Spectrum Analysis Back To Basic Slides

Radiofrequency
Measurements
Spectrum Analyzers
The next slides material is taken from
• AGILENT “Spectrum Analysis Basics”

• TEKTRONIX’ “Fundamentals of Real-Time Spectrum Analysis”
• ROHDE&SCHWARZ “Key points of real time”
2
Overview
What is Spectrum Analysis?
SPECTRUM ANALYZER 9 kHz - 26.5 GHz

8563A
Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Overview
Types of Tests Made .
Modulation
Noise
Distortion

Overview
Frequency versus Time Domain
Amplitude
(power)
Time domain
Frequency Domain
Measurements
Measurements
Overview
Different Types of Analyzers
Fourier Analyzer
Parallel filters measured
simultaneously
A
LCD shows full
spectral display
f1 f2 f

Overview
Different Types of Analyzers
Swept Analyzer
Filter 'sweeps' over range
of interest
A
LCD shows full
spectral display
f1 f2 f

Screen Parameters
10 DIV vertical: POWER [dBm]

10 DIV horizontal: FREQUENCY [Hz]
Instrument Screen
9
Theory of Operation
Spectrum Analyzer Block Diagram
RF input
attenuator IF gain IF filter
mixer detector
Input
signal
Pre-Selector
Log
Or Low Pass Amp
Filter video
filter
local
oscillator
sweep
generator
Crystal
Reference CRT display

Theory of Operation
Mixer MIXER
input
f LO- f sig f LO+ f sig

RF IF
f sig LO f sig f LO
f LO

Frequency Scan
12
Signal measurement
When a narrowband signal runs beneath the filter, the measured spectrum
draws the filter shape (it is a mathematical convolution)
13
Specifications
Resolution: Resolution Bandwidth
Mixer 3 dB Detector
3 dB BW
Input
Spectrum
IF Filter/
LO Resolution Bandwidth Filter
(RBW)
Sweep
RBW
Display

Specifications
Resolution: Resolution Bandwidth
10 kHz RBW
3 dB
10 kHz

Screen example
16
Screen example
17
Specifications
Resolution: RBW Type and Selectivity
3 dB
3 dB BW
60 dB
60 dB
BW
60 dB BW
Selectivity =
3 dB BW

Filter Selectivity
19
Specifications
Resolution: RBW Type and Selectivity
RBW = 3 kHz RBW = 10 kHz

Selectivity 15:1
3 dB
distortion
products
7.5 kHz
60 dB
60 dB BW
= 15 kHz
10 kHz 10 kHz

Super-heterodyne detection
21
Detector – from Analog to Digital
For RBW < 1 kHz, the IF

filter is digitally realized
22
Specifications
Resolution: Digital Resolution Bandwidths
Typical
Selectivity
Analog
ANALOG FILTER 15:1
Digital
5:1
DIGITAL FILTER
RES BW 100 Hz SPAN 3 kHz

Theory of Operation
Detector DETECTOR
amplitud
e
"bins" Positive detection: largest value

in bin displayed
Negative detection: smallest value
in bin displayed
Sample detection: last value in bin
displayed

Theory of Operation
Video Filter
VIDEO
FILTER

Theory of Operation
Other Components
LO
SWEEP
GEN
frequency
LCD DISPLAY
RF INPUT
ATTENUATOR IF GAIN

Theory of Operation
How it all works together
fs Signal Range LO Range
f LO- f s f LO
0 1 2 3 (GHz) f LO+ f s
fs
IF filter
0 1 4 5 6
mixer
fs 2 3
3.6
detector
6.5
input
3.6
f IF
sweep generator A
LO
f LO
0 1 2 3 (GHz) f
3 4 5 6 (GHz) LCD display
3.6 6.5

Theory of Operation
Front Panel Operation
Primary functions
(Frequency, Amplitude,
Span)
Softkeys
SPECTRUM ANALYZER 9 kHz - 26.5 GHz

8563A
Control functions
(RBW, sweep time,
VBW)
RF Input Numeric
keypad
Swept Spectrum Analyzer:
Measurement Time
The rise time of a filter (low-pass, but also band-pass) is inversely proportional to its
bandwidth, and if we include a constant of proportionality, k, then:
Rise time = T = k /RBW
The value of k is in the 2 to 3 range for the synchronously-tuned, near-Gaussian

filters used in many analyzers.
The number N of “equivalent points” on a screen is given by
N = Span / RBW
In conclusion, the minimum sweep time for a correct measurement is
3Span
ST  N  T 
RBW 2
29
Specifications
Resolution: RBW Determines Measurement Time
Swept too fast
Penalty For Sweeping Too Fast

Is An Uncalibrated Display
Specifications
Sensitivity/DANL
Mixer Detector
RF
Input
RES BW
Filter
LO
Sweep
A Spectrum Analyzer Generates and Amplifies Noise

Just Like Any Active Circuit
Specifications
Sensitivity/DANL
Effective Level of Displayed Noise is a

Function of RF Input Attenuation
signal level
10 dB
Attenuation = 10 dB Attenuation = 20 dB
Signal-To-Noise Ratio Decreases as

RF Input Attenuation is Increased

Attenuation - Noise Level (DANL)
33
Noise Figure and DANL
The spectral density of thermal noise is equal to:
pT = kT  410-21 W/Hz  -174 dBm/Hz

 W J
At ambient temperature, and k  1.38 10   is the Boltzmann
-23

constant  Hz K K 
Noise Figure is defined as the ratio between the instrument noise level and the
thermal noise:
NF = DANL[measured noise in dBm] – 10 log[kT × RBW/(1 mW)]=

= DANL[measured noise in dBm] – 10 log(RBW/1 Hz) – (-174 dBm/Hz)
(in the approximation of equivalent-noise-bandwidth  RBW)
Noise figure is independent of IF-filter bandwidth, while the displayed averaged

noise level (DANL) on the analyzer changes with bandwidth.
A typical value for NF is 20-24 dB

34
Specifications
Sensitivity/DANL: IF Filter (RBW)
Displayed Noise is a Function of IF

Filter Bandwidth
100 kHz RBW
10 dB 10 kHz RBW
10 dB 1 kHz RBW
Decreased BW = Decreased Noise

RBW – Noise Level (DANL)
36
Specifications
Sensitivity/DANL: VBW
Video BW Smoothes Noise for Easier

Identification of Low Level Signals

Specifications
Sensitivity/DANL
Sensitivity is the Smallest Signal That

Can Be Measured
2.2 dB
Signal
Equals
Noise

Specifications
Sensitivity/DANL
For Best Sensitivity Use:
 Narrowest Resolution BW
 Minimum RF Input Attenuation
 Sufficient Video Filtering

(Video BW < .01 Res BW)

Specifications
Accuracy
Absolute Relative
Amplitude Amplitude
in dBm in dB
Frequency
Relative
Frequency

Specifications
Accuracy: Frequency Readout Accuracy
Typical datasheet specification:
Spans < 2 MHz: _+ (freq. readout x freq. ref. accuracy

+ 1% of frequency span
+ 15% of resolution bandwidth
+ 10 Hz "residual error")

Specifications
Accuracy: Frequency Readout Accuracy Example
Single Marker Example:

2 GHz
400 kHz span
3 kHz RBW
-7
Calculation: (2x109 Hz) x (1.3x10 /yr.ref.error) = 260 Hz
1% of 400 kHz span = 4000 Hz
15% of 3 kHz RBW = 450 Hz
10 Hz residual error = 10 Hz
Total = +
_ 4720 Hz

Specifications
Accuracy: Relative Amplitude Accuracy
 Display fidelity
 Frequency response
 RF Input attenuator
 Reference level
 Resolution bandwidth
 Display scaling

Specifications
Accuracy: Relative Amplitude Accuracy - Freq. Response
Signals in the Same Harmonic Band

+1 dB
- 1 dB
BAND 1
Specification: ± 1 dB

Specifications
Accuracy: Relative Amplitude Accuracy
Relative
 RF Input attenuator Amplitude
in dB
 Reference level
 Resolution bandwidth
 Display scaling

Specifications
Accuracy: Absolute Amplitude Accuracy
Absolute
Amplitude
in dBm
 Calibrator accuracy
 Frequency response
 Reference level uncertainty

Specifications
Resolution
What Determines Resolution?
Resolution Residual FM
Bandwidth
RBW Type and

Selectivity Noise Sidebands

Specifications
Resolution: Residual FM
Residual FM
"Smears" the Signal
Specifications
Resolution: Noise Sidebands
Phase Noise
Noise Sidebands can prevent

resolution of unequal signals
Specifications
Distortion
Mixers Generate Distortion
Frequency Translated
Signals
Resultant
Signal To
Be Measured
Mixer Generated
Distortion

Specifications
Distortion
Most Influential Distortion is the

Second and Third Order
< -50 dBc < -40 dBc < -50 dBc
Two-Tone Intermod Harmonic Distortion

Specifications
Distortion
Distortion Products Increase as a Function

of Fundamental's Power
3 3
Power Third-order distortion
in dB
Second-order distortion
2f1- f 2 f1 f2 2f2- f 1
Two-Tone Intermod
2 3
Power
Second Order: 2 dB/dB of Fundamental in dB
Third Order: 3 dB/dB of Fundamental
f 2f 3f
Harmonic Distortion
Specifications
Distortion
Relative Amplitude Distortion Changes with

Input Power Level
1 dB
20 dB
1 dB
21 dB
3 dB
2 dB
f 2f 3f

Specifications
Distortion
Distortion is a Function of
Mixer Level
0 .
-20
DISTORTION, dBc
Second
-40 Order
-60
-80
Third
-100
Order
-60 -30 0 +30
TOI
POWER AT MIXER =
INPUT - ATTENUATOR SETTING dBm

Specifications
Dynamic Range
Signal-to-Noise Ratio Can Be Graphed
0
.
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO, dBc
-20
Displayed Noise in
-40 a 1 kHz RBW
-60
-80
-100
-60 -30 0 +30
Displayed Noise in POWER AT MIXER =

a 100 Hz RBW

Specifications
Dynamic Range
Dynamic Range Can Be Presented Graphically

Maximum 2nd Order .
.
Dynamic Range
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO, dBc
-20
Maximum 3rd Order
Dynamic Range
-40
-60
-80
-100
-60 -30 0 +30
TOI SOI
POWER AT MIXER =
Optimum Mixer
Levels

Specifications
Dynamic Range
Dynamic Range for Spur Search Depends on

Closeness to Carrier
Dynamic Range Dynamic Range

Limited By Noise Sidebands Limited By
dBc/Hz Compression/Noise
Noise Sidebands Displayed Average

Noise Level
100 kHz
to
1 MHz

Specifications
Dynamic Range
Actual Dynamic Range is the Minimum of:
Maximum dynamic range calculation

Calculated from:
 distortion
 sensitivity
Noise sidebands at the offset frequency

Specifications
Dynamic Range
+30 dBm MAXIMUM POWER LEVEL
-10 dBm MIXER COMPRESSION
-35 dBm THIRD-ORDER DISTORTION

LCD-DISPLAY MEASUREMENT SECOND-ORDER
RANGE -45 dBm DISTORTION
RANGE 145 dB
80 dB SIGNAL/NOISE
RANGE NOISE
105 dB
SIGNAL /3rd ORDER 0 dBc SIDEBANDS
DISTORTION
80 dB RANGE
INCREASING SIGNAL/ 2nd ORDER
DISTORTION SIGNAL/NOISE
BANDWIDTH OR 70 dB RANGE SIDEBANDS
ATTENUATION 60 dBc/1kHz
-115 dBm (1 kHz BW & 0 dB ATTENUATION) MINIMUM NOISE FLOOR

SPAN ZERO
Modulation Measurements: Time Domain
It was mentioned briefly that although a

spectrum analyzer is primarily used to
view signals in the frequency domain, it is
also possible to use the spectrum
analyzer to look at the time domain. This MARKER
is done with a feature called zero-span. 10 msec
This is useful for determining modulation 1.000 X
type or for demodulation.
The spectrum analyzer is set for a
frequency span of zero (hence the term
zero-span) with some nonzero sweep
time. The center frequency is set to the
carrier frequency and the resolution
bandwidth must be set large enough to
allow the modulation sidebands to be
CENTER 100 MHz SPAN 0 Hz
included in the measurement . The
RES BW 1 MHz VBW 3 MHz SWP 50 msec
analyzer will plot the amplitude of the
signal versus time, within the limitations
of its detector and video and RBWs.

Specifications
Frequency Range
Low frequencies
for baseband and IF
Measuring harmonics
50 GHz and beyond!

Higher Bands
62
LO Harmonics
63
Noise level for higher bands
64
External Mixer
65
External Mixer
66
Image shift
67
Image suppress
MIN HOLD
function, which saves
the smaller value of
each display point
68
Modern Spectrum Analyzer:
Digital Receiver
69
Modern SA block diagram
70
Real-time Architecture
71
Real-Time
72
Real-Time
73
Measurement Time
The system is no-more swept: the local oscillator is at a fixed frequency and the
frequency measurement is made by an FFT technique.
If SPAN < RTB (real time bandwidth), the measurement time is limited by the
frequency resolution:
Acquisition time = T = 1 /RBW
We have to consider also the time needed for the FFT elaboration, but it is often
negligible (and some FFTs are made in parallel)
If SPAN > RTB, the local oscillator is moved for discrete steps, and the screen
spectrum is a collage of some FFT results (no more phase coherence in the whole
spectrum)
Screen time = SPAN / RTB × (1 /RBW )
For low RBW values it is much faster than swept analyzer (ST  3SPAN / RTB2)
74
New measurement possibilities
75
4-port Reflectometer
76

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Radiofrequency

• AGILENT “Spectrum Analysis Basics”

SPECTRUM ANALYZER 9 kHz - 26.5 GHz

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

10 DIV vertical: POWER [dBm]

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

f LO- f sig f LO+ f sig

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

RBW = 3 kHz RBW = 10 kHz

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

For RBW < 1 kHz, the IF

RES BW 100 Hz SPAN 3 kHz

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

"bins" Positive detection: largest value

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

SPECTRUM ANALYZER 9 kHz - 26.5 GHz

Rise time = T = k /RBW

The value of k is in the 2 to 3 range for the synchronously-tuned, near-Gaussian

The number N of “equivalent points” on a screen is given by

In conclusion, the minimum sweep time for a correct measurement is

Swept too fast

Penalty For Sweeping Too Fast

A Spectrum Analyzer Generates and Amplifies Noise

Effective Level of Displayed Noise is a

Signal-To-Noise Ratio Decreases as

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

pT = kT  410-21 W/Hz  -174 dBm/Hz

NF = DANL[measured noise in dBm] – 10 log[kT × RBW/(1 mW)]=

Noise figure is independent of IF-filter bandwidth, while the displayed averaged

A typical value for NF is 20-24 dB

Displayed Noise is a Function of IF

Decreased BW = Decreased Noise

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Video BW Smoothes Noise for Easier

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Sensitivity is the Smallest Signal That

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

For Best Sensitivity Use:

 Minimum RF Input Attenuation

 Sufficient Video Filtering

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Typical datasheet specification:

Spans < 2 MHz: _+ (freq. readout x freq. ref. accuracy

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Single Marker Example:

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Signals in the Same Harmonic Band

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

 Reference level uncertainty

Copyright 2000 Spectrum Analyzer Basics

What Determines Resolution?