Sufism

“Sufi” redirects here. For other uses, see Sufi (disam- throughout Persia.[23] The Twelver Shi'ite influenced
biguation). Alevi and Sunni Bektashi[24] orders both claim that all
Not to be confused with sophism. Sufi orders trace their spiritual lineage (silsilah or Silsila)
back to one of The Twelve Imams. Some orders in-
clude Alevi, Bektashi, Burhaniya, Mevlevi, Ba 'Alawiyya,
Sufism (Arabic: ‫ ;تصوف‬taṣawwuf) is a concept in Islam,
defined by scholars as the inner, mystical dimension of Chishti, Rifa'i, Khalwati, Naqshbandi, Nimatullahi,
Oveyssi, Qadiria Boutshishia, Qadiriyyah, Qalandariyya,
Islam. Traditional Sufis, throughout history (i.e. Bayazid [25]
Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Sarwari Qadiri, Shadhiliyya and Suhrawardiyya.
Baghdadi, Al-Ghazali etc.) and presently, have main- Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as “a science
tained Sufism to be purely based on the tenets of Is- whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning
lam and the teachings of Muhammad.[1][2][3][4] Some aca- it away from all else but God”.[26] Alternatively, in the
demics like Kamuran Godelek, however, have argued that words of the Darqawi Sufi teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba, “a
Sufism has been heavily influenced by Neoplatonism.[5] science through which one can know how to travel into the
There are some who hold the notion that its essence has presence of the Divine, purify one’s inner self from filth,
also been expressed via other religions and metareligious and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits”.[27]
phenomena, while others believe Sufism to be totally Muslims and mainstream scholars of Islam define Su-
unique to Islam.[6][7][8][9][10][11] fism as simply the name for the inner or esoteric dimen-
Practitioners of Sufism (Tasawuf) referred to as Sufis sion of Islam[6] which is supported and complemented by
(ṣūfī) (/ˈsuːfi/; ‫ِﻲ‬ ُ often belong to different ṭuruq or
ّ ‫)ﺻﻮﻓ‬ outward or exoteric practices of Islam, such as Islamic
“orders”—congregations formed around a grand master law.[28] In this view, “it is absolutely necessary to be a
referred to as a Mawla who maintains a direct chain Muslim” to be a true Sufi, because Sufism’s “methods
of teachers back to the Prophet Muhammad.[12] These are inoperative without” Muslim “affiliation”.[29] In con-
orders meet for spiritual sessions (majalis) in meeting trast, author Idries Shah states Sufi philosophy is univer-
places known as zawiyahs, khanqahs, or tekke.[13] e.g. sal in nature, its roots predating the rise of Islam and
Khanqah Khairiyyah Sufis strive for ihsan (perfection of Christianity.[30] Some schools of Sufism in Western coun-
worship) as detailed in a hadith: “Ihsan is to worship Al- tries allow non-Muslims to receive “instructions on fol-
lah as if you see Him; if you can't see Him, surely He sees lowing the Sufi path”.[31] Some Muslim opponents of Su-
you.”[14] Jalaluddin Rumi stated: “The Sufi is hanging on fism also consider it outside the sphere of Islam.[6][32]
to Muhammad, like Abu Bakr.”[15] Sufis consider them- Classical Sufis were characterised by their attachment
selves to be the original true proponents of this pure origi- to dhikr, (a practice of repeating the names of God,
nal form of Islam. Sufis orders have faced criticism in the often performed after prayers)[33] and asceticism. Su-
Muslim world. Sufism is generally opposed by followers fism gained adherents among a number of Muslims as
of Wahhabist or Salafist movements within Sunni Islam, a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad
causing tensions due to a resurgence of Sufi practice in Caliphate (661–750 CE).[34] Sufis have spanned sev-
Saudi Arabia.[16] The Islamic Republic of Iran bans the eral continents and cultures over a millennium, origi-
practice of Sufism and in recent years has arrested Sufi ac- nally expressing their beliefs in Arabic, before spreading
tivists and clerics[17] because it views Sufism is unauthen- into Persian, Turkish, and Urdu among dozens of other
tic and incompatible with Twelver Shi'ite Islam.[18][19][20] languages.[35]
Sufi orders (turuq) generally trace many of their original
precepts from the Islamic prophet Muhammad through
his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib- with the
notable exception of Naqshbandi order, which does so 1 Etymology
through the first Caliph, Abu Bakr.[21] Sufi orders are
largely Sunni and follow one of the four schools of Sunni Two origins of the word sufi have been suggested. Com-
Islam and maintain a Sunni Aqidah or creed.[22] Over monly, the lexical root of the word is traced to ṣafā (‫)صفاء‬,
the years various Sufi orders have been influenced by which in Arabic means “purity”. Another origin is ṣūf
and adopted into various Shi'ite movements including (‫)صُوف‬, “wool” in Arabic, referring to the simple cloaks
Ismailism- which led to the Safaviyya order’s conver- the early Muslim ascetics wore. The two were combined
sion to Shi'ite Islam and the spread of Twelver Shi'ism by the Sufi al-Rudhabari who said, “The Sufi is the one

1
2 2 BELIEFS

who wears wool on top of purity”.[36][37] by working to restore within themselves the primordial
[45]
Others have suggested that the word comes from the term state of fitra, described in the Qur'an. In this state
ahl aṣ-ṣuffah (“the people of the bench”), who were a nothing one does defies Allah, and all is undertaken with
group of impoverished companions of Muhammad who the single motivation of love of Allah.
held regular gatherings of dhikr. These men and women To Sufis, Sufism involves the study and ritual purifica-
who sat at Al-Masjid al-Nabawi are considered by some tion of traits deemed reprehensible while adding praise-
to be the first Sufites in existence.[38][39] Abd al-Karīm worthy traits. This is independent of whether or not this
ibn Hawāzin Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all process of religious cleansing and purifying leads to es-
possibilities other than ṣūf on linguistic grounds.[40] oteric knowledge of Allah. This can be conceived in
According to the medieval scholar Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī, terms of two basic types of law (fiqh), an outer law con-
the word sufi is derived from the Greek word sofia cerned with actions, and an inner law concerned with
(σοφία), meaning wisdom.[41][42][43] one’s own actions and qualities. The outer law consists
of rules pertaining to worship, transactions, marriage, ju-
According to Qur'anist, the word Sufi derived from the dicial rulings, and criminal law—what is often referred
word suhufi(ie.Suhufi-papers, pages, records, scriptures to, broadly, as qanun. The inner law of Sufism consists
from a Qur'anic/Islamic stand point). Which further ex- of rules about repentance from sin, the purging of con-
plains their persistence in music and dancing (king David) temptible qualities and evil traits of character, and adorn-
or their visiting of tombs (Jesus by Mary) which they are ment with virtues and good character.[46]
best known for practicing.
The typical early Sufi lived in a cell of a mosque and
taught a small band of disciples. The extent to which Su-
fism was influenced by Buddhist and Hindu mysticism,
2 Beliefs and by the example of Christian hermits and monks, is
disputed, but self-discipline and concentration on Allah
quickly led to the belief that by quelling the self and
through loving ardor for Allah it is possible to maintain
a union with the divine in which the human self melts
away.[47]

2.1 Teaching

A Sufi student enters the faith by seeking a teacher. Su-

The tomb of Sheikh Rukn-ud-Din Abul Fath located in Multan,
Pakistan. The city of Multan is known for various Sufi Saint
tombs, as they call it the City of Saints
While all Muslims believe that they are on the pathway to
Allah and hope to become close to Allah in Paradise—
after death and after the “Final Judgment”—Sufis also
believe that it is possible to draw closer to Allah and to
more fully embrace the Divine Presence in this life.[44]
The chief aim of all Sufis is to seek the pleasing of Allah
fism emphasises a strong relationship between the seeker
and the teacher. To be considered legitimate by the Sufi
community, the teacher must have received the authoriza-
tion to teach (ijazah) from another Master of the Way, in
an unbroken succession (silsilah) leading back to Muham-
mad. To the Sufi, it is the transmission of divine light
from the teacher’s heart to the heart of the student, rather
than worldly knowledge, that allows the adept to progress.
They further believe that the teacher should attempt to in-
errantly follow the Divine Law.[48]
According to Moojan Momen “one of the most important
doctrines of Sufism is the concept of the “Perfect Man”
(al-Insan al-Kamil). This doctrine states that there will
always exist upon the earth a "Qutb" (Pole or Axis, of
the Universe)—a man who is the perfect channel of grace
from Allah to man and in a state of wilaya (sanctity, being
under the protection of Allah). The concept of the Sufi
Qutb is similar to that of the Shi'i Imam.[49] However, this
belief puts Sufism in “direct conflict” with Shi'ism, since
both the Qutb (who for most Sufi orders is the head of
the order) and the Imam fulfill the role of “the purveyor
of spiritual guidance and of Allah’s grace to mankind”.
The vow of obedience to the Shaykh or Qutb which is
taken by Sufis is considered incompatible with devotion
to the Imam”.[49]

Entrance of Sidi Boumediene mosque in Tlemcen, Algeria, built
to honor 12th century Sufi master Abu Madyan
As a further example, the prospective adherent of the
Mevlevi Order would have been ordered to serve in the
kitchens of a hospice for the poor for 1,001 days prior
to being accepted for spiritual instruction, and a further
1,001 days in solitary retreat as a precondition of com-
pleting that instruction.[50]
Some teachers, especially when addressing more gen-
eral audiences, or mixed groups of Muslims and non-
Muslims, make extensive use of parable, allegory, and
metaphor.[51] Although approaches to teaching vary
among different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is pri-
marily concerned with direct personal experience, and as
such has sometimes been compared to other, non-Islamic
forms of mysticism (e.g., as in the books of Hossein
Nasr).
Many Sufi believe that to reach the highest levels of suc-
cess in Sufism typically requires that the disciple live
with and serve the teacher for a large period of time.
An example is the folk story about Baha-ud-Din Naqsh-
band Bukhari, who gave his name to the Naqshbandi
Order. He is believed to have served his first teacher,
Sayyid Muhammad Baba As-Samasi, for 20 years, until
as-Samasi died. He is said to then have served several
other teachers for lengthy periods of time. He is said to
have helped the poorer members of the community for
many years and after this concluded his teacher directed
him to care for animals cleaning their wounds, and assist-
ing them.[52]
3
3 History
Main article: History of Sufism
3.1 Origins
Ali is considered to be the “Father of Sufism” in Islamic
tradition.[53]
Eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri claim that the tradition
first began with Ali ibn Abi Talib. Furthermore, Junayd
of Baghdad regarded Ali as the Sheikh of the principals
and practices of Sufism.[53]
Practitioners of Sufism hold that in its early stages of de-
velopment Sufism effectively referred to nothing more
than the internalization of Islam.[54] According to one
perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an, constantly
recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism pro-
ceeded, in its origin and its development.[55] Others have
held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the way of
Muhammad, through which the heart’s connection to the
Divine is strengthened.[56]
According to Marshall Hodgson, the Muslim conquests
had brought large numbers of Christian monks and her-
mits, especially in Syria and Egypt, under the rule of
Muslims. They retained a vigorous spiritual life for cen-
turies after the conquests, and many of the especially
pious Muslims who founded Sufism were influenced by
their techniques and methods.[57] However, others dis-
agree with this view by asserting Sufism to be unique
within the confines of the Islamic religion and contend
that Sufism developed from devout followers of Islam,
like Bayazid Bastami who in his utmost reverence to the
Sunnah refused to eat a watermelon as he did not find
any proof that the prophet Muhammad ever ate it.[10][58]
According to late Medieval mystic Jami, Abd-Allah ibn
4 3 HISTORY

Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah was the first person to be

called a “Sufi”.[40]
Important contributions in writing are attributed to Uwais
al-Qarni, Harrm bin Hian, Hasan Basri and Sayid ibn al-
Mussib. Ruwaym, from the second generation of Sufis
in Baghdad, was also an influential early figure,[59][60] as
was Junayd of Baghdad; a number of early practitioners
of Sufism were disciples of one of the two.[61]
Sufism had a long history already before the subse-
quent institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devo-
tional orders (tarîqât) in the early Middle Ages.[62] The
Naqshbandi order is a notable exception to general rule
of orders tracing their spiritual lineage through Muham-
mad’s grandsons, as it traces the origin of its teach- The tomb of Khoja Afāq, near Kashgar, China.
ings from Muhammad to the first Islamic Caliph, Abu
Bakr.[21]
greatly enhanced the spread of Islamic culture in Ana-
tolia, Central Asia, and South Asia.[66][67] Sufism also
3.2 Formalization of doctrine played a role in creating and propagating the culture of
the Ottoman world,[68] and in resisting European imperi-
[69]
Towards the end of the first millennium CE, a number alism in North Africa and South Asia.
of manuals began to be written summarizing the doc- Between the 13th and 16th centuries CE, Sufism pro-
trines of Sufism and describing some typical Sufi prac- duced a flourishing intellectual culture throughout the Is-
tices. Two of the most famous of these are now available lamic world, a “Golden Age” whose physical artifacts sur-
in English translation: the Kashf al-Mahjûb of Hujwiri, vive. In many places a pious foundation would endow a
and the Risâla of Qushayri.[63] Two of Imam Al Ghazali's lodge (known variously as a zaouia, khanqah, or tekke)
greatest treatises, the “Revival of Religious Sciences” and in perpetuity (waqf) to provide a gathering place for Sufi
the “Alchemy of Happiness”, argued that Sufism orig- adepts, as well as lodging for itinerant seekers of knowl-
inated from the Qur'an and thus was compatible with edge. The same system of endowments could also pay
mainstream Islamic thought, and did not in any way con- for a complex of buildings, such as that surrounding the
tradict Islamic Law—being instead necessary to its com- Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, including a lodge for
plete fulfillment. This became the mainstream position Sufi seekers, a hospice with kitchens where these seekers
among Islamic scholars for centuries, challenged only re- could serve the poor and/or complete a period of initi-
cently on the basis of selective use of a limited body of ation, a library, and other structures. No important do-
texts. Ongoing efforts by both traditionally trained Mus- main in the civilization of Islam remained unaffected by
lim scholars and Western academics are making Imam Sufism in this period.[70]
Al-Ghazali’s works available in English translation for
the first time, allowing English-speaking readers to judge
for themselves the compatibility of Islamic Law and Sufi 3.4 Present
doctrine. Several sections of the Revival of Religious
Sciences have been published in translation by the Is-
lamic Texts Society.[64] The Alchemy of Happiness has
been published in a complete translation by Claud Field
(ISBN 978-0935782288), and presents the argument of
the much larger Revival of Religious Sciences in summary
form.

3.3 Growth of influence

The rise of Islamic civilization coincides strongly with the
spread of Sufi philosophy in Islam. The spread of Sufism
has been considered a definitive factor in the spread of
Islam, and in the creation of integrally Islamic cultures,
especially in Africa[65] and Asia. The Senussi tribes of
Libya and Sudan are one of the strongest adherents of Su- Mawlānā Rumi's tomb, Konya, Turkey
fism. Sufi poets and philosophers such as Khoja Akhmet
Yassawi, Rumi and Attar of Nishapur (c. 1145 – c. 1221) Current Sufi orders include Azeemia, Alians, Bektashi
 5

Order, Mevlevi Order, Ba 'Alawiyya, Chishti, Jerrahi, 4 Theoretical perspectives

Naqshbandi, Nimatullahi, Qadiriyyah, Qalandariyya,
Sarwari Qadiri, Shadhiliyya, Suhrawardiyya, Ashrafia,
Saifiah (Naqshbandiah) and Uwaisi (Oveyssi).[25] The re-
lationship of Sufi orders to modern societies is usually
defined by their relationship to governments.[71]
Turkey and Persia together have been a center for many
Sufi lineages and orders. The Bektashi was closely af-
filiated with the Ottoman Janissary and is the heart of
Turkey’s large and mostly liberal Alevi population. It has
been spread westwards to Cyprus, Greece, Albania, Bul-
garia, Macedonia, Bosnia, Kosovo and more recently to
the USA (via Albania). Most Sufi Orders have influences
from pre-Islamic traditions such as Pythagoreanism, but
the Turkic Sufi traditions (including Alians, Bektashi
and Mevlevi) also have traces of the ancient Tengrism
shamanism.
Sufism is popular in such African countries as Tunisia,
Algeria, Morocco and Senegal, where it is seen as a mys-
tical expression of Islam.[72] Sufism is traditional in Mo-
rocco but has seen a growing revival with the renewal of
Sufism around contemporary spiritual teachers such as
Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutshishi. Mbacke suggests that
one reason Sufism has taken hold in Senegal is because it
can accommodate local beliefs and customs, which tend
toward the mystical.[73]
The life of the Algerian Sufi master Emir Abd al-Qadir is
instructive in this regard.[74] Notable as well are the lives
of Amadou Bamba and Hajj Umar Tall in sub-Saharan
Africa, and Sheikh Mansur Ushurma and Imam Shamil
in the Caucasus region. In the twentieth century some The works of Al-Ghazali firmly defended the concepts of Sufism
more modernist Muslims have called Sufism a supersti- within the Islamic faith.
tious religion that holds back Islamic achievement in the
fields of science and technology.[75] Traditional Islamic scholars have recognized two major
A number of Westerners have embarked with varying de- branches within the practice of Sufism, and use this as one
grees of success on the path of Sufism. One of the first key to differentiating among the[76] approaches of different
to return to Europe as an official representative of a Sufi masters and devotional lineages.
order, and with the specific purpose to spread Sufism in On the one hand there is the order from the signs to the
Western Europe, was the Swedish-born wandering Sufi Signifier (or from the arts to the Artisan). In this branch,
Abd al-Hadi Aqhili (also known as Ivan Aguéli). René the seeker begins by purifying the lower self of every cor-
Guénon, the French scholar, became a Sufi in the early rupting influence that stands in the way of recognizing
twentieth century and was known as Sheikh Abdul Wahid all of creation as the work of God, as God’s active Self-
Yahya. His manifold writings defined the practice of Su- disclosure or theophany.[77] This is the way of Imam Al-
fism as the essence of Islam but also pointed to the uni- Ghazali and of the majority of the Sufi orders.
versality of its message. Other spiritualists, such as G. I.
On the other hand there is the order from the Signifier to
Gurdjieff, may or may not conform to the tenets of Su-
His signs, from the Artisan to His works. In this branch
fism as understood by orthodox Muslims.
the seeker experiences divine attraction (jadhba), and is
Other noteworthy Sufi teachers who have been active in able to enter the order with a glimpse of its endpoint,
the West in recent years include Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, of direct apprehension of the Divine Presence towards
Inayat Khan, Nazim Al-Haqqani, Javad Nurbakhsh, which all spiritual striving is directed. This does not
Bulent Rauf, Irina Tweedie, Idries Shah, Muzaffer Ozak, replace the striving to purify the heart, as in the other
Nahid Angha and Ali Kianfar. branch; it simply stems from a different point of entry
Currently active Sufi academics and publishers include into the path. This is the way primarily of the masters of
Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee, Nuh Ha Mim Keller, Abdullah the Naqshbandi and Shadhili orders.[78]
Nooruddeen Durkee, Waheed Ashraf, Omer Tarin and Contemporary scholars may also recognize a third
Abdal Hakim Murad. branch, attributed to the late Ottoman scholar Said Nursi
6 5 DEVOTIONAL PRACTICES

and explicated in his vast Qur'an commentary called the

Risale-i Nur. This approach entails strict adherence to
the way of Muhammad, in the understanding that this
wont, or sunnah, proposes a complete devotional spiri-
tuality adequate to those without access to a master of
the Sufi way.[79]

4.1 Contributions to other domains of

scholarship

Sufism has contributed significantly to the elaboration

of theoretical perspectives in many domains of intellec-
tual endeavor. For instance, the doctrine of “subtle cen- Sufi gathering engaged in Dhikr
ters” or centers of subtle cognition (known as Lataif-e-
sitta) addresses the matter of the awakening of spiritual
authorization.[83]
intuition[80] in ways that some consider similar to certain
models of chakra in Hinduism. In general, these subtle Prerequisites to practice include rigorous adherence to
centers or latâ'if are thought of as faculties that are to be Islamic norms (ritual prayer in its five prescribed times
purified sequentially in order to bring the seeker’s wayfar- each day, the fast of Ramadan, and so forth). Addi-
ing to completion. A concise and useful summary of this tionally, the seeker ought to be firmly grounded in su-
system from a living exponent of this tradition has been pererogatory practices known from the life of Muham-
published by Muhammad Emin Er.[76] mad (such as the “sunna prayers”). This is in accordance
with the words, attributed to God, of the following, a fa-
Sufi psychology has influenced many areas of thinking
mous Hadith Qudsi:
both within and outside of Islam, drawing primarily upon
three concepts. Ja'far al-Sadiq (both an imam in the Shia
tradition and a respected scholar and link in chains of Sufi My servant draws near to Me through noth-
transmission in all Islamic sects) held that human beings ing I love more than that which I have made
are dominated by a lower self called the nafs, a faculty of obligatory for him. My servant never ceases
spiritual intuition called the qalb or spiritual heart, and a drawing near to Me through supererogatory
spirit or soul called ruh. These interact in various ways, works until I love him. Then, when I love him,
producing the spiritual types of the tyrant (dominated by I am his hearing through which he hears, his
nafs), the person of faith and moderation (dominated by sight through which he sees, his hand through
the spiritual heart), and the person lost in love for God which he grasps, and his foot through which he
(dominated by the ruh).[81] walks.
Of note with regard to the spread of Sufi psychology in
the West is Robert Frager, a Sufi teacher authorized in the It is also necessary for the seeker to have a correct creed
Khalwati Jerrahi order. Frager was a trained psychologist, (Aqidah),[84] and to embrace with certainty its tenets.[85]
born in the United States, who converted to Islam in the The seeker must also, of necessity, turn away from sins,
course of his practice of Sufism and wrote extensively on love of this world, the love of company and renown,
Sufism and psychology.[82] obedience to satanic impulse, and the promptings of the
lower self. (The way in which this purification of the heart
Sufi cosmology and Sufi metaphysics are also noteworthy
is achieved is outlined in certain books, but must be pre-
areas of intellectual accomplishment.
scribed in detail by a Sufi master.) The seeker must also
be trained to prevent the corruption of those good deeds
which have accrued to his or her credit by overcoming
5 Devotional practices the traps of ostentation, pride, arrogance, envy, and long
hopes (meaning the hope for a long life allowing us to
The devotional practices of Sufis vary widely. This is mend our ways later, rather than immediately, here and
because an acknowledged and authorized master of the now).
Sufi path is in effect a physician of the heart, able to di- Sufi practices, while attractive to some, are not a means
agnose the seeker’s impediments to knowledge and pure for gaining knowledge. The traditional scholars of Sufism
intention in serving God, and to prescribe to the seeker hold it as absolutely axiomatic that knowledge of God is
a course of treatment appropriate to his or her maladies. not a psychological state generated through breath con-
The consensus among Sufi scholars is that the seeker can- trol. Thus, practice of “techniques” is not the cause, but
not self-diagnose, and that it can be extremely harmful to instead the occasion for such knowledge to be obtained (if
undertake any of these practices alone and without formal at all), given proper prerequisites and proper guidance by
5.2 Muraqaba 7

a master of the way. Furthermore, the emphasis on prac- prescription of a Sufi master because they are deemed to
tices may obscure a far more important fact: The seeker be good for every seeker under every circumstance.[90]
is, in a sense, to become a broken person, stripped of all Some Sufi orders[91] engage in ritualized dhikr cere-
habits through the practice of (in the words of Imam Al- monies, or sema. Sema includes various forms of
Ghazali) solitude, silence, sleeplessness, and hunger.[86] worship such as: recitation, singing (the most well
Magic has also been a part of Sufi practice, notably in known being the Qawwali music of the Indian subcon-
India.[87] Mansur Al-Hallaj (d. 922), visited Sindh in or- tinent), instrumental music, dance (most famously the
der to study “Indian Magic”, where he accepted Hindu Sufi whirling of the Mevlevi order), incense, meditation,
ideas of cosmogony and divine descent and also seems to ecstasy, and trance.[92]
have believed in the Transmigration of the soul.[88] The Some Sufi orders stress and place extensive reliance upon
practice of magic intensified during the declining years Dhikr. This practice of Dhikr is called Dhikr-e-Qulb (in-
of Sufism in India when the Sufi orders grew steadily in vocation of Allah within the heartbeats). The basic idea
wealth and in political influence while their spirituality in this practice is to visualize the Allah as having been
gradually declined and they concentrated on saint vener- written on the disciple’s heart.[93]
ation, miracle working, magic and superstition.

5.1 Dhikr
5.2 Muraqaba
Main article: Dhikr
Dhikr is the remembrance of Allah commanded in the
Main article: Muraqaba

The practice of muraqaba can be likened to the practices

of meditation attested in many faith communities. The
word muraqaba is derived from the same root (r-q-b) oc-
curring as one of the 99 Names of God in the Qur'an, al-
Raqîb, meaning “the Vigilant” and attested in verse 4:1 of
the Qur'an. Through muraqaba, a person watches over or
takes care of the spiritual heart, acquires knowledge about
it, and becomes attuned to the Divine Presence, which is
ever vigilant.
While variation exists, one description of the practice
within a Naqshbandi lineage reads as follows:

He is to collect all of his bodily senses in

Allah as having been written on the disciple’s heart according to
Qadiri Al-Muntahi order
Qur'an for all Muslims through a specific devotional act,
such as the repetition of divine names, supplications and
aphorisms from hadith literature and the Qur'an. More
generally, dhikr takes a wide range and various layers of
meaning.[89] This includes dhikr as any activity in which
the Muslim maintains awareness of Allah. To engage in
dhikr is to practice consciousness of the Divine Presence
and love, or “to seek a state of godwariness”. The Qur'an
refers to Muhammad as the very embodiment of dhikr
of Allah (65:10–11). Some types of dhikr are prescribed
for all Muslims and do not require Sufi initiation or the
concentration, and to cut himself off from all
preoccupation and notions that inflict them-
selves upon the heart. And thus he is to
turn his full consciousness towards God Most
High while saying three times: "Ilahî anta
maqsûdî wa-ridâka matlûbî—my God, you are
my Goal and Your good pleasure is what I
seek”. Then he brings to his heart the Name
of the Essence—Allâh—and as it courses
through his heart he remains attentive to its
meaning, which is “Essence without likeness”.
The seeker remains aware that He is Present,
Watchful, Encompassing of all, thereby exem-
plifying the meaning of his saying (may God
bless him and grant him peace): “Worship God
as though you see Him, for if you do not see
Him, He sees you”. And likewise the prophetic
tradition: “The most favored level of faith is to
know that God is witness over you, wherever
you may be”.[94]
8 6 PERSECUTION

5.3 Visitation

In popular Sufism (i.e., devotional practices that have

achieved currency in world cultures through Sufi influ-
ence), one common practice is to visit or make pilgrim-
ages to the tombs of saints, great scholars, and righ-
teous people. This is a particularly common practice
in South Asia, where famous tombs include those of
Khoja Afāq, near Kashgar, in China; Lal Shahbaz Qa-
lander, in Sindh,Ali Hajwari in Lahore Bawaldin Zikrya
in Multan Pakistan; Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, India;
Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, India, and Shah Jalal in
Sylhet, Bangladesh. Likewise, in Fez, Morocco, a pop-
ular destination for such pious visitation is the Zaouia
Moulay Idriss II and the yearly visitation to see the cur-
rent Sheikh of the Qadiri Boutchichi Tariqah, Sheikh Sidi
Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi to celebrate the Mawlid
(which is usually televised on Moroccan National televi-
sion). The purpose of such visitations is usually two-fold,
first and foremost the aim is to receive spiritual guidance
and blessings from the Saint who rests in the shrine, which
helps the Seeker in his or her own path towards enlight-
enment. Secondly, the Saint is also approached for inter-
cession in prayers, be it in worldly matters or religious.

6 Persecution
See also: Sufi-Salafi relations
Sufis and Sufism has been subject to destruction of Sufi
shrines and mosques, suppression of orders, and discrim-
ination against adherents in a number of Muslim coun-
tries where most Sufis live. The Turkish Republican state
banned all the different Sufi orders and closed their insti-
tutions in 1925 after Sufis opposed the new secular order.
The Iranian Islamic Republic has harassed Shia Sufi, re-
portedly for their lack of support for the government doc-
trine of "velayat-e faqih" (i.e., that the supreme Shiite
jurist should be the nation’s political leader). In most
other Muslim countries, attacks on Sufis and especially
their shrines has come from some Muslims from the more
puritanical schools of thought who believe Sufi practices
such as celebration of the birthdays of Sufi saints, and
Dhikr (“remembrance” of God) ceremonies[95] are Bid‘ah
or impure innovation, and polytheistic (Shirk).[96][97]
6.1 History
During the Safavid era of Iran, “both the wandering
dervishes of 'low' Sufism” and “the philosopher-ulama
of 'high' Sufism came under relentless pressure” from
power cleric Muhammad Baqir Majlisi (d1110/1699).
Majlisi—"one of the most powerful and influential”
Twelver Shi'a ulama “of all time”—was famous for
(among other things), suppression of Sufism, which he
Ali Dede the Bosnian’s book Three Hundred Sixty Sufi Ques-
tions.
and his followers believed paid insufficient attention to
Shariah law. Prior to Majlisi’s rise, Shiism and Sufism
had been “closely linked”.[98]
In 1843, the Senussi Sufi were forced to flee Mecca and
Medina and head to Sudan and Libya.[34][99]
According to a 2005 article in The Guardian:
Before the first world war there were al-
most 100,000 disciples of the Mevlevi or-
der throughout the Ottoman empire. But in
1925, as part of his desire to create a mod-
ern, western-orientated, secular state, Atatürk
banned all the different Sufi orders and closed
their tekkes. Pious foundations were sus-
pended and their endowments expropriated;
Sufi hospices were closed and their contents
seized; all religious titles were abolished and
dervish clothes outlawed. [...] In 1937,
Atatürk went even further, prohibiting by law
any form of traditional music, especially the
playing of the ney, the Sufis’ reed flute.[100][101]
6.2 Current attacks
6.2 Current attacks
In recent years, Sufi shrines, and sometimes Sufi 2005
mosques, have been damaged or destroyed in many parts
of the Muslim world. Some Sufi adherents have been
killed as well. Ali Gomaa, a Sufi scholar and Grand Mufti
of Al Azhar, has criticized the destruction of shrines and
public property as unacceptable.[102]
6.2.1 Pakistan
Tomb of Syed Abdul Rahim Shah Bukhari constructed by the
Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
Since March 2005, 209 people have been killed and
560 injured in 29 different terrorist attacks targeting
shrines devoted to Sufi saints in Pakistan, according to
data compiled by the Center for Islamic Research Col-
laboration and Learning (CIRCLe).[103] At least as of 2009
2010, the attacks have increased each year. The attacks
are generally attributed to banned militant organizations
of Deobandi or Ahl-e-Hadith (Salafi) backgrounds.[104]
(Primarily Deobandi background according to another
source—author John R. Schmidt).[105] Deobandi and
Barelvi being the “two major sub-sects” of Sunni Mus-
lims in South Asia[106] that have clashed—sometimes
violently—since the late 1970s in Pakistan.[106] Although
Barelvi are fully described as Sunni Sufis,[107] whether the
destruction and death is a result of Deobandi’s banned
militant organizations persecution of Sufis(Barelvus).[108]
In 2005, the militant organizations began attacking “sym-
bols” of the Barelvi community such as mosques, promi-
nent religious leaders, and shrines.[104]
9
Timeline
• 19 March: a suicide bomber kills at least 35 people
and injured many more at the shrine of Pir Rakhel
Shah in remote village of Fatehpur located in Jhal
Magsi District of Balochistan. The dead included
Shia and sunni devotees.[109]
• 27 May: As many as 20 people are killed and 100
injured when a suicide-bomber attacks a gathering
at Bari Imam Shrine during the annual festival. The
dead were mainly Shia.[110] According to the po-
lice members of Sipah-i-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP) and
Lashkar-i-Jhangvi (LJ) were involved.[111] Sipah-e-
Sahaba Pakistan (SSP), were arrested from Thanda
Pani and police seized two hand grenades from their
custody.[112][113]
2006
• 11 April: A suicide-bomber attacked a celebration
of the birthday of Prophet Muhammad (Eid Mawlid
un Nabi) in Karachi’s Nishtar Park organised by
the Barelvi Jamaat Ahle Sunnat. 57 died includ-
ing almost the entire leadership of the Sunni Tehrik;
over 100 were injured.[114] Three people associated
with Lashkar-i-Jhangvi were put on trial for the
bombing.[115] (see: Nishtar Park bombing)
2007
• 18 December: The shrine of Abdul Shakoor Malang
Baba is demolished by explosives.[116]
2008
• March 3: ten villagers killed in a rocket attack on the
400-year-old shrine of Abu Saeed Baba. Lashkar-e-
Islam takes credit.[116]
• 17 February: Agha Jee shot and killed in Peshwar,
the fourth faith healer killed over several months in
Pakistan. Earlier Pir Samiullah was killed in Swat
by the Taliban 16 December 2008. His dead body
was later exhumed and desecrated. Pir Rafiullah was
kidnapped from Nowshera and his beheaded body
was found in Matani area of Peshawar. Pir Juma
Khan was kidnapped from Dir Lower and his be-
headed body was found near Swat.[117] Faith healing
is associated with Sufi Islam in Pakistan
Pakistani faith healers are known as pirs,
a term that applies to the descendants of Sufi
10 6 PERSECUTION

Muslim saints. Under Sufism, those descen-
dants are thought to serve as conduits to God.
The popularity of pirs as a viable healthcare
alternative stems from the fact that, in much
of rural Pakistan, clinics don't exist or are dis-
missed as unreliable.[118]
and suppressing it has been a cause of “extrem-
ist” Muslims there.[119]
• March 5: The shrine of Rahman Baba, “the most
famous Sufi Pashto language poet”, razed to the
ground by Taliban militants “partly because local
women had been visiting the shrine”.[116][120] 2012
• 3 February: Remote-controlled device is triggered
as food is being distributed among the devotees out-
side the Baba Haider Saieen shrine in Lahore, Pun-
jab. At least three people were killed and 27 others
injured.[116]
• 3 April: Twin suicide attack leaves 42 dead and al-
most a hundred injured during the annual Urs festi-
val at shrine of 13th century Sufi saint Sakhi Sarwar
(a.k.a. Ahmed Sultan) in the Dera Ghazi Khan dis-
trict of Punjab province. Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan
(TTP) claims responsibility for the attack.[116][128]

• 8 March: Attack on shrine of “famous Sufi poet”
Rahman Baba in Peshawar. “The high intensity de-
vice almost destroyed the grave of the Rehman Baba
and the gates of a mosque, canteen and conference
hall situated in the spacious Rehman Baba Com-
plex. Police said the bombers had tied explosives
around the pillars of the tombs, to pull down the
mausoleum”.[121]
• May 8: shrine of Shaykh Omar
destroyed.[116][122]
• 12 June: Mufti Sarfraz Ahmed Naeemi killed by
suicide bomber in Lahore. A leading Sunni Is-
lamic cleric in Pakistan he was well known for his
moderate views and for publicly denouncing the
Taliban’s beheadings and suicide bombings as “un-
Islamic”.[123]
2010
• 22 June: Taliban militants blow up the Mian
Umar Baba shrine in Peshawar. No fatalities
reported.[116][124]
• 1 July: Multiple bombings of Data Durbar Com-
plex Sufi shrine, in Lahore, Punjab. Two suicide
bombers blew themselves up killing at least 50 peo-
ple and injuring 200 others.[116]
• 7 October: 10 people killed, 50 injured in a dou-
ble suicide bombing attack on Abdullah Shah Ghazi 6.2.3 Somalia
shrine in Karachi[125]
• 7 October: The tomb of Baba Fariddudin Ganj Under the Al-Shabab [133]
Shakkar in Pakpattan is attacked. Six people were
killed and 15 others injured.[116]
• 25 October: 6 killed, and at least 12 wounded in
an attack on the shrine of 12th-century saint, Baba
Farid Ganj Shakar in Pakpattan.[126]
• 21 June: Bomb kills three people and injures 31
others at the Pinza Piran shrine in Hazarkhwani in
(Peshwar). “A police official said the bomb was
planted in a donkey-cart that went off in the after-
noon when a large number of people were visiting
the popular shrine”.[129]
6.2.2 Kashmir, India
Baba
In this predominately Muslim, traditionally Sufi
region,[130] some six places of worship have been either
completely or partially burnt in “mysterious fires” in
several months leading up to November 2012.[131] The
most prominent victim of damage was the Dastageer
Sahib Sufi shrine in Srinagar which burned in June 2012,
injuring 20.[132] While investigators have so far found
no sign of arson, according to journalist Amir Rana the
fires have occurred within the context of a surging Salafi
movement which preaches that “Kashmiri tradition of
venerating the tombs and relics of saints is outside the
pale of Islam”.[131]
mourners outside the burning shrine cursed
the Salafis for creating an atmosphere of hate,
[while] some Salafis began posting incendiary
messages on Facebook, terming the destruction
of the shrine a “divine act of God”.[131]
rule in Somali, Sufi ceremonies
were banned and shrines destroyed.[134] As the power
of Al-Shabab has waned, however, Sufi ceremonies are
said to have “re-emerged”.[130]
6.2.4 Mali

• 14 December: Attack on Ghazi Baba shrine in Pe- In the ancient city of Timbuktu, sometimes called “the
shawar, 3 killed.[127] city of 333 saints”, UNESCO reports that as many as
half of the city’s shrines “have been destroyed in a dis-
2011 play of fanaticism”, as of July 2012. A spokesman for
6.2 Current attacks 11

Ansar Dine has stated that “the destruction is a divine or- and scholars”.[141] Perpetrators were described as “groups
der”, and that the group had plans to destroy every single that have a strict Islamic ideology where they believe that
Sufi shrine in the city, “without exception”.[135] In Gao graves and shrines must be desecrated.” Libyan Interior
and Kidal, as well as Timbuktu, Salafi Islamists have de- Minister Fawzi Abdel A'al, was quoted as saying, “If all
stroyed musical instruments and driven musicians (music shrines in Libya are destroyed so we can avoid the death
is not Haraam under Sufi Islam) into “economic exile” of one person [in clashes with security forces], then that
away from Mali.[136] is a price we are ready to pay.”[141]
International Criminal Court Chief Prosecutor Fatou In September 2012, three people were killed in clashes
Bensouda described the Islamists’ actions as a “war between residents of Rajma (50 km south-east of Beng-
crime”.[137][138] hazi) and “Salafist Islamists” trying to destroy a Sufi
shrine in Rajma, the Sidi al-Lafi mausoleum.[142] In Au-
• A manuscript from Timbuktu belonging to Al- gust 2012 the United Nations cultural agency Unesco
Mukhtar ibn Aḥmad ibn Abi Bakr al-Kunti al- urged Libyan authorities to protect Sufi mosques and
Kabir. shrines from attacks by Islamic hardliners “who consider
the traditional mystical school of Islam heretical”. The at-
• A manuscript from Timbuktu belonging to Baba ibn
tacked have “wrecked mosques in at least three cities and
Ahmad al-Alawi al-Maliki al-Maghribi al-Shingiti.
desecrated many graves of revered Sufi scholars”.[143]

6.2.5 Egypt
A May 2010 ban by the ministry of awqaf (religious en-
dowments) of centuries old Sufi dhikr gatherings (de-
voted to the remembrance of God, and including danc-
ing and religious songs) has been described as a “an-
other victory for extreme Salafi thinking at the expense
of Egypt’s moderate Sufism”. Clashes followed at Cairo's
Al-Hussein Mosque and al-Sayyida Zeinab mosques be-
tween members of Sufi orders and security forces who
forced them to evacuate the two shrines.[95] In 2009, the
moulid of al-Sayyida Zeinab, Muhammad’s granddaugh-
ter, was banned ostensibly over concern over the spread
of swine flu[139] but also at the urging of Salafis.[95]
According to Gaber Qassem, deputy of the Sufi Orders,
approximately 14 shrines have been violated in Egypt
since the January 2011 revolution. According to Sheikh
Tarek El-Rifai, head of the Rifai Sufi Order, a number of
Salafis have prevented Sufi prayers in Al-Haram. Sheikh
Rifai said that the order’s lawyer has filed a report at the
Al-Haram police station to that effect. In early April
2011, a Sufi march from Al-Azhar Mosque to Al-Hussein
Mosque was followed by a massive protest before Al-
Hussein Mosque, “expressing outrage at the destruction”
of Sufi shrines. The Islamic Research Centre of Egypt,
led by Grand Imam of Al-Azhar Ahmed El-Tayeb, has
also renounced the attacks on the shrines.[97] Accord-
ing to the Muslim Brotherhood website ikhwanweb.com,
in 2011 “a memorandum was submitted to the Armed
Forces” citing 20 “encroachments” on Sufi shrines.[102]
6.2.6 Libya
Following the overthrow of Muammar Gaddafi, several
Sufi religious sites in Libya were deliberately destroyed
or damaged.[140] In the weeks leading up to September
2012, “armed groups motivated by their religious views”
attacked Sufi religious sites across the country, “destroy-
ing several mosques and tombs of Sufi religious leaders
6.2.7 Tunisia
In an article on the rise of Salafism in Tunisia, the me-
dia site Al-Monitor reported that 39 Sufi shrines were
destroyed or desecrated in Tunisia, from the 2011 rev-
olution to January 2013.[144]
6.2.8 Russia, Dagestan
Said Atsayev—also known as Sheikh Said Afandi al-
Chirkavi—a prominent 74-year-old Sufi Muslim spiritual
leader in Dagestan Russia, was killed by a suicide bomb-
ing August 28, 2012 along with six of his followers. His
murder follows “similar religiously-motivated killings” in
Dagestan and other regions of ex-Soviet Central Asia, tar-
geting religious leaders—not necessarily Sufi—who are
hostile to violent jihad. Afandi had survived previous
attempts on his life and was reportedly in the process
of negotiating a peace agreement between the Sufis and
Salafis.[145][146][147]
6.2.9 Iran
The book Mystic Regimes. Sufism and the State in Iran,
from the late Qajar era to the Islamic Republic by Matthijs
van den Bos discusses the status of Sufism in Iran in the
19th and 20th century.[148] According to Seyed Mostafa
Azmayesh, an expert on Sufism and the representative of
the Ni'matullāhī order outside Iran, a campaign against
the Sufis in Iran (or at least Shia Sufis) began in 2005
when several books were published arguing that because
Sufis follow their own spiritual leaders do not believe in
the Islamic state’s principle of "velayat-e faqih" (i.e., that
the supreme Shiite jurist should be the nation’s political
leader), Sufis should be treated as second-class citizens.
They should not be allowed to have government jobs,
and if they already have them, should be identified and
fired.[149]
12 7 ISLAM AND SUFISM

Since 2005 the Ni'matullāhī order—Iran’s largest Sufi are thought by some to be seen as allies of the govern-
order—have come under increasing state pressure. Three ment against Al-Qaeda.[149]
of their houses of worship have been demolished. Offi-
cials accused the Sufis of not having building permits and
of narcotics possession—charges the Sufis reject.[149]
7 Islam and Sufism
The government of Iran is considering an outright ban
on Sufism, according to the 2009 Annual Report of
the United States Commission on International Religious
7.1 Critique of Sufism’s anti-materialistic
Freedom. [150]
It also reports: aspects

Certain aspects of Sufi philosophy are controversial and

In February 2009, at least 40 Sufis in
often debated, chief among them is the anti-materialistic
Isfahan were arrested after protesting the de-
strain within its ethos. Gamal Marzouq, Professor of
struction of a Sufi place of worship; all were
Islamic Philosophy in Ain-Shams University, in his pa-
released within days.
per titled “The effect of Christianity on the first emer-
In January, Jamshid Lak, a Gonabadi
gence of Islamic Sufism”, has highlighted the monastic
Dervish from the Nematollahi Sufi order was
and anti-materialist trends within Sufism, calling atten-
flogged 74 times after being convicted in 2006
tion to their “abandoning materialism and living only for
of slander following his public allegation of ill-
praying, something similar to monasticism”.[152]
treatment by a Ministry of Intelligence official.
In late December 2008, after the closure Conversely, the Quran calls out monasticism as a hu-
of a Sufi place of worship, authorities arrested man invention not prescribed by God in the verse 57:27:
without charge at least six members of the “monasticism, which they innovated; We did not pre-
Gonabadi Dervishes on Kish Island and con- scribe it for them...”. Furthermore, there is much em-
fiscated their books and computer equipment; phasis on physical laws of the universe within the Quran,
their status is unknown. urging believers to study and understand the “signs” of
In November 2008, Amir Ali Mohammad God in the physical world (e.g. verse 2:164), which pre-
Labaf was sentenced to a five-year prison term, cludes the possibility of avoiding or shunning the material
74 lashes, and internal exile to the southeastern world. Ibrahim B. Syed has called attention to the fact
town of Babak for spreading lies, based on his that the only definition of the word alim in the Quran, a
membership in the Nematollahi Gonabadi Sufi word commonly understood to mean “religious leader”
order. today, is actually referring to scientists, indicating the
In October, at least seven Sufi Muslims in high importance afforded by the Quran to the material
Isfahan, and five others in Karaj, were arrested world and the act of engaging with it, so as to understand
because of their affiliation with the Nematol- God’s universe.[153] There are also the active aspects of
lahi Gonabadi Sufi order; they remain in de- the Quran’s teachings which urge believers to seek to im-
tention. prove the human condition and work to establish the laws
In November 2007, clashes in the west- of God within human society (verse 22:41), a mission that
ern city of Borujerd between security forces does not fit well with the hermetic and monastic tenden-
and followers of a mystic Sufi order resulted cies within Sufism.
in dozens of injuries and the arrests of approx-
imately 180 Sufi Muslims. The clashes oc-
curred after authorities began bulldozing a Sufi 7.2 Sufism and Islamic law
monastery. It is unclear how many remain in
detention or if any charges have been brought Scholars and adherents of Sufism sometimes describe Su-
against those arrested. During the past year, fism in terms of a threefold approach to God as explained
there were numerous reports of Shi'a clerics by a tradition (hadîth) attributed to Muhammad, “The
and prayer leaders, particularly in Qom, de- Canon is my word, the order is my deed, and the truth is my
nouncing Sufism and the activities of Sufi Mus- interior state”. Sufis believe the sharia (exoteric “canon”),
lims in the country in both sermons and public tariqa (esoteric “order”) and haqiqa (“truth”) are mutu-
statements.[150] ally interdependent.[154]
The tariqa, the 'path' on which the mystics walk, has been
In 2009 the mausoleum of the 19th century Sufi poet defined as 'the path which comes out of the sharia, for the
Nasir Ali and an adjoining Sufi prayer house were main road is called branch, the path, tariq.' No mystical
bulldozed.[151] experience can be realized if the binding injunctions of
Not all Sufis in Iran have been subject to government the sharia are not followed faithfully first. The tariqa how-
pressure. Sunni dervish orders—such as the Qhaderi ever, is narrower and more difficult to walk.
dervishes—in the Sunni-populated parts of the country It leads the adept, called salik or “wayfarer”, in his sulûk
7.4 Traditional and Neo-Sufi groups 13

Islam. Also, some groups emerged that considered them-

selves above the Sharia and discussed Sufism as a method
of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation
directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars.
For these and other reasons, the relationship between tra-
ditional Islamic scholars and Sufism is complex and a
range of scholarly opinion on Sufism in Islam has been
the norm. Some scholars, such as Al-Ghazali, helped its
propagation while other scholars opposed it. W. Chittick
explains the position of Sufism and Sufis this way:

In short, Muslim scholars who focused

their energies on understanding the normative
Tomb of Shaikh Salim Chisti, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, Uttar guidelines for the body came to be known as
Pradesh, India. jurists, and those who held that the most im-
portant task was to train the mind in achiev-
ing correct understanding came to be divided
or “road” through different stations (maqâmât) until he into three main schools of thought: theology,
reaches his goal, the perfect tawhîd, the existential con- philosophy, and Sufism. This leaves us with
fession that God is One.[155] Shaykh al-Akbar Muhiud- the third domain of human existence, the spirit.
deen Ibn Arabi mentions, “When we see someone in this Most Muslims who devoted their major efforts
Community who claims to be able to guide others to God, to developing the spiritual dimensions of the
but is remiss in but one rule of the Sacred Law—even if human person came to be known as Sufis.
he manifests miracles that stagger the mind—asserting
that his shortcoming is a special dispensation for him, we
do not even turn to look at him, for such a person is not 7.4 Traditional and Neo-Sufi groups
a sheikh, nor is he speaking the truth, for no one is en-
trusted with the secrets of God Most High save one in
whom the ordinances of the Sacred Law are preserved.
(Jami' karamat al-awliya')".[156]
The Amman Message, a detailed statement issued by 200
leading Islamic scholars in 2005 in Amman, and adopted
by the Islamic world’s political and temporal leaderships
at the Organisation of the Islamic Conference summit
at Mecca in December 2005, and by six other interna-
tional Islamic scholarly assemblies including the Inter-
national Islamic Fiqh Academy of Jeddah, in July 2006,
specifically recognized the validity of Sufism as a part of
Islam—however the definition of Sufism can vary drasti-
cally between different traditions (what may be intended
is simple tazkiah as opposed to the various manifestations
of Sufism around the Islamic world).[157]

7.3 Traditional Islamic thought and Su-

fism

The literature of Sufism emphasizes highly subjective

matters that resist outside observation, such as the sub-
tle states of the heart. Often these resist direct refer-
ence or description, with the consequence that the au-
thors of various Sufi treatises took recourse to allegor- The mausoleum (gongbei) of Ma Laichi in Linxia City, China.
ical language. For instance, much Sufi poetry refers to
intoxication, which Islam expressly forbids. This usage The traditional Sufi orders, which are in majority, em-
of indirect language and the existence of interpretations phasize the role of Sufism as a spiritual discipline within
by people who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to Islam. Therefore, the Sharia (traditional Islamic law) and
doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of the Sunnah are seen as crucial for any Sufi aspirant. One
14 8 PROMINENT SUFIS

proof traditional orders assert is that almost all the famous

Sufi masters of the past Caliphates were experts in Sharia
and were renowned as people with great Iman (faith) and
excellent practice. Many were also Qadis (Sharia law
judges) in courts. They held that Sufism was never dis-
tinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and practice
Sufism one must be an observant Muslim.
“Neo-Sufism” and “universal Sufism” are terms used
to denote forms of Sufism that do not require adher-
ence to Shariah, or a Muslim faith. The terms are
not always accepted by those it is applied to. The
Universal Sufism movement was founded by Inayat Khan,
teaches the essential unity of all faiths, and accepts mem-
bers of all creeds. Sufism Reoriented is an offshoot
of Khan’s Western Sufism charted by the syncretistic
teacher Meher Baba. The Golden Sufi Center exists
in England, Switzerland and the United States. It was
founded by Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee to continue the work
of his teacher Irina Tweedie, herself a practitioner of
both Hinduism and Sufism. The Afghan-Scottish teacher
Idries Shah has been described as a neo-Sufi by the
Gurdjieffian James Moore.[158] Other Western Sufi organ-
isations include the Sufi Foundation of America and the
International Association of Sufism.
Western Neo-Sufi practices may differ from traditional
forms, for instance having mixed-gender meetings and
less emphasis on the Qur'an. A manuscript of Sufi Islamic theology, Shams al-Ma'arif (trans-
lated as The Book of the Sun of Gnosis) was written by the
Algerian Sufi master Ahmad al-Buni during the 12th century

8 Prominent Sufis
In contrast, Imam Shadhili taught that his followers need
not abstain from what Islam has not forbidden, but to
8.1 Abul Hasan al-Shadhili
be grateful for what God has bestowed upon them.[159]
This notion, known as the “Order of Gratitude-Tariqush
Shukr”, was espoused by Imam Shadhili. Imam Shadhili
gave eighteen valuable hizbs (litanies) to his followers out
of which the notable Hizbul Bahr[160] is recited worldwide
even today.

8.2 Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani

Al-Sayyid Muhiyudin Abu Muhammad Abdal Qadir Al-

Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz
Shirazi’s tomb in Shiraz.
Abul Hasan al-Shadhili (died 1258 CE), the founder of
the Shadhiliyya Sufi order, introduced dhikr jahri (The
method of remembering Allah through loud means). Sufi
orders generally preach to deny oneself and to destroy the
ego-self (nafs) and its worldly desires. This is sometimes
characterized as the “Order of Patience-Tariqus Sabr”.
Jilani Al-Hasani Wal-Hussaini (born 11 Rabi al-Thani),
470 Hijri, in the town of Na'if, district of Gilan, Ilam
Province Or Amol of Tabarestan, Persia, died 8 Rabi
al-Awwal 561 AH, in Baghdad,[1] (1077–1166 CE),
was a Persian Hanbali jurist and Sufi based in Baghdad.
Qadiriyya was his patronym. Al Gilani spent his early
life in Na'if, the town of his birth. There, he pursued the
study of Hanbali law. Abu Ali al-Mukharrimi gave Al Gi-
lani lessons in Fiqh. He was given lessons about Hadith
by Abu Bakr ibn Muzaffar. He was given lessons about
Tafsir by Abu Muhammad Ja'far, a commentator. In Ta-
sawwuf, his spiritual instructor was Abu'l-Khair Ham-
mad ibn Muslim al-Dabbas. After completing his educa-
tion, Gilani left Baghdad. He spent twenty-five years as a
8.6 Mansur al-Hallaj
reclusive wanderer in the desert regions of Iraq. In 1127,
Al Gilani returned to Baghdad and began to preach to the
public. He joined the teaching staff of the school belong-
ing to his own teacher, al-Mukharrimii,and was popular
with students. In the morning he taught hadith and tafsir,
and in the afternoon he held discourse on the science of
the heart and the virtues of the Qur'an. He was said to
have been a convincing preacher and converted numer-
ous Jews and Christians. His strength came in the recon-
ciling of the mystical nature of the Sufi and strict nature
of the Qur'an. He felt it important to control egotism and
worldliness in submission to God.
8.3 Ibn Arabi
Muhyiddin Muhammad b. 'Ali Ibn 'Arabi (or Ibn al-
'Arabi) AH 561- AH 638 (July 28, 1165 – November
10, 1240) is considered to be one of the most impor-
tant Sufi masters, although he never founded any order
(tariqa). His writings, especially al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya
and Fusus al-hikam, have been studied within all the
Sufi orders as the clearest expression of tawhid (Divine
Unity), though because of their recondite nature they
were often only given to initiates. Later those who fol-
lowed his teaching became known as the school of wah-
dat al-wujud (the Oneness of Being). He himself con-
sidered his writings to have been divinely inspired. As he
expressed the Way to one of his close disciples, his legacy
is that 'you should never ever abandon your servanthood
('ubudiyya), and that there may never be in your soul a
longing for any existing thing'.[161]
8.4 Junayd Baghdadi
Junayd Baghdadi (830–910 CE) was one of the great
early Sufis, and is a central figure in the golden chain of
many Sufi orders. He laid the groundwork for sober mys-
ticism in contrast to that of God-intoxicated Sufis like al-
Hallaj, Bayazid Bastami and Abusaeid Abolkheir. Dur-
ing the trial of al-Hallaj, his former disciple, the Caliph
of the time demanded his fatwa. In response, he issued
this fatwa: “From the outward appearance he is to die
and we judge according to the outward appearance and
God knows better”. He is referred to by Sufis as Sayyid-
ut Taifa—i.e., the leader of the group. He lived and died
in the city of Baghdad.
8.5 Moinuddin Chishti
He was born in 1141 and died in 1236 CE. Also known
as Gharīb Nawāz “Benefactor of the Poor”, he is the
most famous Sufi saint of the Chishti Order of the Indian
Subcontinent. Moinuddin Chishti introduced and estab-
lished the order in the subcontinent. The initial spiritual
chain or silsila of the Chishti order in India, comprising
15
A Mughal era, Sufi Prayer Book from the Chishti order.
Moinuddin Chishti, Bakhtiyar Kaki, Baba Farid, Niza-
muddin Auliya (each successive person being the disci-
ple of the previous one), constitutes the great Sufi saints
of Indian history. Moinuddin Chishtī turned towards In-
dia, reputedly after a dream in which Prophet Muham-
mad blessed him to do so. After a brief stay at La-
hore, he reached Ajmer along with Sultan Shahāb-ud-Din
Muhammad Ghori, and settled down there.[4] In Ajmer,
he attracted a substantial following, acquiring a great deal
of respect amongst the residents of the city. Moinud-
din Chishtī practiced the Sufi Sulh-e-Kul (peace to all)
concept to promote understanding between Muslims and
non-Muslims
8.6 Mansur al-Hallaj
Mansur al-Hallaj (died 922 CE) is renowned for his claim
“Ana-l-Haqq” (I am The Truth). His refusal to recant
this utterance, which was regarded as apostasy, led to a
long trial. He was imprisoned for 11 years in a Baghdad
prison, before being tortured and publicly dismembered
on March 26, 922. He is still revered by Sufis for his will-
ingness to embrace torture and death rather than recant.
It is said that during his prayers, he would say “O Lord!
You are the guide of those who are passing through the
Valley of Bewilderment. If I am a heretic, enlarge my
heresy”.[162]
9 Sufi Orders
Main articles: Sufism and Tariqa
Sufism is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam. It is not a sect,
rather it is considered as the branch of Islamic teaching
that deals with the purification of inner self. By focusing
on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to
obtain direct experience of God by making use of “intu-
itive and emotional faculties” that one must be trained to
16 9 SUFI ORDERS

use.[163] Tasawwuf is regarded as a science of Islam that 9.2 Chishti

has always been an integral part of Orthodox Islam.In his
Al-Risala al-safadiyya, Ibn Taymiyya describes the Sufis Main article: Chishti Order
as those who belong to the path of the Sunna and repre-
sent it in their teachings and writings. The Chishti Order (Persian: �‫ )ﭼﺸﺘﯿ‬was founded by
Jurist and Hadith master Ibn Taymiyya’s Sufi inclinations (Khawaja) Abu Ishaq Shami (“the Syrian"; died 941) who
and his reverence for Sufis like 'Abd al-Qadir Gilani can brought Sufism to the town of Chisht, some 95 miles east
also be seen in his hundred-page commentary on Futuh of Herat in present-day Afghanistan. Before returning
al-ghayb, covering only five of the seventy-eight sermons to the Levant, Shami initiated, trained and deputized the
of the book, but showing that he considered tasawwuf son of the local Emir (Khwaja) Abu Ahmad Abdal (died
essential within the life of the Islamic community. 966). Under the leadership of Abu Ahmad’s descendants,
the Chishtiyya as they are also known, flourished as a re-
In his commentary, Ibn Taymiyya stresses that the pri-
gional mystical order.
macy of the Shari`a forms the soundest tradition in ta-
sawwuf, and to argue this point he lists over a dozen early
masters, as well as more contemporary shaykhs like his
9.3 Kubrawiya
fellow Hanbalis, al-Ansari al-Harawi and `Abd al-Qadir,
and the latter’s own shaykh, Hammad al-Dabbas:The up-
Main article: Kubrawiya
right among the followers of the Path—like the major-
ity of the early shaykhs (shuyukh al-salaf) such as Fudayl
ibn `Iyad, Ibrahim ibn Adham, Ma`ruf al-Karkhi, al-Sari The Kubrawiya order is a Sufi order ("tariqa") named
al-Saqati, al-Junayd ibn Muhammad, and others of the after its 13th-century founder Najmuddin Kubra. The
early teachers, as well as Shaykh Abd al-Qadir, Shaykh Kubrawiya Sufi order was founded in the 13th century by
[164]
Hammad, Shaykh Abu al-Bayan and others of the later Najmuddin Kubra in Bukhara in modern Uzbekistan.
masters—do not permit the followers of the Sufi path to The Mongols had captured Bukhara in 1221, they com-
depart from the divinely legislated command and prohi- mitted genocide and killed nearly the whole population.
bition Sheikh Nadjm ed-Din Kubra was among those killed by
the Mongols.
Imam Ghazali narrates in Al-Munqidh min-al-dalal:

The vicissitudes of life, family affairs and 9.4 Mawlawiyya

financial constraints engulfed my life and de-
prived me of the congenial solitude. The heavy Main article: Mawlawiyyah
odds confronted me and provided me with few
moments for my pursuits. This state of af- The Mevlevi Order is better known in the West as the
fairs lasted for ten years but wherever I had “whirling dervishes”.
some spare and congenial moments I resorted
to my intrinsic proclivity. During these tur-
bulent years, numerous astonishing and inde- 9.5 Muridiyya
scribable secrets of life were unveiled to me.
I was convinced that the group of Aulia (holy Main article: Muridiyya
mystics) is the only truthful group who follow
the right path, display best conduct and surpass Mouride is a large Islamic Sufi order most prominent in
all sages in their wisdom and insight. They de- Senegal and The Gambia, with headquarters in the holy
rive all their overt or covert behaviour from the city of Touba, Senegal.[165]
illumining guidance of the holy Prophet, the
only guidance worth quest and pursuit.
9.6 Naqshbandi
9.1 Bektashi Main article: Naqshbandi

Main article: Bektashi
The Bektashi Order was founded in the 13th century by
the Islamic saint Haji Bektash Veli, and greatly influenced
during its fomulative period by the Hurufi Ali al-'Ala in
the 15th century and reorganized by Balım Sultan in the
16th century.
The Naqshbandi order is one of the major Sufi orders
of Islam. Formed in 1380, the order is considered by
some to be a “sober” order known for its silent dhikr (re-
membrance of God) rather than the vocalized forms of
dhikr common in other orders. The word "Naqshbandi"
(‫ )ﻧﻘﺸﺒﻨﺪی‬is Persian, taken from the name of the founder
of the order, Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari. Some
9.10 Qadiri 17

have said that the translation means “related to the image-died, he directed Umar (second Caliph) and Ali (the first
maker”, some also consider it to mean “Pattern Maker” Imam of the Shia) to take his cloak to Uwais. “Accord-
rather than “image maker”, and interpret “Naqshbandi” ing to Ali Hujwiri, Farid ad-Din Attar of Nishapur and
to mean “Reformer of Patterns”, and others consider it to Sheikh Muhammad Ghader Bagheri, the first recipient
mean “Way of the Chain” or “Golden Chain”. of Muhammad’s cloak was Uwais al-Qarni. The 'Original
As mentioned below, the conception of Naqshbandi may Cloak' as it is known is thought to have passed down the
require more elaboration and clarity as the explanation to generations from the prophet[170]
Abraham to Muhammad, to
this effect creating ambiguity and complicity with in it. Uwais al-Qarni, and so on.”
The meanings of “Naqshbandi” is to follow the pattern of The Oveyssi order exists today in various forms and in
head of the former. In other words, “Naqshbandi” may different countries. According to Dr. Alan Godlas of
be taken as “followup or like a flow chart” of practices the University of Georgia’s Department of Religion, a
exercised by the head of this school of thought. Sufi Order or tariqa known as the Uwaysi is “very active”,
having been introduced in the West by the 20th century
Sufi, Shah Maghsoud Angha. The Uwaysi Order is a Shi'i
9.7 Nimatullahi branch of the Kubrawiya.

Main article: Nimatullahi Godlas writes that there are two recent and distinct con-
temporary branches of the Uwaysi Order in the West:

The Ni'matullāhī order is the most widespread Sufi or- Uwaiysi Tarighat, led by Shah Maghsoud Sadegh Angha’s
der of Persia today. It was founded by Shah Ni'matullah daughter, Seyyedeh Dr. Nahid Angha, and her husband
Wali (d. 1367), established and transformed from his in- Shah Nazar Seyed Ali Kianfar. Dr. Angha and Dr. Kian-
heritance of the Ma'rufiyyah circle.[166] There are several far went on to found another the International Association
suborders in existence today, the most known and influ- of Sufism (IAS) which operates in California and orga-
ential in the West following the lineage of Dr. Javad Nur- nizes international Sufi symposia.
bakhsh who brought the order to the West following the Now developed into an international non-profit organi-
1979 Revolution in Iran. zation, the Oveyssi order has over five-hundred thou-
“Naqshbandi” does not meant for images or patterns fol- sand students with centers spanning five continents. With
lowed by the followers of this school of thoughts. “Naqsh- the use of modern technology and reach of the internet,
bandi” manes the “flow chart” OR to follow the sayings weekly webcasts of the order’s lecture and zekr sessions
and doings of former. are broadcast live through the order’s official website.[171]

9.8 Nurbakshi 9.10 Qadiri

Main article: Noorbakshia Islam Main article: Qadiriyyah

The “Noorbakshia”[167] (Arabic: ‫ )ش‬also called Nubak-
shia is an Islamic sect and the Sufi order[168][169] and way
that claims to trace its direct spiritual lineage and chain
(silsilah) to the Islamic prophet Muhammad, through Ali,
by way of Imam Ali Al-Ridha. This order became fa-
mous as Nurbakshi after Shah Syed Muhammad Nur-
bakhsh Qahistani who was attached with Kubrawiya or-
der Sufi order (“tariqa”) .
9.9 Oveyssi (Uwaiysi)
Main article: Uwaisi
The Qadiri Order is one of the oldest Sufi Orders. It de-
rives its name from Abdul-Qadir Gilani (1077-1166), a
native of the Iranian province of Gīlān. The order is one
of the most widespread of the Sufi orders in the Islamic
world, and can be found in Central Asia, Turkey, Balkans
and much of East and West Africa. The Qadiriyyah have
not developed any distinctive doctrines or teachings out-
side of mainstream Islam. They believe in the fundamen-
tal principles of Islam, but interpreted through mystical
experience.
9.11 Senussi

The Oveysi (or Uwaiysi) order claim to be founded 1,400
years ago by Uwais al-Qarni from Yemen. Uways re-
ceived the teachings of Islam inwardly through his heart
and lived by the principles taught by him, although he
had never physically met Muhammad. At times Muham-
mad would say of him, “I feel the breath of the Merciful,
coming to me from Yemen.” Shortly before Muhammad
Main article: Senussi
Senussi is a religious-political Sufi order established by
Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi. Muhammad ibn Ali as-
Senussi founded this movement due to his criticism of
the Egyptian ulema. Originally from Mecca, as-Senussi
lef tdue to pressure from Wahhabis to leave and settled
18
in Cyrenaica where he was well received.[172] Idris bin
Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi was later recognized
as Emir of Cyrenaica[173] and eventually became King
of Libya. The monarchy was abolished by Muammar
Gaddafi but, a third of Libyan still claim to be Senussi.
9.12 Shadiliyya
Main article: Shadhili
The Shadhili is a Sufi order founded by Abu-l-Hassan
ash-Shadhili. Followers (murids Arabic: seekers) of the
Shadhiliyya are often known as Shadhilis.[174][175]
9.13 Suhrawardiyya
Main article: Suhrawardiyya
The Suhrawardiyya order (Arabic: ‫ )سهروردية‬is a Sufi order
founded by Abu al-Najib al-Suhrawardi (1097–1168).
9.14 Tijaniyya
Main article: Tijaniyyah
The Tijaniyyah order attach a large importance to culture
and education, and emphasize the individual adhesion of
the disciple (murīd).
10 Reception
10.1 Perception outside Islam
A choreographed Sufi performance on Friday at Sudan.
Sufi mysticism has long exercised a fascination upon the had to pass in order to attain that true and passionate
Western world, and especially its orientalist scholars.[176] love of God which is the aim and goal of all ethical self-
Figures like Rumi have become well known in the United discipline. A considerable amount of Sufi ideas entered
10 RECEPTION
States, where Sufism is perceived as a peaceful and apo-
litical form of Islam.[176]
The Islamic Institute in Mannheim, Germany, which
works towards the integration of Europe and Muslims,
sees Sufism as particularly suited for interreligious dia-
logue and intercultural harmonisation in democratic and
pluralist societies; it has described Sufism as a symbol
of tolerance and humanism—nondogmatic, flexible and
non-violent.[177] According to Philip Jenkins, a Profes-
sor at Baylor University, “the Sufis are much more than
tactical allies for the West: they are, potentially, the
greatest hope for pluralism and democracy within Mus-
lim nations.” Likewise, several governments and organ-
isations have advocated the promotion of Sufism as a
means of combating intolerant and violent strains of Is-
lam.[178] For example, the Chinese and Russian[179] gov-
ernments openly favor Sufism as the best means of pro-
tecting against Islamist subversion. The British govern-
ment, especially following the 7 July 2005 London bomb-
ings, has favoured Sufi groups in its battle against Muslim
extremist currents. The influential RAND Corporation,
an American think-tank, issued a major report titled
“Building Moderate Muslim Networks,” which urged the
US government to form links with and bolster[180] Mus-
lim groups that opposed Islamist extremism. The report
stressed the Sufi role as moderate traditionalists open to
change, and thus as allies against violence.[181][182] News
organisations such as the BBC, Economist and Boston
Globe have also seen Sufism as a means to deal with vio-
lent Muslim extremists.[183]
10.2 Influence on Judaism
See also: Jewish philosophy
Both Judaism and Islam are monotheistic. However,
there is evidence that Sufism did influence the develop-
ment of some schools of Jewish philosophy and ethics. A
great influence was exercised by Sufism upon the ethical
writings of Jews in the Middle Ages. In the first writing of
this kind, we see “Kitab al-Hidayah ila Fara'iḍ al-Ḳulub”,
Duties of the Heart, of Bahya ibn Paquda. This book was
translated by Judah ibn Tibbon into Hebrew under the ti-
tle "Ḥōḇōṯ Ha-lleḇāḇōṯ".[184]
The precepts prescribed by the Torah num-
ber 613 only; those dictated by the intellect are
innumerable.
This was precisely the argument used by the Sufis against
their adversaries, the Ulamas. The arrangement of the
book seems to have been inspired by Sufism. Its ten sec-
tions correspond to the ten stages through which the Sufi
 19

the Jewish mainstream through Bahya ibn Paquda’s work, Abraham Maimuni’s principal work is originally com-
which remains one of the most popular ethical treatises posed in Judeo-Arabic and entitled "‫כתאב כפאיה‬
in Judaism. ‫ "אלעאבדין‬Kitāb Kifāyah al-'Ābidīn (“A Comprehensive
It is noteworthy that in the ethical writings of the Sufis Guide for the Servants of God”). From the extant surviv-
Al-Kusajri and Al-Harawi there are sections which treat ing portion it is conjectured that Maimuni’s treatise was
of the same subjects as those treated in the "Ḥovot ha- three times as long as his father’s Guide for the Perplexed.
Lebabot” and which bear the same titles: e.g., “Bab al- In the book, Maimuni evidences a great appreciation for,
Tawakkul"; “Bab al-Taubah"; “Bab al-Muḥasabah"; “Bab and affinity to, Sufism. Followers of his path continued to
foster a Jewish-Sufi form of pietism for at least a century,
al-Tawaḍu'"; “Bab al-Zuhd”. In the ninth gate, Baḥya
directly quotes sayings of the Sufis, whom he calls Pe- and he is rightly considered the founder of this pietistic
school, which was centered in Egypt.
rushim. However, the author of the Ḥōḇōṯ Ha-lleḇāḇōṯ
did not go so far as to approve of the asceticism of the The followers of this path, which they called, inter-
Sufis, although he showed a marked predilection for their changeably, Hasidism (not to be confused with the [later]
ethical principles. Jewish Hasidic movement) or Sufism (Tasawwuf), prac-
The Jewish writer Abraham bar Ḥiyya teaches the asceti- ticed spiritual retreats, solitude, fasting and sleep depriva-
cism of the Sufis. His distinction with regard to the ob- tion. The Jewish Sufis maintained their own brotherhood,
[185]
servance of Jewish law by various classes of men is essen- guided by a religious leader—like a Sufi sheikh.
tially a Sufic theory. According to it there are four prin- Abraham Maimuni’s two sons, Obadyah and David, con-
cipal degrees of human perfection or sanctity; namely: tinued to lead this Jewish-Sufi brotherhood. Obadyah
Maimonides wrote Al-Mawala Al Hawdiyya (“The Trea-
tise of the Pool”)—an ethico-mystical manual based on
1. of “Shari'ah”, i.e., of strict obedience to
the typically Sufi comparison of the heart to a pool that
all ritual laws of Islam, such as prayer, fasting,
must be cleansed before it can experience the Divine.
pilgrimage, almsgiving, ablution, etc., which is
the lowest degree of worship, and is attainable The Maimonidean legacy extended right through to the
by all 15th century with the 5th generation of Maimonidean
Sufis, David ben Joshua Maimonides, who wrote Al-
2. of Ṭariqah, which is accessible only to a Murshid ila al-Tafarrud (The Guide to Detachment),
higher class of men who, while strictly adher- which includes numerous extracts of Suhrawardi's Kali-
ing to the outward or ceremonial injunctions of mat at-Tasawwuf.
religion, rise to an inward perception of men-
tal power and virtue necessary for the nearer
approach to the Divinity
11 In popular culture
3. of "Ḥaḳikah”, the degree attained by those
who, through continuous contemplation and in-
ward devotion, have risen to the true percep- 11.1 Films
tion of the nature of the visible and invisible;
who, in fact, have recognized the Godhead, and • The Jewel of the Nile (1985), the eponymous Jewel
through this knowledge have succeeded in es- is a Sufi holy man.
tablishing an ecstatic relation to it; and
• In Hideous Kinky (1998), Julia (Kate Winslet) trav-
4. of the “Ma'arifah”, in which state man com- els to Morocco to explore Sufism and a journey to
municates directly with the Deity. self-discovery.

• In Monsieur Ibrahim (2003), Omar Sharif's charac-

Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon, the son of the Jew-
ish philosopher Maimonides, believed that Sufi prac-
tices and doctrines continue the tradition of the Biblical
prophets. See Sefer Hammaspiq, “Happerishuth”, Chap-
ter 11 (“Ha-mmaʿaḇāq”) s.v. hithbonen efo be-masoreth
mufla'a zo, citing the Talmudic explanation of Jeremiah
13:27 in Chagigah 5b; in Rabbi Yaakov Wincelberg’s
translation, “The Way of Serving God” (Feldheim), p.
429 and above, p. 427. Also see ibid., Chapter 10
(“Iqquḇim”), s.v. wa-halo yoḏeʾaʿ atta; in “The Way of
Serving God”, p. 371. There are other such references
in Rabbi Abraham’s writings, as well. He introduced into
the Jewish prayer such practices as reciting God’s names
(dhikr).
ter professes to be a Muslim in the Sufi tradition.
• Bab'Aziz (2005), a film by Tunisian director Nacer
Khemir, draws heavily on the Sufi tradition, contain-
ing quotes from Sufi poets such as Rumi and depict-
ing an ecstatic Sufi dance.
11.2 Music
Abida Parveen, a Pakistani Sufi singer is one of the fore-
most exponents of Sufi music, together with Nusrat Fateh
Ali Khan are considered the finest Sufi vocalists of the
modern era. Sanam Marvi another Pakistani singer has
20 12 MODERN AND CONTEMPORARY SUFI SCHOLARS

Friday evening ceremony at Dargah Salim Chisti, India.

A 17th century miniature of Nasreddin was a Seljuq satirical Sufi,

recently gained recognition for her Sufi vocal perfor- currently in the Topkapi Palace Museum Library.
mances.
A. R. Rahman, the Oscar-winning Indian musician, has 11.3 Literature
several compositions which draw inspiration from the
Sufi genre; examples are the filmi qawwalis Khwaja Mere The Persian poet Rumi has become one of the most
Khwaja in the film Jodhaa Akbar, Arziyan in the film widely read poets in the United States, thanks largely
Delhi 6 and Kun Faya Kun in the film Rockstar. to the interpretative translations published by Coleman
Bengali singer Lalan Fakir and Bangladesh’s national poet Barks.[188] Elif Safak's novel The Forty Rules of Love tells
Kazi Nazrul Islam scored several Sufi songs. the story of Rumi becoming a disciple of the Persian Sufi
dervish Shams Tabrizi.
Junoon, a band from Pakistan, created the genre of Sufi
rock by combining elements of modern hard rock and
traditional folk music with Sufi poetry.
12 Modern and contemporary Sufi
In 2005, Rabbi Shergill released a Sufi rock song called
"Bulla Ki Jaana", which became a chart-topper in India scholars
and Pakistan.[186][187]
Madonna, on her 1994 record Bedtime Stories, sings a 12.1 Arabian Peninsula
song called "Bedtime Story" that discusses achieving a
high unconsciousness level. The video for the song shows • Abdallah Bin Bayyah (b. 1935) – Saudi Arabia
an ecstatic Sufi ritual with many dervishes dancing, Ara-
bic calligraphy and some other Sufi elements. In her 1998 • Habib Ali al-Jifri (b. 1971) – Yemen
song “Bittersweet”, she recites Rumi’s poem by the same • Habib Umar bin Hafiz (b. 1962) – Yemen
name. In her 2001 Drowned World Tour, Madonna sang
the song “Secret” showing rituals from many religions, • Muhammad Alawi al-Maliki (1944–2004) – Saudi
including a Sufi dance. Arabia
Singer/songwriter Loreena McKennitt's record The Mask
and Mirror (1994) has a song called “The Mystic’s
Dream” that is influenced by Sufi music and poetry. The 12.2 Levant
band mewithoutYou has made references to Sufi para-
bles, including the name of their album It’s All Crazy! It’s • Abd al-Rahman al-Shaghouri (1912–2004) – Syria
All False! It’s All a Dream! It’s Alright (2009). Tori Amos • Mohamed Said Ramadan Al-Bouti (1929–2013) –
makes a reference to Sufis in her song “Cruel”. Syria
Mercan Dede is a Turkish composer who incorporates
Sufism into his music and performances. • Muhammad al-Yaqoubi (b. 1963) – Syria

British folk singer Richard Thompson is a long-time Sufi. • Nuh Ha Mim Keller (b. 1954) – Jordan
12.6 Eastern Europe 21

• Wahba Zuhayli (b. 1932) – Syria 12.6 Eastern Europe

• Yusuf an-Nabhani (1849–1932) – Palestine • Hüseyin Hilmi Işık (1911–2001) – Turkey

• Nazim Al-Haqqani (b. 1922) – Turkey

12.3 North Africa
• Said Afandi al-Chirkawi (1937–2012) – Dagestan
• Sayyid Muhammad Ahmad Al Mahdi (1845–1885) • Said Nursî (1878–1960) – Turkey
– Sudan

• Sayyid Abd Al Rahman Al Mahdi (1885–1960) – 12.7 North America

Sudan
• Ali Kianfar (b. 1944) – United States
• Abd al-Hamid Kishk (1933–1996) – Egypt
• Ahmed Tijani Ben Omar (b. 1950) – United States
• Ahmad al-Alawi (1869–1934) – Algeria
• Feisal Abdul Rauf (b. 1948) - United States
• Ahmed el-Tayeb (b. 1946) – Egypt
• Hamza Yusuf (b. 1960) – United States
• Ali Gomaa (b. 1951) – Egypt
• Hisham Kabbani (b. 1945) – United States
• Gibril Haddad (b. 1960) – Lebanon
• Hossein Nasr (b. 1933) – United States
• Hamza al Qâdiri al Boutchichi (b. 1922)
• Kabir Helminski (b. 1942) – United States
• Muhammad ibn al-Habib (1876–1972) – Morocco
• M. A. Muqtedar Khan (b. 1966) – United States
• Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy (1928–2010) – Egypt
• Muhammad bin Yahya al-Ninowy (b. 1966) –
• Shawki Ibrahim Abdel-Karim Allam – Egypt United States

• Sayyid Imam Issa Al Haadi Al Mahdi (b. 1945) –

United States
12.4 West, Central and Southern Africa
• Nahid Angha (b. 1945) – United States
• Abdalqadir as-Sufi (b. 1930) – South Africa
• Nooruddeen Durkee (b. 1938) – United States
• Ahmad Tijani Ali Cisse (b. 1955) – Senegal
• Sayyid Ahmed Amiruddin (b. 1978) - Canada
• Amadou Bamba (1853–1927) – Senegal
• Syed Soharwardy (b. 1955) - Canada
• Hassan Cissé (1945–2008) – Senegal
• Zaid Shakir (b. 1956) – United States
• Sa'adu Abubakar (1954) - Nigeria
• Sayyid Ali Abdullah Muhammed Al Mahdi (b.
• Sanusi Lamido Sanusi (1961) - Nigeria 1976) – United States

12.5 Western Europe 12.8 South Asia

• Hazrat Shah Sufi Syed Abdul Latif Amantuli.
• Abdal Hakim Murad (b. 1960) – United Kingdom
(1878-1963) – Called (BISHAW DARBAR)
• Ahmed Babikir – United Kingdom Bangladesh

• Frithjof Schuon (1907–1998) – Switzerland • Ahmed Ullah Maizbhanderi (1826–1906) –

Bangladesh
• Idries Shah (1924–1996) – United Kingdom
• Ahmed Raza Khan (1856–1921) – India
• Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee (b. 1953) – United King-
• Akhtar Raza Khan (b. 1943) – India
dom
• Bawa Muhaiyaddeen (?−1986) – Sri Lanka
• Martin Lings (1909–2005) – United Kingdom
• Imdadullah Muhajir Makki (1817–1899) – India
• Muhammad Imdad Hussain Pirzada (b. 1946) –
United Kingdom • Khwaja Shamsuddin Azeemi (b. 1927) – Pakistan
22
• Meher Ali Shah (1859–1937) – Pakistan
• Mohammad Abdul Ghafoor Hazarvi (1911-1970) -
Pakistan
• Muhammad Abdul Qadeer Siddiqi Qadri (1871–
1962) – India
• Hazrat Maulana Sufi Mufti Azangachhi Shaheb (b.
1828 or 1829- d. 1932) - India
• Muhammad Akram Awan (b.1934) - Pakistan
• Muhammad Ilyas Qadri (b. 1950) – Pakistan
• Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri (b. 1951) - Pakistan
• Omer Tarin (b. 1966)- Pakistan
• Qalandar Baba Auliya (1898–1979) – Pakistan
• Qamaruzzaman Azmi (b. 1946) – India
• Saheb Qiblah Fultali (1913–2008) – Bangladesh
• Shah Shahidullah Faridi (1915–1978) – Pakistan
• Syed Muhammad Zauqi Shah (1878–1951) – Pak-
istan
• Syed Waheed Ashraf (b. 1933) – India
• Tajuddin Muhammad Badruddin (1861-1925) – In-
dia
• Thaika Shuaib (b. 1930) – India
• Wahid Baksh Sial Rabbani (?–1995) – Pakistan
• Waris Ali Shah (1819-1905) -India
12.9 Eastern and Central Asia
• Habib Munzir Al-Musawa (1973–2013) – Indonesia
• Muhammad Abdul Aleem Siddiqi (1892–1954) –
Singapore
• Muhammad Ma Jian (1906–1978) – China
• Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas (b. 1931) –
Malaysia
13 Gallery
• The Golden Chain of the Naqshbandiyya order
• Tomb of Khwaja Ghulam Farid at Mithankot
• Grave of Ma Yuanzhang, the Sufi Grand Master, in
China
• Sufi mosque in Srinagar India.
15 REFERENCES
• The Great Mosque of Touba, home of the Mouride
Sufi order of Senegal
• Haqqani Anjuman Faquiri Huzra Mubarak in Bag-
mari, Kolkata(State:WB, County:Ind);established in
1876 by Maulana Sufi Mufti Azangachhi Shaheb .
• Wali tomb, south of Karima, Sudan
• The Rumi Museum in Konya, Turkey
• An illustration of Ibrahima Fall, leader of the
Mouride Order
• The Mughal Emperor Jahangir preferring a Sufi
shaikh to kings
• Mazar e Soltani, Bidokht, Gonabad County. Shrine
Of four Qutbs (masters) of the Nimatullahi Sufi or-
der
• Kaygusuz Abdal.
• Mausoleum of Makhdoom Shah Daulat (d 1608),
Ibrahim Khan, The Mughal governor of Bihar com-
pleted his mausoleum in 1616, during the reign of
the Mughal Emperor Jahangir.
• The shrine of Shah Arzani constructed during the
reign of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir.
• Pir Dastgir from the Mughal Empire.
14 See also
• Dala'il al-Khayrat
• Index of Sufism-related articles
• Rahe Bhander Ennoble Award
• Tawassul, a religious practice in which a Muslim
seeks nearness to God.
• Universal Sufi Festival
• List of Sufi saints
15 References
[1] http://www.dar-al-masnavi.org/corrections_popular.
html
[2] http://www.dar-al-masnavi.org/self-discovery.html
[3] Sufism. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
[4] An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Re-
trieved 17 January 2015.
[5] Kamuran Godelek. The Neoplatonist Roots of Sufi Philos-
ophy. Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy, Boston,
Massachusetts, USA, August 10–15, 1998. Archived
from the original on 2003-03-11. Retrieved 2015-01-17.

[6] Alan Godlas, University of Georgia, Sufism’s Many Paths,
2000, University of Georgia
[7] Nuh Ha Mim Keller, “How would you respond to the
claim that Sufism is Bid'a?", 1995. Fatwa accessible at:
Masud.co.uk
[8] Zubair Fattani. “The meaning of Tasawwuf”. Islamic
Academy.
[9] An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Re-
trieved 27 September 2014.
[10] Sufism. Retrieved 27 September 2014.
[11] http://www.worldsufimission.org
[12] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/583591/
tariqa
[13] The New Encyclopedia Of Islam By Cyril Glassé, p.499
[14] Shaikh Muhmmad bin Jamil Zeno, The Pillars of Islam &
Iman, DARUSSALAM
[15] Quoted in Ibrahim Gamard, Rumi and Islam: Selections
from His Stories, Poems, and Discourses — Annotated and
Explained, p. 171.
[16] http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/
article/2006/05/01/AR2006050101380.html
[17] http://observers.france24.com/content/
20140924-police-iranian-sufi-protest-dervishes
[18] http://www.huffingtonpost.com/stephen-schwartz/
iran-continues-crackdown-on-sufis_b_3181642.html
[19] http://www.weeklystandard.com/blogs/ [41] Al-Bīrūnī : commemorative volume, Hakim Mohammad
why-iranian-sufis-do-not-believe-tehran-s-new-diplomacy_
773354.html
[20] https://hra-news.org/en/statements/
attacks-sufis-confirm-iranian-governments-intolerance
[21] Kabbani, Muhammad Hisham (2004). Classical Islam
and the Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition. Islamic Supreme
Council of America. p. 557. ISBN 1-930409-23-0.
[22] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/571823/
Sufism
[23] Daftary |Farhad |2013 |A History of Shi'i Islam |New York
NY |I.B. Tauris and Co ltd. |page 28 |isbn 9780300035315
|4/8/2015
[24] “Excerpts from Baba Rexheb’s The Mysticism of Islam
& Bektashism - The Bektashi Order of Dervishes”. Re-
trieved 27 September 2014.
[25] The Jamaat Tableegh and the Deobandis by Sajid Abdul
Kayum, Chapter 1: Overview and Background.
[26] Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf Hanson.
The Principles of Sufism. Amal Press. 2008.
[27] An English translation of Ahmad ibn Ajiba's biography
has been published by Fons Vitae.
23
[28] Insights into Islamic Esoterism and Taoism (Sophia Peren-
nis 2003)
[29] The New Encyclopedia Of Islam By Cyril Glassé, p.500
[30] Munn, Richard C. (January–March 1969). “Reviewed
work(s): The Sufis by Idries Shah”. Journal of the Amer-
ican Oriental Society (American Oriental Society) 89 (1):
279–281. JSTOR 598339.
[31] “Sufism, Sufis, and Sufi Orders: Sufism’s Many Paths”.
Uga.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-13.
[32] Idries Shah, The Sufis, ISBN 0-385-07966-4
[33] A Prayer for Spiritual Elevation and Protection (2007) by
Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi, Suha Taji-Farouki
[34] Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The first dynasty of Islam:
The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750. Routledge. ISBN
0-415-24073-5. See Google book search.
[35] Michael Sells, Early Islamic Mysticism, pg. 1
[36] The Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition Guidebook of Daily Prac-
tices and Devotions, p. 83, Muhammad Hisham Kabbani,
Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, 2004
[37] “Sufism in Islam”. Mac.abc.se. Retrieved 2012-08-13.
[38] The Bloomsbury Companion to Islamic Studies by Clinton
Bennett, p 328
[39] “Origin of sufism - Qadiri”. Sufi Way. 2003. Retrieved
2012-08-13.
[40] Rashid Ahmad Jullundhry, Qur'anic Exegesis in Classical
Literature, pg. 56. New Westminster: The Other Press,
2010. ISBN 9789675062551
Said, Pakistan. Ministry of Education, Unesco, Hamdard
National Foundation, Pakistan, 2010
[42] The memoirs of Sufis written in India: reference
to Kashaful-mahjub, Siyar-ul-auliya, and Siyar-ul-arifin,
Mahmud Husain Siddiqui, Dept. of Persian, Urdu, and
Arabic, Faculty of Arts, Maharaja Sayajirao University
of Baroda, 2009
[43] Introduction to Sufi Doctrine, p.3, Titus Burckhardt, Kazi
Publications, ISBN 978-1-56744-217-5, 1976
[44] Sufism, Sufis, and Sufi Orders: Sufism’s Many Paths
[45] Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, The School of the Shadhd-
huliyyah, Volume One: Orisons, ISBN 977-00-1830-9
[46] Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical In-
troduction to the Sufi Path, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN
978-0-9815196-1-6
[47] Cavendish, Richard. Great Religions. New York: Arco
Publishing, 1980.
[48] Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, The School of the Shadhd-
huliyyah, Volume One: Orisons; see also Shaykh Muham-
mad Hisham Kabbani, Classical Islam and the Naqsh-
bandi Sufi Tradition, ISBN 978-1-930409-23-1, which re-
produces the spiritual lineage (silsila) of a living Sufi mas-
ter.
24
[49] An Introduction to Shiʻi Islam: The History and Doctrines
of Shi'i Page 209
[50] See Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practi-
cal Introduction to the Sufi Path, Shifâ Publishers, 2008,
ISBN 978-0-9815196-1-6, for a detailed description of
the practices and preconditions of this sort of spiritual re-
treat.
[51] See examples provided by Muzaffar Ozak in Irshad: Wis-
dom of a Sufi Master, addressed to a general audience
rather than specifically to his own students.
[52] Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, Classical Islam and
the Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition, ISBN 978-1-930409-23-1
[53] “Khalifa Ali bin Abu Talib - Ali, The Father of Sufism -
Alim.org”. Retrieved 27 September 2014.
[54] IslamOnline.net
[55] Massignon, Louis. Essai sur les origines du lexique tech-
nique de la mystique musulmane. Paris: Vrin, 1954. p.
104.
[56] Imam Birgivi, The Path of Muhammad, WorldWisdom,
ISBN 0-941532-68-2
[57] Hodgson, Marshall G.S. (1958). The Venture of Islam,
Vol 1: The Classical Age of Islam. Chicago and London:
University of Chicago Press. p. 394.
[58] An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Re-
trieved 27 September 2014.
[59] Lloyd Ridgeon, Morals and Mysticism in Persian Sufism:
A History of Sufi-Futuwwat in Iran, p. 32. Abingdon-on-
Thames: Routledge, 2010.
[60] Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, translated by
William McGuckin de Slane. Paris: Oriental Transla-
tion Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Sold by Institut
de France and Royal Library of Belgium. Vol. 3, p. 209.
[61] Ahmet T. Karamustafa, Sufism: The Formative Period, pg.
58. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.
[62] J. Spencer Trimingham, The Sufi Orders in Islam, Oxford
University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-512058-5.
[63] The most recent version of the Risâla is the translation
of Alexander Knysh, Al-Qushayri’s Epistle on Sufism: Al-
risala Al-qushayriyya Fi 'ilm Al-tasawwuf (ISBN 978-
1859641866). Earlier translations include a partial ver-
sion by Rabia Terri Harris (Sufi Book of Spiritual Ascent)
and complete versions by Harris, and Barbara R. Von
Schlegell.
[64] http://www.fonsvitae.com/sufism.html
[65] For the pre-modern era, see Vincent J. Cornell, Realm of
the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism, ISBN
978-0-292-71209-6; and for the colonial era, Knut Vikyr,
Sufi and Scholar on the Desert Edge: Muhammad B. Oali
Al-Sanusi and His Brotherhood, ISBN 978-0-8101-1226-
1.
[66] Leonard Lewisohn, The Legacy of Medieval Persian Su-
fism, Khaniqahi-Nimatullahi Publications, 1992.
15 REFERENCES
[67] Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islam: Religion, History, and Civi-
lization, HarperSanFrancisco, 2003. (Ch. 1)
[68] Dina Le Gall, A Culture of Sufism: Naqshbandis in the
Ottoman World, 1450–1700, ISBN 978-0-7914-6245-4.
[69] Arthur F. Buehler, Sufi Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian
Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Sufi Shaykh,
ISBN 978-1-57003-783-2.
[70] Victor Danner, The Islamic Tradition: An introduction.
Amity House. February 1988.
[71] Masatoshi Kisaichi, “The Burhami order and Islamic
resurgence in modern Egypt.” Popular Movements and
Democratization in the Islamic World, pg. 57. Part
of the New Horizons in Islamic Studies series. Ed.
Masatoshi Kisaichi. London: Routledge, 2006. ISBN
9781134150618
[72] “Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal”, Babou,
Cheikh Anta, The International Journal of African Histor-
ical Studies, v. 40 no. 1 (2007) pp. 184–6
[73] Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal, Khadim
Mbacke, translated from the French by Eric Ross and
edited by John Hunwick. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener,
2005.
[74] See in particular the biographical introduction to Michel
Chodkiewicz, The Spiritual Writings of Amir Abd Al-
Kader, ISBN 978-0-7914-2446-9.
[75] From the article on Sufism in Oxford Islamic Studies On-
line
[76] Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical In-
troduction to the Sufi Order, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN
978-0-9815196-1-6
[77] For a systematic description of the diseases of the heart
that are to be overcome in order for this perspective to take
root, see Hamza Yusuf, Purification of the Heart: Signs,
Symptoms and Cures of the Spiritual Diseases of the Heart,
ISBN 978-1-929694-15-0.
[78] Concerning this, and for an excellent discussion of the
concept of attraction (jadhba), see especially the Intro-
duction to Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, The School of
the Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One: Orisons, ISBN 977-00-
1830-9.
[79] Muhammad Emin Er, al-Wasilat al-Fasila, unpublished
MS.
[80] Realities of The Heart Lataif
[81] Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam,
ISBN 978-0-8078-1271-6 .
[82] See especially Robert Frager, Heart, Self & Soul: The Sufi
Psychology of Growth, Balance, and Harmony, ISBN 978-
0-8356-0778-0.
[83] Hakim Moinuddin Chisti, The Book of Sufi Healing, ISBN
978-0-89281-043-7
 25

[84] For an introduction to the normative creed of Islam as es- [104] Sunni Ittehad Council: Sunni Barelvi activism against
poused by the consensus of scholars, see Hamza Yusuf, Deobandi-Wahhabi terrorism in Pakistan – by Aarish U.
The Creed of Imam al-Tahawi, ISBN 978-0-9702843- Khan| criticalppp.com| Let Us Build Pakistan
9-6, and Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Maghnisawi, Imam
Abu Hanifa’s Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar Explained, ISBN 978-1- [105] John R. Schmidt states, “although most Deobandis are no
933764-03-0. more prone to violence than their Christian fundamental-
ist counterparts in the West, every jihadist group based in
[85] The meaning of certainty in this context is emphasized in Pakistan save one is Deobandi, as are the Afghan Taliban”.
Muhammad Emin Er, The Soul of Islam: Essential Doc- The Unraveling: Pakistan in the Age of Jihad | John R.
trines and Beliefs, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-0- Schmidt| 2011
9815196-0-9.
[106] “Sects Within Sect: The Case of Deobandi–Barelvi En-
[86] See in particular the introduction by T. J. Winter to Abu counter in Pakistan”. Tandfonline.com. 1 January 1970.
Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali, Al-Ghazali on Disciplin- Retrieved 24 February 2013.
ing the Soul and on Breaking the Two Desires: Books XXII
and XXIII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences, ISBN [107] Chakrabarty, Rakhi (Dec 4, 2011). “Sufis strike back”.
978-0-946621-43-9. The Times of India. Retrieved 5 March 2013.

[87] Akbar Ahmed, Diiscovering Islam, Making sense of Mus- [108] Researcher Amir Rana (a researcher and editor quarterly
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[88] Klaus K. Klostermaier, A Survey of Hinduism, ISBN 978-
0-7914-7082-4 (Pbk)
[89] Abdullah Jawadi Amuli, “Dhikr and the Wisdom Behind
It”
[90] Hakim Moinuddin Chisti The Book of Sufi Healing, ISBN
978-0-89281-043-7
[91] Naqshbandi Way of Dhikr
research journal Conflict and Peace Studies. What is
young Pakistan thinking?) claims than Deobandi them-
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cult in Pakistan, is mainly comprised of the Deobandis”
(source: Rana, Amir. “Where sufism stands”. 1 August
2010. Express Tribune Blogs. Retrieved 4 March 2013.).
Maulana Qasim Nomani, the Rector of Deobandi sem-
inary Darul Uloom Deoband has denied either that his
school is anti-sufi or promotes militancy, stating Deoband
scholars like Ashraf Ali Thanwi, and others were Sufi
saints as well and they had their Khanqahs (Sufi hospice).

[92] Touma 1996, p.162
[93] What is Remembrance and what is Contemplation?
[94] Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical In-
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77.
[95] Salafi intolerance threatens Sufis| Baher Ibrahim|
guardian.co.uk| 10 May 2010
[96] Mir, Tariq. “Kashmir: From Sufi to Salafi”. November 5,
2012. Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting. Retrieved 20
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[97] “Salafi Violence against Sufis”. Islamopedia Online. Re-
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[98] Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shiʻi Islam:
The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism. Yale Uni-
versity Press,. pp. 115–116.
[99] Yadav, Rama Sankar (2007). Global Encyclopaedia of
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[100] Dalrymple, William (5 November 2005). “What goes
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[101] Introduction to Shi'i Islam, Momen, Moojan, Yale Univer-
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[103] a think-tank based in Rawalpindi
Who said we are against Sufism? We very
much follow the Sufi traditions and all of our
elders were Sufi practitioners of Sufi tradition
(source: Ali, Md. “Deoband hits back, re-
jects “baseless” charge of radicalizing Mus-
lim youth”. 19 October 2011. TwoCir-
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According to the Jamestown Foundation, Deobandi have
also been victims of sectarian strife.
Scores of Deobandi leaders and members
of Ahle Sunnat wal Jamat (ASWJ, formerly
the banned Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan) have
been assassinated in Karachi in recent years.
Police sources say that the Sunni Tehrik,
a Barelvi organization, is behind most of
these assassinations. (source: Jamal, Arif.
[http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_
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ISBN 978-0-89496-038-3
[171] “The Expansion of M.T.O. Shahmaghsoudi”. MTO Shah-
maghsoudi. Retrieved 2011-12-26."Through Hazrat Pir’s
deep commitment to his father’s wish, the M.T.O. Shah-
maghsoudi, School of Islamic Sufism, which he now leads,
has developed into an international non-profit organiza-
tion with over 500,000 students who attend centers located
throughout five continents in America, Europe, Australia,
Africa and Asia.”
[172] Metz, Helen Chapin. “The Sanusi Order”. Libya: A
Country Study. GPO for the Library of Congress. Re-
trieved 28 February 2011.
[173] A. Del Boca, “Gli Italiani in Libia - Tripoli Bel Suol
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[174] Hazrat Sultan Bahu
• Abrahamov, Binyamin, Philosophical Mysticism, in
Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An
Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited
by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara,
ABC-CLIO, 2014. ISBN 1610691776
• Abun-Nasr, Jamil. Muslim Communities of Grace:
The Sufi Brotherhoods in Islamic Religious Life.
London, Hurst, 2007.
• Al-Badawi, Mostafa. Sufi Sage of Arabia.
Louisville: Fons Vitae, 2005.
• Algan, Refik & Camille Adams Helminski, transla-
tors, Rumi’s Sun: The Teachings of Shams of Tabriz,
(Sandpoint, ID:Morning Light Press, 2008) ISBN
978-1-59675-020-3
28
• Ali-Shah, Omar. The Rules or Secrets of the Naqsh-
bandi Order, Tractus Publishers, 1992, ISBN 978-
2-909347-09-7.
• Angha, Nader. “Sufism: A Bridge Between Reli-
gions”. MTO Shahmaghsoudi Publications, 2002,
ISBN 0-910735-55-7
• Angha, Nader. “Sufism: The Lecture Series”. MTO
Shahmaghsoudi Publications, 1997, ISBN 978-0-
910735-74-2.
• Angha, Nader. “Peace”. MTO Shahmaghsoudi
Publications, 1994, ISBN 978-0-910735-99-5.
• Aractingi, Jean-Marc and Christian Lochon, Se-
crets initiatiques en Islam et rituels maçonniques-
Ismaéliens, Druzes, Alaouites,Confréries soufies; éd.
L'Harmattan, Paris, 2008 (ISBN 978-2-296-06536-
9).
• Arberry, A.J.. Mystical Poems of Rumi, Vols. 1&2.
Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1991.
• Austin, R.W.J.. Sufis of Andalusia, Gloustershire:
Beshara Publications, 1988.
• Azeemi,Khwaja Shamsuddin. Muraqaba: Art and
Science of Sufi Meditation, Houston:Plato Publish-
ing,Inc., 2005, ISBN 0-9758875-4-8.
• Barks, Coleman & John Moyne, translators, The
Drowned Book: Ecstatic & Earthy Reflections of Ba-
hauddin, the Father of Rumi, (NY: HarperCollins,
2004) ISBN 0-06-075063-4
• Bewley, Aisha. The Darqawi Way. London: Diwan
Press, 1981.
• Burckhardt, Titus. An Introduction to Sufi Doctrine.
Lahore: 1963.
• Chopra, R M, “Great Sufi Poets of The Punjab”, Iran
Society, Calcutta, 1999.
• Colby, Frederick. The Subtleties of the Ascension:
Lata'if Al-Miraj: Early Mystical Sayings on Muham-
mad’s Heavenly Journey. City: Fons Vitae, 2006.
• Dahlén, Ashk, Sufi Islam, The World’s Religions:
Continuities and Transformations, ed. Peter B.
Clarke & Peter Beyer, New York, 2008.
• Dahlén, Ashk, Female Sufi Saints and Disciples:
Women in the life of Jalal al-din Rumi, Orientalia
Suecana, vol. 57, Uppsala, 2008.
• Emin Er, Muhammad. Laws of the Heart: A Prac-
tical Introduction to the Sufi Path, Shifâ Publishers,
2008, ISBN 978-0-9815196-1-6.
• Emin Er, Muhammad. The Soul of Islam: Essential
Doctrines and Beliefs, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN
978-0-9815196-0-9.
16 FURTHER READING
• Ernst, Carl. The Shambhala Guide to Sufism.
HarperOne, 1999.
• Fadiman, James and Frager, Robert. Essential Su-
fism. Boulder: Shambhala, 1997.
• Farzan, Massud. The Tale of the Reed Pipe. New
York: Dutton, 1974.
• Gowins, Phillip. Sufism—A Path for Today: The
Sovereign Soul. New Delhi: Readworthy Publica-
tions (P) Ltd., 2008. ISBN 978-81-89973-49-0
• Khan, Inayat. “Part VI, Sufism”. The Sufi message,
Volume IX—The Unity of Religious Ideals
• Koc, Dogan, “Gulen’s Interpretation Of Sufism”,
Second International Conference on Islam in the
Contemporary World: The Fethullah Gülen Move-
ment in Thought and Practice, December 2008
• Lewinsohn (ed.), The Heritage of Sufism, Volume
I: Classical Persian Sufism from its Origins to Rumi
(700-1300).
• Michon, Jean-Louis. The Autobiography (Fahrasa)
of a Moroccan Soufi: Ahmad Ibn 'Ajiba (1747–
1809). Louisville: Fons Vitae, 1999.
• Nurbakhsh, Javad, What is Sufism? electronic text
derived from The Path, Khaniqahi Nimatullahi Pub-
lications, London, 2003 ISBN 0-933546-70-X.
• Rahimi, Sadeq (2007). Intimate Exteriority: Sufi
Space as Sanctuary for Injured Subjectivities in
Turkey., Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 46,
No. 3, September 2007; pp. 409–422
• Schimmel, Annemarie, Mystical Dimensions of Is-
lam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
Press, 1983. ISBN 0-8078-1223-4
• Schmidle, Nicholas, “Pakistan’s Sufis Preach Faith
and Ecstasy”, Smithsonian magazine, December
2008
• Sells, Michael (ed.), Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi,
Qur'an, Mi'raj, Poetic and Theological Writings,
ISBN 978-0-8091-3619-3.
• Shah, Idries. The Sufis. New York: Anchor Books,
1971, ISBN 0-385-07966-4.
• Shah, Sirdar Ikbal Ali. “The General Principles of
Sufism,” The Hibbert Journal, Vol. XX, October
1921/ July 1922.
• Shaikh Sharfuddin Maneri. Letters from a Sufi
Teacher. Mountain View, CA: Golden Elixir Press,
2010. ISBN 978-0-9843082-4-8.
• Seker, Nimet. Jewish and Muslim Mysticism: Jewish
Mystics on the Sufi Path Qantara.de April 2010
• Wilcox, Lynn. “Women and the Holy Qur'an: a Sufi
Perspective”. MTO Shahmaghsoudi Publications,
1998, ISBN 0-910735-65-4
 29

17 External links
• A Sufi Metamorphosis: Imam Ali

• The Bektashi Sufi Order of Dervishes

• Rifai Sufi Order: A Brief History of Sufism

• Sufism Oxford Islamic Studies Online

• Sufism at DMOZ
• Sufism, Sufis, and Sufi Orders - Sufism’s Many Paths

• Extensive photo Essay on Sufism by a National Ge-

ographic photographer

• ProjectSufism - misconceptions, realities and true

essence of sufism

• Pak Naqshbandi
• A Survey Of Decisive Arguments And Proof For
Tasawwuf - Sufism in Islam
30 18 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

18 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

18.1 Text
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18.2 Images 31

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tovic, Damsirigi99, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Italiano2012, ADDFL, Mzsabusayeed, Sam.rizae, WernerAs, Msin10, Blakeross, J36miles,
EmausBot, Artefactual, John of Reading, Snakeeater330, WikitanvirBot, Elsacosta, Sikander.alis, Ajraddatz, Jujhar.pannu, Kuuhkuuh,
GoingBatty, RA0808, Luckyaim, Boyfats, Loso3898, NoisyJinx, Rarevogel, Roctour, BeUnknown, Mazjoob, ZxxZxxZ, Satyakti121,
Mynuddeenster, Rahmatgee, SexyKick, K6ka, AsceticRose, Turkiyem, Lilac Cotton, Greatscots, Arab4Ever, Sarabsethh, Fæ, Josve05a,
Ilikenoodles12, Aqkiajib, Wellrung, Laur8927, Iwanttoeditthissh, Mar4d, 888chuli, UffieMusic, Azhar Mehmood, Access Denied, Walks
on Water, Webasura, Makecat, Thine Antique Pen, Someone65, Arman Cagle, Talibghaffari, Alamukht, MansurHallaj, Erget2005, Don-
ner60, Rmchopra, Basantptolani, Zain dakhan, Ash wki, ChuispastonBot, Crown Prince, Spicemix, Hundredpeaks, Bbeehvh, Cgt, ClueBot
NG, Hyiltiz, Jack Greenmaven, Tanbircdq, Goldenbeehive, MelbourneStar, Code16, -sche, Webbi527, Masher13, Waddick, Zhuravlei,
O.Koslowski, Patapsco913, Widr, Nijam121, Suninthegarden, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Omer123hussain, Asfak95,
Tsovas, BG19bot, Northamerica1000, TheBlindOwl, HyperEssence, Wahunjra, Dzlinker, Metricopolus, AbuSophia, Kamrul jami, Mark
Arsten, ‫بلال الدويك‬, Nijam122, Africanarab21, Peapub, Mughal Lohar, William4433, LuckyDukeSeven, RajaPakhralMinhas, Seth-
neha2007, Itsurnemesis, The Almightey Drill, Sparthorse, Saifiadarbar, Adomhoar, Asrefaei, KingQajar, Caduon, Glacialfox, Safwanzul-
fiqar, Docsufi, Klilidiplomus, Mirjam Amalthea, Carinae986, Woo2786, Priyanjana Roy, BattyBot, Isashake, RichardMills65, PabloG-
Parera, HacksBack, Wnsqstv, GAYousefSaanei, Conorman123, Louey37, Su2400, Khazar2, BlueLupine, KhanzadaKhanzada, TheSeek-
ing1, Hassaankhi, Jawad physics, Abdean, CHISTHI.ZA, JYBot, Mohital23, Trobor, StrongChristianEurope, Pirhayati, Sminthopsis84,
Nissanleaf, Mogism, Love4Colombia, Medu321, Sufism786, Tausif04, Charan Gill, RexAustralis, Faizan, Soulspeaksproductions, Chris-
tianChivalry, I am One of Many, BreakfastJr, Lsmll, Attarirazavi208, Julian Felsenburgh, Eppagh121, Melonkelon, Iztwoz, Tentinator,
Sunnibarelvi, Daavar h, Jasimmahbubi, Johan Tristan Aslim, Harishoney, Faizanhb2, Am Not New, Kayelldee, YiFeiBot, Ksoban20,
2wikibot, Truthandfaith, Fitzcarmalan, AddWittyNameHere, Faz.shah, FH87, Kingdomjoel, Sufidisciple, StuffandTruth, Skr15081997,
Moramayelp, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, P-123, BethNaught, Kashem555, Dguzzo, Umarjifriya, Shabu5, Alsheikh ziauddin, ANONY-
MOUS103, Aktiwari96, Bektashi, Aclarke9913, Shuayb Sahib, Habharchi, Raheem7864, Trueffelcat, Umar7175, Oxherdn, Ibnebatuta,
AnonymousBusterBoyBusterBoy, 468SM, Mzoyeb, Mysagaym, Shadab salam1, Trueager, Pprr777, Mbcap, SanKhan, Outrgrav, Muham-
mad b. Abdallah, Xtremedood, Elioun, Yasufi ibn Luqman, Zeanali12 and Anonymous: 1562

18.2 Images
• File:'Ali_Dede_al-Busnawi_-_Three_Hundred_Sixty_Sufi_Questions_-_Walters_W585_-_Closed_Top_View_A.jpg
Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/%27Ali_Dede_al-Busnawi_-_Three_Hundred_Sixty_Sufi_
Questions_-_Walters_W585_-_Closed_Top_View_A.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Museum: <a
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org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png'
width='20' height='20' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.
svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_
filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='128' data-file-height='128'
/></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/7580' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
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data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist:
'Ali Dede al-Busnawi (died 1007 AH/AD 1598)

Mustafá ibn al-Hajj Muhammad

• File:5741-Linxia-Huasi-Gongbei.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/5741-Linxia-Huasi-Gongbei.jpg
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work Original artist: Ibrahim ebi
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Contributors: http://golib.narod.ru/obnov/mistyk/10.html Original artist: Unknown
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32 18 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Friday_Evening_Qawali_at_Dargah_Salim_Chisti%2C_Fatehpur_Sikri%2C_UP%2C_India.theora.ogv
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