JOIJRNAL OF ~EI)IM1.2NTAI¢~ I'E'rROLO(;\', \'~L. 44, No. 2, 1'.

484~501
Fits. 1-12, Jr:dE 1974
Copyright © I974, The Society of Economic t'aleontel0gistsand Mineralogists

THE CHARACTERISTICS AND ORIGINS OF

DISH AND PILLAR STRUCTURES 1

DONALD R. LOWE a s o ROBERT D. LoPICCOLO

I)epartment of Geology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803

ABSTRACT: Dish structure is defined by the presence of thin, subhorizontal, flat to concave-
upward, argillaceous laminations in siltstone and sandstone units. It is commonly associated
with vertical or nearly vertical cross-cutting columns and sheets of massive sand termed
pillars. Both form commonly in sediment ranging in grain size from coarse-grained siltstone
to coarse-grained, conglomeratic sandstone. In sedimentation units greater than about 0.5 m
thick, dish structure is faint and neither cuts across nor is cross-cut by other sedimentary
structures. In thinner units dish structures commonly cut across primary flat laminations,
climbing-ripple cross-laminations, and convolute laminations.
l)ish and pillar structures form during the consolidation of rapidly deposited, under-
consolidated or quick beds. During gradual compaction and dewatering, semi-permeable
laminations act as partial barriers to upward-moving fluidized sediment-water slurries,
forcing horizontaI flow beneath the laminations to points where continued vertical escape
is possible. As water seeps upward through the confining laminations, fine sediment, planar,
and low-density grains are filtered out and concentrated in the sediment pore spaces. The
resulting clay- and organic-enriclaed laminations are flat dishes that may be later deformed
by the upward pressure of flow around their margins and central subsidence as underlying
sediment and water escape. Pillars form during forceful, explosive water escape. It is
suggested that tbe shapes of dishes and pillars within an individual bed can be related to its
original water content, thickness, and grain size; to the rate and magnitude of dewatering
including consideration of water entering the bed from underlying consolidating sediments;
and to the types and distribution of earlier-formed sedimentary structures.
l)isb structures cannot be used directly to infer transport or depositional processes. \Vhere
dishes are associated with or cut across primary sedimentary structures, the latter indicate
deposition from currents.
The study indicates that coarse-grained terrigenous sediments often have prononneed and
complex consolidation histories. Many rapidly deposited beds undergo partial liquefaction
mad fhfidization during consolidatiou but retain sufficient strength to resist wholesale
downslope flowage in response to gravity.

i NTRODUCTION by specific suites or associations of sedimentary

Sedimentary structures are the sedimentol-
ogist's most valuable tools for deciphering the
processes and environments which have ef-
fected the formation of ancient sedimentary
deposits. It is critical, therefore, that the rela-
tionships between depositional processes and
the resulting sedimentary structures be well
understood, and that specific sedimentary en-
vironments be correlated with and recognized
'Manuscript received February 28, 1973; revised
October 16, 1973.
structures. For most structures, processes, and
environments, these relationships and correla-
tions are fairly well established.
D u r i n g the examination of flysch sequences
in western California, the southern Appala-
chians, and the Ouachita Mountains of south-
eastern Oklahoma, it became apparent to the
authors that dish structure ( W e n t w o r t h , 1966)
is widespread and abundant, particularly in
thick sand units where other genetically useful
structures are often lacking. In some sequences,
like the J a c k f o r k Group of the Ouachitas, it is

FIG. 1.--Dish structure. (a) Closely spaced, flat dishes formed by clay enrichment of primary flat
laminations in the lowest part (b subdivision of Bouma, 1962) of a flyseh sandstone bed; dishes locally
disrupted by small pillars (arrows). Jackfork Group, Oklahoma. (b) Large, gently to moderately concave
 D I S H AA'D P I L L A R 5~TRUCTURES 48S

dishes in coarse-grained lithie sandstone. Pigeon Point Formation (Cretaceous), California. (c) Fine-
grained dish-structured bed showing complex and extended consolidation history; oldest dishes (1) are
strongly concave, discontinuous, and have commonly been blurred by the upward flow of fluidized sediment
through associated pillars; later-formed dishes (2) are flatter, more continuous, and separated vertically
by sand showing well defined substructure--the dark dish lamination, an underlying zone of white clay-
poor sand, and an overlying zone of gray argillaceous sand. Beds showing this degree of complexity are rare
and suggest more than one period of water expulsion, possibly involving episodic movement through the bed
of water originating from consolidating underlying sands. Jackfork Group, Oklahoma. (d) Dish struc-
ture in plan view. Irregular, (lark patches are clay- and mica-lined depressions. Intervening light-colored
streaks are irregular fracture surfaces across upturned dish margins. Lighting from top. Atoka Forma-
tion, Oklahoma.
486 D. R. L O W E A N D R. D. L o P I C C O L O

Fro. 2.--Pillar structure. (a) Symmetric pillar, circular in plan, in flat-laminated and cross-laminated
sandstone. Dark laminations contain plant debris (coarser material) and argillaceous grains. Water ex-
pelled through pillar entered bed from underlying sediments. (b) Diffuse pillars (vertical black streaks)
disrupting dish-structured, organic-rich sandstone. Dark color results from finely divided carbonaceous
matter much of which entered bed entrained in water escaping from underlying sediments. Dishes, appear-
ing light colored, are zones of argillaceous but relativelv less organic-rich sandstone. Flow paths immediately
beneath dishes, like pillars, contain organic detritus. (c) Pillars of light-colored washed sand between the
upturned margins of strongly concave dishes. (d) Closely-spaced, sheet-like pillars of light-colored sand
cutting across dishes (arrows) and primary flat laminations (faint laminations between and parallel to
darker dish laminations). All samples from fine-grained sandstone, Jackfork Group, Oklahoma.
 DISH AND PILLAR STRUCTURES
FIG. &--Photomicrograph mosaic of dish lamina-
tion in fine-grained sandstone. Dish (vertical extent
shown by arrows) shows high content of inter-
granular clay and organic grains. Mica flake marks
base of dish below which is zone of clay- and or-
ganic-free, slightly coarser-grained sandstone repre-
senting top of flow path beneath dish. Jackfork
Group, Oklahoma.
probably the most common sedimentary struc-
ture present; yet its origin is unknown, and its
usefulness as an interpretive tool remains un-
evaluated.
Wentworth, who first recognized, named, and
described, dish structure (Wentworth, 1966,
1967), related its formation to the development
of antidunes during deposition from turbidity
currents. Stauffer (1965, 1967) attributed dish
structure to the disruption of originally flat
laminations produced during mass flow. H e
suggested that the disruption could be caused
by "inhomogeneous shearing just before the
moving mass 'jells,' internal load deformation,
localized water expulsion, or some combination
of these" (Stauffer, 1967, p. 493). Other in-
vestigators, while reporting occurrences of dish
structure, have left the problem of its formation
unresolved (Middleton, 1959; Hubert, 1969;
487
Chipping, 1969, 1972b; Kruit et al., 1972; and
others).
The purpose of the present paper is to provide
basic descriptions of dish and pillar structures
and to show that both originate during water
escape from rapidly deposited sands, regardless
of the mode of transport or deposition.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICSOF DISH AND
PILLAR STRUCTURES
Morphology
Dish Structure--Both Wentworth (1955, 1967)
and Stauffer (1965, 1967) observe that thick,
massive sandstone units within flysch and re-
lated deepwater sequences of western California
exhibit a distinctive sedimentary structure
which Wentworth named dish structure (Stauf-
fer, 1965, p. 52). As seen in cross-section, the
usual view in outcrop and hand specimen, dish
structures appear as thin, dark-colored, sub-
horizontal, fiat to concave-upward laminations
(Fig. 1). Individual dishes, here defined so as
not to include the intervening zones of lighter-
colored sand, range from clean sharp lines less
than 0.2 mm thick to diffuse zones up to 2 mm
thick, and in width from less than one to over
50 cm. They may be relatively continuous and
flat with widely spaced peaks (Fig. la) ; dis-
continuous, gently to strongly concave with
regularly or irregularly spaced, upward curving
edges (Fig. lb) ; or strongly curved with mar-
gins that extend vertically through from several
millimeters to many centimeters of over-lying
sediment (Fig. l c ) . Adjacent laminations may
share a common termination, forming a peak,
or be discontinuous and separated by up to
several centimeters of massive sand.
Well-developed parting planes which might
reveal dish structure in plan view are rare.
Where they do occur, splitting follows the
dark lamination. Seen from above, the up-
turned dish margins form a polygonal pattern
of ridges separating shallow concave depres-
sions (Fig. l d ) .
Pillar Structure: In many beds, circular col-
umns or sheet-like curtains of massive or
swirled sand, sometimes bounded sharply by
dark laminations, slice steeply through massive,
laminated, or cross-laminated sand or sand
showing dishes or convolute laminations (Fig.
2). These structures, named pillars or pillar
structures by Wentworth (1966, p. 133), range
in size from tiny vertical tubes no more than a
millimeter in diameter (Fig. 3) to massive
diapiric structures over a meter across and up
to several meters high. Pillars may occur in-
488 D. R. L O W E A N D R. D. L o P 1 C C O L O

dependently of dishes, cut across or be cross-cut

by dishes, or form between the upward-curving
margins of adjacent dishes.
One unusual form of pillar structure is illus-
trated in Figure 2d. In cross-section it is char-
acterized by numerous, regularly spaced, verti-
cal to sub-vertical, sub-parallel, light-colored,
clay- and organic-poor streaks which commonly
cut across primary laminations or dishes. The
streaks vary from straight to slightly irregular
and are generally confined to relatively thin
( < l t ) c m ) subdivisions of thicker sedimenta-
tion units. These structures are actually thin,
vertical curtains of clay-free sand which lens-
out in all directions. Similar features have
been interpreted as mierofaults by Klein, el aI.
(1972, Fig. 10e), but no offsets or other sup-
porting evidence for this interpretation have
1)een observed during the present study. It is
concluded that they are pillars and form like
other pillars as described later.

Texture
Dish structures have been observed in beds
ranging in grain size from coarse-grained silt-
stone to very coarse-grained granule- and
pebble-bearing sandstone. In general, smaller,
better defined dishes characterize finer-grained
sandstones and siltstones and larger, more
diffuse dishes occur in coarser-grained units
(Fig. lb). Dish-structured sediments range
from texturally and compositionally immature
sandstones (e.g., most upper Mesozoic and
lower Tertiary flysch units in western Cali-
fornia; Preeambrian Ocoee graywaekes of the
Southern Appalachians} to mature, quartzose
sandstones (e.g., Pennsylvanian Jackfork Group
of the Ouaehita Mountains). Dish structure
has never been reported from clay- and organic-
free rocks, however, and it will be argued
shortly that interstitial clay or organic matter
is requisite to its formation. Dishes have not
yet been reported from carbonate rocks.
Pillars may form in sediment of any size
from clay to coarse gravel, but occur most
commonly in sand or coarse-grained silt. They
have been observed by the authors in carbonate
units and can presumably form in sediment of
any composition.
The dark laminations which define dish
structure represent localized planar concentra-
tions of dark-colored interstitial clay, mica,
organic grains, and fine-grained quartz and
feldspar. In texturally and compositionally
mature sediments, the dishes are typically sharp
and distinct within the surrounding light-
colored sand (Fig. lc). In immature sediments
Fro. 4.--Photomicrograph mosaic of fine-gra/ned
dish-structured sandstone. Dark argillaceous dish
laminations (1 and 2) are cut by small vertical
pillar which terminates beneath next higher dish
(3). Cyclic microstructure of sand is well defined:
dark dish lamination (a); overlying zone of argil-
laceous sand (b); and zone of light-colored, clay-
poor sand beneath next higher dish (c). White bar
at upper right is 1.0 mm long. Jackfork Group,
Oklahoma.
dish structure is generally obscure at best in
hand specimen and unrecognizable in thin sec-
tion because the slightly higher clay-organic
content of the dishes is lost in a sea of inter-
stitial matrix and altering marie grains and
rock fragments (Fig. lb).
Wentworth (1967) notes that within the
sand separating individual dishes the "clay
content decreases and sand size increases up-
ward to a coarse, clay-free top." Stauffer
(1967, p. 493) likewise observes that "there
appears to be a slight increase in grain size
just above the dark line." In the present study,
two forms of grading have been observed within
the sand interval between successive dishes:
(1) size grading distinguished by an upward
 DISH A N D P I L L A R S T R U C T U R E S 489

Fro..;.--Dish structures cutting across other sedimentary structures. (a) Series of cllmbing-ripple cross-
laminations deformed near top into convolute laminations: anticlinal convolution containing plant debris
(1) and syncIinal convolution showing deformed, oversteepened cross-laminations (2). Dishes, broken locally
by small pillars, truncate and obliterate the earlier-{ormed structures and show maximum development near
the contacts of successive cross-sets, and below and adjacent to the anticlinal convolution. Still later-
formed larger pillar (3) cuts across several dishes. (b) Dishes cutting across steeply inclined convolute
laminations. Laminations show small offsets across dishes (1) and have been largely obliterated in zones
of light-colored, clay-poor sand beneath dishes (2). Two generations of dishes are apparent: zone of
light-colored sand beneath ohler dish (3) is truncated by later-formed, cross-cutting dish (4). Jackfork
(;roup, Oklahoma.

increase in mean sand grain size; this type of
grading is generally poorly developed and dis-
continuous, but commonly marked near the top
by a distinctly coarser-grained zone innnediately
below the suprajacent dish; and (2) content
grading involving a discontinuous upward de-
crease in the amount of interstitial clay and
organic matter and culminating in a clay- and
organic-free, well-sorted top immediately below
the suprajacent dish. These textural changes
are not evident or present in every dish or in
every dish-structured bed, but where well-de-
veloped they impart a distinct cyclic substruc-
ture to the rock; the dark-colored dish lamina-
tion, an overlying zone of gray somewhat
argillaceous sandstone, and an underlying zone
of relatively coarser-grained, clay-poor or clay-
free sandstone (Figs. lc and 4).
Associated Structures
~5"tructures Cross-cut by Dish Structures--Both
W e n t w o r t h (1966, 1967) and S t a u f f e r (1967)
describe dish structures as commonly occurring
with but not t r u n c a t i n g or disturbing primary
depositional structures. It was consistent with
their observations to interpret dish structure
itself as a primary structure. In the course of
the present study, dish structure has been seen
cutting across primary flat laminations, climb-
ing-ripple cross-laminations, and convolute lam-
inations (Fig. 5). Laminations of the earlier-
formed structures are best preserved in portions
of the bed where dishes are not developed and
in the argillaceous sand immediately above each
dish lamination, but have been blurred or de-
stroyed in the clean coarser sand immediately
below each dish (Fig. 5b). T h e cross-cut
laminations generally line up across the dishes,
but slight offsets are not uncommon (Fig. 5b).
In units where dishes are extensively developed
older structures have usually been completely
obliterated by the processes associated with
dish-structure formation.
Subdivisions of Dish-structured Beds In m a n y
beds greater t h a n about a meter thick, dish
structure occurs in a central zone overlain and
490 D. R. L O W E
• . . ~ COnvolutlbedding
_.~,~" ..,4._ /
~.L_~ ~_~ ..
~ climbing riOpfes, dither
~ f l a t Iominal,o~l
:(i:.:.:::
A
:i)l
g
FIG. &--Subdivisions of dish-structured sedimen-
tation units. (a) Thick (greater than 0.5 m) sand-
stone beds characteristic of upper Mesozoic and
lower Tertiary California flysch. (b) Thinner (less
than 0.5 m) sandstone units common in Carbonif-
erous Ouchita flyseh.
underlain by massive or nearly massive sand
(Wentworth, 1967). In other beds, dish struc-
tures occur between and within zones showing
a variety of other sedimentary structures. Went-
worth (1967) has detailed a regular sequence of
structural subdivisions exhibited by many dish-
structured units :
Typical sandstone beds containing dish structure
.... progress upward from a base of coarse,
structureless sand (interval a of Bouma, 1962)
through flat lamination, dish structure, and over-
lying flat lamination (b), to a top of very fine-
grained sand containing convolute lamination (e).
This sequence of structures (Fig. 6a) is char-
acteristic of thick, fine- to coarse-grained sand-
stone beds in upper Mesozoic and lower Tertiary
flysch sequences of western California. Within
these rocks, dish structure has not been re-
ported in beds less than 0.5 meter thick and is
rarely found in units less than 1 meter thick.
The basal massive zone generally makes-up
between one-fifth and one-third of the total
sedimentation unit; where coarse pebble- or
cobble-sized exotic clasts occur, they are gen-
erally confined to this lower subdivision and
thus impart an overall graded aspect to the bed.
The suprajacent flat-laminated subdivision is
generally thin and commonly absent. The flat
laminations are thin, even, and were apparently
deposited under upper flow regime plane bed
conditions. Dish structure typically appears a few
centimeters above the base of this flat-lami-
nated subdivision as a series of widely spaced
peaks on o t h e r w i s e " f l a t l a m i n a t i o n s . T h e
dishes become progressively narrower and more
A N D R. D. L o F I C C O L O
strongly concave upward. The upper third of
such beds generally shows flat (?) laminations
or cross-laminations which have been thrown
into convolutions. The authors have not seen
undeformed fiat laminations in this part of
dish-structured units, and the intensity of fold-
ing and faintness of the laminations would pre-
clude clear differentiation from strongly de-
formed cross-bedding. The senior author has
observed disturbed large-scale festoon cross-
bedding in this part of some beds. The upper
bed contact is typically sharp and overlain dis-
conformably by laminated or massive mudstone.
Anticlinal convolutions are almost everywhere
truncated along this bedding plane.
In the Ouachitas of southeastern Oklahoma
and southwestern Arkansas, most dish-struc-
tured sandstone beds are thin, between 6 cm and
1 meter thick, and fine-grained. Three struc-
tural subdivisions characterize these beds (Fig.
6b): (1) a basal subdivision with flat lami-
nations, (2) a middle subdivision with climbing-
ripple cross-laminations, and (3) an upper
subdivision with convolute laminations. Dish
structure may occur in any and is found com-
monly in all of these subdivisions, but is partic-
ularly characteristic of the middle subdivision.
The flat laminations of the lowest subdivision
are thin, even, and may be continuous over dis-
tances of a meter or more. The subdivision
varies in thickness from 0 to over 50 cm. Some
beds consist entirely of flat laminations, com-
monly reworked at the top by later currents to
form small-scale festoon cross-beds. The flat
laminations of this zone represent deposition
by high-velocity, upper flow regime currents.
Parting lineation has been observed on bedding
planes within this subdivision, supporting this
interpretation (Allen, 1964).
The overlying zone of climbing-ripple cross-
lamination is generally poorly preserved be-
cause of the post-depositional disruptive effects
of dish-structure and convolute lamination for-
mation. Where the cross-laminations are pre-
served, they climb at low angles, generally less
than 5 ° and are made up largely of lee side
laminations with only poorly developed stoss
side lamination (type A climbing-ripple cross-
lamination of Allen, 1970a). In most cross-sets
there is a concentration of plant debris on the
upper part of the foreset laminations. Climb-
ing-ripple cross-lamination has been shown by
Allen (1970a) to form under a wide range of
conditions from high flow velocity and high
deposition rate to low flow velocity and low
deposition rate. Allen (1970b) has suggested
that lower flow regime dune structures will not
 DISH AND PILLAR STRUCTURES
develop in fine-grained sands like those making
up most of the Ouachita Ilysch and that cross-
laminated sequences made up largely of type A
climbing-ripple cross-laminations might be ex-
pected to characterize relatively high energy
proximal environments (Allen, 1970a). It
seems likely, therefore, that the climbing-ripple
cross-laminations of the Ouachitas were de-
posited by relatively energetic currents of de-
creasing velocity which had passed through a
submerged hydraulic jump and were rapidly
depositing their excess sediment loads.
The top of the climbing-ripple subdivision is
rarely preserved in dish-structured beds because
of its obliteration dnring later convolute lami-
nation formation. In some beds as many as
three distinct generations of convolutions can
be recognized, sometimes in direct succession
and sometimes separated by zones showing dish
structures or undisturbed current structures,
notably flat laminations or climbing-ripple
cross-laminations. The following generaliza-
tions can be made regarding the morphology,
structure, and composition of these convolu-
tions.
(1) Where the internal structure of the
anticlinal cores can be seen, it usually consists
of deformed and over-steepened climbing-ripple
cross-laminations.
(2) Synclinal convolutions are typically
cross-laminated (Fig. 5a) ; the cross-laminations
often include several successive sets of cross-
strata each of which subsided into the synclinal
convolution as it grew and was progressively
deformed with subsidence. The deposition of
the synclinal cross-laminated sands appears re-
lated to the formation of separation bubbles in
the lees of adjacent anticlinal convolutions
growing simultaneously with deposition from
traction currents.
(3) The anticlinal cores and limbs are com-
monly areas of dish-structure development.
Fewer dishes occur in synclinal convolutions.
(4) in dish-structured beds showing more
than one generation of convolute bedding, the
older sets of convolutions are generally ex-
tensively cut by dishes while younger sets near
the upper bed contact may exhibit few or no
dishes.
The overlapping sedimentary structures within
Ouachita-type dish-structured units allow a
generalized developmental sequence to be in-
ferred: (a) upper flow regime flat laminations
are deposited first followed by climbing-ripple
cross-laminations as current velocity and capac-
ity decline; (b) convolute bedding evolves by
progressive deformation of climbing-ripples
491
during and after their deposition; (c) dish
structure forms in flat- and cross-laminated
deposits after their deposition; (d) dish struc-
ture develops within convolutions during the
latter stages of their growth and after growth
has ceased; and (e) large pillars form con-
currently with or after associated dishes.
Other Structures--Stauffer (1967, p. 195) notes
that the lower surfaces of dish-structured beds
. . . "are either flat and featureless, or marked
with unusual structures: frondescent marks,
drag or slide marks, and 'copy' sole marks."
The results of the present study tend to support
Stauffer's observations. Although rare flute-
casts and other scour features do occur locally,
the lower surfaces of dish-structured beds are
by and large flat.
Load structures are generally small or absent
where dish-structured sandstones rest directly
on mudstone. This may be due in part to the
lack of primary irregularities on the lower
surfaces of these sandstone beds from which
load pockets might have developed and in part
from the cohesive resistance of the underlying
mud to differential loading. Where sandstone
rests against sandstone, however, especially
where the stratigraphically higher unit is also
the coarser grained, pronounced loading may
occur and large flame structures evolved (Fig.
7). The presence of flame structures at sand-
stone-on-sandstone contacts indicates that the
lower unit was underconsolidated and quick
when the upper sand was deposited.
REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF DISH STRUCTURE
Dish structure was first described from
Upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary flysch
and flysch-related sequences in western and
southern California (Wentworth, 1966, 1967;
Stauffer, 1965, 1967). Subsequent investiga-
tions have outlined its widespread distribution
in sandstones of thc Upper Jurassic and Cre-
taceous Great Valley Sequence of western
California, a 15,000 to 20,000 m thick succession
of largely deep-water and transitional scdimcn-
ta W rocks, including probable submarine canyon
deposits (Ojakangas, 1968; Lowe, 1972a, 1972b;
Chipping, 1972b). It is also widespread in
regionally extensive middle and upper Eocene
deep-water basin sediments throughout western
and southern California (Stauffer, 1965, 1967;
Chipping, 1969, 1972a; Nilsen, oral communica-
tion, 1972).
Studies of other flysch sequences have re-
vealed the widespread occurrence of dish struc-
ture. It is perhaps the single most common
492 D. R. LOIVJE A N D
FIG. 7.--Large flame structure at contact between
medium-grained sandstone (lower, pitted surface)
and stratigraphically higher coarse-grained, dish-
structured sandstone. Such flames at sandstone-
sandstone contacts indicate that the lower sand was
quick when the upper bed was deposited. Pigeon
Point Formation (Cretaceous), California.
structure within sandstones of the J a c k f o r k
Group ( P e n n s y l v a n i a n ) in the Ouachita Moun-
tains of southeastern Oklahoma and south-
western Arkansas. W i t h i n the same region it
also occurs in the t t o t Springs Sandstone (Mis-
sissippian), the Stanley Group (Mississippian
and P e n n s y l v a n i a n ? ) , the Johns Valley Forma-
tion ( P e n n s y l v a n i a n ) , and the Atoka F o r m a t i o n
( P e n n s y l v a n i a n ) . Dish structure is reported
from lower Paleozoie flyseh of the n o r t h e r n
Appalachians (Middleton, 1969; Hubert, 1969;
t f u b e r t et al. 1970) and has been seen by the
authors in the upper P r e c a m b r i a n Ocoee Super-
group and the Mount Rogers Formation ( P r e -
cambrian) in the southern Appalachians. Kruit
et al. (1972) illustrate dish structures from
Eocene deep-sea fan deposits in n o r t h e r n Spain.
Corbett (1972, 1973) cites similar occurrences
from C a m b r i a n flysch in Tasmania. Occur-
rences from the Alpine flysch and deep-water
sequences in other areas undoubtedly exist, but
have yet to be described in the literature.
Although dish structure has been reported
largely from flyseh sequences, other occurrences
have been noted. Klein et al. (1972) describe
and illustrate dish structure from Cretaceous
R. D. 1 . o P I C C O L O
delta-front deposits in Brazil. An occurrence
within Miocene alluvial sediments in southern
California has been observed by Barrow (U. S.
Geological Survey, oral communication, 1972),
and the senior author has seen dish structure
in alluvial deposits of the Maroon Formation
( P e n n s y l v a n i a n ) of central Colorado. Other
occurrences have been noted by the authors
on the shallow marine Ignacio .Quartzite (Cam-
b r i a n ) and flysch-like quartzites in the Un-
compahgre Group ( P r e c a m b r i a n ) in the San
J u a n Mountains of southwestern Colorado. Ad-
ditional sightings from nonflysch sequences
will undoubtedly surface as investigators begin
to include dish structure within their repertoires
of familiar sedimentary structures.
ORIGINS OF DISH AND PILLAR STRUCTURES
General
W e n t w o r t h (1967) makes the following sug-
gestions regarding the origin of dish structure:
"Antldunes may produce simple dish structure
by alternate scour, and by breaking and deposition
in the troughs during aggrading suspension flow
in a turbidity current that has declined from
dispersion flow (after Bagnold) . . . Some char-
acteristics, possibly including clay distribution, may
result from sporadic water expulsion, related sedi-
ment flowage, and general dewatering of the bed."
S t a u f f e r (1967, p. 493--495) attributes its
formation to mass-flow processes:
"The origin of dish structure probably lies in
lamination produced during mass flow, either in-
ternally or by sheet-like accumulation, modified
and disrupted into dish shapes in the last stages of
movement. The agency of modification may be
inhomogeneous shearing just before the moving
mass 'jells,' internal load deformation, localized
water expulsion, or some combination of these.
• . . Rapid, more dispersed movement would tend
to entrap greater quantities of water than slow,
creep-like movement, and this trapped water may
be the essential factor in the formation of dish
structure."
Both W e n t w o r t h (1967) and S t a u f f e r (1967)
interpret dish structure as being primary in
origin, forming in direct response to processes
of sediment transport and deposition; upper
flow regime antidune migration in the f o r m e r
case, pseudolaminar mass-flow or grain-flow in
the latter. Both authors, however, allude to
the possible but unspecified role of dewatering
in modifying the primary structures. Based
on the apparently well-documented mass-flow
origin hypothesized by S t a u f f e r (1967), m a n y
subsequent investigators have used dish struc-
ture and associated features to i n f e r deposition
from mass-flows or grain-flows (Klein, et al.,
 D I S H A N D P I L L A R 5I'IRUCTURES
1972; Lowe, 1972b). Corbett (1972) suggests
that flat laminations produced by inhomogene-
ous mass-shearing of quick beds can acquire a
dish shape during the last stages of deforma-
tion and later water expulsion.
,,ks noted previously, cross-cutting relation-
ships between dishes and earlier-formed sedi-
mentary structures have been seen only in beds
less than 0.5 m thick. Wentworth (1967) re-
ports dish structure in beds averaging about
one meter thick; in Stanffer's study area, dish
structure was not observed in beds less than 4
m thick. Because an understanding of the re-
lationship between dish structures and earlier-
formed sedimentary structures is critical to the
analysis of dish structure origin, it is not sur-
prising that these authors could not provide an
unambiguous account of its formation.
The observation that dish structure commonly
cuts across both primary and early post-de-
positional sedimentary structures makes it ap-
parent that neither antidune migration nor
mass-flow phenomena offers a satisfactory
mechanism for explaining its formation. It
nmst be concluded that both dishes and pillars
are post-depositional structures formed largeIy
after current activity has ceased and not only
in beds of uncertain origin but also in units
deposited by normal traction currents within
both upper and lower flow regime.
PiUar Structure
There can be little doubt that pillars such
as those shown in Figure 2 represent vertical
fluid escape channels as proposed by Went-
worth (1966, p. 138-9). The streamlined shapes
of the pillars, their truncation of older struc-
tures, and the homogenized sand within the
pillars are best explained by the rapid upward
flow of water and sediment. Within most pillars
the sand is lighter colored, generally lacks finer
size grades, and contains less argillaceous,
micaceous, and organic grains than surrounding
undisturbed sediment. These features suggest
washing of the sediment by the escaping water
and elutriation of the finer quartz and feldspar,
planar, and low-density particles.
It is apparent that the formation of pillars
within a bed involves the localized breakdown
of a grain-supported sand framework. In co-
hesionless sediments rapid strength loss and
framework breakdown can be induced by two
main processes (Allen and Banks, 1972; Selley,
1969); fluidization in which the weight of in-
dividual sediment grains becomes partially or
entirely supported by the drag of upward-mov-
ing water (Soo, 1967) and liquefaction in which
493
loosely packed, metastable grains are shaken
loose from each other and briefly settle un-
supported through the pore fluid (Seed, I968).
Within pillars sediment is fluidized by the
upward rush of escaping water. This water
may originate either within the bed in which
the pillars form (Fig. 2e) or in underlying
sediments (Figs. 2a and b). The state of the
surrounding sediment during pillar formation
is unclear, but the presence of undisturbed
structures indicates that it is not fully fluidized.
Water moving through pillars which terminate
downward in a bed without extending to its
base must have originated in the surrounding
sediment. Vertical and horizontal water flow
toward pillars, especially at lower levels in the
bed, probably takes place in response to pore-
fluid pressure gradients set up in adjacent
sediment by abrupt pressure drops within the
pillars.
Pillars produced experimentally form by
localized explosive dewatering of undercon-
solidated sand beds. Massive, slightly under-
consolidated sediment was formed by rapidly
dumping sand into a water-filled plastic cylinder
and compaction initiated either by forcing water
through the sediment column from below and
thus partially fluidizing the sand or by lightly
tapping on the cylinder and inducing local
liquefaction. If the disturbance was halted as
soon as consolidation of the sand column had
started, complete liquefaction of the sediment
did not occur. Consolidation usually begins by
IocalJzed liquefaction and collapse of a small
irregular pocket of sand at or near the base
of the column. This collapse and re-deposition
of the sand in a more compacted state results
in the formation of an open, water- and liqui-
fled-sediment-filled cavity between the collapsed
partially consolidated sediment and the higher
unconsolidated sediment. The cavity so formed
is a site of intense fluid turbulence as a result
of water rushing upward into it from the com-
pacting sand. Continued progressive collapse
of the overlying unconsolidated sand is aided
by the erosive effects of this turbulence, and
the accumulation of the collapsed and eroded
sand at the cavity bottom results in the upward
migration of the cavity through the bed. The
sand deposited at the bottom of the cavity is
kept fluidized by water flowing into it from
the surrounding sediment and thence moving
upward through the cavity fill. The pillars
produced by this process of dewatering are
irregular columns or sheets of massive, homog-
enized sand representing the fillings of upward
moving cavities.
494 D. R. L O W E A N D R. D. L o P I C C O L O
The presence of horizontal impermeable or
semi-permeable laminations within the sediment
promotes the development of localized regions
of elevated pore-fluid pressure. In laboratory
experiments in which water was forced upward
through a vertical clyinder filled with under-
consolidated laminated sand, pressures were de-
veloped beneath argillaceous laminations suf-
ficient to lift the overlying sediment column
several centimeters on a layer of trapped water.
When the pressure difference across the con-
fining lamination reached some critical value,
local explosive breaching of the lamination oc-
curred, liquefied sand poured downward through
the break, the elevated column of sand began
to settle, and wholesale fluidization of the sand
above the break took place. Water continued
to flow through the fluidized sand until com-
paction and dewatering stopped. The pillars
produced in the zone of fluidization were dif-
fuse, ill-defined, and similar to those observed
at the tops of many dish-structured sand beds
(Figs. 2b and 11 ).
The causes of rapid sediment consolidation
in natural environments have been recently dis-
cussed by Seed (1968), Allen and Banks (1972),
and others. These studies have focused largely
on the formation of fully liquefied beds, but it
is apparent that partial liquefaction and fluidiza-
tion are important in many beds. The partial
breakdown of a grain-supported framework can
presumably be triggered by earthquake shocks as
discussed by Seed (1968) for cases of more
complete liquefaction. It appears likely, how-
ever, that it can also be initiated by localized
fluidization as water enters the bed from below.
The implied compaction and dewatering of un-
derlying beds can probably result from loading
stresses imposed by the later-deposited sand
beds themselves. In such cases pillars could
form simultaneously in several beds and flame
structures might develop through loading at
sand contacts where the higher bed was either
coarser grained or more densely packed than
the bed beneath it (Fig. 7).
Dish Structure
The consistent spatial association of dish
and pillar structures and mutual cross-cutting
relationships indicating penecontemporaneous
formation suggest that both originate during
the consolidation of quick or underconsolidated
sand beds. The results of the present study
point to three main controls on the formation
and characteristics of dish structures.
1. Sedimentary structures other than dishes
present and developing within a bed during
consolidation; dishes form where escaping pore
water is forced to flow horizontally beneath
semi-permeable laminations.
2. The rate of dewatering; dish structures
appear to form under conditions of slower local
dewatering than do pillars, and dish morphology
can be related in part to the flow velocity of
escaping water.
3. The amount of water discharged across
each horizon within a bed before consolidation
of the underlying sand ceases; this quantity
can be related to the original porosity of the
sand, its thickness, and the amount of water
entering the bed from subjacent strata, and it
influences local dish morphology and pillar
development.
Dishes are thought by the authors to form
when consolidation occurs relatively slowly and
where upward-moving water becomes trapped
beneath semi-permeable laminations, escaping
by leakage through and flow around rather
than by explosive disruption of the confining
laminations. In the absence of direct laboratory
observations of dish-structure formation, the
specific conditions and sequence of events
which lead to the formation of dishes within
an individual bed can only be inferred. Exam-
ination of a large number of dish-structured
units, however, ranging from those showing
only the first traces of dishes to those in which
dishes are present to the exclusion of other
structures, yields the following generalized,
qualitative picture of dish structure evolution.
The first stages of dish formation are ex-
emplified by (1) argillaceous "shadows" and
short dishes extending outward from localized
stratigraphic traps where semi-permeable lam-
inations cap underlying sand pockets (Fig. 8)
and (2) weak zones of secondary clay enrich-
ment along pre-existing semi-permeable lamina-
tions (Fig. 9). We would suggest that semi-
permeable, generally argillaceous laminations
are requisite to the formation of dish structure.
During consolidation they act as local barriers,
retarding upward water flow and trapping
fluid in the sand beneath them (Fig. 9a). Water
escapes from such zones of entrapment by (a)
seepage through the confining laminations where
they are thin, discontinuous, or of low clay
content, (b) explosive breaching of the con-
fining laminations, and (c) horizontal flow
beneath the laminations to points where con-
tinued vertical escape is possible. In the last
two cases paths develop within which flow is
localized, most likely as the turbulent movement
of a fluidized sand-water slurry. Where they
cut across the confining laminations, the flow
 DISH AND PILLAR STRUCTURES 495

formed (Fig. 9d). A similar seal cannot de-

velop along the lower flow path boundary be-
cause the upward seepage of water through
underlying sediment and into the flow back-
flushes the lower wall, preventing the forma-
tion of a well-defined solid boundary and
returning to the main flow mica, clay, and
organic material that might have settled out.
This process of horizontal water escape com-
bined with seepage through the upper flow path
boundary results in the formation of three tex-
tural and compositional zones: (1) a dark
lamination or dish representing the clay seal
at the top of each horizontal or sub-horizontal
flow path; (2) a layer of coarser, white, clay-
and organic-free sand below the dish represent-
ing the flow path itself; and (3) a zone of
gray sand immediately above the dish represent-
ing partially fluidized but incompletely washed
bed material.
Layers enriched in clay and organic grains
can also form along the steeply inclined to
vertical boundaries of upturned dish margins
and pillars. If the pressure of escaping water
Fic. &--Dish structures adjacent to plant-rich is sufficient to force seepage outward through
core of anticlinal convolution; well-formed dishes flow path walls, the adjacent sand will filter
(1) and incompletely formed dishes represented by out finer detritus, clay, and organic grains and
dark (argillaceous)- light (clay-poor) shadow pairs an argillaceous layer will develop at the flow
(2). Jackfork Group, Oklahoma.
path boundaries. The absence of argillaceous
laminations along pillar walls would suggest
paths are vertical and appear either as well- that fluid pressures within the pillar and sur-
defined pillars within which flow is restricted rounding sand were approximately balanced or
or as diffuse pillars where the flow disperses that fluid was moving from the surrounding
over a wider zone. Flow is horizontal where sand into the pillar.
the escaping water cannot breach the confining Relatively broad paths of fluid escape up to
laminations or where it rises beneath a dead- several centimeters wide form locally beneath
water pocket within a zone of closure, such as or between inclined semi-permeable laminations
an anticlinal convolution (Fig. 9b). (Fig. 10). Such paths may occupy entire
Within active flow paths the finer grains, climbing-ripple foreset units or the cores and
planar particles such as clay and mica, and low Iimbs of anticlinal convolutions. Original lam-
density organic grains are carried preferentially inations within these flow paths may be pre-
in the escaping slurry. Because of water seep- served essentially intact. Dishes commonly
age through the semi-permeable laminations cross-cutting or adjacent to these flow paths
marking the upper boundary of each horizontal suggest blockage of the escape routes with
and sub-horizontal flow path, some of these associated horizontal flow to areas where verti-
grains, especially clay, are filtered out and be- cal escape can resume. The presence of pillars
come trapped within the pores of the overlying along the upper boundary indicates the de-
sand (Fig. 9e). This zone of clay deposition velopment of local pressure differences suf-
will be weak at first and spread through as ficient to breach the confining laminations
much as several millimeters of sand. In gen- (Fig. 10).
eral, the coarser the sediment, the thicker the Once dish structures have started to form,
initial zone of clay enrichment. As more and other dishes can develop immediately above
more fine detritus becomes trapped, pore space the vertical flow paths between adjacent dishes
is reduced, filtering becomes increasingly ef- by the deposition of sediment as the escaping
ficient, and the zone of deposition becomes water disperses and its velocity decreases. The
thinner and localized at the flow path bound- initial deposit may eonsist of a small zone of
ary. Ultimately an effective clay seal is clay enrichment along a primary lamination ira-
496 D. R. L O W E A N D R. D. L o P I C C O L O

a b

• /

\P
C d

Fu~. 9. Evolution of dish structure in and adjacent to small anticlinal convolution. (a) Anticlinal con-
volutiou with concentration of plant and argillaceous debris and upcurrent synclinal convolution showing
deformed cross-laminations. Early dewatering marked by upward seepage of water beneath plant- and
clay-rich zone and out breached crest of convolution. (b) Horizontal water flow beneath semi-permeable
cross-laminations at base of synelinal convolution and seepage upward through these laminations results in
their progressive enrichment in clay. Flow of water upward within synlinal convolution locally concentrates
clay in horizontal parts of deformed cross-laminations. Fluid pressure builds in anticlinal convolution because
of restricted opening at top; weak points in organic-rich zone are breached and water flows laterally out
of anticline core. (c) Zone of restricted flow develops beneath crest of anticlinal convolution. Most of ~luid
escapes by moving laterally within channels beneath this dead-water pocket to breaks in confining lamina-
tion but upward seepage to replenish water lost ~rom dead-water zone produces dishes along its base. Be-
yond breaks, dishes form as water flows outward and upward after escaping. Progressive clay enrichment
of primary laminations below anticlinal core continues. (d) and (e) Final stage of dish evolution. Jack-
fork Group, Oklahoma.
 DISH AND PILLAR STRUCTURES
Fro. 10.--Broad water-escape flow path within
limb of convolution. Upper boundary of flow path
marked by semi-permeable dark lamination (1),
lower boundary less well-defined at about (2).
l)ishes within flow path suggest periodic blockage
aml horizontal flow of trapped water. Pillar (3)
disrupting upper boundary lamination indicates local
relief of pressure of trapped water by explosive
breaching of confining lamination. Jackfork Group,
()khthoma.
mediately above the point of flow dispersal
(Fig. 11). As the escaping current splits and
flows around this new obstruction, the zone of
clay enrichment grows laterally by continued
clay deposition at its extremities. The result is
is a dish exhibiting breaks that are offset from
or out of phase with those in underlying dishes.
In advanced stages of dewatering, most
earlier-formed structures have been obliterated
by the disruptive effects of horizontal and verti-
cal water flow and dish and pillar development.
As older anisotropie elements are destroyed, the
dishes themselves become the principal barriers
to upward fluid movement and their distribu-
tion and size tend to become more regular. This
stage is observed mainly in thicker beds where
dewatering has occurred over a considerable
length of time and has involved the flushing
of relatively large amounts of water through
the bed.
Both Wentworth (1967) and Stauffer (1967)
note the general upward decrease in dish width
497
FIG. l l.--Flat dish laminations in fine-grained
sandstone. Unmodified primary flat laminations (1)
are faint; darker laminations are dishes formed by
progressive enrichment of primary laminations in
clay. Light colored sand beneath each dish marks
flow path of escaping water. Small pillars locally
cut across dishes (2). Immediately above these breaks,
other dishes have begun to form by local deposition
of clay along weak primary laminations (3). Jack-
fork Group, Oklahoma.
and increase in dish concavity within individual
sedimentation units. The vertical sequence of
dish morphologies usually begins with broad,
flat dishes in the lower part of a bed. Upward,
the dishes become narrower and more strongly
concave, and pillars are developed between the
upturned dish margins (Fig. 12). The upper-
most several centimeters of sediment has often
been so extensively disturbed that no discrete
identifiable structures remain. W e would sug-
gest that this sequence of structures can be
related to the rate of consolidation, the distribu-
tion of earlier-formed sedimentary structures,
and the total amount of water discharged across
each horizon within the bed before compaction
of the underlying sand stops. Near the base of
a sedimentation unit, relatively little water must
pass across each horizon before dewatering and
consolidation of the underlying sand ceases.
Slightly argillaceous, semi-permeable flat Iam-
inations, common in the lower parts of tur-
bidites, act as barriers and slow fluid escape,
their impermeability increasing as their clay
498 D. R. L O W E .4ND R. D. LoPICCOLO

FIG. 12.--Vertical sequence of dish and pillar structures within fine-grained sedimentation units. (a)
Example of control exercised by earlier-formed structures on shape and distribution of dishes. In lower
half of bed, primary flat laminations have evolved into closely-spaced, broad, flat dishes. In upper part
of bed climbing-ripple cross-laminations show strongly concave dishes broken by frequent pillars. Top of bed
is completely mixed and no original structures are visible. (b) Dish and pillar sequence in bed showing
no earlier-formed structures. Lowest dishes are broad, flat, and punctuated by relatively few breaks.
Dish concavity increases upward and breaks become more frequent. Top third shows increasing develop-
ment of pillars culminating in uppermost zone of mixed, structureless sand. Several generations of dishes
suggested by presence of weak, discontinuous, blurred dish laminations between later-formed, darker, more
continuous dishes. Jackfork Group, Oklahoma.

content rises by the filtering of fines. The
breaching of these laminations at widely spaced
points is sufficient to allow complete dewater-
ing. The resulting structures are broad, flat
dishes (Fig. 12a). Both the rate and magnitude
of dewatering are greater at higher strati-
graphic levels where in turbidites cross-lamina-
tions and convolute bedding form partial bar-
riers to vertical water movement. Breaks in
the confining laminations or developing dishes
are more closely spaced at these levels and more
water moves through each break at higher
velocities than lower in the bed. The resulting
dishes are narrow, strongly concave, and sep-
arated by pillars, all reflecting the rapid upward
streaming of escaping fluid and sediment. At
some level within the upper part of the bed, the
upward pressure exerted by the escaping water
surpasses the effective weight of the overlying
sediment column. Wholesale sediment fluidiza-
tion and explosive dewatering above this hori-
zon is reflected by the presence of diffuse pillars
and mixed sand within this uppermost zone
(Fig. 12).
The thickness of this structure sequence
ranges from an observed minimum of 20 cm to
over 5 m. Many thick dish-structured units are
composites of several successive structure se-
quences. Whether such beds represent multiple
depositional events or some form of discontinu-
ous cyclic consolidation is unknown.
Differences in dish morphology between flat-
 DISH AND PILLAR STRUCTURES
laminated and cross-laminated sediments prob-
ably arise in part from their different strati-
graphic positions as described above, in part
from the greater ease with which vertical flow
paths form between already inclined cross-
laminations, and in part from the originally
higher porosity and greater dewatering of cross-
laminated sands. Even in beds showing little
evidence of violent dewatering, flat-laminated
zones show markedly fewer pillars than im-
mediately overlying cross-laminated sediments
(Fig. 12a).
Individual dishes appear to be flattest and
most continuous when first formed and to be-
come progressively deformed and breached by
vertical escape routes as consolidation continues.
Dish concavity probably results both from the
forceful pushing upward by the escaping water
of originally horizontal dish margins and from
subsidence of the central part of the dish as
underlying water and sediment are removed.
Some beds, particularly thicker ones in which
older structures have been completely destroyed
within the dish-structured intervals, show com-
plex cross-cutting dish relationships (Figs. lc,
5b, and 12 b). Typically, broad flat dishes
truncate earlier-formed, more strongly concave
dishes and pillars (Figs. lc and 12b). It is un-
certain whether such relationships evolve during
a single prolonged interval of consolidation or
whether several discrete episodes of dewatering
and dish formation are implied.
IMPLICATIONS 0F DISH STRUC'FURE
Environments of Deposition
The three depositional environments from
which dish structure has been reported are sub-
marine proximal continental rise, delta front,
and alluvial fan. Each represents an area
where rapid depositional bursts alternate with
intervals of reduced sedimentation. In each
environment, two important sites of rapid sedi-
mentation include: (1) channels at the base of
a regional slope where deposition occurs as a
consequence of velocity decrease: these slopes
include continental slopes, delta-front slopes,
and subaerial mountain slopes; and (2) levee
and overbank areas adjacent to channels as a
consequence of flow-dispersion and velocity
reduction as water leaves the confines of a
channel system. In the deltaic system, rapid
sedimentation also results from velocity reduc-
tions occurring as the moving river water
enters a body of standing water. Deposition in
this case might be more continuous than in other
systems but flood cyclicity, shifting channel
patterns, etc. also produce variable deposits.
499
The data from studied dish-structured units
is insufficient to permit precise correlation
between sediment properties and depositional
subenvironments. The general characteristics
of the overall rock sequence will often permit
recognition of the gross environment--e.g., con-
tinental rise, deltaic, or alluvial. Relatively
thick beds of massive, dish-structured sandstone
in flysch sequences, such as those observed by
Stauffer (1967), described from the Pigeon
Point Formation (Lowe, 1972b), and present in
many parts of the Great Valley sequence of
western California, probably represent channel
deposits. Relatively thinner sandstone beds,
such as those common in the Ouachita flysch,
interbedded with considerable amounts of mud-
stone and showing preserved primary and
secondary sedimentary structures other than
dishes, most likely represent episodic sedimenta-
tion near to but outside of channels. These
suggestions correlate well with the observations
made during the present study that thicker,
more massive dish-structured units often show
a basal massive interval and thinner beds show-
ing a greater variety of sedimentary structures
generally begin with a flat-laminated interval
and observations of Haner (1971) that Bouma's
A-interval of massive sand (Bouma, 1962) is
more common in fan-channel than in fan-sur-
face deposits, while the B-interval of flat lam-
ination is more frequently encountered as the
basal subdivision of sand beds in fan-surface
sediments. More detailed environmental dis-
crimination awaits further study.
Depositional Processes
Dish structure is inferred to be a secondary
sedimentary structure formed during the con-
solidation of quick beds of sand and silt. It
cannot, therefore, be used directly to deduce
the processes of sediment transport and deposi-
tion as suggested by Wentworth (1966, 1967)
and Stauffer (1965, 1967). Quick deposits can
apparently form by several means and in a wide
variety of sediments ranging in texture and
composition from the most mature to the most
immature and in grain size from silt to gravel.
In the absence of artesian waters, the forma-
tion of quick beds requires sufficiently rapid
deposition to prohibit grain adjustment to a
condition of stable packing and to permit at
least temporary preservation of an open, loose,
metastable grain framework. Such rapid de-
position can probably take place from sediment-
choked currents involving suspension as well
as bed load movement, and mass-flows. All
500 D. R. L O I FE A N D R. D. LoPICCOLO
dish-structured units examined during the pres-
ent study and exhibiting primary sedimentary
structures appear to have been deposited by
currents.
Thick, structureless relatively coarse-grained
sandstone units within flysch sequences have
provoked much speculation over high-energy,
deep-water sedimentation processes. Such beds,
including those termed fluxoturbidities by Dzu-
lynski et at. (1959), range up to several meters
in thickness, commonly include floating shale
ships and often pebble- or cobble-sized clasts
of exotic rock, and show little or no internal
structures or sole marks. In recent years, the
problem of their sedimentation has focused on
the relative roles of turbidity currents, dom-
inated by fluid ttlrbulence, and mass-flow, in
which grain-to-grain hiteractions predominate
(Stauffer, 1967; Middleton, 1967, 1969). Stauf-
fer (1965, 1967) related the origin of dish
structure to the process of grain-flow and
authors since have utilized the presence of dish
structure to infer a grain-flow origin for so-
called fluxoturbidites and related units. The
present study indicates that dish structure can-
not be used to distinguish between grain flows
or sand flows and other less exotic processes
of deposition.
Sediment Diagenesis
It is apparent that many sand beds in flysch,
alluvial, and deltaic environments experience
major compaction effects and record complex
consolidation histories. The often repeated
maxim that coarse-grained terrigenous sedi-
ments undergo little compaction must be dis-
carded and careful geological study be made of
sand consolidation. It has been shown that beds
undergoing exteusive consolidation histories can
be modified by the redistribution of textural and
compositional elements, the enhancement or deg-
radation of primary sedimentary structures,
and the formation of entirely new secondary
structures. It is thus critical that sedimentologi-
eal interpretations based on structural and tex-
tural data of sand beds consider carefully the
degree to which original features have been
modified during consolidation.
The consolidation of nlany if not most under-
consolidated beds might take place over rela-
tively long intervals of time and involve largely
progressive inhomogeneous fluidization rather
than instantaneous wholesale liquefaction as
discussed by Allen and Banks (1972), Seed
(1968), and others. Moreover, the consolida-
dation histories of such beds are often com-
plexed by the influence of waters introduced
from below as underlying sediments consolidate.
'The preservation of primary flat- and cross-
laminations in dish-structured beds indicates
that during consolidation the sediment retained
sufficient strength to resist large-scale post-
depositional downslope movement under gravity.
Other heds, especially thick units showing few
or no structures except dishes, may have suf-
fered post-depositional flowage.
CO N CL U SI O N S
The results of the present studies may be
summarized as follows:
( I ) both dish and pillar structures are post-
depositional structures formed during the com-
paction and dewatering of underconsolidated or
quick beds of silt, sand, or fine gravel;
(2) pillars form during compaction by the
explosive escape of water along vertical or sub-
vertical, columnar or planar flow paths;
(3) dish structure originates during the
gradual dewatering of quick beds and involves
a complex interaction of the escaping water,
sediment, and sedimentary structures existing
or forming concurrently in the quick bed;
(4) dishes evolve as escaping water is forced
to follow horizontal flow paths beneath semi-
permeable laminations or dead-water trapped in
regions of closure beneath semi-permeable lam-
inations. They are composed of clay, mica, fine-
grained detritus, and organic particles filtered
out of the flow by the slow seepage of water
across the upper flow-path boundary;
(5) dishes and pillars can form in any sedi-
mentary environment where deposition takes
place sufficiently rapidly to permit the develop-
ment of quick sand beds ;
(6) neither dish nor pillar structures can be
used to deduce the processes of transport or
deposition of the sand beds that contain them;
all beds examined in the course of the present
study which exhibited both dishes and other
structures appear to have been deposited hy
currents ;
(7) many saud beds experience major de-
watering modification of primary and early
diagenetic textnres and structures: careful sed-
imentological analysis requires that consolida-
tion effects be recognized and distinguished
from those produced by other processes.
REFERENCES
ALLEN, ..f.R.L., 1964, Primary current llneatlon in
the Lower Old Red Sandstone (Devonian),
Anglo-~Velch Basin: Sedimentology, v. 3, p.
89-108.
 DISH AND PILLAR
, 1970a, A quantitative model of climbing
ripples and their cross-laminated deposits: Sed-
imentology, v. 14, p. 5-26.
, 1970b, The sequence of sedimentary struc-
tures in turbidites, with special reference to
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