Physical Properties of Shales and
Possible Origin of High Pressures
William C. Pritchett, SPE, ARCO Oil and Gas Co.
Introduction
Laboratory and borehole measurements of shale
properties may be unreliable because of modification
during or after drilling or coring. The borehole
gravimeter is an ideal tool for measuring the bulk
density of thick shale units because of its great depth
of investigation and negligible sensitivity to shale in
the vicinity of the borehole, which may have been
modified in drilling. By contrast, the scatter gamma
ray density log has an extremely shallow depth of
investigation and its response may be dominated by
modified shale surrounding a borehole. A com-
parison of bulk densities measured by these two
methods in both sands and shales was made in three
U.S. gulf coast wells. In all three wells the two
methods yielded comparable densities for the sands.
But in two wells, which were drilled with fresh muds,
the density log yielded shale bulk densities
significantly less than those shown by the borehole
gravimeter. These data indicate that shale adjacent to
the borehole in these two wells had been modified by
drilling and the modified shale densities had been
reduced significantly. In the well drilled with a saline
mud, bulk densities from the two methods were in
close agreement in both sands and shales, which
indicates that shales adjacent to the borehole in this
well were not modified significantly.
High-pressure shales are particularly susceptible to
modification during drilling since they are relatively
permeabble and soft. Sometimes they even flow.
Density log data in high-pressure shales are
unreliable due to probable shale modification.
Unfortunately, we have no borehole gravimeter data
in high-pressure shales and, therefore, no reliable
measurements of bulk densities in their natural state.
The best data available for studying high-pressure
shales are some neutron lifetime logs. The effective
0197-7520/8010010-7506$00.25
Copyright 1980 Society of Petroleum Engineers
OCTOBER 1980
depth of investigation of the neutron lifetime log is
considerably greater than that of the scatter gamma
ray density log.I,2 Therefore, neutron lifetime log
measurements should be affected much less by any
modified shale near the borehole than would
measurements made with a density log.
Neutron lifetime logs show a progressive decrease
in macroscopic neutron capture cross section with
increasing depth for U.S. gulf coast shales with
normal pore pressures. This decrease in neutron
capture cross section is the result of increased
compaction of shales with depth. If high-pressure
shales are shales that were not compacted normally
with increasing depth of burial, then they should
have physical properties comparable with relatively
uncompacted shales at much shallower depths of a
few thousand feet (1000 to 1500 m). In particular,
they should have high neutron capture cross sections
as compared with normally pressured shales at
slightly shallower depths. However, our logs show
neutron capture cross sections for U.S. gulf coast
high-pressure shales that range from normal to less
than normal for their depths. These data indicate
that these high-pressure shales are not shales that
were never compacted. The data are consistent with
an alternate hypothesis for the generation of high
pore pressures in shales.
The alternate hypothesis is that normally com-
pacted shales subsequently may develop high pore
pressures due to the dewatering of montmorillonite
as it is converted to illite at temperatures on the order
of 200°F (93°C). 3-5 This change in clay mineralogy
results in an increase in the volume occupied by
liquid pore water and a decrease in the volume oc-
cupied by solid grains. My hypothesis for the
generation of high pressures in these shales is simply
that the reduction in grain volume results in a loss of
grain-to-grain contact and, hence, a decreasing
341
 ·
ability of the grains to support the weight of the
overburden. Under the alternate hypothesis, even
thick high-pressure shales may lose water gradually,
recompact, and re-establish good grain support, thus
becoming shales with normal pore pressures but with
increased bulk densities and decreased macroscopic
neutron capture cross sections. Dewatered high-
pressure shales that have not lost the added pore
water should have bulk densities and neutron capture
cross sections comparable with those of normally
pressured shales at slightly shallower depths.
Low bulk densities reported for some high-
pressure shales may be erroneous because of
modification of the shales. Other high-pressure
shales may never have been compacted normally, and
their bulk densities should be low.
Erroneous Density Data for Shales
With Normal Pressures
Both laboratory and borehole measurements of shale
properties may not be reliable because of shale
modification. Exposure of shales with normal
pressures to relatively fresh mud filtrate can cause
significant modification due to clay swelling. Large
changes in compressive stress could cause some
physical modification. The densities of thick shale
units could be measured reliably in situ with the
borehole gravimeter by measuring the gravity field of
the earth at the bottom and top of each shale unit.
The error in the bulk density due to modified shale
near the borehole would be negligible.
The scatter gamma ray density log often is used to
measure bulk densities of rocks surrounding
boreholes and has been used to interpret shale
properties, including degree of compaction. The
backscattered gamma rays have relatively low
energies, which limits the depth of investigation of
the tool to the order of 1 in. (2.5 cm). Therefore, the
TABLE 1 - WELLS WITH GRAVITY DATA AND DENSITY LOGS
Mud
Weight
Well Type (Ibm/gal) (kg/m 3 )
Gulf Moore 175 Chemical 11.4 1370
Chevron State Caustic, 12 1440
1366 31 Q Broxin
Pan American Native 11.11330
Mi~mi 26
342
densities measured for shales may reflect the density
of modified shale rather than the density of un-
disturbed shale' farther back from the wall of the
borehole. In the three U.S. gulf coast wells where
both density log data and borehole gravimeter log
data are available, the densities from the two
methods were compared for both shale and sand-
stone intervals. Table 1 lists these three wells along
with the resistivities of the muds and descriptions of
the hole conditions as interpreted from caliper logs.
In all three wells, the bulk densities from the two
methods agreed well in the thick sands. Figs. 1, 2,
and 3 are plots of shale bulk densities for the three
wells as functions of depth as determined by both the
density log and gravimeter. There were no high pore
pressures in these wells to the depths to which the
borehole gravimeter was run. In the Gulf Moore
Well 175 (Fig. 1), the two methods yielded nearly
identical results showing a trend of increasing bulk
density with depth resulting from increased com-
paction with depth. In the Chevron State 1366 Well
31 (Fig. 2), the gravimeter data show a similar trend
of increasing shale density with depth. But in this
well, the density log indicates lower densities in a
widely scattered pattern. In the Pan American Miami
Well 26 (Fig. 3), the shale densities from the density
log are about 0.2 g/cm 3 lower than those shown by
the borehole gravimeter. If the densities derived from
the gravimeter are correct, then the density log error
is sufficient to make a compacted shale at 10,000 ft
(3050 m) appear to have a density equal to the true
density of a relatively uncompacted shale at 4,000 ft
(1220 m). These data indicate that the density log
yielded erroneous bulk densities (too low) for shales
in the two wells drilled with relatively fresh muds.
Hole enlargement was severe in these two wells. We
recommend the use of the borehole gravimeter for
determining the density of thick shale units.
Water Loss Resistivity Caliper Log, Indication
(cm 3 ) (fl·m) of Hole Condition
3.8 0.6 at 96°F Hole in good shape below
(35.6°C) 2,500 ft (762 m). Mostly
gauge to + 1 to 2 in. (2.5
to 5 cm) even in thick
shales.
7 0.92 at 89°F Hole badly enlarged in many
(31'?"C) places. Better below 6,000
ft (1829 m). Selected
intervals in sands and
shales look reasonably
good below 5,000 ft (1524
m). Sections enlarged
beyond 3 in. (7.6 cm) not
considered.
6.4 2.71 at 88°F All thick shales badly washed
(31.1°C) out. Took log data in
thin shale sections where
indicated enlargment rang,
ed from 0 to 4 in. (0 to 10
cm). Many sands gauge to
+ 1 in. (2.5 cm). Few sands
washed out (ignored
these).
SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL
Neutron Lifetime Log Response to Shales
With Normal Pressures
The macroscopic neutron capture cross section of a
material is determined by the types of nuclei in the
material and the number of each type within a unit
volume. Table 2 lists some representative mac-
roscopic neutron capture cross sections. 1 Table 3 DEPTH, THOUSANDS OF MUllS
shows calculated capture cross sections for mont- ,--_ _----'T'----_ _ _--'1.;=-'_ _ _ _-=;2.o"---_ _ _--=;;2.5
2700
morillonite clay with an assumed formula defined in
the table. The cross sections listed for 0% porosity 2600

correspond to theoretical values for the solid 2500

montmorillonite grains with various numbers of
2400
interlayers of water as given by the parameter n. The
cross sections listed for values of porosity other than 2300 fit

zero represent clays or shales that have undergone 2200 ..

~
various degrees of compaction. For this table, the
2100
pore space is assumed to be filled with liquid water LEGEND:

. - SHALE DENSITY flOM GIAVITY DATA

with a salinity of 100,000 ppm NaCI. Other clay ... - SHALE DENSITY nOM DENSITY LOG
2000

minerals such as illite have less interlayer water and

lower capture cross sections for a given degree of DIrTH, THOUSANDS Of flIT
compaction. Illite has some potassium, aluminum,
Fig. 1 - Shale density in Gulf Moore Well 175, Orchard
and iron, but the effect of these elements is minor. field.
Many shales and clays contain a few other elements
that add to the overall capture cross sections. The
values of the cross sections in Table 3 for mont-
morillonite are consistent with the range for shale as DE'TH, THOUSANDS Of MITEIS

2.7 ,--_ _----'T1.0'----_ _ _----'T1.'~_ _ _~2T·0~_ _ _~2.S2700

given in Table 2, which is from 20 to 40. Shales with
cross sections of 35 or more must be porous and 2.6 2600

probably contain montmorillonite. The pore space •

U
might contain brine with higher salinity or the shales
might contain some boron, either of which would : 2.4 2400
~ •
increase the capture cross section. Shales with cross • ~.

sections near 20 probably contain little mont- ..!

~. 2.3 2300 ::

morillonite and must be compacted so as to have .. 2200

little porosity. 2.1 2100

LEGEND:
A typical shale at shallow depth has a high neutron .- SHALE DENSITY FlOM GIAVITY DATA 2000
2.0
capture cross section because it has a lot of water. .&- SHAU DENSITY FlOM DENSITY LOG

The salinity of the pore water may not be very I.'2

high. 6 ,7 A typical shale at somewhat greater depth DIPTH, THOUSANDS OF fEET

has lost some pore water because of compaction, and Fig. 2-Shale density in Chevron State 1366 Well 31, Bay
it exhibits a lower macroscopic capture cross section Marchand field.
despite the fact that salinity of the remaining pore
water is higher. 7

Origin of High Pressures in Shales DEPTH, THOUSANDS Of METE IS

2.7 ,--_ _----'T1.0'----_ _ _~1T-.'_ _ _ _-=;2._=_0_ _ _ _ _.:2;.;52700

In the U.S. gulf coast, high-pressure shales are
common, particularly at depths where the tem- 2.6 2600
perature is considerably higher than 200°F (93°C).
2.' 2500
The prevailing theory is that high-pressure shales are
shales that were not compacted normally with in- ~ 2.4 2400
~
creasing depth of burial. 7,8 These shales are .: 2.3
characterized as having unusually high porosity for !ii
their depth, as evidenced by low electrical resistivity ..
! 2.2 2200

and low sonic velocity. The concept is that thick, 2.1 2100

rapidly buried clays had little permeability after only 2.0 .- SHAU DENSITY FlOM GIAVITY DAtA 2000

moderate compaction and that further loading by A- SHALE DENSITY flOM DENSITY LOG

additional sedimentation was ineffective in squeezing I.'2~~~~~~-~~-~.-~10~+.1I-~12-~13--1~4 1'00

DEPTH, THOUSANDS OF nn
water out of the interior of the massive units. By this
concept, high-pressure shales often have persisted for Fig. 3 - Shale density in Pan American Miami Corp. Well
tens of millions of years with pore pressures greatly 26, South Pecan Lake field.
in excess of hydrostatic pressure.
There is another concept to account for the
generation of high pressures in shales. High-pressure
OCTOBER 1980 343
 shales could result from the dewatering of mont-
morillonite. 3- 5 The theory is that a normal, com-
pacted shale may become a high-pressure shale as the
conversion of montmorillonite to illite is accelerated
by increased temperature with increased depth of
burial. 9,10 In this clay mineral conversion, some of
the interlayer water of the montmorillonite grains is
expelled and becomes additional pore water. There is
a consequent increase in the volume occupied by pore
water and a corresponding decrease in the volume
occupied by the solid grains. How this leads to the
TABLE 2 - MACROSCOPIC CAPTURE
CROSS SECTIONS FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS1 development of high pressures is debatable. My
thought is simply that the reduced grain-to-grain
Total
contact would require either recompaction as fast as
Type of Material interlayer water is expelled or the pore pressure must
Limestone (GaG0 3) rise to support the weight of the overburden. If the
</>=0 shale is thick, the former interlayer water may not be
</>=10%
100,000 ppm NaGI 12.1 squeezed out of the interior of the shale mass as fast
Sandstone (Si0 2 ) as it is released into the pores. This hypothesis would
</>=0 3.5 lead to a high-pressure shale with more pore water
</>=10% than a normal shale at the same depth but with less
100,000 ppm NaGI 8.9
</>=30% interlayer water. The total water would not be dif-
100,000 ppm NaGI 19.8 ferent unless some leakage occurred.
Anhydrite (GaS04) A shale with high pressures because it had not
</>=0 12.1 undergone normal compaction also might undergo
Dolomite
IGaMg (G0 3h!
the montmorillonite-to-illite transition and, con-
</>=0 6.8 sequently, lose part of what little stress had been
Shale 20 t040 carried by grain-to-grain contact. The result would
Fresh water 22.2 be a higher-pressure shale due to the combination of
Oil (dead crude) 22.2
the two effects.
Salt water
30,000 ppm NaGI 31.7
100,000 ppm NaGI 56 Physical Properties of High-Pressure Shales
Table 4 gives some of the physical properties of high-
pressure shales both for shales that were not com-
pacted normally with increasing burial and for shales
that compacted normally but subsequently developed
TABLE 3 - CALCULATED MACROSCROPIC NEUTRON high pressure as a result of dewatering of mont-
CAPTURE CROSS SECTIONS FOR MONTMORILLONITE
morillonite. In either case, the electrical resistivity
Assumed formula: NaO.33 AI 1.67 Si 4 010 (OHh ·nH 2 0 plus and the sonic velocity should be relatively low
(NaGI)o.1 adsorbed. because of the relatively large amount of pore water.
Number Both bulk density and grain density depend on how
of Layers of Shale Porosity Filled With Brine the high pressures were generated. Bulk density
Interlayer of 100,000 ppm NaGI should be low for the depth of burial for shales that
Water, n never underwent normal compaction. But bulk
0% 10% 15% 20% 25%
-
0 21.6' 24.7 26.3 27.9 29.5 density should be normal for the depth (or higher
2 24.9 27.7 29.1 30.5 32.0 than normal) for shales that developed high pressure
4 27.7 30.2 31.5 32.8 34.0 due to dewatering of montmorillonite. Grain density
6 30.1 32.4 33.55 34.7 35.8
·Cross-section units are 10 - 3cm - 1.
should be normal for the depth for never-compacted
high-pressure shales but should be higher than
normal for shales that developed high pressures as a
result of dewatering.
The macroscopic neutron capture cross section for
high-pressure shales depends on how the high
pressures were generated, as shown in Table 4. A
high-pressure shale that was not compacted normally
with increasing depth of burial should have ab-
normally high total water content and, consequently,
an abnormally high capture cross section similar to
that of normal shales at much shallower depths.
Conversely, a shale that was compacted normally but
developed high pressures due to the expulsion of
interlayer water into the pores should have a normal
total water content and a normal neutron capture
344 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL
 TABLE 4 - COMPARISONS OF HIGH-PRESSURE SHALES THAT NEVER UNDERWENT NORMAL COMPACTION
AND THOSE THAT COMPACTED NORMALLY BUT DEVELOPED HIGH PRESSURES
AS A RESULT OF MONTMORI LLONITE DEWATERI NG
Never-Compacted High-Pressure Shale Item and Comparison High Shale Pressure From Dewatering
Porosity high for the depth and similar Porosity: similar Porosity high for the depth and
to that of normal shales at much similar to that of normal shales at
shallower depths much shallower depths
Bulk density low for the depth and similar Bulk Density: different Bulk density similar to or higher
to that of normal shales at much than that of normal shales at
shallower depths similar depths
Grain density similar to that of normal Grain Density: different Grain density higher than that of
shales shales with normal pressures that
have not dewatered
Electrical resistivity low for the depth Resistivity: similar Electrical resistivity low for the
and similar to that of normal shales at depth and similar to that of normal
much shallower depths shales at much shallower depths
Sonic velocity low for the depth and similar Sonic Velocity: similar Sonic velocity low for the depth
to that of normal shales at much and similar to that of normal
shallower depths shales at much shallower depths
Macroscopic neutron capture cross Neutron capture Macroscopic neutron capture cross
section high for the depth and similar cross section: different section similar to or less than
to that of normal shales at much that of normal shales at
shallower depths similar depths

TABLE 5 - COMPARISON OF BOREHOLE MEASUREMENTS TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN NEVER-COMPACTED

HIGH-PRESSURE SHALES AND SHALES THAT COMPACTED NORMALLY BUT DEVELOPED HIGH
PRESSURES AS A RESULT OF THE DEWATERING OF MONTMORILLONITE
Item Compared Density Log Borehole Gravimeter Neutron Lifetime Log
Quantity measured Number of low- Force exerted on Ratio of the number of gamma rays
energy scattered a mass by the detected in two time windows after
gamma rays gravity field of excitation by a pulse of high energy
detected in re- the earth at spe- neutrons
sponse to a cific depths
collimated beam
of high-energy
gamma rays
Physical property of the earth that Density of elec- Mass of the earth Type and number of the various nuclei
dominates the tool response trons beyond the below the depth present in the vicinity of both neutron
pad pressed of the measurement source and gamma ray detector
against the wall
of the borehole
Physical property inferred Density of the Density of the Macroscopic neutron capture cross
earth adjacent to earth between the section of the earth in the vicinity
the pad depths of the mea- of the borehole
surements
Relative depth of investigation Very shallow - Extremely deep- Moderate - on the order of 1 ft (0.3 m)
of the measurement on the order of 1 beyond tens of
in. (2.5cm) yards (meters)
Relative effect of any modified shale Strong effect Negligible effect Moderate effect from any modified
that might be adjacent to the from any modi- from any modified shale
borehole fied shale shale
Reliability of the measurements for Unreliable Very reliable for Moderately reliable for shale
distinguishing between never- thick shale intervals as thick as 1 ft (0.3 m)
compacted high-pressure shales and intervals
dewatered high-pressure shales

OCTOBER 1980 345

 cross section for the depth unless leakage has oc-
curred. If the high-pressure dewatered shale has
leaked, then the capture cross section should be less
I than normal for the depth. Whatever the origin of
the high pressures in shales, the pore water content is
relatively high, and this has a strong effect on both
electrical resistivity and sonic velocity. The capture
cross section is affected equally by both interlayer
water and pore water; therefore, this cross section
I ~
does not change with montmorillonite dewatering.
""
~
'"o
Physical Measurements of
....:z:
...... ,(

t High-Pressure Shales

r
,1" ~ There is much data in the literature on the electrical
" '~NDER
resistivity and the sonic velocity of high-pressure

I
D
C,OtPA'V
, I
shales. But as is shown in Table 4, these
( , ,,
, I measurements should give low values for the depth of
burial for high-pressure shales, whatever the origin
DE,WATERING I
of the high pressures, Conversely, measurements of
~' density and neutron capture cross sections should
respond differently depending on the origin of the
,
o .5 1.0 1.52.0
RESISTIVITY,
18 16 14 12 10
MUD WT., #/GAL
,,,
I
I
I
I

24 2R 32 36 40 44
NEUTRON SIGMA,
II 1 high pressures. Table 5 compares the available
borehole measurements that might allow us to
determine the origin of the high pore pressures in
shales. Since high-pressure shales are probably very
CM-1.l0 -3
susceptible to modification, scatter gamma ray data
OHMMETERS
are unreliable. Borehole gravimeter measurements
2160 1200 2.4 4.4 should be ideal, but we have no gravimeter data for
ke/ m 3 high-pressure shale intervals.
Fig. 4-lllustration of anticipated log responses to high·
The neutron lifetime log has a greater depth of
pressure shales. investigation than the density log, and effects from
within and near the borehole are suppressed by the
delay in the inital measurements after each pulse of
neutrons. 1,2 The neutron lifetime log is not as
reliable for evaluating thick high-pressure shales as
the borehole gravimeter would be, but it is much
T.. more reliable than the density log .
.
~

Fig. 4 is an illustrative example of the anticipated

§ response of resistivity and neutron lifetime logs to a
high-pressure shale. The mud weight shown indicates
\ C
lE
~
z
2S00
the approximate pressure required to control the well
for drilling. In the normal shales above the high-

t
pressure shale, resistivity increases with depth and
9
capture cross section decreases with depth due to
/. .1
compaction and consequent loss of pore water. In the
high-pressure shale, the resistivity decreases and
10 .... .1 • 3000 remains below the projection of the previous trend

V~
because of the increased porosity. The neutron
I
~

• ~ lifetime log response should show a decided break in

• ~
%

"i
./ the trend if the high-pressure shale has never un-
dergone normal compaction. This is illustrated by the
11
heavy line. The dashed lines indicate the range of
./• response that would be anticipated if the high

" 1
3500
pressure in the shale were the result of dewatering of
o .4
J
.1 1.2 11 16 14 12 10
II •
24 26 21 30 32 34
montmorillonite .
Fig. 5 shows some actual data for the Atlantic
RESISTIVITY, MUD WEIGHT, #/GAL NEunON SIGMA,
OHMMETERS
Richfield Wild Well 2 in the Midland field in south
2160 1200 2.4 3.4
Louisiana. Note the classical break in the shale
m- I resistivity curve at the top of the high-pressure zone.
Fig. 5 - Log responses to high·pressure shale in the Unfortunately, the neutron lifetime log was not run
Atlantic Richfield Co. Wild Well 2, Midland field. above this depth. However, the decreasing capture
cross section with depth below 9,000 ft (2740 m)
indicates a decreasing content of total water, whereas
346 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL
the resistivity curve indicates increasing pore water
content with depth. One explanation is a rapid T •
decrease in interlayer water with depth. These data
suggest that this high-pressure shale is the result of
.~
~
~
•
the dewatering of montmorillonite rather than
continuous undercompaction. Furthermore, the 9
f\, .....
~

rapid decrease in capture cross section (sigma) with ..C

::Ii
o
z
depth is indicative of fluid leakage and recompaction ~

t
of this high-pressure shale. ~

1I~
Fig. 6 shows similar data for a well operated by 0 3000
~

Getty Oil Co. The absence of an anomalous increase Q

z 10

•:~ \
in sigma near the top of the high-pressure interval ~
:> ~

indicates that this high-pressure shale also is the 0

:z: ~
\
,
~

result of the dewatering of montmorillonite rather i

than undercompaction. Below 10,000 ft (3050 m),
total water decreases with depth but pore water
:z:
...
~

~
Q

11
~. v ~-
...
;
increases with depth.
Fig. 7 is yet another example from south kl I'
\
Louisiana. In this well, the borehole is enlarged in
K --\
3500

many of the shale sections and the resistivity and

-Ison ~

1
- -
neutron data are scattered as a result. Yet the trend • •
strongly supports the concept of montmorillonite J I 1.1
12
dewatering as opposed to undercompaction as the .6 .8 1.01.2 1.4 16 14 12 10 30323436
cause of the high pressures. In all cases we have RESISTIVITY, MUD WY., NEUTRON SIGMA,
#/GAl CM- I • 10- 3
studied, the high pressures appear to result from OHMMETERS
I . I I

dewatering of montmorillonite. 1920 1200 3.0 3.6

Jones II reported on the use of downhole gravity

data in formation evaluation: Fig. 6 - Log responses to high-pressure shale in the Getty
P. Thibodeaux Well 1D, Church Point field.
Bulk densities measured with the borehole gravity log
in wells in the Gulf Coast area show considerable
deviation from densities measured with the gamma-
gamma log. Moreover, they do not show a density
change in the overpressured shale zone.

He also noted
T:::. 2500

::>
•
... in at least one area of the Gulf Coast there is no
decrease in density in the overpressured zone as would • ..
:::'"
IL

generally be supposed. Gravity density logs from

other wells in the same general area indicate that
densities in the overpressured zone continue to in-
9 -.
..C::e
o
z •
....
crease to the maximum depth logged. ~

t
~
~

• '"
Conclusions
~

0 • ~
'"
Q ::e
Under the prevailing theory of high-pressure shales,
these shales have never undergone normal com-
Z
00(
'"
::>
10
3000
....%
:l;
.
paction. High-pressure shales have persisted, then, 0 o
%
....
• -
for tens and hundreds of millions of years without
significant loss of fluids. Normal-pressure shales
%
.... l- ..::: •
never developed high pressures because they lost
water fast enough to allow normal compaction to
IL
~

11
::>

..:::'"
IL
%
If f - ....
•
occur as burial took place.
Data presented in this paper indicate that many • ":z: l-
I --
U.S. gulf coast shales underwent normal compaction • re .....
•
1
3500
with burial and maintained normal pressure by losing ~
fluids. After burial to depths of about 8,000 ft (2440
m) or more, the dewatering of montmorillonite 12
provided additional pore water that could not be .6 .8 1.0 1.2 16 14 1210 30 34 38 42 46
RESISTIVITY, MUD WT.,
drained off as fast as it was released. Therefore, high NEUTRON SIGMA,
OHMMETERS #/GAL eM-I. 10- 3
pressures were generated in these formerly normal I I I
1920 1200 3.0 4.6
shales. Such shales may be leaking fluids but not fast
enough to keep up with dewatering. Presumably
other shales that originally contained mont- Fig. 7 - Log responses to high-pressure shale in the Getty
morillonite also have undergone dewatering but have Estellette Well 1, Church Point field.
remained at or near normal pressure by losing fluids
OCTOBER 1980 347
fast enough to keep up with dewatering. Still other
shales that now have normal pressures may have
developed high pressures due to dewatering of
montmorillonite but since have leaked off enough
fluids to recompact and re-establish normal pore
pressures.
It has been pointed out in the literature that the
dewatering of montmorillonite provides additional
pore water in shales that may contain matured
hydrocarbons, and subsequent loss of fluids from
these shales may be significant in the primary
migration of hydrocarbons from source rocks to
reservoir rocks. 5,12 It might be important to oil and
gas exploration to determine to what extent each of
the two theories for generating high pressures
(dewatering or continuous undercompaction) ac-
counts for the high-pressure shales in a given basin.
The best and most reliable method for making such
determinations is by bulk density measurements with
the borehole gravimeter. Alternatively, or in ad-
dition, neutron lifetime logs should be run to
measure total water content (pore water plus in-
terlayer water). Data should be acquired for shales
with both high and normal pressures and from
shallow to great depths.
Nomenclature
1: macroscopic neutron capture cross section,
1O-3 cm -1
cf> porosity
Original manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineers office July
11, 1978. Revised manuscript received June 6, 1980. Paper accepted for
publication July 21, 1980. Paper (SPE 7506) first presented at the SPE 53rd
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, held in Houston, Oct. 1·4, 1978.
348
References
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SPEJ
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