ANATOMY

EPITHELIUM AND LE1

GLANDS
Dr. Imelda D. Rivera, MD || 08/07/2017

AN

 Reproduction - sperm cells (testes) and granulosa cell

OUTLINE layer (ovarian follicle)
I. Introduction  Transport - serves as a way of transport of materials to the
A. Basic Types of Tissues different body parts
B. Characteristics of B. Cell-to-extracellular
Epithelium matrix adhesion II. SPECIALIZATIONS AND MODIFICATIONS
C. Functions of Epithelium a. Focal adhesion
II. Specializations and b.Hemidesmosome A. MODIFICATIONS OF THE APICAL BORDER
Modifications IV. Covering Epithelium
A. Apical Modifications Classifications Cilia
1. Microvilli V. Glandular Epithelium ● are fine, hair-like structures
2. Cilia Classifications ● microscopic
3. Stereocilia A. Based on path of ● elongated and highly-motile
4. Flagella release ● they are uniform in height
B. Lateral Modifications B. Base in number of cells ● are longer, and larger than microvilli
C. Basal Modifications C. Based on the shape of ● core protein: composed of microtubules
1. Basal lamina secretory proteins  Apical Surface: 9 doublets surrounding a central pair of
2. Basement D. Based on ductal microtubules
membrane system ▪ the complexes are connected by the radial spoke
III. Junctional Complexes / E. Based on mechanism ▪ each microtubule is composed of 13 protofilaments
Cell Junctions of product ▪ each doublet is named microtubule A and microtubule B
A. Cell-to-cell adhesion release/gland cell  microtubule A: has complete 13 protofilaments
1. Zonula occludens / participation
 microtubule B: incomplete; shares 3 of the 13
occluding or tight F. Based on type of
protofilaments of microtubule A
junction secretion
▪ dynein arms:
2. Anchoring junction VI. Histogenesis of
 proteins that are attached to microtubule A
3. Zonula adherence Epithelium
a. Desmosome  allows beating/swaying motion of cilia through the
4. Gap Junction use of ATP as the energy source
 e.g. propels mucus towards the oropharynx in the
respiratory system
I. INTRODUCTION  Basal Surface: 9 triplets and no central pair of microtubules
● Three Types of Cilia:
● Basic Types of Tissues
 Motile cilia: lines adult human body (e.g. respiratory
 Epithelium
system)
 Connective
 Primary cilia: lines sensory organs (e.g. Organ of Corti:
 Muscle sensitive element in the inner ear)
 Nervous  Nodal cilia: found in developing embryo that helps in the
● Characteristics of Epithelium
proper orientation of developing cells
 Avascular (No blood supply. Hence, nutrients and oxygen
are transported by diffusion.)
 Polarity
▪ Apical domain
 directed towards the exterior or lumen
 where most enzymes and electrolytes are
concentrated
▪ Lateral domain
 attachment and communication between adjacent
cells
▪ Basal domain
 Junctional complexes or cell junctions
 Basement membrane or basal lamina
● Functions of Epithelium
 Barrier - serves as protection
 Secretion - mucous membranes
 Absorption - intestines and kidneys
 Protection - skin Figure 1. Lining of the Respiratory Tract comprised of ciliated
 Lubrication - prevents friction; mesothelium: secretes epithelium as seen under the a) light microscope, b) scanning
pleural and peritoneal fluid electron microscope, and c) transmission electron microscope

Trans 2 Group #4: Alavifard, Alcalde, Alcantara, Alcos, Alfaro 1 of 10

 ● main function is to concentrate the contents of an organ or a
lumen
● does not contain the protein cap villin

Figure 4. Stereocilia

Flagella
● comprised of microtubules
● motile
● same composition as cilia

B. LATERAL MODIFICATIONS

● are in the form of infoldings in the membrane

Figure 2. Cilium with its microtubular arrangement
Microvilli
● short or long fingerlike extension or fold that pursue sinus fold
● core protein: composed of actin filaments
● non-motile (no motor arm)
● from the extension of the cytoplasm
● increases the surface area for increased absorption (e.g. mainly
in the intestine and lining of the gastrointestinal tract)
● Villin: protein cap found at the apical border
● Densely-packed microvilli can be classified into two:
 Brush border: layer of irregular cilia (comprised of
different heights and widths
 Striated border: layer of cilia with the same height and
width; when stained, they are light pink in color
● increase the surface area
● for communication between lateral adjacent epithelial cells
C. MODIFICATIONS OF THE BASAL BORDER
● also in the form of infoldings in the membrane
● increase the surface area
● for communication with the basement membrane
Basal Lamina
● protein composed of laminin (produced by the basal part of the
epithelial cells) and type IV collagen
 Laminin and type 4 collagen are attached by
nidogen/entactin proteins and secured by perlecan protein
● thin sheet of specialized extracellular matrix material that
separates epithelial cells from underlying connective tissue
● not visible under the microscope
● integrin receptors: allows attachment of the laminin polymer to
the basal lamina

Figure 5. Basal Lamina

Basement Membrane
● composed of the basal lamina and the reticular fibers: type III
collagen
Figure 3. Lining of the Small Intestine comprised of epithelium with ● thicker than the basal lamina
microvilli as seen under the a) light microscope (HPO), b) scanning ● visible under the microscope
electron microscope, and c) transmission electron microscope ● type VII collagen or the anchoring fibrils: anchors the basal
lamina to the type III collagen
Stereocilia/Stereovilli
● similar in appearance with cilia but is longer and more slender
● core protein: composed of actin filaments
● non-motile
● most common example: epididymis
● increases the surface area for increased absorption
ANATOMY Epithelium 2 of 10
 B. CELL-TO-EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX ADHESION

1. Focal adhesion/ actin-linked cell matrix junction

● Cell to ECM adhesion
● Structure: Attach to actin via integrins
● smaller than Hemidesmosomes
Figure 6. Basement Membrane ● Transmembrane involved: Integrin and inside
the cell, instead of intracellular plaque, talin is
III. JUNCTIONAL COMPLEXES / CELL JUNCTIONS present
2. Hemidesmosome
● Cell junctions allow for cell adhesion and communication with ● Cell to basal lamina adhesion
neighboring cells. ● ½ of a desmosome (cell to ECM instead of cell
SPECIALIZATIONS/MODIFICATIONS to cell)
● Structure: Attach to intermediate filaments via
A. CELL-TO-CELL ADHESION
α6β4integrins and Type XVII collagen
● Transmembrane involved: Integrin which is
1. Zonula occludens/ occluding or tight junction
attached to intracellular plaque; same with
● Staple cells together eliminating intercellular space desmosome, where intermediate filaments are
● “zonula”: form band/belt encircling the apical cell portion also attached
(most apical junction)
● Functions:
→ Prevent leakage
→ Tight = very selective with the substances that can pass
through
▪ molecules pass through the cells apically (intracellular
transport) instead of between cells (paracellular
transport)
▪ only very small particles such as ions can pass
undergo paracellular transport but are selected

● Structure: Consist of transmembrane proteins:

→ Occludin: main protein
→ Claudin - form loops with charged amino acids that aid in
ion selectivity
→ Junctional adhesion molecules (JAMs) Figure 7. Schematic of various cell junctions.

2. Anchoring Junctions IV. COVERING EPITHELIUM CLASSIFICATIONS

● Links/strings cells together
A. Zonula adherens/ Adherens junction ● Covering Epithelium
→ Also forms a band directly below zonula occludens  also called lining epithelium
→ Structure: anchors to actin filaments via classical  the tissue covering the surface
cadherins (ex. E-cadherin; E for epithelium, legit info, N-  lining the digestive and respiratory system cavities
cadherin for nerve, etc)  serves as covering for the walls of organs found in the
▪ Cadherins’ function relies on Ca2+ stabilization of its closed ventral body cavity
structure, thus the name.
− Clinical Importance: In collecting blood, containers A. ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF LAYERS
usually contain EDTA which chelates divalent
cations such as Ca2+, inhibiting cadherin action, ● 2 Classifications
thereby preventing coagulation of the blood sample.  Simple Epithelium
(Applicable for complete blood count or CBC, blood ▪ one cell layer
screening, DNA/RNA extraction) ▪ “Pseudostratified Epithelium”
B. Macula adherens / desmosome  special type of simple epithelium comprised of a
→ “Spot-welds”, button-like points of adhesion single layer appears like it has several layers when
→ Strongest of junctions mechanical resistance (ex. Skin, viewed under the microscope
heart muscle)  all cells are touching or attached to the basement
→ Structure: anchors to intermediate filaments via membrane but they differ in height and level of nuclei
nonclassical cadherins: Desmocollin, Desmoglein  Stratified Epithelium
→ Transmembrane proteins are attached to intracellular ▪ several cell layers
plaque ▪ not all of the cells are touching the basement membrane
▪ deeper most layer are the youngest cells and
3. Gap or Communicating junctions / Nexus superficial/top most layer are the oldest/ most mature
● Hydrophilic channels that allow for communication (via cells
exchange of ions and small molecules) B. ACCORDING TO THE CELL TYPE
→ Pore can change diameter as needed (~3nm)
● Structure: 6 connexins = connexon ● 4 Classifications
→ Cluster “few to thousand) of connexons = gap junction  Squamous
ANATOMY Epithelium 3 of 10
 ▪ single layer of flat and thin cells Figure 9. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
▪ polyhedral/polygonal and rounded in shape
▪ cell nuclei: most prominent structure Simple Columnar Epithelium
▪ examples: outer covering of the intestine, lining of the ● may be ciliated or non-ciliated
inner surface of the cornea ● examples of distribution:
 Cuboidal  lining of intestine
▪ square-like structure  lining of gallbladder
▪ cells’ thickness and width are about the same size ● main function:
▪ greater thickness allows abundance of mitochondria and  protection
some organelles for increased active transport across
 lubrication
the epithelium and other functions
 absorption
▪ cell nuclei: located at the center
 secretion
 Columnar
▪ cells are taller than they are wide
▪ most columnar cells specialize in absorption
 Transitional
▪ composed of different cell shapes
▪ always classified as Stratified
▪ For classification of the cell type of stratified epithelium,
base it on the type of the topmost/oldest/most mature
cell (e.g. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium with
Stereocilia, Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium,
Ciliated with Goblet Cells, Stratified Squamous
Epithelium, Non-Keratinized)

B. ACCORDING TO APICAL/FREE SURFACE

MODIFICATION/SPECIALIZATION

● Apical Modifications are always included in naming the Figure 10. Simple Columnar Epithelium
covering epithelium

Simple Squamous Epithelium

● flat cells lying on the basement membrane
● lines the cavities and vessels
● regulate passage of substances
● examples of distribution:
 endothelium: lining of vessels
 mesothelium: serous lining of cavities: pericardium, pleura
and peritoneum
● main function:
 endothelium and mesothelium: active transport by
pinocytosis Figure 11. Simple Columnar Ciliated Epithelium
 mesothelium: facilitates movement of the viscera and
secretion of biologically active molecules
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
● comprised of both tall and short cells
● all cells are touching the basement membrane
● examples of distribution:
 trachea
 bronchi
 nasal cavity
Figure 8. Simple Squamous Epithelium ● Main functions:
 secretion
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium  protection
● examples of distribution:  cilia-mediated transport of particles trapped in mucus out of
 covering of the ovary air passages
 covering of the thyroid
● main function:
 serves as covering
 for secretion

Figure 12. Pseudostratified Columnar

Epithelium
ANATOMY Epithelium 4 of 10
 Stratified Squamous Non-Keratinized Epithelium
(Wet Type)
● Most superficial layer contains nuclei, flattened cells;
metabolic function is retained
● Moist
● Examples of distribution: Figure 15. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
 mouth
 esophagus Stratified Columnar Epithelium
 larynx ● Relatively rare
 vagina ● examples of distribution:
 anal canal  lines the orbital area of the conjunctiva of the eye
● Main functions:  lines the larger excretory duct
 for protection ● main function:
 for secretion  for protection
 prevents water loss

Figure 13. Stratified Squamous Epithelium, Non-Keratinized

Figure 16. Stratified Columnar Epithelium
Stratified Squamous Keratinized Epithelium
(Dry Type)

● keratinized means cells are filled/packed with keratin filaments Transitional Epithelium
● Most superficial layer has no nuclei, very flat, metabolically ● also known as urothelium
inactive ● lines the urinary tract
● there is a superficial layer that are composed of flakes and ● with umbrella cells: dome-shaped cells making up the surface
lamellae of keratin (dead squamous cells) epithelia
● found on the epidermis of the skin ● has the ability to stretch and contract
● example of distribution: ● contains uroplakin that protects the tissue from the hypertonic
 epidermis effect of the urine
● main function: ● examples of distribution:
 for protection  bladder
 prevents water loss  ureters
 renal calyces
 proximal part of the urethra
● main function:
 for protection
 for secretion
 cilia-mediated transport of particles trapped in mucus out of
the air passages

Figure 14. Stratified Squamous Epithelium, Keratinized

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

● Relatively rare
● examples of distribution:
 lines the ducts of the sweat glands
 lines developing ovarian follicles
● main function: Figure 17. Stratified Transitional Epithelium
 for protection
 for secretion
SAMPLE EXERCISES
● Specific classification of indicated tissue

ANATOMY Epithelium 5 of 10

Figure 18. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium with Stereocilia
Figure 19. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium, Ciliated with
Goblet Cells
Figure 20. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Figure 21. Stratified Squamous Epithelium, Non-Keratinized
ANATOMY Epithelium
Figure 22. Simple Squamous Epithelium (BC)
Figure 23. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium (PC)
Figure 24. Simple Columnar Epithelium with Microvilli (Intestine)
IV. GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM CLASSIFICATIONS
● Also called secretory epithelial tissue
● Function is to synthesize, store, and release different
macromolecules:
 proteins (e.g. in the pancreas),
 lipids (e.g. adrenal, sebaceous glands)
 complexes of carbohydrates and proteins (e.g. salivary
glands)
● Can be classified into:
1. Path of release
2. Number of cells
3. Morphology/shape and overall appearance of
secretory portion
4. Shape of ducts
5. Mechanism of product release
Formation of Glands
*please see Figure 25. Formation of glands
● starts on the surface epithelium
● buds downward/invaginates to the connective tissue
● proliferates
● differentiates into either
1. Acinus (Secretory portion)- produces
product
2. Duct (Conducting portion)- transports
product
Organization of glands
*please see Figure 26 on next page.
● Lobe- combined lobule ducts
● Lobule- where acini and intercalated ducts are
located
● Septa- connective tissue that separates lobe and
lobules from the capsule into the parenchyma of the
gland
● Intercalated duct- arising from each acinus
● Intralobular duct- drains into the main excretory duct
6 of 10
 ● Lobular duct- within the lobes; merged intralobular
ducts
● Main excretory duct- carrying secretion from a gland
or fluid from a reservoir
Figure 25. Formation of Glands
Figure 26. Organization of a gland (Exocrine)
A. ACCORDING TO PATH OF RELEASE
ANATOMY Epithelium
*Please see Figure 25. Formation of Glands
Exocrine
● with secretory portions and duct
● retains connection to surface epithelium via duct
● secretes substances to specific organs via duct systems
Endocrine
● ductless
● the connection maintained to form a duct in exocrine glands is
lost as endocrine glands develop.
● transports products through the bloodstream– they produce
hormones that are released outside the cells and picked up by
adjacent blood vessels/capillaries
● target cell is far from the gland
Paracrine
● ductless
● target adjacent/nearby cells
B. ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF CELLS
Unicellular
● large isolated secretory cells
● scattered
● Ex. Goblet cell
- the ONLY unicellular gland
- found in intestines and respiratory tract
Multicellular
● most common type – ALL glands except goblet cells are
multicellular
● have connective tissue in a surrounding capsule and in septa
that divide the gland into lobules
C. ACCORDING TO MORPHOLOGY/SHAPE OF
SECRETORY PORTION
*Please see Figure 27. Simple and Compound Glands
Acinar/Alveolar
● round shaped, saclike secretory portion
 Branched Acinar/Alveolar- multiple saclike secretory parts
entering the same duct
Tubular
● elongated, duct is usually short or absent
 Coiled Tubular- secretory portion is long and coiled
 Branched Tubular0 several long secretory parts joining to
drain one duct
Tubulo-Acinar/Tubulo-Alveolar
● combination of both acinar/alveolar and tubular
7 of 10
 Figure 27. Simple and Compound Glands

GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE MECHANISM OF PRODUCT

RELEASE
ACCORDING TO DUCTAL SYSTEM
1. Merocrine
1. Simple • Products are released through exocytosis either
• One, single duct (e.g. sweat glands) from membrane bound vesicles or secretory
2. Compound granules (i.e. proteins and glycoprotein products)
• Branching or networking of ducts (e.g. mammary • Most common type of secretion
glands) • Can be seen in sweat glands

Figure 28. Simple and Compound Ductal System

Figure 28. Sweat Gland

2. Holocrine
• The cell continuously accumulates products and
then undergo disruption and shedding

ANATOMY Epithelium 8 of 10
 • Products are released together with the cell in the • Nuclei is located basally
gland’s lumen upon cell death • Most of the other cytoplasm of each mucous cell is
• Also known as suicidal glands apically filled with secretory granules containing
• Can be seen in sebaceous glands mucin like that of goblet cells
 Mucin – secretory granules with strong
hydrophilic glycoproteins
• Most common mechanism of product release
• Found in Salivary Glands, Respiratory Tract and
Genital Tracts

Figure 29. Sebaceous Gland

3. Apocrine
• Only the apical portion of the gland is pinched off
and secreted with the product
• Product accumulates at the apical end
• Example is Mammary Gland Figure 32. Mucus Gland

2. Serous
• Acinus is lined by different pyramidal-shaped cells
apically filled with secretory granules
• Granular, dark staining cytoplasm
 Dark staining is due to the presence of
granules, which takes up the stain
• Nucleus is centrally located
• Excretes proteins

Figure 30. Apocrine Structure found in Mammary Gland

(Lighter Staining – Secretory, lined by single layer of epithelial cells)
(Darker Staining – Duct, lined by more than one layer or stratified epithelial
cells)

Figure 33. Serous Gland

3. Mixed
• Presence of both mucinous and serous glands
• Serous demilunes
 Both mucous and serous in one acinus
 Crescent moon-like shape

Figure 31. Mechanism of Exocrine Gland Secretion

ACCORDING TO TYPE OF SECRETION

1. Mucus
• Glandular cells are lined from cuboidal to
columnar
• With clear to pale cytoplasm
ANATOMY Epithelium 9 of 10
 ● capability of rapid repair and regeneration of apoptotic/damaged
cells
● rate of renewal differs depending on the type and the location of
the cell (lesser number of layers, faster rate of renewal)
 Small Intestine: 4-6 days
▪ Not easily abraded
▪ From stem cells located in the simple glands and
intestinal villi
 Epidermis: 28 days
▪ Stem cells located along the wall of the hair follicle

REFERENCES

1. 2020 A, B, and C Transes

2. Rivera, I. n.d. Epithelium and Glands [Powerpoint Slides].
Department of Anatomy, UERMMMCI.
Figure 34. Mixed Gland 3. Mescher, A., Junqueira’s Basic Histology Text and Atlas.
(*D – Serous Demilune) 12th Ed.
(*T – Mucus) 4. Eroschenko, V., DiFiore’s Atlas of Histology with
Functional Correlations. 12th Ed.
Table 1. Serous vs Mucous Gland 5. Alberts, B. (2015). Molecular Biology of the Cel, 6th Ed.
SEROUS MUCOUS USA: Garland Science.
Pyramidal-shaped Cells Cuboidal to Columnar
Granules present in the Granules not present in the
Cytoplasm Cytoplasm
Dark Stained Light Stained
Nucleus located Basally Nucleus located Centrally

VI. HISTOGENESIS OF EPITHELIUM

● Histogenesis: differentiation of embryonic cells to specialized

tissue and organs during growth
● 3 primary germ layers:
 Ectodermal Derivatives (Outer Layer)
▪ Epidermis
▪ Cornea, Lens Epithelia
▪ Components of the inner ear
▪ Adenohypophysis
 Mesodermal Derivatives (Middle Layer)
▪ Epithelium of Kidneys and Gonads
▪ Mesothelium
▪ Endothelium
▪ Adrenal Cortex
▪ Seminiferous and Genital Duct Epithelium
 Endodermal Derivatives (Inner Layer)
▪ Respiratory System Epithelium
▪ Alimentary Canal Epithelium
▪ Extramural Digestive Gland Epithelium
▪ Thyroid, Parathyroid, Thymus
▪ Lining of the tympanic cavity and Eustachian Tube

Figure 34. Primary Germ Layers

Epithelial Cell Renewal

● achieved through mitosis

ANATOMY Epithelium 10 of 10