Nozzle Pressure Distribution Report

BEng Mechanical Engineering Year 4

Fluids 2: B50EL
Heriot Watt University, Dubai
1 CONTRIBUTION
2 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Contribution ................................................................................................................................................ 2
3 Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ 4
4 Introduction ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5 Theory ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.1 Nomenclature ..................................................................................................................................... 7
5.2 Derivations .......................................................................................................................................... 8
5.3 Sample Calculations......................................................................................................................... 12
6 Experimental Apparatus.......................................................................................................................... 13
7 Procedure ................................................................................................................................................... 14
8 Results ........................................................................................................................................................ 14
9 Discussion .................................................................................................................................................. 14
9.1 Comparison between theory and experiment ............................................................................ 14
10 Error Analysis ............................................................................................................................................ 15
11 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................. 15
3 ABSTRACT

4 INTRODUCTION
Compressible flow has been and still is one of the most significant areas of study. In compressible
flows, the variation of fluid density is considered. On the other hand, the fluid is assumed to have a
constant density in incompressible flow. Even though most real conditions experience little to no
variation in density, it cannot be overlooked in the investigation of compressible flows. A fluid is
believed to be compressible (high speed) when it has a Mach number higher than 0.3 because velocity
and pressure changes grow only beyond this point, hence anything with a Mach number less than 0.3
is reasonably assumed to be an incompressible flow (low speed) [1].
Gustaf de Laval (1845 – 1913), was an engineer and an inventor who made numerous significant
contributions to the designs of both the steam turbines and dairy. In 1890, Laval developed a nozzle
that was used to increase the speed of steam from a subsonic flow to a supersonic flow. The nozzle is
now referred to as the de Laval nozzle (or convergent - divergent nozzle, CD nozzle or con-di nozzle)
[2]. A de Laval nozzle is a tube that is compressed from the middle, giving it an hourglass shape. It is
commonly used in a few types of steam turbines and rocket engine nozzles since it accelerates a
pressurized gas traveling through it to a supersonic speed by converting the heat energy in the flow
to kinetic energy [3]. Since the purpose of the de Laval nozzle is to increase the flow of any gas from
subsonic to supersonic, a large pressure gradient is necessary to accelerate the fluid. This causes the
density of the gas to go through substantial changes due to the huge pressure variations [1].

Convergent Section Divergent Section

Low velocity Subsonic Supersonic

High velocity

Throat

Figure 1: Representation of a de Laval nozzle.

Figure 1 shows how the speed of any gas (i.e.: air) moving at a low velocity (subsonic) increases as it
flows in the convergent section, this occurs due to the constant mass flow rate in the nozzle. The gas
flowing through the nozzle is assumed to be isentropic. In a subsonic flow, the gas is compressible
which means that sound waves are able to communicate and relay accurate information on how the
gas flow must behave. At the throat, where the cross-section area is the smallest, the local velocity
becomes sonic (Ma = 1). This condition is referred to as choking the flow. Choking is a fluid dynamic
condition related to the Venturi effect, the Venturi effect is defined as a reduction in fluid pressure
which results when a fluid flows through a constricted section of a pipe. It was named after Giovanni
Battista Venturi, an Italian physicist. The choking effect is usually not very important since it does
not change the mass flow rate. However, for this experiment it is extremely important since the
purpose of this experiment is to understand how high-speed flows work. It would also be very
important if the purpose of the nozzle was to accelerate the flow out of a jet engine or a rocket to
create propulsion [4].

As the flow accelerates and undergoes significant changes in its properties, the flow downstream
becomes well informed about future changes and therefore adjusts itself to handle these changes in
an effective and gradual manner. This is easily achievable in subsonic flow as it is slower than
pressure waves which move at the speed of sound. Although this is the case, the pressure waves are
at the same speed of the flow in the sonic and supersonic flows. Therefore, a sudden shock occurs in
the divergent section when the flow is supersonic. This phenomenon of rapid change is termed as a
shockwave. Shockwaves are tremendously thin regions over which flow properties change. A
shockwave is a type of propagating disturbance that occurs when a wave moves faster than the
local speed of sound in a fluid. It is in the diverging section of the nozzle that sound waves will stop
relaying information and Mach number obtains a value of more than 1 [4].

There are two types of shockwaves:

1. Normal: Perpendicular to the flow travelling (90 degrees to the flow).
2. Oblique: Inclined at an angle that is more than 90 degrees with respect to the incident
upstream flow direction.

Shockwaves presence is usually not desirable, but there are circumstances where generating
shockwaves are needed and therefore designed. Causing a boundary layer separation in transonic
applications is an example where this is needed. Another application where shockwaves are needed
would be a recent development at Michigan State University (The Wave Disk Engine), where the
engine compresses air and fuel by using these generated shockwaves to increase its efficiency [1].

5 THEORY
The benefit of this experiment is to introduce and study the effect of compressing fluid movements.
This is done by investigating how pressure varies across different locations in the nozzle and
comparing it to the mass flow rates obtained. The de Laval nozzle enables the experimental subsonic,
choked and supersonic flows to be analysed and then compared with the theoretical flows
respectively. The Convergent section in the de Laval nozzle is mainly used to study only the subsonic
flow ranges while the divergent section is used when the flow is supersonic. Hence, why de Laval
nozzle is used for this experiment to study high velocity profiles. As the fluid passes in the nozzle, it
converges then diverges. This nozzle is also used in this experiment to attain results that are
dependent on the pressure ratios between the inlet and outlet. As pressure ratio decreases, a higher
flow rate is observed to take place and continues till a maximum flow rate and a supersonic flow are
detected. Once supersonic speeds have been detected, shockwaves emerge. This disturbs the smooth
flow of the streamlines. Subsonic, choked, and supersonic flows are investigated in this experiment.
An explanation for each flow type is further presented in the following sub-sections:
5.1 SUBSONIC FLOW

Figure 2: Mach number flow regimes [6]

Figure 2 shows that subsonic flow is known to exhibit a velocity that is less than that of sound. Sound
has a speed of Mach 1, this indicates that a subsonic flow must have a Mach number which is less than
1. Mach numbers ranging between 0 – 0.3 are interpreted as incompressible, while Mach numbers
ranging between 0.3 – 0.8 are regarded as subsonic. The flow then becomes transonic for Mach
numbers ranging between 0.8 – 1. In subsonic flow, no shockwaves occur due to the flow being slower
than the speed of sound and sound waves being able to relay information at a much faster pace than
in supersonic flow [1].

5.2 CHOKED FLOW

Choking
Point

Figure 3: Choking the flow using a de Laval nozzle [7]

Choked flow is mainly defined as the loss of pressure in a specific fluid over a given area. This occurs
in the throat where the mass flow is restricted because of the massive decrease in the area from the
convergent section to the throat. As the compressible fluid reaches the speed of sound (Mach 1),
sound waves can no longer be relayed in the upstream since the speed at which pressure changes are
generated is restricted by the speed of sound. Establishing a choking effect in the flow is indicated by
the point at which the ratio of the minimum fluid pressure (P min) to inlet pressure (Pin) drops below
the critical pressure ratio in the fluid [5].
5.3 SUPERSONIC FLOW
Supersonic flows occur when Mach numbers are over 1. This starts to be significant in the de Laval
nozzle after the throat. When the downstream pressure is reduced in a choking flow the mass flow
rate will not increase, but it will however end up increasing the velocity of that fluid after the throat.
Due to this occurrence, further drops in downstream pressure will cause the fluid to accelerate away
from the throat. In some cases, this acceleration results in supersonic speeds of Mach >1. Depending
on the outlet nozzle function and design, shock waves may form as the fluid exits the throat and
becomes supersonic [5].

5.4 NOMENCLATURE

Symbol Parameter Unit

𝑚̇ Mass Flow Rate kg/s

𝑣 Specific Volume m3/kg

𝑎 Speed of Sound m/s

𝜌 Density kg/m3

𝑀𝑎 Mach Number -

𝑅 Gas Constant J/kgK

𝑇 Temperature K

𝑢 Air Speed m/s

𝛾 Ratio of Specific Heats -

𝐴 Area m2

𝑇𝑜 Stagnation Temperature K

𝑝 Pressure bar

𝑝𝑜 Stagnation Pressure bar

𝑣𝑜 Stagnation Specific Volume m3/kg

𝑟𝑝 Pressure Ratio -
5.5 DERIVATIONS
5.5.1 Mass Flow Rate
From the continuity equation,
𝑢𝐴
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑢𝐴 =
𝑣

Mach number is the ratio between the speed of the fluid and the relative speed of sound.
𝑢
𝑀𝑎 =
𝑎
Where,

𝑎 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇

Therefore,

𝑢 = 𝑀𝑎√𝛾𝑅𝑇

Substituting equation 2 in equation 1,

𝐴
𝑚̇ = 𝑀𝑎√𝛾𝑅𝑇
𝑣
From isentropic relations,
𝑇𝑜 𝛾−1
=1+ 𝑀𝑎2
𝑇 2
Isolating Mach number,

2 𝑇𝑜
𝑀𝑎 = √( ) ( − 1)
𝛾−1 𝑇

Substituting equation 4 in equation 3,

𝐴 2 𝑇𝑜
𝑚̇ = √( ) (𝛾𝑅𝑇) ( − 1)
𝑣 𝛾−1 𝑇

From ideal gas relations,

𝛾
𝑝𝑣 𝛾 = 𝑝𝑜 𝑣𝑜
Rearranging this,
𝑝𝑜 𝑣 𝛾
=( )
𝑝 𝑣𝑜
From the ideal gas law,
𝛾
𝑝𝑜 𝑇𝑜 𝛾−1
=( )
𝑝 𝑇
Therefore,
 𝛾−1
𝑇𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝛾
=( )
𝑇 𝑝

Substituting equation 6 in equation 5,

𝛾−1
𝐴 2 𝑝𝑜 𝛾
𝑚̇ = √( ) (𝛾𝑅𝑇) (( ) − 1)
𝑣 𝛾−1 𝑝

From perfect gas relations,

𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
Hence,
𝑝
= 𝑅𝑇
𝜌
Substituting equation 8 in equation 7,

𝛾−1
𝐴 2𝛾 𝑝 𝑝𝑜 𝛾
𝑚̇ = √( ) ( ) (( ) − 1)
𝑣 𝛾−1 𝜌 𝑝

Since,
1
𝜌=
𝑣

𝛾−1
𝐴 2𝛾 𝑝𝑜 𝛾
𝑚̇ = √( ) (𝑝𝑣) (( ) − 1)
𝑣 𝛾−1 𝑝

Multiplying and dividing equation 10 inside and outside the root by 𝑣𝑜

𝛾−1
𝐴 𝑣𝑜 2𝛾 𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝛾
𝑚̇ = × √( ) (𝑝𝑣 × ) (( ) − 1)
𝑣 𝑣𝑜 𝛾 − 1 𝑣𝑜 𝑝

𝛾−1
𝐴 𝑣𝑜 2𝛾 𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝛾
𝑚̇ = × √( ) (𝑝𝑣 × ) (( ) − 1)
𝑣𝑜 𝑣 𝛾−1 𝑣𝑜 𝑝

𝛾−1
𝐴 𝑣𝑜 2𝛾 𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝛾
𝑚̇ = × √( ) (𝑝𝑣 × ) (( ) − 1)
𝑣𝑜 𝑣 𝛾−1 𝑣𝑜 𝑝

1 𝛾−1
𝐴 𝑝 𝛾 2𝛾𝑣𝑜 𝑣 𝑝𝑜 𝛾
𝑚̇ = × ( ) √( ) (𝑝 × ) (( ) − 1)
𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝛾−1 𝑣𝑜 𝑝
 1 1 𝛾−1
𝐴 𝑝 𝛾 2𝛾𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝛾 𝑝𝑜 𝛾
𝑚̇ = × ( ) √( ) (𝑝 × ( ) ) (( ) − 1)
𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝛾−1 𝑝 𝑝

Multiplying and dividing equation 11 inside by 𝑝𝑜

1 1 𝛾−1
𝐴 𝑝 𝛾 2𝛾𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝑝𝑜 𝛾 𝑝𝑜 𝛾
𝑚̇ = × ( ) √( ) ( × ( ) ) (( ) − 1)
𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝛾−1 𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝑝

Keeping only A outside the root,

2 1 𝛾−1
2𝛾𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝𝑜 𝛾 𝑝𝑜 𝛾
𝑚̇ = 𝐴√ ( × ( ) × ( ) ) (( ) − 1)
(𝛾 − 1)𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝑝

2 1 𝛾−1
2𝛾𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝 −𝛾 𝑝𝑜 𝛾
𝑚̇ = 𝐴√ ( × ( ) × ( ) ) (( ) − 1)
(𝛾 − 1)𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝

1 𝛾−1
2𝛾𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝𝑜 𝛾
𝑚̇ = 𝐴√ ( × ( ) ) (( ) − 1)
(𝛾 − 1)𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝

1 𝛾−1
2𝛾𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝𝑜 −1 𝑝𝑜 𝛾
𝑚̇ = 𝐴√ ( ) × ( ) × (( ) − 1)
(𝛾 − 1)𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝑝

1 𝛾−1
2𝛾𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝𝑜 −1+ 𝛾 𝑝𝑜 −1
𝑚̇ = 𝐴√ ( ) × (( ) −( ) )
(𝛾 − 1)𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝑝

1 𝛾−1
2𝛾𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝𝑜 −1+ 𝛾 𝑝𝑜 −1
𝑚̇ = 𝐴√ ( ) × (( ) −( ) )
(𝛾 − 1)𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝑝

1 1
2𝛾𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝𝑜 −𝛾 𝑝𝑜 −1
𝑚̇ = 𝐴√ ( ) × (( ) − ( ) )
(𝛾 − 1)𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝑝

1 1
2𝛾𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝
𝑚̇ = 𝐴√ ( ) × (( ) − ( ))
(𝛾 − 1)𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑜

Taking out common terms,

 1 1 1
2𝛾𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝 −𝛾 𝑝
𝑚̇ = 𝐴√ ( ) × ( ) (1 − ( ) ( ))
(𝛾 − 1)𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑜

1 1 1
2𝛾𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝 −𝛾+1
𝑚̇ = 𝐴√ ( ) × ( ) (1 − ( ) )
(𝛾 − 1)𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑜

2 𝛾−1
2𝛾𝑝𝑜 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝 𝛾
𝑚̇ = 𝐴√ ( ) (1 − ( ) )
(𝛾 − 1)𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑜

Therefore,
1
1 1 𝛾−1 2
2𝛾𝑝𝑜 𝑝 2 𝑝 𝛾 𝛾
𝑚̇ = 𝐴 [ ] [ ] [1 − ( ) ]
(𝛾 − 1)𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑜
0.5
2𝛾𝑝𝑜 𝜌𝑜 0.5 1 𝛾−1
𝑚̇ = 𝐴 [ ] [𝑟𝑝 ]𝛾 [1 − (𝑟𝑝 ) 𝛾 ]
(𝛾 − 1)

5.5.2 Critical Mass Flux

For a known mass flow rate,

𝑀
𝑚=
𝐴

Where, m = Mass flux.

M = Mass flow rate.
A = Area.
Using the mass flow relationship and substituting the mass flow rate equation in it:
1
1 (γ−1) 2 1
2γ𝑃0 ⍴0 2 γ γ
𝑚=( ) ∗ ( 1 − 𝑟𝑝 ) ∗ 𝑟𝑝
(γ − 1)

Substituting,
1
𝑣0 =
⍴0
2 (γ+1)
2γ𝑃0
(𝑟𝑝γ
2 γ
𝑚 =( ) − 𝑟𝑝 )
(γ − 1)𝑣0

Applying Logarithms to the above equation:

 2 (γ+1)
2𝛾𝑃0 γ γ
2 ln 𝑚 = 𝑙𝑛 ( ) + 𝑙𝑛 (𝑟𝑝 − 𝑟𝑝 )
(γ − 1)𝑣0

Now, differentiate the above with respect to rp:

(2−γ) 1
2 𝑑𝑚 1 2 γ ( γ + 1) γ
× = 1 (γ+1)
( 𝑟𝑝 − 𝑟𝑝 )
𝑚 𝑑𝑟𝑝 𝛾 γ
γ γ
𝑟𝑝 − 𝑟𝑝

However, the maximum mass flux will occur when,

𝑑𝑚
=0
𝑑r𝑝
γ
2 (γ−1)
𝑟𝑝𝑐 = ( )
( γ + 1)
Now substituting the critical pressure ratio into the mass flux equation:

2 (γ+1)
2γ𝑃0 2 (γ−1) 2 (γ−1)
𝑚2𝑐 = (( ) −( ) )
(γ − 1)𝑣0 ( γ + 1) ( γ + 1)

(γ+1)
2γ𝑃0 2 (γ−1) (γ + 1)
→ 𝑚𝑐2 = ( ) [ − 1]
(γ − 1)𝑣0 (γ + 1) 2
(γ+1)
γ𝑃0 2 2(γ−1)
→ 𝑚𝑐 = √ ( )
𝑣0 (γ + 1)

Therefore,
(γ+1)
2 2(γ−1)
𝑚𝑐 = (γ𝑃0 ⍴0 )0.5 ( )
(γ + 1)

5.6 SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

6 EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS
The experimental apparatus consists of the Nozzle Pressure Distribution Study System which is
made up of the following components:
1. Compressed air connection with the valve at the bottom left corner.
2. Inlet pressure controller
3. A nozzle within which compressible flow is studied
4. A silencer
5. A mass flowmeter to measure the air flow rate
6. A hand wheel to control the air flow rate
7. Inlet and outlet pressure gauges
8. Inlet and outlet temperature displays
9. Eight pressure gauges connected to different locations in the nozzle
10. A master switch to turn on the system
11. Power Supply
7 PROCEDURE
1. To start this experiment, the compressed air line should be turned on.
2. The pressure regulator should be turned on. This will activate the temperature readings of
the inlet and outlet.
3. Switch the equipment on.
4. In order to get compressed air to the equipment, pull the handle on the bottom left corner.
Push it to let air in.
5. Fix the inlet pressure using the pressure controller knob.
6. Using the hand wheel on the bottom right hand corner, vary the air flow rate. As your turn
the knob, the air flow rate starts to increase and the pressure starts changing.
7. Record the inlet and outlet temperature and pressure as well as the pressure from all eight
gauges at each value of flow rate till choking condition is reached.
8. Repeat steps 6-7 for a new fixed inlet pressure value.
9. Once the experiment is completed, disconnect the supply of compressed air.
10. Switch off the main switch.

8 RESULTS

9 DISCUSSION

9.1 COMPARISON BETWEEN THEORY AND EXPERIMENT

10 ERROR ANALYSIS

11 CONCLUSION

12 REFERENCES