DFFeVV WR VeFRQGDU\ PePRU\ LV PXFh VORZeU WhDQ DFFeVV
WR PDLQ PePRU\
Track
The ÀRSS\GLVN LV D WhLQ URXQG SLeFe RI SODVWLF PDWeULDO
FRDWeG ZLWh D PDJQeWLF PeGLXP

s
Disk
platters
RQ ZhLFh LQIRUPDWLRQ LV

es
PDJQeWLFDOO\ UeFRUGeG MXVW DV Disk arm
PXVLF LV UeFRUGeG RQ Whe VXUIDFe
RI SODVWLF FDVVeWWe WDSeV The

Pr
Àe[LEOe ÀRSS\ GLVN LV eQFORVeG Sector

LQVLGe D VWXUGLeU SODVWLF MDFNeW

Fig. 1.5 Hard disk organization
WR SURWeFW LW IURP GDPDJe
The GLVNV XVeG LQ SeUVRQDO ity
The hDUG GLVN GULYe SURYLGeV EeWWeU SeUIRUPDQFe DQG EeFRPe
FRPSXWeUV DUe XVXDOO\ ò
PDQGDWRU\ IRU FRPSXWeU V\VWePV IRU Whe IROORZLQJ UeDVRQV
LQFheV LQ GLDPeWeU DQG FDQ VWRUe  0% RI GDWD EDUOLeU PCV
∑ HLJheU FDSDFLW\ RI GDWD VWRUDJe
rs
VRPeWLPeV XVeG ó LQFh GLVNV The GLVNV VWRUe LQIRUPDWLRQ
DQG FDQ Ee XVeG WR e[FhDQJe LQIRUPDWLRQ EeWZeeQ FRPSXWeUV ∑ )DVWeU DFFeVV WLPe RI GDWD
The ÀRSS\ GLVN GULYe VWRUeV GDWD RQ DQG UeWULeYeV LW IURP Whe ∑ HLJheU GDWD WUDQVIeU UDWeV
ve

PDJQeWLF PDWeULDO RI Whe GLVN ZhLFh LV LQ Whe IRUP RI D GLVN ∑ %eWWeU UeOLDELOLW\ RI RSeUDWLRQ
,W hDV WZR PRWRUV RQe WhDW URWDWeV Whe GLVN PeGLD DQG Whe RWheU
∑ /eVV GDWD eUURUV RU GDWD ORVV
WhDW PRYeV WZR UeDGZULWe heDGV eDFh RQ eLWheU VXUIDFe RI
ni

Whe GLVN IRUZDUG )ORSS\ 'LVN 'ULYe RU EDFNZDUG $ CD LV D SRUWDEOe VeFRQGDU\ VWRUDJe PeGLXP 9DULRXV
$ hard disk LV D SeUPDQeQW PePRU\ GeYLFe PRXQWeG LQVLGe W\SeV RI C'V DUe
U

Whe V\VWeP XQLW Ph\VLFDOO\ DYDLODEOe C'R DQG

D hDUG GLVN FRQVLVWV RI RQe C'R: C'R:
RU PRUe PeWDO VRPeWLPeV GULYeV DUe XVeG WR
d

DOXPLQXP SODWWeUV FRDWeG FUeDWe DQG UeDG ERWh

or

ZLWh D PeWDO R[LGe WhDW FDQ C'R DQG C'R:

Ee PDJQeWL]eG The SODWWeUV GLVFV 2QFe FUeDWeG
DUe DOO PRXQWeG RQ D VSLQGOe Le ZheQ LW hDV
xf

ZhLFh DOORZV WheP WR VSLQ DW EeeQ ³EXUQeG´ GDWD

D FRQVWDQW UDWe ReDGZULWe heDGV DUe DWWDFheG WR PeWDO DUPV VWRUeG RQ C'R C'
O

DQG SRVLWLRQeG RYeU eDFh RI Whe SODWWeU VXUIDFeV The DUPV FDQ ReFRUGDEOe GLVF FDQ¶W Ee FhDQJeG 2Q Whe RWheU hDQG D C'
PRYe Whe UeDGZULWe heDGV UDGLDOO\ LQZDUGV DQG RXWZDUGV RYeU ReZULWDEOe C'R: GLVF FDQ Ee eUDVeG DQG UeXVeG ThLV
Whe VXUIDFeV RI Whe SODWWeUV Vee )LJ  'DWD DQG SURJUDPV
DUe VWRUeG RQ Whe hDUG GLVN E\ FDXVLQJ Whe ZULWe heDGV WR
PDNe PDJQeWLF PDUNV RQ Whe VXUIDFeV RI Whe SODWWeUV ReDG
heDGV UeWULeYe Whe GDWD E\ VeQVLQJ Whe PDJQeWLF PDUNV RQ Whe
SODWWeUV The VXUIDFe RI eDFh SODWWeU LV GLYLGeG LQWR FRQFeQWULF
GLVN LV PDGe RI V\QWheWLF UeVLQ WhDW LV FRDWeG ZLWh D UeÀeFWLYe
PDWeULDO XVXDOO\ DOXPLQXP :heQ LQIRUPDWLRQ LV ZULWWeQ
E\ D C'ZULWeU GULYe VRPe PLFURVFRSLF SLWV DUe FUeDWeG RQ
Whe VXUIDFe RI Whe C' The LQIRUPDWLRQ ELW RQ D C'R20
VXUIDFe LV FRGeG LQ Whe IRUP RI XSV DQG GRZQV NQRZQ DV
ULQJV FDOOeG WUDFNV The WUDFNV IRUP FRQFeQWULF FLUFOeV RQ Whe
SODWWeU¶V VXUIDFe EDFh WUDFN LV GLYLGeG LQWR D FeUWDLQ QXPEeU
RI VeFWRUV $ VeFWRU LV FDSDEOe RI JeQeUDOO\  E\WeV RU
VRPeWLPeV  E\WeV RI GDWD The heDG LV PRXQWeG RQ DQ
DUP ZhLFh PRYeV RU VeeNV IURP WUDFN WR WUDFN The YeUWLFDO
SLWV DQG GXPSV FUeDWeG E\ LQIUDUeG heDW TheUe LV RQe ODVeU
GLRGe RQ Whe UeDGLQJ heDG The ELWV DUe UeDG E\ VhLQLQJ D
ORZ  LQWeQVLW\ ODVeU EeDP RQWR Whe VSLQQLQJ GLVF The ODVeU
EeDP UeÀeFWV VWURQJO\ IURP D VPRRWh DUeD RQ Whe GLVF EXW
ZeDNO\ IURP D SLWWeG DUeD $ VeQVRU UeFeLYLQJ Whe UeÀeFWLRQ

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 14 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

GeWeUPLQeV ZheWheU eDFh ELW LV D  RU D  DFFRUGLQJO\ C'V eWF The RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP NeeSV WUDFN RI eYeU\ ¿Oe LQ Whe
ZeUe LQLWLDOO\ D SRSXODU VWRUDJe PeGLD IRU PXVLF Whe\ ZeUe V\VWeP LQFOXGLQJ GDWD ¿OeV SURJUDP ¿OeV FRPSLOeUV DQG
ODWeU XVeG DV JeQeUDO FRPSXWeU VWRUDJe PeGLD 0RVW SeUVRQDO DSSOLFDWLRQV The ¿Oe V\VWeP LV DQ RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP PRGXOe
FRPSXWeUV DUe eTXLSSeG ZLWh D C'ReFRUGDEOe C'R GULYe WhDW DOORZV XVeUV DQG SURJUDPV WR FUeDWe GeOeWe PRGLI\
$ C'ReZULWDEOe C'R: GLVF FDQ Ee UeXVeG EeFDXVe Whe RSeQ FORVe DQG DSSO\ RWheU RSeUDWLRQV WR YDULRXV W\SeV RI
SLWV DQG ÀDW VXUIDFeV RI D QRUPDO C' DUe VLPXODWeG RQ D C' ¿OeV ,W DOVR DOORZV XVeUV WR JLYe QDPeV WR ¿OeV WR RUJDQL]e
R: E\ FRDWLQJ Whe VXUIDFe RI Whe GLVF ZLWh D PDWeULDO WhDW Whe ¿OeV hLeUDUFhLFDOO\ LQWR GLUeFWRULeV WR SURWeFW ¿OeV DQG WR
ZheQ heDWeG WR RQe WePSeUDWXUe EeFRPeV DPRUShRXV DQG DFFeVV WhRVe ¿OeV XVLQJ Whe YDULRXV ¿Oe RSeUDWLRQV
WheUeIRUe QRQUeÀeFWLYe DQG ZheQ heDWeG WR D GLIIeUeQW $SDUW IURP WheVe IXQFWLRQV DQ RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP PXVW
WePSeUDWXUe EeFRPeV FU\VWDOOLQe DQG WheUeIRUe UeÀeFWLYe SURYLGe Whe IDFLOLWLeV IRU FRQWUROOLQJ Whe DFFeVV RI SURJUDPV
SURFeVVeV PePRU\ VeJPeQWV DQG RWheU UeVRXUFeV

s
1.7 INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING The kernel LV WhDW SDUW RI RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP WhDW LQWeUDFWV
SYSTEMS ZLWh Whe hDUGZDUe GLUeFWO\ The NeUQeO UeSUeVeQWV RQO\ D VPDOO

es
SRUWLRQ RI Whe FRGe RI Whe eQWLUe 26 EXW LW LV LQWeQVLYeO\ XVeG
$ FRPSXWeU V\VWeP hDV PDQ\ UeVRXUFeV VXFh DV Whe SURFeVVRU DQG VR UePDLQV LQ SULPDU\ VWRUDJe ZhLOe RWheU SRUWLRQV PD\
CP8 PDLQ PePRU\ ,2 GeYLFeV DQG ¿OeV The RSeUDWLQJ Ee WUDQVIeUUeG LQ DQG RXW RI VeFRQGDU\ VWRUDJe DV UeTXLUeG

Pr
V\VWeP DFWV DV Whe PDQDJeU RI WheVe UeVRXUFeV DQG DOORFDWeV :heQ D FRPSXWeU ERRWV XS LW JReV WhURXJh VRPe LQLWLDOL]DWLRQ
WheP WR VSeFL¿F SURJUDPV DQG XVeV WheP DV DQG ZheQ
IXQFWLRQV VXFh DV FheFNLQJ Whe PePRU\ ,W WheQ ORDGV Whe
QeFeVVDU\ IRU Whe WDVNV
NeUQeO DQG VZLWFheV FRQWURO WR LW The NeUQeO WheQ VWDUWV XS DOO
$Q RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP PD\ Ee Ge¿QeG DV D V\VWeP VRIWZDUe ity
Whe SURFeVVeV QeeGeG WR FRPPXQLFDWe ZLWh Whe XVeU DQG Whe
ZhLFh DFWV DV DQ LQWeUPeGLDU\ EeWZeeQ Whe XVeU DQG Whe
UeVW RI Whe eQYLURQPeQW
hDUGZDUe DQ LQWeUIDFe ZhLFh LVRODWeV Whe XVeU IURP Whe
The XVeU LQWeUIDFe LV Whe SRUWLRQ RI Whe RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP
rs
GeWDLOV RI Whe hDUGZDUe LPSOePeQWDWLRQ ,W FRQVLVWV RI D
WhDW XVeUV LQWeUDFW ZLWh GLUeFWO\ 2SeUDWLQJ V\VWePV VXFh DV
VeW RI VSeFLDOL]eG VRIWZDUe PRGXOeV WhDW PDNeV FRPSXWLQJ
06'26 DQG eDUO\ YeUVLRQV RI 81,; DFFeSWeG RQO\ W\SeGLQ
UeVRXUFeV hDUGZDUe DQG VRIWZDUe DYDLODEOe WR XVeUV ThXV
ve

We[W FRPPDQGV 1RZ PRVW RSeUDWLQJ V\VWePV SURYLGe XVeUV D

Whe FRPSXWeU V\VWeP LV eDVLeU WR XVe ZLWh Whe RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP
JUDShLFDO XVeU LQWeUIDFe IRU WheLU LQWeUDFWLRQV ZLWh Whe V\VWeP
LQ SODFe WhDQ ZLWhRXW LW 6RPe RI Whe RSeUDWLQJ V\VWePV XVeG
2SeUDWLQJ V\VWePV VXFh DV 0LFURVRIW :LQGRZV 6RODULV DQG
QRZDGD\V DUe 0DF 06 :LQGRZV /LQX[ 6RODULV eWF
ni

/LQX[ DOORZ Whe XVeU WR LQWeUDFW ZLWh Whe RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP

The FRPPRQ IXQFWLRQV RI DQ RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP LQFOXGeV ±
WhURXJh LFRQV PeQXV Ne\ERDUG DQG PRXVe PRYePeQWV The
U

Process(or) management The SURFeVV DEVWUDFWLRQ LV D
IXQGDPeQWDO PeFhDQLVP LPSOePeQWeG E\ Whe RSeUDWLQJ
V\VWeP IRU PDQDJePeQW RI Whe e[eFXWLRQ RI SURJUDPV $
d
XVeU LQWeUIDFe DQG ZD\ RI LQWeUDFWLRQV YDU\ ZLGeO\ IURP RQe
RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP WR DQRWheU
1.7.1 Loading an Operating System

SURFeVV LV EDVLFDOO\ D SURJUDP LQ e[eFXWLRQ The RSeUDWLQJ

V\VWeP GeFLGeV ZhLFh SURFeVV JeWV WR UXQ IRU hRZ ORQJ DQG ,Q VRPe GLJLWDO GeYLFeV OLNe FRQWUROOeUV RI VPDOO DSSOLDQFeV
or

SeUhDSV DW ZhDW SULRULW\ RU OeYeO RI LPSRUWDQFe hDQGheOG GeYLFeV DQG YLGeRJDPe FRQVROe Whe RSeUDWLQJ
V\VWeP LV UeODWLYeO\ VLPSOe DQG VPDOO DQG LV VWRUeG LQ R20
Memory management 2SeUDWLQJ V\VWeP LV UeVSRQVLEOe
xf

IRU NeeSLQJ WUDFN RI ZhLFh SDUWV RI Whe PePRU\ DUe FXUUeQWO\
EeLQJ XVeG DQG E\ ZhRP ,W RUJDQL]eV DQG DGGUeVVeV PePR
O
U\ hDQGOe UeTXeVWV WR DOORFDWe PePRU\ IUeeV XS PePRU\ QR
ORQJeU EeLQJ XVeG DQG UeDUUDQJeV PePRU\ WR PD[LPL]e Whe
XVeIXO DPRXQW 2IWeQ VeYeUDO SURJUDPV PD\ Ee LQ PePRU\ DW
Whe VDPe WLPe The RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP VeOeFWV SURFeVVeV WhDW
DUe WR Ee SODFeG LQ PePRU\ ZheUe Whe\ DUe WR Ee SODFeG DQG
hRZ PXFh PePRU\ LV WR Ee JLYeQ WR eDFh
Device management The RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP DOORFDWeV
Whe YDULRXV GeYLFeV WR Whe SURFeVVeV DQG LQLWLDWeV Whe ,2
RSeUDWLRQ ,W DOVR FRQWUROV DQG VFheGXOeV DFFeVVeV WR Whe
LQSXWRXWSXW GeYLFeV DPRQJ Whe SURFeVVeV
File management $ ¿Oe LV MXVW D VeTXeQFe RI E\WeV )LOeV
DUe VWRUDJe DUeDV IRU SURJUDPV VRXUFe FRGeV GDWD GRFXPeQWV
© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.
ReDG2QO\ 0ePRU\ The RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP LV DOVR SUeVeQW
LQ D R20 IRU V\VWePV VXFh DV LQGXVWULDO FRQWUROOeUV DQG
SeWURO¿OOLQJ eTXLSPeQW ,Q VXFh D V\VWeP LW JDLQV LPPeGLDWe
FRQWURO RI Whe SURFeVVRU Whe PRPeQW LW LV WXUQeG RQ
,Q SeUVRQDO FRPSXWeU Whe RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP LV XVXDOO\
VWRUeG RQ hDUG GLVN %eFDXVe VL]e RI Whe RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP LV
ODUJe eQRXJh LW FDQQRW Ee SODFeG eQWLUeO\ LQ R$0 The NeUQeO
Whe FRUe SDUW RI Whe RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP LV ORDGeG LQWR R$0 DW
VWDUWXS DQG LV DOZD\V SUeVeQW LQ PePRU\ 2WheU SDUWV RI Whe
RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP DUe ORDGeG LQWR R$0 DV DQG ZheQ UeTXLUeG
,W LV WR Ee QRWeG WhDW WheUe LV QR RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP UeVLGeQW LQ D
QeZ FRPSXWeU The RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP LV XVXDOO\ VROG RQ D C'
RU '9' PeGLD DQG hDV WR Ee SeUPDQeQWO\ WUDQVIeUUeG IURP D
C' RU '9' PeGLD WR Whe hDUG GLVN E\ e[SDQGLQJ FRPSUeVVeG
¿OeV DQG LQLWLDOL]LQJ Whe ZhROe V\VWeP IRU XVe
 Computer Fundamentals 15
Booting LV Whe JeQeUDO WeUP IRU Whe SURFeVV WhDW D FRPSXWeU The VWeSV LQYROYeG LQ Whe LQVWUXFWLRQ F\FOe ZhLOe e[eFXWLQJ
RU RWheU GLJLWDO GeYLFe IROORZV IURP Whe LQVWDQW LW LV WXUQeG RQ D SURJUDP DUe GeVFULEeG EeORZ
XQWLO Whe RSeUDWLQJ V\VWeP LV ¿QDOO\ ORDGeG DQG UeDG\ IRU XVe The PURJUDP CRXQWeU PC LV Whe UeJLVWeU WhDW NeeSV WUDFN
The %DVLF ,QSXW 2XWSXW 6\VWeP %,26 LV D VPDOO VeW RI RI ZhDW LQVWUXFWLRQ hDV WR Ee e[eFXWeG Qe[W $W Whe ¿UVW VWeS
LQVWUXFWLRQV VWRUeG RQ D PR20 WhDW LV e[eFXWeG ZheQ Whe Whe LQVWUXFWLRQ LV fetched IURP PDLQ PePRU\ DQG ORDGeG
FRPSXWeU LV WXUQeG RQ LQWR ,QVWUXFWLRQ ReJLVWeU ,R ZhRVe DGGUeVV LV VSeFL¿eG
:heQ Whe FRPSXWeU LV VZLWFheG RQ Whe R20 FLUFXLWU\ E\ PC UeJLVWeU ,PPeGLDWeO\ Whe PC LV LQFUePeQWeG VR WhDW LW
UeFeLYeV SRZeU DQG EeJLQV Whe ERRW SURFeVV $W ¿UVW DQ SRLQWV WR Whe Qe[W LQVWUXFWLRQ LQ Whe SURJUDP 2QFe LQ ,R Whe
DGGUeVV LV DXWRPDWLFDOO\ ORDGeG LQWR Whe PURJUDP CRXQWeU LQVWUXFWLRQ LV decoded WR GeWeUPLQe Whe DFWLRQV QeeGeG IRU
PC UeJLVWeU ThLV LV GRQe E\ hDUGZDUe FLUFXLWU\ The DGGUeVV LWV e[eFXWLRQ The FRQWURO XQLW WheQ LVVXeV Whe VeTXeQFe RI
JLYeQ LV Whe ORFDWLRQ RI Whe ¿UVW e[eFXWDEOe LQVWUXFWLRQ RI Whe FRQWURO VLJQDOV WhDW eQDEOeV execution RI Whe LQVWUXFWLRQ 'DWD

s
%,26 The FRGe LQ Whe %,26 UXQV D VeULeV RI WeVWV FDOOeG Whe QeeGeG WR Ee SURFeVVeG E\ Whe LQVWUXFWLRQV DUe eLWheU IeWFheG
P26T PRZeU 2Q 6eOI TeVW WR PDNe VXUe WhDW V\VWeP GeYLFeV IURP D UeJLVWeU IURP R$0 WhURXJh DQ address register The

es
VXFh DV PDLQ PePRU\ PRQLWRU Ne\ERDUG Whe LQSXWRXWSXW UeVXOW RI Whe LQVWUXFWLRQ LV stored ZULWWeQ WR eLWheU D UeJLVWeU
GeYLFeV DUe FRQQeFWeG DQG IXQFWLRQDO 'XULQJ P26T Whe %,26 RU D PePRU\ ORFDWLRQ The Qe[W LQVWUXFWLRQ RI D SURJUDP ZLOO
FRPSDUeV Whe V\VWeP FRQ¿JXUDWLRQ GDWD REWDLQeG IURP P26T IROORZ Whe VDPe VWeSV ThLV ZLOO FRQWLQXe XQWLO WheUe LV QR

Pr
ZLWh Whe V\VWeP LQIRUPDWLRQ VWRUeG RQ D CRPSOePeQWDU\ PRUe LQVWUXFWLRQ LQ Whe SURJUDP RU Whe FRPSXWeU LV WXUQeG RII
0eWDO2[LGe 6ePLFRQGXFWRU C026 PePRU\ FhLS ORFDWeG VRPe VRUW RI XQUeFRYeUDEOe eUURU RFFXUV
RQ Whe PRWheUERDUG The %,26 DOVR VeWV YDULRXV SDUDPeWeUV
VXFh DV Whe RUJDQL]DWLRQ RI Whe GLVN GULYe XVLQJ LQIRUPDWLRQ
VWRUeG LQ D C026 FhLS ThLV C026 FhLS JeWV XSGDWeG
ity CU
ALU
ZheQeYeU QeZ V\VWeP FRPSRQeQWV DUe DGGeG DQG FRQWDLQV Decode
rs
Execute
Whe ODWeVW LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW V\VWeP FRPSRQeQWV
The %,26 WheQ ORDGV RQO\ RQe EORFN RI GDWD FDOOeG Whe
ve

Master Boot Record IURP D VSeFL¿F DQG ¿[eG SODFe Whe Fetch

YeU\ ¿UVW VeFWRU DW F\OLQGeU  heDG  DQG VeFWRU  RI Whe

ERRWDEOe GeYLFe DQG LV SODFeG DW D VSeFL¿F DQG ¿[eG SODFe RI Main memory
ni

PDLQ PePRU\ The PDVWeU ERRW UeFRUG LV RI  E\WeV LQ VL]e

DQG FRQWDLQV PDFhLQe FRGe LQVWUXFWLRQV FDOOeG D bootstrap Store
U

loader TheQ Whe ERRW ORDGeU SURJUDP VWDUWV Whe SURFeVV RI

ORDGLQJ Whe 26 DQG WUDQVIeUV FRQWURO WR Whe 26 LWVeOI ZhLFh
FRPSOeWeV Whe SURFeVV Fig. 1.6 #UKORNKſGFXKGYQHCPKPUVTWEVKQPE[ENG
d

Note
or

Note
∑ Cold boot describes the process of starting the computer
and loading its operating system by turning the power on. A register is a single, permanent storage location within the
xf

If the computer is running, one can carry out cold boot by %27 WUGF HQT C RCTVKEWNCT FGſPGF RWTRQUG %27 EQPVCKPU
ſTUVUYKVEJKPIKVQHHCPFVJGPDCEMQP several important registers such as
O

∑ Warm boot describes the process of restarting the ∑ The program counter(PC) register holds the address of
computer and loading its operating system again without the current instruction being executed.
switching it off after it has already been running. ∑ The instruction register (IR) holds the actual instruction
being executed currently by the computer.
To access data in memory, CPU makes use of two internal
registers:
1.8 OPERATIONAL OVERVIEW OF A CPU ∑ The memory address register (MAR) holds the address
$Q\ SURFeVVLQJ e[eFXWeG E\ FeQWUDO SURFeVVLQJ XQLW LV of a memory location.
GLUeFWeG E\ Whe LQVWUXFWLRQ The SURFeVVLQJ UeTXLUeG IRU D ∑ The memory data register (MDR), sometimes known as
the memory buffer register, will hold a data value that is
VLQJOe LQVWUXFWLRQ LV FDOOeG DQ instruction cycle The IRXU
being stored to or retrieved from the memory location
VWeSV ZhLFh Whe CP8 FDUULeV RXW IRU eDFh PDFhLQe ODQJXDJe
currently addressed by the memory address register.
LQVWUXFWLRQ DUe fetch, decode, execute, and store )LJ 

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 16 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

SUMMARY
# EQORWVGT KU FGſPGF CU ŎCP CWVQOCVKE GNGEVTQPKE CRRCTCVWU HQT OCMKPI
ECNEWNCVKQPUQTEQPVTQNNKPIQRGTCVKQPUVJCVCTGGZRTGUUKDNGKPPWOGTKECNQT
NQIKECNVGTOUŏ
 5VCTVKPI HTQO VJG FC[U QH VJG CDCEWU VJG EQPEGRV QH FGXGNQRKPI C
EQORWVKPIOCEJKPGJCUNGFVQVJGFGXGNQROGPVQHVJGOQFGTPGNGEVTQPKE
EQORWVKPI OCEJKPG 6JGTG CTG ſXG IGPGTCVKQPU QH EQORWVGTU 6QFC[
EQORWVGTU CTG CXCKNCDNG KP XCTKQWU HQTOU UWEJ CU RGTUQPCN EQORWVGTU
NCRVQR RCNOVQR CPF OCKPHTCOGU 6JG GNGEVTQPKE EQORWVGT QH CNN UK\GU
RGTHGEVGFVJTQWIJ[GCTUQHFGXGNQROGPVJCUDGEQOGCRQYGTHWNOCEJKPG
EQNQTOQPKVQTEQPUQNGYKVJCITCRJKERQKPVGTFGXKEGUWEJCUOQWUGCPFC
PQPKORCEVRTKPVGT
 6JWUDTQCFN[VJGDCUKEEQORWVGTU[UVGOEQPUKUVUQHC%27OGOQT[
CPF KPRWV CPF QWVRWV FGXKEGU /GOQT[ ECP DG ENCUUKſGF KPVQ RTKOCT[
UGEQPFCT[ CPF KPVGTPCN RTQEGUUQT OGOQT[ %CEJG OGOQT[ KU C RCTV QH
VJGRTKOCT[OGOQT[CPFPQTOCNN[TGUKFGUPGCTVJG%276JGTGUVQHVJG
RTKOCT[OGOQT[EQPUKUVUQHXCTKQWUV[RGUQH41/UCPF4#/U
 # 2% EQPUKUVU QH JCTFYCTG CPF UQHVYCTG 5QHVYCTG ECP DG ENCUUKſGF
KPVQU[UVGOUQHVYCTGCPFCRRNKECVKQPUQHVYCTG6JGOQUVKORQTVCPVU[UVGO

s
ECRCDNGQHDGKPIGORNQ[GFKPCXCTKGV[QHCRRNKECVKQPU#EQORWVGTJCUC UQHVYCTG KU VJG QRGTCVKPI U[UVGO VJCV OCPCIGU CNN TGUQWTEGU QH VJG
%27 C HCUVCEEGUU RTKOCT[ OGOQT[
4#/ C PQPXQNCVKNG JKIJ UVQTCIG EQORWVGTU[UVGOCPFCEVUCUCPKPVGTHCEGDGVYGGPJCTFYCTGCPFUQHVYCTG

ECRCEKV[ UGEQPFCT[ OGOQT[
*&& CP GCU[VQWUG MG[DQCTF C XKFGQ
2156KU
es
9JGPVJGRGTUQPCNEQORWVGTKUUYKVEJGFQPCRQYGTQPUGNHVGUV
GZGEWVGFCPFVJGQRGTCVKPIU[UVGOKUNQCFGF

Pr
KEY TERMS
ALU 6JG#TKVJOGVKE.QIKE7PKV
#.7RGTHQTOUCTKVJOGVKECPFNQIKECNQR CPU +VKUCP+PVGITCVGFEKTEWKVEJKRYJKEJKUVJGWNVKOCVGEQPVTQNNGTQHVJG
ity
GTCVKQPUQPVJGFCVC EQORWVGTCUYGNNCUVJGRNCEGYJGTGCNNECNEWNCVKQPUCTGRGTHQTOGF
BIOS $CUKE +PRWV1WVRWV 5[UVGO
$+15 KU C UOCNN UGV QH KPUVTWEVKQPU Hardware +VTGHGTUVQVJGRJ[UKECNEQORQPGPVUQHCEQORWVGT
UVQTGFKP41/YJKEJTWPUGXGT[VKOGYJGPVJGEQORWVGTKUUYKVEJGFQP
rs
RAM 4CPFQO#EEGUU/GOQT[
4#/KUCXQNCVKNGOGOQT[VJCVKUWUGF
$+15KUTGURQPUKDNGHQT2QYGT1P5GNH6GUVVQOCMGUWTGGXGT[KOOGFK
VQUVQTGFCVCCPFKPUVTWEVKQPUVGORQTCTKN[+VJQNFUTCYFCVCYCKVKPIVQDG
CVGN[TGSWKTGFFGXKEGKUEQPPGEVGFCPFHWPEVKQPCNCPFſPCNN[NQCFKPIVJG
RTQEGUUGFCUYGNNCUVJGRTQITCOKPUVTWEVKQPUHQTRTQEGUUKPIVJCVFCVC+V
ve

EQTGRCTVQHVJGQRGTCVKPIU[UVGOKPVQ4#/
CNUQJQNFUQRGTCVKPIU[UVGOKPUVTWEVKQPUYJKEJEQPVTQNVJGDCUKEHWPEVKQPU
Cache memory +VKUCURGEKCNJKIJURGGFOGOQT[VJCVCNNQYUCOKETQ
QHCEQORWVGTU[UVGO
RTQEGUUQT VQ CEEGUU FCVC OQTG TCRKFN[ VJCP HTQO OGOQT[ NQECVGF GNUG
ni

YJGTGQPVJGU[UVGODQCTF ROM 4GCF1PN[/GOQT[

41/KURGTOCPGPVCPFPQPXQNCVKNGOGOQT[
+VKUVJGRNCEGVQUVQTGVJGőJCTFYKTGFŒUVCTVWRKPUVTWEVKQPUQHCEQORWVGT
CMOS 6JG %QORNGOGPVCT[ /GVCN 1ZKFG 5GOKEQPFWEVQT
%/15 EJKR
6JGUGKPUVTWEVKQPUCTGCRGTOCPGPVRCTVQHVJGEKTEWKVT[CPFTGOCKPKPRNCEG
U

KPVJGEQORWVGTUVQTGUKPHQTOCVKQPCDQWVXCTKQWUCVVTKDWVGUQHVJGFGXKEGU
GXGPYJGPVJGEQORWVGTRQYGTKUVWTPGFQHH
EQPPGEVGFVQVJGEQORWVGT
Software +VTGHGTUVQVJGUGVQHEQORWVGTRTQITCOUCPFVQVJGFCVCVJCV
Control unit +VKPVGTRTGVUGCEJKPUVTWEVKQPCPFFGVGTOKPGUVJGCRRTQRTK
d

VJGRTQITCOUWUG
CVGEQWTUGQHCEVKQP
or

Computer +VKURTQITCOOCDNGFGXKEGVJCVECPUVQTGTGVTKGXGCPFRTQ
EGUUFCVC
xf

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

O

1. What is a microprocessor? VWTPGFQPCPFVJGVKOGKVKUTGCF[HQTWUGKUTGHGTTGFVQCUbooting

# OKETQRTQEGUUQT KU CP KPVGITCVGF EKTEWKV EJKR VJCV EQPVCKPU CNN QH 5. Where is the operating system stored?
VJG GUUGPVKCN EQORQPGPVU HQT VJG EGPVTCN RTQEGUUKPI WPKV
%27 QH C +P UQOG FKIKVCN FGXKEGUō V[RKECNN[ JCPFJGNFU CPF XKFGQICOG EQPUQNGUō
OKETQEQORWVGTU[UVGO VJG GPVKTG QRGTCVKPI U[UVGO KU UOCNN GPQWIJ VQ DG UVQTGF KP 41/
TGCFQPN[
2. What is a chip? OGOQT[ (QT OQUV QVJGT EQORWVGTU VJG QRGTCVKPI U[UVGO RTQITCO KU SWKVG
#EJKRKUCUOCNNVJKPRKGEGQHUKNKEQPQPVQYJKEJVJGVTCPUKUVQTUOCMKPIWR NCTIG UQ OQUV QH KV KU UVQTGF QP C JCTF FKUM &WTKPI VJG DQQV RTQEGUU VJG
VJGKPVGITCVGFEKTEWKVUGIOKETQRTQEGUUQTUJCXGDGGPKORTKPVGF QRGTCVKPI U[UVGO MGTPGN KU NQCFGF KPVQ 4#/ 6JG kernel RTQXKFGU GUUGPVKCN
3. What is a chipset? QRGTCVKPI U[UVGO UGTXKEGU 1VJGT RCTVU QH VJG QRGTCVKPI U[UVGO CTG NQCFGF
+P RGTUQPCN EQORWVGTU C chipset KU C ITQWR QH KPVGITCVGF EKTEWKVU VJCV KPVQ 4#/ CU CPF YJGP VJG[ CTG PGGFGF
VQIGVJGTRGTHQTOCRCTVKEWNCTHWPEVKQP 6. What is a plug-and-play device?
4. What is booting? # FGXKEG HQT YJKEJ VJG KPUVCNNCVKQP RTQEGUU UVCTVU CWVQOCVKECNN[ D[
VJG QRGTCVKPI U[UVGO CPF YJKEJ WUWCNN[ FQGU PQV TGSWKTG CP[ JWOCP
6JGUGSWGPEGQHGXGPVUVJCVQEEWTUDGVYGGPVJGVKOGVJCVCEQORWVGTKU
KPVGTXGPVKQP KU ECNNGF C RNWICPFRNC[ FGXKEG

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.


7. If a computer contains RAM, why does it need ROM too?
0QTOCNN[ VJG KPUVTWEVKQPU CPF FCVC CTG UVQTGF KP C UGEQPFCT[ UVQTCIG
FGXKEGU RGTOCPGPVN[ +P CFFKVKQP VQ FCVC CPF RTQITCO KPUVTWEVKQPU EWTTGPVN[
DGKPI RTQEGUUGF 4#/ CNUQ JQNFU QRGTCVKPI U[UVGO KPUVTWEVKQPU VJCV
$CUKE +PRWV 1WVRWV 5[UVGO 6JGUG KPUVTWEVKQPU CEEGUU VJG JCTF FKUM ſPF
EQPVTQN VJG DCUKE HWPEVKQPU QH C EQORWVGT U[UVGO 6JGUG KPUVTWEVKQPU CTG
NQCFGF KPVQ 4#/ GXGT[ VKOG YJGP VJG EQORWVGT KU DQQVGF CPF VJG[ TGOCKP
Computer Fundamentals 17
TGUKFGPV WPVKN VJG EQORWVGT KU VWTPGF QHH $WV 4#/ KU C XQNCVKNG OGOQT[ KG
KVU EQPVGPV YKNN DG NQUV YJGP VJG RQYGT KU VWTPGF QHH 0QY 41/ RNC[U VJG
KORQTVCPV TQNG 41/ EQPVCKPU C UOCNN UGV QH KPUVTWEVKQPU ECNNGF VJG $+15
VJG QRGTCVKPI U[UVGO CPF NQCF KV KPVQ 4#/ #HVGT VJG QRGTCVKPI U[UVGO KU
NQCFGF VJG U[UVGO KU TGCF[ VQ DG WUGF

EXERCISES
1. 9TKVG HWNN HQTOU QH VJG HQNNQYKPI 10. 9JCV KU OGCPV D[ 2156!
'0+#% #.7 %7 4#/ 41/ '241/ ''241/ $+15 2156 11. 9JCV KU VJG DQQV UGEVQT!

s
/+25 %/15 12. &GUETKDG VJG DQQVUVTCR RTQEGUU
2. $TKGƀ[ FGUETKDG VJG HWPEVKQPU QH VJG FKHHGTGPV EQORQPGPVU QH C EQPXGP

es
13. &KUVKPIWKUJ DGVYGGP VJG HQNNQYKPI
VKQPCN FKIKVCN EQORWVGT YKVJ VJG JGNR QH C UWKVCDNG DNQEM FKCITCO

C %QORKNGT CPF KPVGTRTGVGT
3. 9JCV KU C %27! 9JCV KU KVU HWPEVKQP! /GPVKQP KVU UGXGTCN EQORQPGPVU

D 5[UVGO UQHVYCTG CPF CRRNKECVKQP UQHVYCTG

Pr
4. 'ZRNCKP VJG FKHHGTGPV OGOQT[ WPKVU

E 4#/ CPF 41/
5. &KUEWUU VJG OGOQT[ JKGTCTEJ[ YKVJKP C EQORWVGT U[UVGO

F 2TKOCT[ OGOQT[ CPF UGEQPFCT[ OGOQT[
6. 9JCV KU ECEJG OGOQT[! 9J[ KU KV PGEGUUCT[!

G $KV CPF D[VG
7. )KXG VJTGG GZCORNGU QH U[UVGO UQHVYCTG ity
H *CTFYCTG CPF UQHVYCTG
8. $TKGƀ[ UVCVG VJG TQNG QH VJG QRGTCVKPI U[UVGO KP C EQORWVGT U[UVGO
9. 9JCV KU $+15! &GUETKDG KVU HWPEVKQPU
rs
ve
ni
U
d
or
xf
O

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.