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CHAPTER 20

Basics of Industrial Motor Control

20.0 Introduction systems that are very complex. The basic compo-
nents are the following:
ndustrial control, in its broadest sense, encom-
I passes all the methods used to control the perfor-
mance of an electrical system. When applied to ma-
I. Disconnecting switches
2. Manual circuit breakers
chinery, it involves the starting, acceleration,
3. Cam switches
reversal, deceleration, and stopping of a motor and
its load. In this chapter we will study the electrical 4. Pushbuttons
(but not electronic) control of 3-phase alternating- 5. Relays
current motors. Our study is limited to elementary 6. Magnetic contactors
circuits because industrial circuits are usually too
7. Thermal relays and fuses
intricate to explain briefly. However, the basic prin-
ciples covered here apply to any system of control, 8. Pilot lights
no matter how complex it may appear to be. 9. Limit switches and other special switches
10. Resistors, reactors, transformers, and capacitors
20.1 Control devices
The ensuing list of Basic Components for Control
Every control circuit is composed of a number of Circuits illustrates these devices. and states their
basic components connected together to achieve the main purpose and application. Fuses are not in-
desired performance. The size of the components cluded here because they are protective devices
varies with the power of the motor, but the principle rather than control devices. They are discussed in
of operation remains the same. Using only a dozen Chapter 26. The symbols for these and other de-
basic components, it is possible to design control vices are given in Table 20A.

439
440 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

BASIC COMPONENTS FOR CONTROL CIRCUITS

Disconnecting switches
A discollnecting switch isolates the motor from the
power source. It consists of 3 knife-switches and 3 line
fuses enclosed in a metallic box. The knife-switches can
be opened and closed simultaneously by means of an
external handle. An interlocking mechanism prevents
the hinged cover from opening when the switch is
closed. Disconnecting switches (and their fuses) are se-
lected to carry the nominal full-load current of the mo-
tor. and to withstand short-circuit currents for brief in-
tervals.

Figure 20.1
Three-phase, fused disconnecting switch rated
600 V, 30 A.
(Courtesy of Square D)

Manual circuit hreakers


A l11ol1lwl cirCllit bre{{ker opens and closes a circuit, like
a toggle switch. It trips (opens) automatically when the
current exceeds a predetermined limit. After tripping. it
can be reset manually. Manual circuit breakers are often
used instead of disconnecting switches because no fuses
have to be replaced.

Figure 20.2
Three-phase circuit breaker, 600 V, 100 A.
(Courtesy of Square D)

Cam switches
A cam Slvitch has a group of fixed contacts and an equal
number of moveable contacts. The contacts can be made
to open and close in a preset sequence by rotating a han-
dle or knob. Cam switches are used to control the mo-
tion and position of hoists. callenders, machine tools.
and so on.

Figure 20.3
Three-phase surface-mounted cam switch, 230 V,
2 kW.
(Courtesy of Klockner-Moeller)
BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 441

Pusnbuttons
A pushbutton is a switch activated by finger pressure.
Two or more contacts open or close when the button is
depressed. Pushbullons are usually spring loaded so as
to return to their normal position when pressure is re-
moved.

Figure 20.4
Mechanical-interlocked push buttons with NO (nor-
mally open) and NC (normally closed) contacts; rated
to interrupt an ac current of 6 A one million times.
(Courtesy of Siemens)

Control relays
A control rela.v is an electromagnetic switch that opens
and closes a set of contacts when the relay coil is ener-
gized. The relay coil produces a strong magnetic field
which attracts a movable armature bearing the contacts.
Control relays are mainly used in low-power circuits.
They include time-delay relays whose contacts open or
close after a definite time interval. Thus, a time-delay
closing relay actuates its contacts after the relay coil has
been energized. On the other hand, a time-delay open in!!,
relay actuates its contacts some time after the relay coil
has been de-energized.

Figure 20.5
Single-phase relays: 25 A, 115/230 V and 5 A, 115 V.
(Courtesy of Potter and Brumfield)

Thermal relays
A thermal relay (or overload is a temperature-
sensitive device whose contacts open or close when the
motor current exceeds a preset limit. The current t10ws
through a small. calibrated heating element which raises
the temperature of the relay. Thermal relays are inherent
time-delay devices because the temperature cannot fol-
low the instantaneous changes in current.

Figure 20.6
Three-phase thermal relay with variable current set-
ting, 6 A to 10 A.
(Courtesy of Klockner-Moeller)
(continI/I'd)
BASIC COMPONENTS FOR CONTROL CIRCUITS

Magnetic contactors
A magnetic contactor is basically a control relay
designed to open and close a power circuit. It possesses a
relay coil and a magnetic plunger, which carries a set of
movable contacts. When the relay coil is energized, it at-
tracts the magnetic plunger, causing it to rise quickly
against the force of gravity. The movable contacts come
in contact with a set of fixed contacts, thereby closing
the power circuit. In addition to the power contacts, one
or more normally open or normally closed auxiliary con-
tacts are usually available, for control purposes. When
the relay coil is de-energized. the plunger falls, thereby
opening and closing the respective contacts. Magnetic
contactors are used to control motors ranging from 0.5
hp to several hundred horsepower. The size, dimensions,
and performance of contactors are standardized.
Figure 20.7
Three-phase magnetic contactor rated 50 hp, 575 V,
60 Hz. Width: 158 mm; height: 155 mm; depth: 107
mm; weight: 3.5 kg.
( Courtesy of Siemens)

Pilot lights
Apilot light indicates the onloff state of a remote com-
ponent in a control system.

Figure 20.8
Pilot light, 120 V, 3 W mounted in a start-stop push-
button station.
(Courtesy of Siemens)

Limit switches and special switches


A limit switch is a low-power snap-action device that
opens or closes a contact, depending upon the position
of a mechanical part. Other limit switches are sensitive
to pressure, temperature, liquid level, direction of rota-
tion, and so on.

Figure 20.9a
Limit switch with one NC contact; rated for ten million
operations; position accuracy: 0.5 mm.
(Courtesy of Square D)

Figure 20.9b
Liquid level switch.
(Courtesy of Square D)
(a) (b)
BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 443

Proximity detectors
Proximity detectors are sealed devices that can detect
objects without coming in direct contact with them.
Their service life is independent of the number of opera-
tions. They are wired to an external dc source and gen-
erate an alternating magnetic field by mean" of an inter-
nal oscillator. When a metal object comes within a few
millimeters of the detector, the magnetic field decreases,
which in turn causes a dc control current to flow. This
current can be used to activate another control device.
such as a relay or a programmable logic controller.
Capacitive proximity detectors. based on a similar prin-
ciple but generating an ac electric field, are able to de-
tect nonmetallic objects, including liquids.
Figure 20.10
Proximity detector to monitor the loading of a conveyor belt.
(Courtesy of Telemecanique, Groupe Schneider)

In order to understand the sections that follow. the relay coil at the moment it is excited. This
the legends in Table 20A should be read before places a heavier than expected duty on auxiliary
proceeding further. contacts that energize the coil.

20.2 Normally open and normally Example 20-1


closed contacts A 3-phase NEMA size 5 magnetic contactor rated at
270 A, 460 V possesses a 120 V, 60 Hz relay coil.
Control circuit diagrams always show components
The coil absorbs an apparent power of 2970 VA and
in a state of rest, that is, when they are not energized
212 VA. respectively, in the open and closed con-
(electrically) or activated (mechanically). In this
tactor position. Calculate the following:
state. some electrical contacts are open while others
are closed. They are respectively called normally a. The inrush exciting current
open contacts (NO) and normally closed contacts b. The normal, sealed exciting current
(NC) and are designated by the following symbols: c. The control power needed to actuate the relay coil
-1 ~ compared to the power handled by the contactor
normally open contact (NO)
normally closed contact (NC) * Solution
a. The inrush current in the relay coil is
20.3 Relay coil exciting current ISlE = 2970/120 = 24.75 A
When a magnetic contactor is in its de-energized or b. The normal relay coil current when the contac-
open position, the magnetic circuit has a very long tor is sealed (closed) is
air gap, compared to when the contactor is closed.
Consequently, in the case of an ac contactor the in- 1= SIE 2121120 = 1.77 A
ductive reactance of the relay coil is much lower c. The steady-state apparent control power needed
when the contactor is open than when it is closed. to actuate the relay coil is 212 VA. The appar-
Because the coil is excited by a fixed ac voltage, ent power that the contactor can handle is
the magnetizing current is much higher in the open
than in the closed contactor position. In other 5,' = EI 460 X 270V3
words, a considerable inrush current is drawn by 215 120 VA
444 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

TABLE 20A GRAPHIC SYMBOLS FOR ELECTRICAL DIAGRAMS

1 0

~ ~
~
~
32
2
+ 15 or or

33
~

=@
~

=0
3
~ ~ or
16 ~ or ~ or
~ 34 -t>I- or
8
4 -I-H-
5 ~ >--
17 o or tv or jJ 35
8
APPLICATION
6 ~>-- 18 -cD- or ~
-<f-'i'~>-
36 -<f-~~>-
1
7
~ i 19 f"VYY"\
-<f-A~>-

8 -./ -

1
20 --±If- 37
~ ~ ]
9
T
or 1- or
\ 21
J[ 38 0 i)
22 ~ A::\ C4

10 or
r or
t 23 3t • identified by an appropriate letter

*
1-
24 ----11--
11

12
o 0

,,-..,
or
ili
-0-
25 ----11-- or
26
27
~

~ ~
39

-<
13 0-0
0 28 0 0 40

14
0 0-"10
I
~
29 ® --<
0 ~o
30 ® ® 41 0
1. terminal; connection 2. conductors crossing 3. conductors connected 4. three conductors 5. plug; recep-
tacle 6. separable connector 7. ground connection; arrester 8. disconnecting switch 9. normally open con-
tact (NO) 10. normally closed contact (NC) 11. pushbutton NO; NC 12. circuit-breaker 13. single-pole switch;
three-way switch 14. double pole double throw switch 15. fuse 16. thermal overload element 17. relay coil
18. resistor 19. winding, inductor or reactor 20. capacitor; electrolytic capacitor 21. transformer 22. current
transformer; bushing type 23. potential transformer 24. dc source (general) 25. cell 26. shunt winding
27. series winding; commutating pole or compensating winding 28. motor; generator (general symbols) 29. dc
motor; dc generator (general symbols) 30. ac motor; ac generator (general symbols) 32. 3-phase squirrel-cage
induction motor; 3-phase wound-rotor motor 33. synchronous motor; 3-phase alternator 34. diode 35. thyristor
or SCR 36. 3-pole circuit breaker with magnetic overload device, drawout type 37. dc shunt motor with commu-
tating winding; permanent magnet dc generator 38. magnetic relay with one NO and one NC contact. 39. NPN
transistor 40. PNP transistor 41. pilot light
For a complete list of graphic symbols and references see "IEEE Standard and American National Standard Graphic'
Symbols for Electrical and Electronics Diagrams" (ANSI Y32.2/IEEE No. 315) published by the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, Inc., New York, NY 10017. Essentially the same symbols are used in Canada and several other
countries.
BASICS OF iNDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 445

Thus, the small control power (212 VA) can A block diagram is composed of a set of rectan-
control a load whose power is 215 120/212 = gles, each representing a control device, together
1015 times greater. with a brief description of its function. The rectan-
gles are connected by arrows that indicate the di-
20.4 Control diagrams rection of power or signal flow (Fig. 20.11).
A one-line diagram is similar to a block diagram,
A control system can be represented by four types except that the components are shown by their sym-
of circuit diagrams. They are listed as follows, in or- bols rather than by rectangles. The symbols give us
der of increasing detail and completeness: an idea of the nature of the components; conse-
• block diagram quently, one-line diagrams yield more information.
A list of typical symbols is displayed in Table 20A.
• one-line diagram*
The lines connecting the various components repre-
• wiring diagram sent two or more conductors 20.12).
• schematic diagram A wiring diagram shows the connections be-
tween the components, taking into account the
Also called single-line diagram. physical location of the terminals and even the color

fused thermal
600 V
disconnecting overload motor
3-phases switch relay

Figure 20.11
Block diagram of a combination starter.

T
thermal
600 V overload
3-phase A elay
()---<:~~~~ M
disconnecting fuse 'NO t t
switch con ac
start
cAJ relay coil
'r
pushbutton

PB2
o'--Q1D-~=::J pilot light
[

r---
.. ' "- stop
A pushbutton
auxiliary
contact

Figure 20.12
One-line diagram of a combination starter.
446 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

600 V 3-phase

2 3 L1 L2 L3

disconnecting

AG
starter motor
switch

81 82 83 T1
2 T2 80 0
T3 C 0

6
0 start-slop
7 pushbutton

8° station

Figure 20.13
Wiring diagram of a combination starter.

~
A

~
F

S F A T T3

start
stop

9 T

Figure 20.14
Schematic diagram of a combination starter.

of wire. These diagrams are employed when in- circuit. The symbols used to designate the various
stalling equipment or when troubleshooting a cir- components are given in Table 20B.
cuit (Fig. 20.13).
A schematic diagram shows all the electrical
connections between components, without regard
20.5 Starting methods
to their physical location or terminal arrangement. Three-phase squirrel-cage motors are started either
This type of diagram is indispensable when trou- by connecting them directly across the line or by
bleshooting a circuit or analyzing its mode of oper- applying reduced voltage to the stator. The starting
ation 20.14). In the sections that follow, this is method depends upon the power capacity of the
the kind of diagram we will be using. supply line and the type of load.
The reader should note that the four diagrams in Across-the-line starting is simple and inexpen-
Figs. 20.11 to 20.14 all relate to the same control sive. The main disadvantage is the high starting cur-
BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 447

rent, which is 5 to 6 times the rated full-load current. load current; consequently, they do not protect the
It can produce a significant line voltage drop, which motor against sustained overloads. Their primary
may affect other customers connected to the same function is to protect the motor and supply line
line. Voltage-sensitive devices such as incandescent against catastrophic currents resulting from a short-
lamps. television sets, and high-precision machine circuit in the motor or starter or a failure to start up.
tools respond badly to such voltage dips. Under normal start-up conditions, the fuses do not
Mechanical shock is another problem that should have time to blow, even though the initial current is
not be overlooked. Equipment can be seriously dam- 6 to 7 times full-load current. The fuse rating, in
aged if full-voltage starting produces a hammerblow amperes, must comply with the requirements of the
torque. Conveyor belts are another example where National Electric Code.
sudden starting may not be acceptable. In some cases the disconnecting switch and its
In large industrial installations we can some- fuses are replaced by a manual circuit breaker.
times tolerate across-the-line starting even for mo-
tors rated up to 10000 hp. Obviously, the fuses and 20.6 Manual across-the-line starters
circuit breakers must be designed to carry the start-
ing current during the acceleration period. Manual 3-phase starters are composed of a circuit
A motor control circuit contains two basic com- breaker and either two or three thermal relays, all
ponents: a disconnecting switch and a starter. The mounted in an appropriate enclosure. Such starters
disconnecting switch is always placed between the are used for small motors (10 hp or less) at voltages
supply line and the starter. The switch and starter ranging from 120 V to 600 V. The thermal relays
are sometimes mounted in the same enclosure to trip the circuit breaker whenever the current in one
make a combination starter. The fuses in the dis- of the phases exceeds the rated value for a signifi-
connecting switch are rated at about 3.5 times full- cant length of time.

Figure 20.15
Manual starters for single-phase motors rated 1 hp (0.75 kW); left: surface mounted; center: flush mounted; right
waterproof enclosure.
(Courtesy of Siemens)
44X ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Single-phase manual starters (Fig. 20.15) are built 2. The thermal relay T protects the motor against
along the same principles but they contain only one sustained overloads.* The relay comprises
thermal relay. The thermal relays are selected for the three individual heating elements, respectively
particular motor that is connected to the starter. connected in series with the three phases. A

20.7 Magnetic across-the-line * The thermal relay is often designated by the letters OL
starters (overload).

Magnetic across-the-line starters are employed


whenever a motor has to be controlled from a remote
location. They are also used whenever the power rat-
ing exceeds 10 kW.
20.16 shows a typical magnetic starter and
its associated schematic diagram. The disconnect-
ing switch is external to the starter. The starter has
three main components: a magnetic contactor, a
thermal relay, and a control station. We now de-
scribe these components.
I. The magnetic contactor A possesses three heavy
contacts A and one small auxiliary contact Ax. As
can be seen, these contacts are normally open.
Contacts A must be big enough to carry the start-
ing current and the nominal full-load current
without overheating. Contact Ax is much smaller
because it only carries the current of relay coil A.
The relay coil is represented by the same sym- Figure 20.16a
bol (A) as the contacts it controls. Contacts A and Three-phase across-the-line magnetic starter, 30 hp,
600 V, 60 Hz.
Ax remain closed as long as the coil is energized.
(Courtesy of Klockner-Moeller)

T
disconnecting switch contactor thermal overload relay
1 r-------------------------l A r-----ln A
0-+-0
, 1I-<>-+-c:)--<>-4 I-C--oo()o-t"'" ,
,
I '
2 : IT2
o--t-o r+<>-------~>-~
,, ''
3 : I IT3 c
0-+-0 kH,-<;>o-t--o--U--o---<::.,......r
L__________________________ J

light

o
T---Dreset pushbutton
o

Figure 20.16b
Schematic diagram of a 3-phase across-the-line magnetic starter.
BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 449

min
120
60
30

6
Q>

.§ 2
\
\
."""
1 mi n
40 s
20
10
5
2
"J
1
I
1 1.11.5 2 4 6 10
-multiple of the current setting

Figure 20.17 Figure 20.18


Typical curve of a thermal overload relay, showing trip- Three-phase across-the-line combination starter, 150
ping time versus line current. The tripping time is mea- hp, 575 V, 60 Hz. The protruding knob controls the dis-
sured from cold-start conditions. If the motor has been connecting switch; the pushbutton station is set in the
operating at full-load for one hour or more, the tripping transparent polycarbonate cover.
time is reduced about 30 percent. (Courtesy of Klockner-Moelfer)

small, normally closed contact T forms part of the start button. Coil A is immediately energized
the relay assembly. It opens when the thermal causing contacts A and Ax to close. The full line volt-
relay gets too hot and stays open until the relay age appears across the motor and the pilot light is on.
is manually reset. When the pushbutton is released it returns to its nor-
The current rating of the thermal relay is mal position, but the relay coil remains excited be-
chosen to protect the motor against sustained cause auxiliary contact Ax is now closed. Contact Ax
overloads. Contact T opens after a period of is said to be a se(f~sealil1g contact.
time that depends upon the magnitude of the To stop the motor, we simply push the stop but-
overload current. Thus. Fig. 20.17 shows the ton, which opens the circuit to the coil. In case of a
tripping time as a multiple of the rated relay sustained overload, the opening of contact T pro-
current. At rated current (multiple I), the relay duces the same effect.
never trips, but at twice rated current, it trips af- It sometimes happens that a thermal relay will
ter an interval of 40 s. The thermal relay is trip for no apparent reason. This condition can occur
equipped with a reset button enabling us to re- when the ambient temperature around the starter is
close contact T following an overload. It is too high. We can remedy the situation by changing
preferable to wait a few minutes before pushing the location of the starter or by replacing the relay by
the button to allow the relay to cool down. another one having a higher current rating. Care
must be taken before making such a change, because
3. The cOl1trol.';tatiol1, composed of start-stop push-
if the ambient temperature around the motor is also
buttons. may be located either close to, or far
too high, the occasional tripping may actually serve
away from the starter. The pilot light is optional.
as a warning.
Referring to Fig. 20.16b, to start the motor we Fig. 20.18 shows a typical combination starter.
first close the disconnecting switch and then depress Fig. 20.19 shows another combination starter
450 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Figure 20.19
Three-phase across-the-line combination starter rated
100 hp, 575 V, 60 Hz. The isolating circuit breaker is
controlled by an external handle. The magnetic con-
tactor is mounted in the bottom left-hand corner of the
waterproof enclosure. The small 600 VI120 V trans-
former in the lower right-hand corner supplies low-
voltage power for the control circuit.
( Courtesy of Square D) Figure 20.20
Three-phase 5 kV starter for a 2500 hp cage motor.
equipped with a small step-down transformer to ex- The medium- and low-voltage circuits are completely
isolated from each other to ensure safety. The com-
cite the control circuit. Such transformers are always
partment is 2286 mm high, 610 mm wide, and 813
used on high-voltage starters (above 600 V) because mm deep. The entire starter weighs 499 kg.
they permit the use of standard control components, (Courtesy of Square D, Groupe Schneider)
such as pushbuttons and pilot lights while reducing
the shock hazard to operating personnel. fuses. The contactor acts also as a disconnecting
Fig. 20.20 shows a medium-voltage across-the- switch and consequently the overall size is much
line starter for a 2500 hp, 4160 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz smaller than more conventional combination starters.
squirrel-cage motor. The metal compartment
houses three fuses and a 3-phase vacuum contactor.
The contactor can perform 250 000 operations at
20.8 Inching and jogging
full-load before maintenance is required. The 120 V In some mechanical systems, we have to adjust the
holding coil draws 21.7 A during pull-in, and the position of a motorized part very precisely. To ac-
current drops to 0.4 A during normal operation. complish this. we energize the motor in short spurts
Closing and opening times of the main contactor are so that it barely starts before it again comes to a halt.
respectively 65 ms and 130 ms. A double-contact pushbutton J is added to the usual
Fig. 20.21 shows a special combination starter that start/stop circuit, as shown in Fig. 20.22. This
can be reset remotely following a short-circuit. Its arrangement permits conventional start-stop con-
distinguishing feature is that it is programmable and trol as well as jogging. or inching. The following
requires no fuses. The sophisticated contactor is de- description shows how the control circuit operates.
signed to intelTUpt short-circuit currents in less than If the jog button J is in its normal position (not de-
3 ms, which is comparable to that offered by HRC pressed) relay coi I A is excited as soon as the start but-
BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 451

stop ..L,tart

8o....--ilil..L..l...Ju--...6b;-A1 J 2
X

T 3 4
L3O--<~~~----------~

Figure 20.22
Control circuit and pushbutton station for start-stop job
operation. Terminals 8, L3 correspond to terminals 8,
L3 in Fig. 20.13.

It is estimated that each impulse corresponds to 30


normal start-stop operations. Thus, a contactor that
can normally start and stop a motor 3 million times,
can only jog the motor 100000 times, because the
contacts have to be replaced. * FUl1hermore, jog-
ging should not be repeated too quickly, because the
intense heat of the breaking arc may cause the main
contacts to weld together. Repeated jogging will
Figure 20.21 also overheat the motor. When is required,
Special self-protected starter rated at 40 hp, 460 V, 60 the contactor is usually selected to be one NEMA
Hz. In addition to a short-circuit capability of 42 kA at size larger than that for normal duty.
460 V, it features adjustable thermal and magnetic trip
settings. Overall dimensions: 243 mm high, 90 mm 20.9 Reversing the direction
wide, 179 mm deep.
(Courtesy of Te/emecanique, Groupe Schneider) of rotation
We can reverse the direction of rotation of a 3-phase
ton is depressed. S€aling contact Ax in the main con- motor by interchanging any two lines. This can be
tactor closes and so the motor will continue to tum af- done by using two magnetic contactors A and B and a
ter the start button is released. Thus, the control cir- . manual 3-position cam switch as shown in Fig. 20.23.
cuit operates in the same way as in Fig. 20. 16b. When contactor A is closed, lines L I , and L3 are
Suppose now that the motor is stopped and we connected to tenninals A, B, C of the motor. But when
depress the jog button. This closes contacts 3, 4 and contactor B is closed, the same lines are connected to
relay coil A is excited. Contact Ax closes, but con- motor terminals C, B, A
tacts I, 2 are now open and the closure of Ax has no In the forward direction, the cam switch engages
effect. The motor will pick up speed so long as the contact I, which energizes relay coil A, causing
jog button is depressed. However, when it is re- contactor A to close. **
leased, coil A will become de-energized and contac-
tor A will drop out, causing Ax to open. Thus, when A magnetic contact has an e~timaled mechanical life of
contacts I, 2 are again bridged, the motor will come about 20 million open/close cycles. but the electrical con-
to a halt. Thus, by momentarily depressing the jog tacts should be replaced after 3 million normal cycles.
button we can briefly apply power to the motor. The contacts and relay coils may be designated by any ap-
propriate letters. Thus, the letters F and R are often used to
Jogging imposes severe duty on the main power
designate/()I,mrd and reverse operating components. In
contacts A because they continually make and this book we have adopted the leiters A and B mainly for
break currents that are 6 times greater than normal. reasons of continuity from one circuit to the next.
452 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

L1
A T

2 A
disconnecting ~I-4L...
2 - - - - -__4--0-11-<>--_.....,.-=>-'
switch
3 A
L3

forward

emergency reverse
pushbutton
T

Figure 20.23a
Simplified schematic diagram of a reversible magnetic starter.

Figure 20.23b Figure 20.23c


Three-position cam switch in Fig. 20.23a. Emergency stop pushbutton in Fig. 20.23a.
(Courtesy of Siemens) (Courtesy of Square D)

To reverse the rotation, we move the cam switch because when the other contactor closes, a short-
to position 2. However, in doing so, we have to move circuit results across the line. The short-circuit
past the off position (0). Consequently, it is impossi- current could easily be 50 to 500 times greater than
ble to energize coils A and B simultaneously. normal, and both contactors could be severely dam-
Occasionally, however, a mechanical defect may aged. To eliminate this danger, the contactors are
prevent a contactor from dropping out, even after its mounted side by side and mechanically interlocked,
relay coil is de-energized. This is a serious situation, so as to make it physically impossible for both to be
BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 453

A
T1

L2 disconnecting .......Io-------..-I--<::>-II-C--+-+--o-..r
switch
L3

B
stop B.2

8 zero
I sp~ed
I sWitch
I -~ r-;;--' A.2
~~~----~5 -~~
~B:, I ~TF ..JI
I-_ _

Figure 20.24a
Simplified schematic diagram of a starter with plugging control.

closed at the same time. The interlock is a simple 2. The start pushbutton has one NO contact I, 2 and
steel bar. pivoted at the center, whose extremities are one NC contact 3, 4 which operate together. Thus,
tied to the movable armature of each contactor. contact 3, 4 opens before contact I, 2 closes.
During an emergency, pushbutton U, equipped 3. Contactor B is used to stop the motor. It is
with a large red bull's-eye, can be used to stop the identical to contactor A, having 2 auxiliary
motor (Fig. 20.23c). In practice, operators find it contacts Bxl and Bx2 in addition to the 3 main
easier to hit a large button than to tum a cam switch contacts B.
to the off position. 4. The stop pushbutton is identical to the start
pushbutton. Thus, when it is depressed contact
7,8 opens before contact 5, 6 closes.
20.10 Plugging
5. Contact F-C of the zero-speed switch is normally
We have already seen that an induction motor can be open, but it closes as soon as the motor turns in
brought to a rapid stop by reversing two of the lines the forward direction. This prepares the plugging
(Section 14.8). However, to prevent the motor from circuit for the eventual operation of coil B.
running in reverse, a zero-speed switch must open the 6. Contacts Ax I and Bx I are sealing contacts so
line as soon as the machine has come to rest. The cir- that pushbuttons A and B have only to be
cuit of Fig. 20.24a shows the basic elements of such pressed momentarily to start or stop the motor.
a plugging circuit. The circuit operates as follows:
7. Contacts A,,2 and B,,2 are electrical interlocks to
1. Contactor A is used to start the motor. In addi- prevent the relay coils A and B from being ex-
tion to its 3 main contacts A, it has 2 small aux- cited at the same time. Thus, when the motor is
iliary contacts Ax I and running. contact A,,2 is open. Consequently.
454 ELECTRICAL liND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

relay coil B cannot become excited by de-


pressing pushbutton B until such time as con-
tactor A has dropped out, causing contact Ax1
to reclose.
Several types of zero-speed switches are on the
market and Fig. 20.24b shows one that operates on
the principle of an induction motor. It consists of a
small permanent magnet rotor N, S and a bronze
ring or cup supported on bearings, which is free to
pivot between stationary contacts F and R. The per-
manent magnet is coupled to the shaft of the main
motor. As soon as the motor turns clockwise, the
permanent magnet drags the ring along in the same
direction, thereby closing contacts F-e. When the
drag cup motor stops turning, the brass ring returns to the (d!
position. Because of its function and shape, the ring
bearing
is often called a drag-cup.
Fig. 20.24c shows another zero-speed switch
that operates on the principle of centrifugal force.

20.11 Reduced-voltage starting


Some industrial loads have to be started very
Figure 20.24b
gradually. Examples are coil winders, printing
Typical zero-speed switch for use in Fig. 20.24a. presses, conveyor belts, and machines that
process fragile products. In other industrial appli-
cations, a motor cannot be directly connected to
the line because the starting current is too high. In
all these cases we have to reduce the voltage ap-
plied to the motor either by connecting resistors
(or reactors) in series with the line or by employ-
ing an autotransformer. In reducing the voltage,
we recall the following:
I. The locked-rotor current is proportional to the
voltage: reducing the voltage by half reduces
the current by half.
2. The locked-rotor torque is proportional to the
square of the voltage: reducing the voltage by
half reduces the torque by a factor of four.

20.12 Primary resistance starting


Figure 20.24c Primary resistance starting consists of placing three
Zero-speed switch, centrifugal type. resistors in series with the motor during the start-up
(Courtesy of Hubbe/) period (Fig. 20.25a). Contactor A closes tlrst and
BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 455

L1,
,
disconnecting L2 i
~

switch I

L3 J
~

Figure 20.25a
Simplified schematic diagram of the power section of a reduced-voltage primary resistor stator.

L1 stop ~tart T L3 RA
L1 L3

~
RA

Figure 20.25b
Figure 20.25c
Control circuit of Fig. 20.25a.
Control circuit of Fig. 20.25a using an auxiliary relay RA.

when the motor has nearly reached synchronous As soon as the start pushbutton is depressed, relay
speed, a second contact B short-circuits the resistors. coils A and RT are excited. This causes the contacts A
This method gives a very smooth start with complete and Ax to close immediately. However, the contact RT
absence of mechanical shock. The voltage drop only closes after a certain time delay and so the relay
across the resistors is high at first, but gradually di- coil of contactor B is only excited a few seconds later.
minishes as the motor picks up speed and the current If the magnetic contactors A, B are particularly
falls. Consequently, the voltage across the motor ter- large, the inrush exciting currents could damage the
minals increases with speed, and so the electrical and start pushbutton contacts if they are connected as
mechanical shock is negligible when full voltage is shown in Fig. 20.2Sb. In such cases, it is better to
finally applied (closure of contactor B). The resistors add an auxiliary relay having more robust contacts.
are short-circuited after a delay that depends upon Thus, in Fig. 20.2Sc. the purpose of auxiliary relay
the setting of a time-delay relay. RA is to carry the exciting currents of relay coils A
The schematic control diagram 20.25b) re- and B. Note that the start pushbutton contacts carry
veals the following circuit elements: only the exciting current of relay coils RA and RT.
Other circuit components are straightforward, and
A, B: magnetic contactor relay coils the reader should have no difficulty in analyzing the
A,: auxiliary contact associated with A operation of the circuit.
RT: time-delay relay that closes the circuit How are the starting characteristics affected
of coil B after a preset interval of time when resistors are inserted in series with the stator?
456 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DR/VES

p.u p.u
3 6 --..,,!
..........
/ i\ ~
'"CT
::J
1 \ 2
\

,
2 4
8 V r-- i -
I I ~ \
I -~
V
).-
/ ' "\ 2 hl
o
r- -
V
o
,
o 400 800 1200 16001800 r/min o 400 800 1200 16001800 r/min
-speed -speed

Figure 20.26a Figure 20.26b


Typical torque-speed curves of a 3-phase squirrel-cage Typical current-speed curves of a 3-phase squirrel-cage
induction motor: (1) full-voltage starting; (2) primary re- induction motor: (1) full-voltage starting; (2) primary re-
sistance starting with voltage reduced to 0.65 pu. sistance starting with voltage reduced to 0.65 pu.

Fig. 20.26a shows the torque-speed curve I when


full voltage is applied to a typical 3-phase, 1800 c. The apparent power drawn from the line, with
r/min induction motor. Corresponding curve 2 the resistors in the circuit
shows what happens when resistors are inserted in d. The locked-rotor torque developed by the motor
series with the line. The resistors are chosen so that
Solution
the locked-rotor voltage across the stator is 0.65 pu.
a. At full voltage the locked-rotor apparent power is
The locked-rotor torque is. therefore, (0.65)1
0.42 pu or only 42 percent of full-load torque. This S V3 El (8.9)
means that the motor must be started at light load.
Fig. 20.26b shows the CUlTent versus speed curve
= \/3 X 460 X 1400
I when full voltage is applied to the stator. Curve 2 1I14kYA
shows the current when the resistors are in the circuit. b. The voltage across the motor at 0.65 pu is
When the speed reaches about 1700 rlmin, the resis-
tors are short-circuited. The current jumps from about E 0.65 X 460 :::: 299 Y
1.8 pu to 2.5 pu, which is a very moderate jump. The current drawn by the motor decreases in
proportion to the voltage:
Example 20-2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
1 = 0.65 X 1400 910A
A 150 kW (200 hp). 460 Y, 3-phase 3520 r/min, 60
Hz induction motor has a locked-rotor torque of The apparent power drawn by the motor is
600 N'm and a locked-rotor current of 1400 A. SI1I = V3 El
Three resistors are connected in series with the
line so as to reduce the voltage across the motor to \3 X 299 X 910
0.65 pu. = 471 kYA
Calculate c. The apparent power drawn from the line is
a. The apparent power absorbed by the motor un- ;-

SL = \3 El
der full-voltage. locked-rotor conditions
b. The apparent power absorbed by the motor X 460 X 910
when the resistors are in the circuit = 724 kYA
BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 457

SL 724 kVA Sm = 471 kVA 5\ = 724 kVA Sm 471 kVA


locked
series rotor P L = 574 kW Pm = 165 kW
460 V resistors 299 V QL = 441 kvar Qm = 441 kvar locked

-
9 10A
R
-
910 A 460 V
series
resistors
R
299 V
rotor

910 A 910 A
Figure 20.27
See Example 20-2.
Figure 20.28
See Example 20-3.

Thus, percentagewise, the apparent power is


only 724 kVAlll14 kVA = 65% of the appar-
ent power under full-voltage conditions.
The resistors can only absorb active power in the cir-
d. The torque varies as the square of the voltage:
cuit. Consequently, the reactive power supplied by
T = 0.65 2 X 600 the line must be equal to that absorbed by the motor:
0.42 X 600 QL 441 kvar
= 252 N'm (~186 ft·lbO The active power supplied by the line is
The results of these calculations are summarized in PL
20.27.
574 kW
Example 20-3 The active power absorbed by the three resistors is
In Example 20-2, if the locked-rotor power factor
of the motor alone is 0.35, calculate the value of
the series resistors and the power they dissipate. 574 - 165
409kW
Solution
We will solve this problem by considering active and The active power per resistor is
reactive powers and using the power triangle method. P PR /3 409/3 = 136 kW
The apparent power drawn by the motor at reduced
voltage is The current in each resistor is
I 910 A (from Example 20-2)
Sm = 471 kVA (from Example 20-2)
The value of each resistor is
The corresponding apparent power drawn by the
line is P = PR
136 000 = 910 2 R
SL = 724 kVA (from Example 20-2)
R = 0.164 n
The active power drawn by the motor is The three resistors must therefore each have a resis-
Pill = Sm cos e 471 X 0.35 tance of O.l64!1 and a short-term rating of 136 kW.
The physical size of these resistors is much smaller
165 kW
than if they were designed for continuous duty.
The reactive power absorbed by the motor is This is an interesting example of the usefulness
of the power triangle method in solving a relatively
Qln difficult problem. The results are summarized in
441 kvar Fig. 20.28.
458 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

20.13 Autotransformer starting


Compared to a resistance starter, the advantage of
an autotransformer starter is that for a given torque
it draws a much lower line current. The disadvan-
tage is that autotransformers cost more, and the
transition from reduced-voltage to full-voltage is
not quite as smooth.
Autotransformers usually have taps to give out-
put voltages of 0.8, 0.65, and 0.5 pu. The corre-
sponding starting torques are respectively 0.64,
0.42, and 0.25 of the full-voltage starting torque.
Furthermore, the starting currents on the line side
are also reduced to 0.64, 0.42, and 0.25 of the full-
voltage locked-rotor current.
Fig. 20.29 shows a starter using two autotrans-
formers connected in open delta. A simplified cir-
cuit diagram of such a starter is given in Fig. 20.30.
It has two contactors A and B. Contactor A has five
NO contacts A and one small NO contact Ax. This
contactor is in operation only during the brief pe- Figure 20.29
riod when the motor is starting up. Reduced-voltage autotransformer starter, 100 hp,
575 V, 60 Hz.
(Courtesy of Square 0)
B

2
---+---o-.J
disconnecting ......--"---c>--t I--o---.....
switch

Figure 20.30
Simplified schematic diagram of an autotransformer starter.
BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 459

Contactor B has 3 NO contacts B. It is in service Figs. 20.31 a and 20.31 b compare the torque and
while the motor is running. line current when autotransformer starting (3) and
The autotransformers are set on the 65 percent resistance starting (2) is used. The locked-rotor
tap. The time-delay relay RT possesses three con- voltage in each case is 0.65 pu. The reader will note
tacts RTL RT2, RT3. The contact RTI in parallel that the locked-rotor torques are identical, but the
with the start button closes as soon as coil RT is en- locked-rotor line current is much lower using an au-
ergized. The other two contacts RT2, RT3 operate totransformer (2.7 versus 4.2 pu).
after a delay that depends upon the RT relay setting. However, when the motor reaches about 90 percent
Contactors A and B are mechanically interlocked to of synchronous speed, resistance starting produces a
prevent them from closing simultaneously. higher torque because the terminal voltage is slightly
Contactor A closes as soon as the start button is higher than the 65 percent value that existed at the mo-
depressed. This excites the autotransformer and re- ment of start-up. On the other hand, the line current at
duced voltage appears across the motor terminals. all speeds is smaller when using an autotransformer.
A few seconds later, contact RT2 in series with coil Because the autotransformers operate for very
A opens, causing contactor A to open. At the same short periods, they can be wound with much smaller
time, contact RT3 causes contactor B to close. wire than continuously rated devices. This enables
Thus, contactor A drops out, followed almost im- us to drastically reduce the size, weight, and cost of
mediately by the closure of contactor B. This action these components.
applies full voltage to the motor and simultaneously
disconnects the autotransformer from the line. Example 20-4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
In transferring from contactor A to contactor B, A 200 hp (150 kW), 460 V, 3-phase, 3520 r/min,
the motor is disconnected from the line for a frac- 60 Hz induction motor has a locked-rotor torque of
tion of a second. This creates a problem because 600 N·m and a locked-rotor current of 1400 A (same
when contactor B closes, a large transient current is motor as in Example 20-2). Two autotransformers,
drawn from the line. This transient surge is hard on connected in open delta, and having a 65 percent tap,
the contacts and also produces a mechanical shock. are employed to provide reduced-voltage starting.
For this reason, we sometimes employ more elabo-
Calculate
rate circuits in which the motor is never completely
a. The apparent power absorbed by the motor
disconnected from the line.
b. The apparent power supplied by the 460 V line

p.u
6

p.u. C
~:::l -- -- --- 2
2
U
4
--- -- ....,

i -
,
/
.
_,2
2
3 ..........
\ ,
~\
;~~

-- --- --- -- --- 3 \\

o o ~
o 400 800 1200 16001800 r/min o 400 800 1200 16001800 r/min
- - - speed -speed

Figure 20.31 a Figure 20.31 b


Typical reduced voltage (0.65 pu) torque-speed curves Typical reduced voltage (0.65 pu) current-speed curves
of a 3-phase squirrel-cage induction motor: (2) primary of a 3-phase squirrel-cage induction motor: (2) primary
resistance starting; (3) autotransformer starting. resistance starting; (3) autotransformer starting.
460 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

c. The current supplied by the 460 Y line The results of these calculations are summa-
d. The locked-rotor torque rized in Fig. 20.32. It is worthwhile comparing
them with the results in Fig. 20.27.
Solution
a. The voltage across the motor is
E 0.65 X 460 299 Y 20.14 Other starting methods
The current drawn by the motor is In addition to resistors and autotransformers, sev-
eral other methods are employed to limit the current
I 0.65 X 1400 910 A
and torque when starting induction motors. Some
The apparent power drawn by the motor is only require a change in the stator winding connec-
Sm DEI tions. The part-winding starting method can be used
when the induction motor has two identical 3-phase
X 299 X 910
windings that operate in parallel when the motor is
471 kYA running. During the starting phase, only one of
b. The apparent power supplied by the line is these 3-phase windings is used. As a result the im-
equal to that absorbed by the motor because the pedance is higher than if the two windings were
active and reactive power consumed by the connected in parallel. After the motor has picked up
autotransformers is negligible (Section 12.1). speed, the second 3-phase winding is brought into
Consequentl y, service so that the two windings operate in paralle\.
Fig. 20.33 shows how two 3-pole contactors A and
SL Sm 471 kYA B can be arranged for part-winding starting.
c. The current drawn from the line is Contactor A closes first thus energizing windings
I, 2. 3. Shortly after, contactor B closes, bringing
I SL I (D El (8.9)
windings 7, 8, 9 in parallel with windings 1,2,3.
= 471 000/( 1.73 X 460)
592 A A
L1 0--..-------4 1---<:)---1
Note that this current is considerably smaller
than the line current (910 A) with resistance
A
starting.
L2 o--+---tl------f 1---<:>----"
d. The locked-rotor torque varies as the square of
the motor voltage:
T = 0.65 2 X 600
= 0.42 X 600

252 N'm

SL = 471 kVA Sm = 471 kVA


locked
rotor
460 V 299 V

592 A 910 A B
autotransformer

Figure 20.32 Figure 20.33


See Example 20-4. Part-winding starting of an induction motor.
BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 461

There are many different types of part-winding forward stop reverse


connections and some larger motors have specially
J3
desi~ned windings so that the starting performance L1 T1
is optimized.
In wye-delta starting, all six stator leads are
brought out to the terminal box. The windings are J11 <>----:>-1
connected in wye during start-up, and in delta dur- L2
ing normal running conditions. This starting method
4
gives the same results as an autotransformer starter
having a 58 percent tap. The reason is that the volt-
~~~--~)(~----~
5
each wye-connected winding is only
( = 0.58) of its rated value. Figure 20.35
Finally, to start wound-rotor motors, we pro- Schematic diagram of a cam switch permitting for-
gressively short-circuit the external rotor resistors ward-reverse and stop operation of a 3-phase motor.
in one. two. or more steps. The number of steps de-
pends upon the size of the machine and the nature
of the load (see Fig. 13.19). knob, some contacts are closed while others are open.
This information is given in a table, usually glued to
the side of the switch. A cross (X) designates a closed
20.15 Cam switches
contact while a blank space is an open contact. In the
Some industrial operations have to be under the forward position, for example, contacts 2, 4, and 5 are
continuous control of an operator. In hoists. for ex- closed and contacts I and 3 are open. When the knob
ample. an operator has to vary the lifting and low- is turned to the stop position, all contacts are open.
ering rate, and the load has to be carefully set down Fig. 20.34b shows the shape of the cam that controls
at the proper place. Such a supervised control se- the opening and closing of contact I.
quence can be done with cam switches. The schematic diagram (Fig. 20.35) shows how
20.34 shows a 3-position cam switch de- to connect the cam switch to a 3-phase motor. The
signed for theforward, reverse, and stop operation of state of the contacts (open or closed) is shown di-
a 3-phase induction motor. For each position of the rectly on the diagram for each position of the knob.

contact 1 contact forward stop reverse

o 1 X

Tersy OO~\orw>ard 2 X
Ie)
Ibl~
3 X
4 X
5 X X
cam shown in off position

Figure 20.34
a. Cam switch external appearance.
b. Detail of the cam controlling contact 1 in the stop position.
c. Table listing the on-off state of the five contacts.
462 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

The 3-phase line and motor are connected to the +


appropriate cam-switch terminals. Note that generator or brake motor
jumpers J I, J2, 13, J4 are also required to complete Ql
::::I

the connections. The reader should analyze the cir- !::


S
cuit connections and resulting current flow for
each position of the switch. For example, when the
o +
switch is in the forward position, contacts 2, 4, 5 _speed
are closed and L I is connected to T I, L2 to T2, and
L3 to T3.
Some cam switches are designed to carry several
hundred amperes, but we often prefer to use mag-
I quadrant 3 I
motor
netic contactors to handle large currents. In such
cases a small cam switch is employed to control the
relay coils of the contactors. Very elaborate control
Figure 20.36
schemes can be designed with multi contact cam
Electric drives can operate in four distinct quadrants.
switches.

20.16 Computers and controls However, some industrial drives require a motor to
function at various torques and speeds, both in for-
The control devices we have covered in this chapter ward and reverse. In addition to operating as a motor,
are used throughout the industry. However, with the the machine often has to function for brief periods as
advent of computers, it is now possible to simulate a generator or brake. In electric locomotives, for ex-
the behavior of many relay coils and relay contacts. ample, the motor may run clockwise or counter-
Furthermore, the connections between these devices clockwise, and the torque may act either with or
can also be simulated. As a result, it is possible to against the direction of rotation. In other words, the
make very complex control circuits by simply using speed and torque may be positive or negative.
a keyboard. a monitor. and a computer. Thus. instead In describing industrial drives, the various operat-
of using real relays, contacts, and time-delay dash- ing modes can best be shown in graphical form. The
pots, we simply program these devices (and their positive and negative speeds are plotted on a hori-
wiring) on a computer. The computers used for this zontal axis, and the positive and negative torques on
purpose are called Programmable Logic Controllers a vertical axis (Fig. 20.36). This gives rise to four op-
(PLCs). Their construction and basic principle of erating quadrants, labelled respectively quadrants I,
operation are covered in Chapter 31. 2,3, and 4.
If a machine operates in quadrant I, both the
ELECTRIC DRIVES torque and speed are positive, meaning that they act
in the same direction. Consequently, a machine op-
20.17 Fundamentals of electric erating in this quadrant functions as a motor. As
drives* such, it delivers mechanical power to the load. The
machine also operates as a motor in quadrant 3, ex-
In this chapter we have seen the basic control equip-
cept that both the torque and speed are reversed.
ment that is used to start and stop induction motors.
A machine that operates in quadrant 2 develops
a positive torque but its speed is negative. In other
An electric drive is a system consisting of one or several
electric motors and of the entire electric control equipment words, the torque acts clockwise while the ma~hine
designed to govern the performance of these motors. (IEEE turns counterclockwise. In this quadrant, the ma-
Standard Dictiollarr oj1:Jeurica/ ({IIII Elecfrollics Terms) chine absorbs mechanical power from the load:
BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 463

consequently, it functions basically as a generator.


The mechanical power is converted into electric +
pow'er and the latter is usually fed back into the line.
However, the electric power may be dissipated in an
external resistor, such as in dynamic braking.
Depending on the way it is connected, a machine +
may also function as a brake when operating in
quadrant 2. The mechanical power absorbed is again
converted to electric power, but the latter is immedi-
ately and unavoidably converted into heat. In effect,
when a machine functions as a brake, it absorbs elec-
tric power from the supply line at the same time as it
absorbs mechanical power from the shaft. Both Figure 20.37
power inputs are dissipated as heat--often inside the Typical torque-speed curve of a squirrel-cage induc-
machine itself. For example, whenever a machine is tion motor operating at fixed voltage and frequency.
plugged, it operates as a brake. In larger power
drives we seldom favor the brake mode of operation
because it is very inefficient. Consequently, the cir-
cuit is usually arranged so that the machine func-
tions as a generator when operating in quadrant 2.
Quadrant 4 is identical to quadrant 2, except that
the torque and speed are reversed: consequently, the
same remarks apply.

20.18 Typical torque-speed curves


The torque-speed curve of a 3-phase induction motor
is an excellent example of the motor-generator-brake
behavior of an electrical machine. We first examined
it in Chapter 14, Section 14.16. The reader is encour-
Figure 20.38
aged to take a few moments to review this section,
Typical torque-speed curve of a de motor.
with particular attention to Fig. 14.16.
Referring now to the solid curve in Fig. 20.37, the
machine acts as a motor in quadrant I, as a brake in generator-brake modes are again apparent. If the
quadrant 2, and as a generator in quadrant 4 (Section armature leads are reversed, we obtain the dotted
14.16). If the stator leads are reversed, another torque- torque-speed curve.
speed curve is obtained. This dash-line curve shows In designing variable-speed electric drives, we
that the machine now operates as a motor in quadrant try to vary the speed and torque in a smooth, contin-
3, as a generator in quadrant 2, and as a brake in quad- uous way to satisfy the load requirements. This is
rant 4. Note that the machine can function either as a usually done by shifting the entire torque-speed
generator or brake in quadrants 2 and 4. On the other characteristic back and forth along the horizontal
hand, it always runs as a motor in quadrants I and 3. axis. For example, the torque-speed curve of the dc
To give another example, Fig. 20.38 shows the motor (Fig. 20.38) may be shifted back and forth by
complete torque-speed curve of a dc shunt motor varying the armature voltage. Similarly. we can shift
when the armature voltage is fixed. The motor- the curve of an induction motor by simultaneously
464 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

varying the voltage and frequency applied to the Varying the voltage and frequency in the same
stator. proportion has given rise to the "volts per hertz
To better understand the basic principles of vari- rule" of motor operation. By keeping the volts per
able speed control, we will first show how variable hertz at the same level while the frequency is var-
frequency affects the behavior of a squirrel-cage ied, we ensure that the flux in the motor is always
induction motor. close to its rated value. However. at frequencies be-
low about 20% of rated frequency, the volts per
20.19 Shape of the torque-speed hertz ratio has to be progressively increased to com-
pensate for the IR drop in the stator.
curve Fig. 20.39 shows the torque-speed curve of a 15 hp,
The torque-speed curve of a 3-phase squirrel-cage (II kW) 3-phase, 460 V, 60 Hz squirrel-cage induc-
induction motor depends upon the voltage and fre- tion motor. The full-load speed and torque are respec-
quency applied to the stator. We already know that tively 1725 r/min and 60 N·m; the breakdown torque
if the frequency is fixed, the torque varies as the is 160 N'm and the locked-rotor torque is 80 N·m.
square of the applied voltage. We also know that the If we reduce both the voltage and frequency to
synchronous speed depends on the frequency. The one-fourth their original value (\ 15 V and 15 Hz)'
question now arises. how is the torque-speed curve the new torque-speed curve is shifted toward the
affected when both the voltage and frequency are left. The curve retains the same shape, but crosses
varied? In practice, they are varied in the same pro- the axis at a synchronous speed of 180014 = 450
portion so as to maintain a constant tlux in the air r/min (Fig, 20040). Similarly, if we raise the voltage
gap. Thus, when the frequency is doubled, the sta- and frequency by 50 percent (690 V. 90 Hz), the
tor voltage is doubled. Under these conditions, the curve is shifted to the right and the new synchro-
shape of the torque-speed curve remains the same, nous speed is 2700r/min.
but its position along the speed axis shifts with the Even if we bring the frequency down to zero (de).
frequency. the torque-speed curve retains essentially the same

N·m
160
1 /'
1 V \
120
'i ... V
I-~O rated load
<Il
:::l ...... 1--'
c::r

I
- -0 1-1
;
I
40
I '{

\
r'" 60 N·m, 1725 r/min

I
2100 1800 1500 1200 900 600 300 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 3300 3600 3900
1\ r/min
-'"' f-speed
40
1
180
I
1
\
\
\
,/"
,.......-
_i--'
-
120
'j /'
1~0 \
\ /
/
C
I 2ho \. /

Figure 20.39
Torque-speed curve of a 15 hp, 460 V, 60 Hz, 3-phase squirrel-cage induction motor.
BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 465

N·m 115 V, 15 Hz 460 V, 60 Hz 690 V 90 Hz


),60
IJ /' IJ /' IJ
....... V
V
Q)
1~0
.j
'(
....... 1---'
V '(/V
....... H
'(
,
f.- ::J
0- l o ..... ~ ~ f.-
....-
~
-B !====r ll.. I- ~ \ 1\

1
40
j
, \
\
\
\
J

2100 1800 1500 1200 9 0 600 300 0 300 600 9 0 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 3300 3600 3900
I--I-- speed 1\ 1\ r/min
}O 1\ 1\ 1\
.....- ~ I- 1 ~l -
~O \ \
Jv . . .v
i \ \ V
V V
1~0
.i
V
/ V lL'
1~"- 1\ V 1\ V \ V
·r~ \ / \ / \ /
2bo \.. ./ I\. ./ I\. ./

Figure 20.40
Torque-speed curve at three different frequencies and voltages.

N·m
Because the shape of the torque-speed curve is
160
the same at all frequencies, it follows that the torque
developed by an induction motor is the same when-

BOC=O
I
ever the slip speed (in r/min) is the same.

Example 20-5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
A standard 3-phase, 10 hp, 575 V, 1750 r/min, 60 Hz
NEMA class 0 squirrel-cage induction motor de-
1200 600 600 1200 r/min velops a torque of liON· m at a speed of 1440 r/min.
-speed
If the motor is excited at a frequency of 25 Hz, cal-
culate the following:
a. The required voltage to maintain the same flux
in the machine
160 b. The new speed at a torque of 110 N·m
Solution
Figure 20.41 a. To keep the same flux, the voltage must be re-
Stator excited by dc current. duced in proportion to the frequency:

shape. Current can be circulated in any two lines of E = (25/60) X 575 = 240 V
the stator while leaving the third line open. The mo- b. The synchronous speed of the 4-pole, 60 Hz
tor develops a symmetrical braking torque that in- motor is obviously 1800 r/min. Consequently,
creases with increasing speed, reaching a maximum the slip speed at a torque of 110 N'm is .
in both directions, as shown in Fig. 20AI. In this fig-
ure, the dc current in the windings is adjusted to pro-
duce the rated breakdown torque. = 1800 - 1440 = 360 r/min
466 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

The slip speed is the same for the same torque, current-speed curve retains the same shape, no mat-
irrespective of the frequency. The synchronous ter what the synchronous speed happens to be.
speed at 25 Hz is Thus, as the synchronous speed is varied, the cur-
rent-speed curve shifts along the horizontal axis
ns (25/60) X 1800 = 750 rlmin with the minimum current following the synchro-
The new speed at 110 N·m is nous speed. In effect, the torque-speed and current-
speed curves move back and forth in unison as the
n = 750 360 = 390 rlmin frequency is varied.
Suppose, for example. that the voltage and fre-
quency are reduced by 75 percent to 115 V, 15 Hz.
20.20 Current-speed curves
The locked-rotor current decreases to 80 A, but the
The current-speed characteristic of an induction mo- corresponding torque 20.40) increases to 160
tor is a V-shaped curve having a minimum value at N·m. equal to the full breakdown torque. Thus, by
synchronous speed. The minimum current is equal to reducing the frequency, we obtain a larger torque
the magnetizing current needed to create the flux in with a smaller current (Fig. 20.43). This is one of
the machine. Because the stator flux is kept constant, the big advantages of frequency control. In effect.
the magnetizing current is the same at all speeds. we can gradually accelerate a motor and its load by
20.42 shows the current-speed curve of the progressively increasing the voltage and frequency.
15 hp, 460 V, 60 Hz squirrel-cage induction motor During the start-up period, the voltage and fre-
mentioned previously. We have plotted the effective quency can be varied automatically so that the mo-
values of current for all speeds; consequently, the tor develops close to its breakdown torque all the
current is always positive. The locked-rotor current way from zero to rated speed. This ensures a rapid
is 120 A and the corresponding torque is 80 N·m. acceleration at practically constant current.
As in the case of the torque-speed curve, it can In conclusion, an induction motor has excellent
be shown that if the stator flux is held constant, the characteristics under variable frequency conditions.

N·m
A
1FO
brake (60)", , , '. 1 J
- I I I
....c: 1..-.... T60 I I II_
j
I I I J r-
I

brake (15)""" I-- I--


r-- ~
::l
<.)

B (;'" ~o
2 ~
:"".
l - .1

-j ~~~~I(lJ)
::>
!--- 0-
J
ko ~o~orl~69)
I ~_

L'
.....-

.....
r--. --
.....
i"
\

\
i.-generator (15)

jf"
-I-""
i.-~enerator (60)

I
-

.. .- 40 '\v I
" I
I I 1\ / 115 V. 15 Hz \l\ /460 V, 60 Hz
I I
2100 1800 1500 1200 900 600 300 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 3300 3600 3900
450 1\ r/min
~o

: ,
rko
1~0
-r
peed \
i
\
1--.....
,.- .•.A- --L--
i

I /
I 1~0 i\ ./
-r i \ /
I 260 '\ /

Figure 20.42
Current-speed curve at 60 Hz and 15 Hz. Also T-n curve at 460 V, 60 Hz.
BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 467

The corresponding stator voltage is


N·m
A
E (111.7/60) X 460 = 8S6 V
C
2!
160 '-;60 The 60 Hz current-speed and torque-speed curves
:;
<.l
0> 120
\ (Fig. 20.42) show that the stator current is 40 A when
S ::r :;)
\ the torque is 100 N·m. Because the current-speed
'" e
~
\
80 \ curve shifts along with the torque-speed curve, tbe
\ current is again 40 A at 3200 rlmin and 100 N·m.
r r 40 \
00 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 r/min 20.21 Regenerative braking
-speed
A further advantage of frequency control is that it
Figure 20.43 permits regenerative braking. Referring to Fig.
The starting torque increases and the current de- 20.44, suppose the motor is connected to a 460 V, 60
creases with decreasing frequency. Hz line. It is running at 16S0 rlmin, driving a load of
constant torque TL 100 N'm (operating point 1). If
For a given frequency the speed changes very little we suddenly reduce the frequency and voltage by SO
with increasing load. In many ways, the torque- percent, the motor will immediately operate along
speed characteristic resembles that of a dc shunt the 30 Hz, 230 V torque-speed curve. Because the
motor with variable armature-voltage control. speed cannot change instantaneously (due to inertia),
we suddenly find ourselves at operating point 2 on .
Example 20-6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ the new torque-speed curve. The motor torque is neg-
Using the information revealed by the 60 Hz ative; consequently, the speed will drop very quickly.
torque-speed and current-speed curves of following the SO-percent curve until we reach torque
20.42, calculate the voltage and frequency required (operating point 4) The interesting feature is that
so that the machine will run at 3200 rlmin while de-
veloping a torque of 100 N·m. What is the corre-
N·m 230 V. 30 Hz 460 V. 60 Hz
sponding stator current?
lfO /.,.... Y ./ Y
Solution ,/'
'\ ,/'
'\
• tL
--
1ko
We first have to find the slip speed corresponding to ....-",,'1 ~ ~
-
0>' 100
v- ,"<
a torque of 100 N·m. r- ['==l80
~ \ Ii
According to Fig. 20.42, when the motor operates at
.. ~O \ \
60 Hz and a torque of 100 N·m, the speed is 1650 I \ \
I
r/min. Consequently, the slip speed is '3
600 300 0 300 600 1200 1500 1800 r/min
9~p 1\
fO - r-- f. speed \
1800 1650 ISOr/min \
koc \
The slip speed is the same when the motor develops //
,ko
100 N·m at 3200 r/min. Consequently, the synchro-
nous speed must be
T
1~0
C
i\
\
1'2X
1fT'
V
F
11, 3200 ISO 33S0 rlmin 2ho "- ./

The corresponding frequency is, therefore,


Figure 20.44
f (33S0/1800) X 60 111.7 Hz Effect of suddenly changing the stator frequency.
468 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

in moving along the curve from point 2 to point 3, en- 20-11 Referring to 20.39, calculate the me-
ergy is returned to the ac line, because the motor acts chanical power [hp] of the motor when it
as an asynchronous generator during this interval. runs at 450 rfmin.
The ability to develop a high torque from zero to 20-12 A standard 3-phase, 4-pole squirrel-cage
full speed, together with the economy of regenera- induction motor is rated at 208 V, 60 Hz.
tive braking, is the main reason why frequency- We want the motor to turn at a no-load
controlled induction motor drives are becoming so speed of about 225 rfmin while maintain-
popular. These electronically-controlled drives are ing the same flux in the air gap. Calculate
covered in Chapter 23. the required voltage and frequency to be
applied to the stator.
Questions and Problems
20-13 Referring to 20.42. what is the cur-
Practical level rent in the stator under the following
20-1 Name four types of circuit diagrams and conditions, knowing that the stator is en-
describe the purpose of each. ergized at 460 V, 60 Hz?
a. Machine running as a motor at 1650 rlmin
20-2 Without referring to the text, describe the
and developing a torque of 100 N·m
operation of the starter shown in
b. Machine running as a brake at 300 rlmin
20.16b, and state the use of each component. c. Machine driven as an asynchronous genera-
20-3 Give the symbols for a NO and a NC con- tor at a torque of 120 N'm
tact, and for a thermal relay. 20-14 State in which quadrants a machine operates
20-4 Identify all the components shown in a. As a brake
20.23a using the equipment list given in b. As a motor
c. As a generator
Table 20A. Where are contact T and coil
A situated physically? 20-15 A machine is turning clockwise in quad-
20-5 If the start and stop pushbuttons in Fig. rant 3. Does it develop a clockwise or
20.24a are pushed simultaneously, what counterclockwise torque?
will happen? Intermediate level
20-6 Referring to 20.14, if contact Ax in 20-16 A thermal relay having the tripping curve
parallel with the start pushbutton were re- given in 20.17 has to protect a 40 hp,
moved, what effect would it have on the 575 V, 3-phase, 720 r/min induction motor
operation of the starter? having a nominal current rating of 40 A. If
20-7 If a short -circuit occurs in motor M of Fig. the relay is set to 40 A, how long will it
20.14, which device will open the circuit? take to trip if the motor current is
a. 60 A?
20-8 A partial short-circuit between the turns of
b. 240 A?
the stator winding of motor M in Fig. 20.14
20-17 a. If the control circuit of Fig. 20.22 is used in
produces a 50% increase in the line current place of that shown in 20.14, show that
of one phase. Which device will shut down the motor will start and continue to run if
the motor? we momentarily press the start button.
20-9 Under what circumstances is reduced- b. Show that if we press the jog button, the
voltage starting required? motor only runs for as long as the button is
depressed.
20-10 Referring to Fig. 20.39, in which quad-
rants do the following torque-speed oper- 20-18 A magnetic contactor can make 3 mill;on
ating points occur? normal circuit interruptions before its con-
a. + 1650 r/min. 100 N'm tacts need to be replaced. If an operator
b. +3150r/min, - 100N'm the motor so that it starts and stops

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