An Introduction To Transducers and Instrumentation

An Introduction to
Transducers and Instrumentation
Curriculum Manual IT02
©2007 LJ Create. This publication is copyright and no Lesson Module: 17.50 Version 0
part of it may be adapted or reproduced in any material Issue: ME706/F
form except with the prior written permission of LJ Create.
IT02 An Introduction to Transducers and Instrumentation
Curriculum Manual Addendum Sheet
Addendum Sheet
Please note that the following warning label has now been added to the D1750
trainer.
This is to indicate the area of moving parts, and that fingers should be kept clear.
Keep fingers clear of all

moving parts
Technical Publications Department

LJ Create
Curriculum Manual Contents
Chapter Contents Pages

Introduction ............................................................................................. i - iv
Basic Control Systems
Chapter 1 Basic Control Systems Equipment and Terms Used ..........1 - 16

Input Transducers
Chapter 2 Positional Resistance Transducers ...................................17 - 32

Chapter 3 Wheatstone Bridge Measurements ...................................33 - 52
Chapter 4 Temperature Sensors ........................................................53 - 76
Chapter 5 Light Measurement...........................................................77 - 98
Chapter 6 Linear Position or Force Applications............................99 - 114
Chapter 7 Environmental Measurement .......................................115 - 126
Chapter 8 Rotational Speed or Position Measurement .................127 - 152
Chapter 9 Sound Measurements ...................................................153 - 162
Output Transducers
Chapter 10 Sound Output................................................................163 - 172
Chapter 11 Linear or Rotational Motion.........................................173 - 190
Display Devices
Chapter 12 Display Devices............................................................191 - 208
Signal Conditioning Circuits
Chapter 13 Signal Conditioning Amplifiers ...................................209 - 234

Chapter 14 Signal Conversions.......................................................235 - 252
Chapter 15 Comparators, Oscillators and Filters ............................253 - 270
Chapter 16 Mathematical Operations .............................................271 - 290
Closed Loop Control Systems
Chapter 17 Control System Characteristics ....................................291 - 300

Chapter 18 Practical Control Systems ............................................301 - 334
An Introduction to Transducers and Instrumentation IT02
Contents Curriculum Manual
Appendices
Appendix A Using a Multimeter ...................................................... 335 - 340

Appendix B The Oscilloscope ......................................................... 341 - 362
Curriculum Manual Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
This comprehensive course of study is based on a single panel Transducer and

Instrumentation Trainer, the DIGIAC 1750.
The D1750 unit provides examples of a full range of input and output transducers,
signal conditioning circuits and display devices.
The unit is self-contained and enables the characteristics of many individual

devices to be investigated, building to form complete closed loop systems.
As each item is introduced there is a description of the principles of the device,

together with practical exercises to illustrate its characteristics and applications.
The treatment is non-mathematical and little previous knowledge is assumed,

although it is expected that students will have a basic knowledge of electrical
circuits and units, and electronic components and devices.
It is the intention that at the end of this course the student will, with the knowledge
gained, be able to select suitable components and interconnect them to form
required closed-loop systems.
Although the course has been laid out progressively it is sometimes necessary to
make use of a device before a full investigation has been carried out. For instance,
in order to investigate any input transducer, an input signal may be needed. This
signal may be provided by one of the output transducers not yet covered. Also
signal conditioning and display devices will be needed from an early stage. In the
event of any difficulty, it is recommended that the student should skip forward to
the relevant section to obtain further information.
i
Introduction Curriculum Manual
Test Instruments
A digital multimeter will be required when working through this module. The
meter must have ranges to cover at least:
DC voltage: 200mV to 20V

DC current: 1mA to 100mA
Resistance: 10Ω to 10MΩ
To complete the exercises you will need to be familiar with connecting, setting the
range and obtaining readings from multimeters. If you are not familiar with the
use of these instruments please refer first to Appendix A before carrying out any
exercises.
Note that some of the exercises in Chapter 4 (Temperature Measurement) will

require the use of two multimeters.
Some examinations of voltage waveforms will be required using an oscilloscope.

You will be expected to be able to make the necessary adjustments and settings to
obtain time related sketches of the waveforms examined. Recommendations for
the settings of the various controls will be given where appropriate. Again, if you
are not familiar with this instrument or the applications of it, please refer to
Appendix B before attempting the relevant exercise.
A function generator will be required to provide sinewave and square wave inputs
to some circuits. This should have a range of frequencies covering at least 10Hz -
1MHz, and output of 20Vp-p (with an internal attenuator to allow amplitude
settings), and an output impedance of 50 Ω. The output lead should be terminated
in standard 4mm banana plugs for ease of connection directly to the D1750
Trainer panel.
ii
Curriculum Manual Introduction
The Module Power Supplies
The D1750 Transducer and Instrumentation Trainer contains all of the power
supplies needed to make it operate. You can switch these power supplies ON and
OFF with the Power Supplies switch located on the rear panel.
Making Circuit Connections
During each Practical Exercise in this manual, you will be asked to make circuit
connections using the 4mm Patching Cords. Whenever you make (or change)
circuit connections, it is good practice to always do so with the Power Supplies
switch in the OFF position. You should switch the Power Supplies ON only after
you have made, and checked, your connections.
Remember that the Power Supplies switch must be ON in order for you to be able
to make the observations and measurements required in the Exercise.
At the end of each Exercise, you should return the 'Power Supplies' switch to the
'OFF' position before you dismantle your circuit connections.
Your Workstation
Depending on the laboratory environment in which you are working, your

workstation may, or may not, be computer managed. This will affect the way that
you use this laboratory manual.
If you are in any doubt about whether your workstation is computer managed, you
should consult your instructor.
iii
Introduction Curriculum Manual
Using this Manual at a Computer Managed Workstation
In order to use this curriculum manual at a computer managed workstation you

will require one of the following items:
♦ D3000 Hand-held Data Terminal.

♦ A personal computer (PC) that has been installed with computer managed
student workstation software.
If you are working in a computer managed environment for the first time, you
should first read the operating information that has been provided with your
computer managed workstation. This tell you how to:
♦ Log onto the management system and request work.

♦ Make responses to questions in a computer managed environment.
♦ Hand in your work when completed.
♦ Log off at the end of your work session.
Whenever you see the symbol in the left-hand margin of this Curriculum
Manual, you are required to respond to questions using your computer managed
workstation. You should also record your responses so that you can review them
at any time in the future.
The following D3000 Lesson Module is available for use with this Curriculum
Manual:
D3000 Lesson Module 17.50
Using this Manual at a Workstation that is not Computer Managed
Whenever you see the symbol in the left-hand margin of this Curriculum
Manual, you are required to answer a question. If your workstation is not
computer managed, you should record your answer so that it can be subsequently
marked by your instructor.
Good luck with your Studies.
iv
IT02 Basic Control Systems Equipment and Terms Used
Curriculum Manual Chapter 1
Chapter 1
Basic Control Systems Equipment and Terms Used
Objectives of Having studied this Chapter you will be able to:

this Chapter
 State the difference between open loop and closed
loop systems.
 Write the expression for the overall gain of a negative

feedback closed loop system.
 Calculate the overall gain of a negative feedback

closed loop system from given information.
 List the basic components of a closed loop system and

explain their functions.
 Explain the meaning of terms associated with control

system equipment.
1
Basic Control Systems Equipment and Terms Used IT02
Chapter 1 Curriculum Manual
1.1 Open Loop System
Figure 1.1 represents a block diagram of an open loop system. A reference input,
or command signal, is fed to an actuator which operates on the controlled variable
to produce an output.
Reference I/P Controlled O/P

Actuator
(Command Signal) Variable
Fig 1.1
The output magnitude depends on the magnitude of the reference input signal but
the actual output magnitude for a particular input may not remain constant but
may vary due to changes within or exterior to the system.
For example, in a simple room heating application, a heater set for a certain output
will result in a certain room temperature. The actual temperature will depend on
the ambient temperature outside the room and also whether the doors and
windows are open or closed.
2
1.2 Closed Loop System
Figure 1.2 shows a basic block diagram of a closed loop control system.
With this system, the output magnitude is sensed, fed back and compared with the
desired value as represented by the reference input. Any error signal is fed to the
actuator to vary the controlled variable to reduce this error.
Reference I/P
Error Controlled O/P
Actuator
Detector Variable
Sensor
Feedback
signal
Fig 1.2
The system thus tends to maintain a constant output magnitude for a fixed
magnitude input reference signal. The feedback signal is effectively subtracted
from the reference signal input to obtain the error signal and hence the system is
referred to as a negative feedback system.
The magnitude of the reference signal required for a particular output magnitude
for a closed loop system will be greater than that required for open loop operation
because the negative feedback reduces the overall gain of the system.
3
1.3 Gain in an Open Loop System
Input
Vi Gain Output
Vo
G
Fig 1.3
Output Vo = G Vi Gain = G
1.4 Gain in a Closed Loop System
Error
Input
Vi (Vi - HVo) Gain Output
Vo
G
Feedback (HVo) Attenuator

H
Fig 1.4
H = the fraction of the output fed back to the input

The error signal = Vi - HVo
The output Vo = G(Vi - HVo)
= GVi - GHVo
Vo + GHVo = GVi
Vo(1 + GH) = GVi
Vo G
=
Vi 1 + GH
i.e. Gain = G
1 + GH
4
The gain is therefore reduced, and, if the gain G is very large, the formula
simplifies to:-
G 1
Gain = =
GH H
If the gain of the amplifier (G) is high then the overall system gain is dependent
only on the feedback fraction H.
1.5 Examples
(i) An amplifier has a gain (G) of 15 and a feedback loop with an attenuation
1
fraction (H) of .
30
Vo
The loop gain of the system will be:
Vi
G 15 15
= = = 10
1 + GH 1 1
1 + 15 1+
30 2
(ii) An amplifier with a gain of 100 has 10% negative feedback (H = 0.1).
Vo
The loop gain of the system will be:
Vi
G = 100 = 100 = 9.1
1 + GH 1 + 100 × 0.1 1 + 10
1
Note that = 10, which is very nearly the same as the loop gain.
H
1.5a An amplifier with a gain (G) of 20 has a feedback fraction (H) of 0.15. The
loop gain of the system will be:
a 3 b 4 c 5 d 6.67
5
1.6 Practical Closed Loop Control System
Figure 1.5 shows a block diagram of a practical closed loop control system. This
shows signal conditioning blocks in the signal paths between the error detector
and the actuator and between the sensor and the error detector.
Reference I/P
Error Signal Controlled O/P
Actuator
Detector Conditioning Variable
Signal
Sensor
Conditioning
Signal
Conditioning
Display
Fig 1.5
It also shows a display which indicates the magnitude of the output variable and
includes a signal conditioning block in the display path.
Signal conditioning may consist of signal amplification, attenuation or linearising,

waveform filtering or modification, conversion from analog to digital form, or
may be a matching circuit. These may be necessary to convert the output from one
circuit into a form suitable for the input to the following circuit, or to improve the
system accuracy.
6
1.7 Controlled Variables
For a particular industrial process there may be more than one controlled variable
and each of the controlled variables will have its own closed loop control system.
The controlled variable may be:-

Position (angular or linear)
Temperature
Pressure
Flow rate
Humidity
Speed (angular or linear)
Acceleration
Light level
Sound level
The control system may operate using pneumatic, hydraulic or electrical principles
and the sensors used for the measurement of the controlled variable must provide
an output signal in a form suitable for the system in use.
This will normally involve a conversion from one energy system to another and
devices used to accomplish this energy conversion are referred to a

TRANSDUCERS. Sensors and actuators are both forms of transducer, sensors
representing input transducers and actuators representing output transducers.
The DIGIAC 1750 unit is an electrical system and includes a full range of sensors,
actuators, signal conditioning circuits and display devices. Used with this manual,
the unit will introduce the student to the basic principles and characteristics of a
comprehensive range of transducers and their application to practical closed loop
control systems.
7
1.8 Glossary of Terms - Transducers
Transducer: A device which converts information from one energy system to

another.
Sensor: A device which senses, or measures, the magnitude of system variables.
Normally
system andthey also
hence convert
they thetransducers.
are also measured quantity into another energy
Actuator: A device which accepts an input in one system and converts it into
another energy system, which is normally mechanical. These devices
are also transducers.
Specification: Data specifying the performance capabilities and requirements of
equipment.
Accuracy: The error present in a measurement as compared to the true value of the
quantity.
Sensitivity: The ratio of the output of a device compared to the magnitude of the
input quantity.
Resolution: The largest change in the input that produces no detectable change in
the output; for example, the degree to which a system can distinguish
between adjacent values or settings.
Range: A statement of the values over which the device can be used and within
which the accuracy is within the stated specification.
Bandwidth: The range of input signal frequencies over which a device or circuit is
capable of being operated while providing an output within its stated
specification.
Transfer function: The mathematical relationship between two variables that are related.
Normally the relationship between the input and output of a system.
Linear: A relationship between two quantities that have a constant ratio; for
example, a graphical straight line relationship.
Non linear: A relationship between two quantities that cannot be described by a
linear relationship.
A measure of the deviation of a measurement from an ideal straight line
Linearity: response of the same measurement over the same range.
Response time: The time taken for the output to reach, or be within a rated percentage
of, a new final value, after the input has been changed.
9
1.9 Glossary of Terms - Signal Conditioning Circuits
Amplifier: A circuit having an input and output that are related linearly and
with the output greater than the input. The circuit may operate on
both DC and AC circuits
Offset: For
ThisaisDC amplifier,
referred to aswith
the the input
offset. zero,these
With the output may not
amplifiers, be zero.
a control is
provided and labeled: "Offset" or "Set Zero" to set the output to
zero with the input zero, before the amplifier is used.
Gain: The ratio of output to input for a circuit.
Attenuator: A circuit having an input and an output that are related linearly and
having an output less than the input.
AC Amplifier: An amplifier that will amplify alternating signals only.
Differential Amplifier: A voltage amplifier having two inputs and where the output voltage
magnitude is proportional to the difference in voltages between the
two inputs.
Summing Amplifier: A voltage amplifier having multiple inputs, the output being
proportional to the sum of the various applied inputs.
Inverter: A voltage amplifier having the polarity of the output the reverse of
the input. The output magnitude may be the same as the input (gain
of -1), or there may be voltage gain associated with the polarity
reversal.
Power Amplifier: An amplifier with a large current output capability.
Buffer Amplifier: An amplifier having unity gain (output = input), and having a high
input impedance and a low output impedance.
Comparator: A circuit having two inputs A & B and an output that can be in one
of two possible states depending on the magnitudes of the inputs.
With input A greater than B, the output will be in one state
(possibly high voltage). With input A less than B, the output will
be in the alternative state (low voltage).
Oscillator: A circuit producing an alternating output at a particular frequency.
Alarm Oscillator: A circuit having an input and an output. With the input magnitude
below a certain level, the output is zero. When the input exceeds
the threshold the output is an alternating voltage.
10
Hysteresis: The transfer characteristic of a non-linear device for increasing

input voltages may be different from the characteristic for
decreasing input voltages. The result is a 'hysteresis loop,' as shown
in figure 1.7(a) below. For a switching circuit, the term 'hysteresis'
normally refers to the input switching voltages. The input voltage to
cause switching for rising input voltages is arranged to be higher
than that to produce switching for falling input voltages (see figure
1.7(b) below). The difference between the input voltages is referred
to as the hysteresis.
Output Output for

fallinginput Rising
Voltage
I/P Hysteresis Switchin

Voltage Levels
Output for Falling

risinginput Voltage
Input
(a) (b)
Fig 1.7
Latch: A circuit having two possible output states depending on the

magnitude of the input voltage. When operated with the input level
sufficient to change the output to its alternative state, the output is
held (or latched) in this state irrespective of the subsequent
magnitude of the input voltage.
Filter: Circuit designed to allow signals of a selected frequency range to
pass through and stop all others.
Low Pass Filter: A circuit allowing low frequency signals to pass while blocking the
passage of higher frequencies.
High Pass Filter: A circuit allowing high frequency signals to pass while blocking
the passage of lower frequencies.
11
Band Pass Filter: A circuit allowing signals over a selected range of frequencies to
pass while blocking the passage of signals at both lower and higher
frequencies.
Full-Wave Rectifier: A circuit converting an alternating waveform into a unidirectional
or DC waveform.
V/F Converter: A circuit converting a DC input voltage to an alternating voltage,

the frequency being dependent on the magnitude of the DC input
voltage.
F/V Converter: A circuit converting an alternating input voltage to a direct voltage
output, the output voltage magnitude being proportional to the
frequency of the input voltage.
V/I Converter: A circuit converting an direct input voltage into an output current,
the current magnitude depending on the input voltage.
I/V Converter: A circuit converting an input current into an output voltage, the
voltage magnitude being dependent on the magnitude of the input
current.
Integrator: A circuit having an output voltage that is proportional to the
product (input voltage x time).
Differentiator: A circuit having an output voltage that is proportional to the rate-

of-change of the input voltage.
Sample and Hold: A circuit with input and output. In the sample state, the output
voltage is equal to and follows any changes in the input voltage. In
the hold state, the output voltage is held at the value of the input
signal at the instant the "hold" signal was initiated.
Ultrasonic: A signal at a frequency above the normal audio range and hence
inaudible to the human ear (normally >16kHz).
12
Student Assessment 1
Reference I/P
O/P
1 2 Actuator 3
4 Sensor
5
Practical Closed Loop Control System
6
Fig 1
1. In Fig 1 block numbered 1 is a:

a signal conditioner b display
c controlled variable d error detector


4. A closed loop control system has an open loop gain G and a negative feedback factor H.
The expression for the overall gain of the system with feedback applied is:
H G 1+ GH
a 1+ GH b 1 + GH c 1 + GH d G
Continued ...
13
Student Assessment 1 Continued ...
5. An electrical control system produces an output of 50V for a reference input of 1V

under open loop conditions. If a fraction 0.1 of the output is fed back as negative
feedback to the input, the input reference voltage now required to produce the same
output of 50V is:
a 10V b 8.33V c 6V d 5V
6. Which of the following is NOT a function of a signal conditioning circuit?

a waveform modification b error detection
c amplification d attenuation
7. The term accuracy refers to the:

a conversion of energy from one form to another
b largest change of input that produces no change in the output
c error present in a measurement compared to the true value
d mathematical relationship between the input and output of a system
8. A device has an output that is variable in 250 equal increments and has a maximum
output of 10V. The resolution of the device is:
a 0.25V b 0.1V c 0.04V d 0.4V
9. A filter which passes all signals at frequencies above 10kHz is called a:

a high pass filter b band pass filter c low pass filter d band stop filter
10. An example of a band pass filter response is one which will:

a pass all signals at frequencies below 10kHz
b pass all signals at frequencies above 12kHz
c pass all signals at frequencies below 10kHz and above 12kHz

d pass all signals at frequencies below 12kHz and above 10kHz
14
11. An electrical comparator is a circuit with:

a one input and one output b two inputs and one output
c one input and two outputs d two inputs and two outputs
12. A comparator with hysteresis is one which will:

a hold the output state after the input voltages are removed
b change output state at precisely the same differential between the input voltages
c change output state at different rising input voltage to falling input voltage
d change output state if the input signals are within the correct range of frequencies
13. A comparator with latch is one which will:

a hold the output state after the input voltages are removed
b change output state at precisely the same differential between the input voltages
c change output state at different rising input voltage to falling input voltage
d change output state if the input signals are within the correct range of frequencies
14. An open-loop control system is one in which:

a there is not feedback from output back to input
b negative feedback is applied from output to input
c positive feedback is applied from output to input
d there is no connection between input and output
15
16
IT02 Positional Resistance Transducers
Chapter 2
Positional Resistance Transducers

this Chapter
 Describe the basic construction of rotary and slider
variable resistors.
 State that the resistance section may be either a carbon
track or wirewound.
 Describe the difference between a logarithmic and a
linear track.
 Draw the basic characteristics of output voltage
against variable control setting.
 Describe the effect on the output voltage of loading
the output circuit.
 Compare the application of a carbon track variable
resistor to the wirewound type.
Equipment • DIGIAC 1750 Transducer and Instrumentation Trainer.

Required for • 4mm Connecting Leads.
this Chapter • Digital Multimeter.
17
Positional Resistance Transducers IT02
2.1 Variable Resistor Construction
A variable resistor consists of a "track" having a fixed overall resistance with a

"wiper" which can be moved to make contact with any point along the track.
In the carbon type, the total track resistance is varied by adjusting the proportion
of non-conducting material to carbon in the compound during manufacture. This
will produce a track of constant resistance along its length, so that any section of
the track will have the same resistance as any other similar section. The track will
be linear.
Variable resistors intended for use in audio applications, where subjective

appreciation of sound amplitude (loudness) is proportional to logarithmic scales,
are made with similar logarithmic (non-linear) scales. The resistance along the
track is not a linear relationship, increasing with the square of the rotation of the
spindle, or movement of the slide wiper (R ∝ S2, where S is the setting of the
wiper). A close approximation is made to the ideal logarithmic characteristic by
using three or four sections of track with different resistance slopes.
Non-Linear variable resistors are not suitable as positional transducers and are
therefore not included on the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer facilities.
The track can be laid out on a rotary or a straight base, as in Fig 2.1.
CarbonTracks Wirewound
Wiper
Wiper Carbon Wire
Carbon Track
Wiper Track Coil
Metal strip
Connections
Connections Connections
Slider Type Rotary Types
Fig 2.1
For higher power applications the track may be wire wound, with the wiper
making contact with the top edge of a coil of resistance wire.
18
2.2 Linear Variable Resistor Characteristics
A variable resistor can be used to provide a variable voltage. A steady voltage is

applied across the ends of the fixed track. The wiper then picks off a variable
voltage at the contact point with the track (with respect to the end of the track).
Used in this way the variable resistor is called a potentiometer.
+5V +5V
10
9
8
7 Variable
6 Contact
Setting O/P
5
4
3 O/P
2
0V 1 0V
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 891 0
Variable Contact Setting
Fig 2.2
With a dual polarity voltage source, the polarity and magnitude of the output
voltage will depend on the direction of movement of the wiper from its central
position, as shown in Fig 2.3.
+5V +5V
10
9
8
7 Variable O/P
6 Contact
Setting 0V
0V 5
4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 891 0
Variable Contact
3 O/P Setting
2
1 -5V
-5V
Fig 2.3
Note that the position of the variable resistor spindle (or slider) setting is indicated
by the output voltage from the potentiometer.
19
2.3 Practical Exercise

Variation of Output Voltage with Setting of Rotary Potentiometer
C
+12V
CARBON TRACK
5 6 C
4 7
3 8 B
B 9
Digital 2
A
1 10
Meter 100k V Digital
V Meter
0V +12V
0V
A
SchematicDiagram PhysicalLayoutDiagram
Fig 2.4
 Locate the 100k Ω variable resistor on the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer (bottom
left-hand corner). Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 2.4 using the power
supply facilities at the bottom of the panel and the 20V DC range of a digital
multimeter.
 Set the 100k Ω rotary resistor control fully counter-clockwise to setting 1 as

shown in Fig 2.4. Note that the dial is not marked with numbers on the
printed panel. These numbers have been shown in Fig 2.4 to make it easier
to follow these instructions and collate results.
 After ensuring that the voltage adjustment is correctly set switch ON the
power supply (switch on the rear of the unit just above the main power
socket).
 Note the output voltage as indicated on the digital multimeter and record in
Table 2.1.
Control Setting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Output Voltage
V V V V V V V V V V
Table 2.1
 Set the rotary control to "2" and repeat the reading, recording the result in
again Table 2.1.
20
 Repeat the reading and recording for all other settings of the rotary control.
 From the results recorded in Table 2.1 plot the characteristic of the 100k Ω
variable resistor on graticule of Graph 2.1 below.
12
11
10
Output 9
Voltage
(volts)
8
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 0
resistor setting
Graph 2.1 Characteristic of a Linear Rotary Carbon Potentiometer
Note that it is not easy to be precise with your setting of the variable resistor and
this may result in the plotted points not following a smooth relationship. You
should draw the best compromise to show the characteristic as you believe that it
should be. At the ends of the track the wiper comes into contact with the terminal
connections to the track, causing non-linearity at both ends. From setting 2
through setting 9 the variation of voltage should be fairly linear.
Voltage across this section (V9 - V2) = V
V9 − V2
Voltage per division ( )= V
9-2
2.3a Enter your voltage per division.
 Switch OFF the power supply.
21

Variation of Output Voltage with Setting of Slide Potentiometer
C SLIDE
+5V C
A
B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k
Digital V
V
Meter
Digital Meter
-5V 0V -5V 0V +5V

A
Fig 2.5
 The 10k Ω slide potentiometer on the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer is just above the
rotary potentiometers. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 2.5 using the
power supply facilities at the bottom of the panel and the 20V DC range of
your digital multimeter.
 Set the 10k Ω slide resistor control to the left to setting 1 as shown in Fig 2.5.
Note that the marked numbers are again not on the printed panel.
 Switch ON the power supply.
 Note the output voltage as indicated on the digital multimeter and record in
Table 2.2.
Control Setting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Output Voltage
V V V V V V V V V V
Table 2.2

Set the control to "2" and repeat the reading.
 Repeat the readings for all other settings of the slide control, recording the
result in Table 2.2.
22
 From the results recorded in Table 2.2 plot the characteristic of the 10k Ω
slide resistor with dual polarity supply on graticule of Graph 2.2 below.
+5
Output +4
Voltage
(volts) +3
+2
+1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
resistor setting
Graph 2.2 Characteristic of a Linear Slide Carbon Potentiometer

Switch OFF theand
potentiometer power supplysupply
the power and remove
panels.the connections between the slide
 Use the digital multimeter on a suitable range (20k Ω) to measure the

resistance between terminal A and wiper B with the wiper set to position 9:
Resistance R9 = k
 Move the wiper to position 2 and repeat the resistance measurement:
Resistance R2 = k
Resistance between settings 9 & 2 = R 9 - R2 = k
Voltage between settings 9 & 2 = V9 - V2 = V
Voltage per k = V9 -V=2 V/k

(R 9 -R 2 )k Ω
2.4a Enter your voltage per k
23
2.5 Effect of Loading
Consider a 10kΩ variable resistor connected to a 10V supply with the wiper in its
central position. There will be a resistance of 5k Ω from the wiper to each end of
the track (Fig 2.6(a)).
If a 5kΩ fixed resistor is connected across the output then it will be in parallel
with the lower half of the potentiometer (Fig 2.6(b)) and will draw current through
the upper half of the potentiometer. This causes a higher voltage drop across the
upper half of the track than the lower half (Fig 2.6(c)).
+10V +10V +10V
5k Ω 5k Ω 5k Ω 6.67V
3.33V O/P
5V
O/P 5k Ω 5k Ω 2.5k Ω 3.33V

5k Ω
0V 0V 0V
(a) (b) (c)

Fig 2.6
Another way of looking at this is that the shunting effect of the 5k Ω load resistor
is to reduce the total resistance of the lower half to 2.5k Ω (Fig 2.6(c)). Only one
third of the applied voltage will be dropped across the lower half and two thirds
across the upper.
The variations of resistance as the wiper is moved will be quite complex and the
voltage at the output will be non-linear.
24

Effect of Loading on the Potentiometer Output Voltage
 With the power supply switched OFF and no connections made to any
components, measure the resistance of the 100k Ω rotary variable resistor
between contact A and the wiper as it is set to the marked points on its scale.
Use a suitable scale (200k Ω) on your digital multimeter and record the
results in Table 2.3 overleaf in the row marked "Load Resistance".
The 100kΩ resistor is to be used as a load resistance across the output of a 10k Ω
position sensing variable resistor.
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 2.7 but initially leave out the lead from
contact C of the 100k Ω resistor to contact B of the 10k Ω so that the load is
not connected across the output.
C
+12V CARBON TRACK WIREWOUND TRACK Omit lead
at first
5 6 C 5 6 C
4 7 4 7
3 8 B 3 8 B
B
2 9 2 9
10k Ω 1 10
A
1 10
A V
100k 10k Digital
Meter
V
Digital 0V +12V
100k Ω
0V Meter
A
SchematicDiagram Physical LayoutDiagram
Fig 2.7
 Switch the power supply ON and adjust the 10k Ω rotary resistor to give an
output of 6V.
Do not re-adjust this setting during the rest of this exercise.
 Set the 100k Ω resistor fully clockwise (10) and connect the missing lead
from contact C of the 100kΩ resistor to contact B of the 10k Ω so that the
load is connected across the output of the positional sensor (10kΩ resistor).
 Note the output voltage and record in Table 2.3.
25
Control Setting 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Output Voltage
V V V V V V V V V V
Load
Resistance kΩ kΩ kΩ kΩ kΩ kΩ kΩ kΩ kΩ kΩ
Table 2.3
 Change the setting of the 100k load resistor and record the effect as the
load resistor is set to each marked position in Table 2.3.
 From the information in Table 2.3, plot the characteristic of Output Voltage
against Load Resistance on the graticule of Graph 2.3 below:
Output
6
Voltage
(volts)
5
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Load Resistance (k
Graph 2.3
C MOVING COIL METER

+12V
CARBON TRACK 0
5 5
5 6 C
4 7 -10 +10
Digital
3 8 B Meter
B +
10k Ω 2 9
A
V
1 10 -
10k
L
V
J
Digital 0V
100k Ω
Meter 0V +12V
0V
A
Fig 2.8
26
Do not alter the setting of the 10k resistor.
 With the Load Resistance (100k Ω resistor) removed from circuit connect the
panel mounted Moving Coil Meter as in Fig 2.8 and switch ON the power
supply.

Note the effect on the output voltage reading of having the analog type
meter connected in circuit as well as the digital multimeter.
Multimeter voltage reading with the Moving Coil Meter connected
= V
 Compare this reading with the results on the characteristic curve of

Graph 2.3 and read off the graph the loading resistance presented by the
Moving Coil Meter to the output:
Loading resistance of the Moving Coil Meter = k
2.6a Enter your value of the loading resistance of the Moving Coil Meter in k .
What you have observed here is a problem which can be very misleading if you
are not aware of the difficulties of using a low impedance meter to take
measurements in a high impedance circuit. The problem can be overcome by using
a Buffer Amplifier.
MOVING COIL METER

CARBON TRACK 0
5 6 C BUFFER #1 5 5
4 7 -10 +10
3 8 B O/P
9 I/P +
2
A +VIN
1 10
10k -
0V +12V V
0V
L
J
Fig 2.9
 Modify the circuit to include Buffer #1 as in Fig 2.9 and note the effect on
the output voltage as indicated by both meters.
Output voltage = V (digital) V (analog)
2.6b Enter your value of analog output voltage with Buffer #1 in circuit in volts.
27
2.7 Resolution
Resolution has been defined as the largest change in the input which does not
cause a change in the output. Alternatively it can be defined as the smallest
change in input which does cause a change in output.
For the carbon

of carbon track
are tiny resistor
and this value
variations is very small
of resistance can besince the individual
considered particles
to be infinitely
small. The resolution for a wirewound resistor is not so good, since, as the wiper is
moved, it has to jump from one turn of the wire coil to the next.
The output voltage therefore increases in steps equal to the applied voltage divided
by the number of turns if the wiper only makes contact with one turn at a time.
Wiper
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
(a) (b) (c)

Fig 2.10
This may not be quite the case, since the wiper may make contact with two or
more turns at once as in Fig 2.10(b). The mathematical treatment of this will
depend on the thickness of the wire (power rating) and the size of the wiper
contact (current rating).
Multi-turn wirewound tracks will largely overcome this problem.
2.8 Comparison of Carbon with Wirewound Track
Carbon Wirewound
Cheap High Current Ratings

Good Resolution Durability (Reliability)
Can be made miniature
28

Servo Potentiometer
A special positional potentiometer is mounted on the experiment board which has

a very large arc of turning, approaching 360 °. It is called a Servo Potentiometer.
SERVO
POTENTIOMETER
+5V
2.2kΩ O/P
20kΩ
-5V V
0V
O/P
Schematic Diagram
V
Layout Diagram 0V
Fig 2.11
To bring the potentiometer scale into contact with the drive wheel on the shaft,
press and release the mounting at the point arrowed in Fig 2.11. The potentiometer
can then be turned manually with the shaft, using one of the large wheels, such as
the Hall Effect Sensor Disk. The potentiometer can be turned directly from the
dial, manually, if preferred.
The ±5V input voltages to the Servo Potentiometer are connected internally.
 Connect a digital multimeter on the 20V DC range to the output of the

potentiometer as shown in Fig 2.11.
 Turn the potentiometer to find the maximum positive output voltage

position. Note the value of this voltage and the angle, as given on the
potentiometer dial, in the first column of Table 2.4 overleaf.
29
360 330 300 270 240 210

Control Dial Setting 150 120 90 60 30
0 -30 -60 -90 -120 -150
Output Voltage
V V V V V V V V V V V V V
Table 2.4
 Rotate the dial in steps of 30 ° clockwise from the maximum voltage position
(beginning with 150°), noting the output voltage at each step and recording
the values in Table 2.4.
 At the final step note the angle from the dial setting and the value of the
maximum negative voltage setting.
 From the information recorded in Table 2.4, draw the characteristic of the
output voltage/dial setting of the Servo Potentiometer on the graticule
provided below:
+5
Output
Voltage +4
+3
+2
+1
-180 -150 -120 -90 -60 -30
30 60 90 120 150 180
-1 Dial
Setting
-2
-3
-4
-5
Graph 2.4 Characteristic of the Servo Potentiometer
2.9a Enter the dial setting in degrees for the maximum positive output voltage.
30
1. A log. scale (logarithmic) potentiometer is most suitable for use as a:

a linear positional transducer b linear voltage controller
c sound volume controller d rotary positional transducer
2. A variable resistor is stated to be wirewound. It is most likely to be:

a linear because the resistance will be constant along the wire's length
b linear as long as it is of the slide (not rotary) type
c logarithmic because of the inductance of the coiled wire
d non-linear because of the difficulty of making wire of a constant resistance
5 6
4 7
3 8
2 9
1 10 Fig 1
3. A linear potentiometer (as in Fig 1 above) has control settings of 1-10 and is connected
to a +9V, 0, -9V supply, with the -9V connection made to the end marked setting "1".
The voltage at the setting marked "6" will be:
a -1V b 0V c +1V d +1.8V
4. A 10k linear potentiometer is connected to a 12V supply. With the output circuit
loaded by a 5k load, the output voltage in the mid position (A) and maximum setting
(B) will be:
a A = 6V, B = 12V b A = 3V, B = 12V c A = 4V, B = 8V d A = 4V, B = 12V
5. A wirewound variable resistor consists of 1200 turns of wire. Assuming that the wiper
only makes contact with one turn at any time, and the applied voltage across the track is
10V, the resolution in terms of the output voltage will be:
a 8.3mV b 10mV c 12mV d 16.7mV
Continued...
31
Student Assessment 2 Continued...
100kΩ
A=1
10V A 100kΩ B
EMFSource BufferAmplifier
Fig 2
6. The circuit of Fig 2 consists of a source of EMF of 10V with an output resistance of
100k . The Buffer Amplifier has a gain of 1 and an input impedance of 100k and
is not initially connected to the source. What voltage would you expect to get at:
A - with a digital multimeter with an input resistance of 10M (A1),
A - with a moving coil meter with a resistance of 10k (A2), and
- using the same moving coil meter as in A2 above but connected to the supply via
the buffer amplifier (B):
a A1 = 10V, A2 = 1V, B = 10V b A1 = 9.9V, A2 = 0.9V, B = 10V
c A1 = 9.9V, A2 = 0.91V, B = 5V d A1 = 10V, A2 = 1V, B = 0.83V
7. Which of the following is NOT an advantage of the carbon track variable resistor
when compared with the wirewound type?
a cost b reliability c small size d resolution
32
IT02 Wheatstone Bridge Measurements
Chapter 3
Wheatstone Bridge Measurements

this Chapter
 State the principles of the basic Wheatstone Bridge
circuit for resistance measurement.
 Describe the term "null balance".
 State and apply the expression for calculating an
unknown resistance from the Bridge values at balance.
 Discuss the factors affecting the resolution and
accuracy of measurements.
 Discuss the reason for the three-wire resistance
circuit.
 Apply null methods to voltage measurements.
 Make resistance and voltage measurements using the
DIGIAC 1750 facilities.

33
Wheatstone Bridge Measurements IT02
3.1 Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
Fig 3.1 shows the basic Wheatstone Bridge circuit, consisting of four resistors and
a sensitive center zero meter connected to a DC source.
I
I1 I2
R1 R2
DC Im
Supply G
R3 R4
Fig 3.1
R1, R2 & R3 are accurate, close tolerance, resistors. R3 is variable and calibrated
over its full range. R4 is the unknown resistor to be measured.
3.2 Null Balance
During measurement, R3 is adjusted until there is no current (Im) flowing in the

galvanometer circuit. The galvanometer current is zero or "null". Under these
conditions, the bridge is said to be "balanced". Hence the term "null balance".
The purpose of the galvanometer is to "detect"the presence of the null condition.
From the known values of R1, R2 & R3 at balance, the value of R4 can be
calculated from:-
R2
R4 = x R3
R1
The ratio of the values of resistors R2:R1 sets the range, so that values of the
unknown resistor R4 which are larger or smaller than the variable resistor R3 can
be measured. There is no limit to the range of values which can be measured.
Any inaccuracy in the values of the ratio arm resistors R1 & R2, and also in the
standard variable resistor R3, will result in errors in the measured value of R4.
Since no current flows in the "null detector"branch at balance no error can be

introduced by this part of the circuit.
34
3.3 Deriving the Formula
With no current in the galvanometer circuit, the voltages at either end of it must be
the same. This means that the voltages across R1 & R2 must be the same and
similarly those across R3 & R4.
With no current in the galvanometer, the current in R1 must be the same as that in
R3 and the current in R2 must equal that in R4.
If current I1 flows in R1 & R3 and current I 2 flows in R2 & R4:-
I1R1 = I2R2..................................................................... (i)
I1R3 = I2R4.................................................................... (ii)
Dividing: (i) ÷ (ii)
I 1 R1 I 2 R2
=
I1 R3 I 2 R4
R1 R2
∴ =
R3 R4
R2
∴ R4 = × R3
R1
The unknown resistance R4 depends on the ratio R2:R1 and the value of R3 at
balance. The resistors R1 and R2 are normally referred to as the "ratio arms"of
the bridge.
Note 1. The value of the supply voltage or the magnitude of the currents flowing
in the resistors does not affect the result. This means that the supply voltage
need not be stabilized, and that the circuit currents can be kept to low values
for a component where the self heating effect of the current flowing could
affect the result.
2. The galvanometer current accuracy is unimportant, since, under balanced

conditions, the current in it is zero. The main characteristics required for the
galvanometer are a low resistance and a high sensitivity so that a small
deviation of voltage from zero produces a large scale reading.
35
3.4 The Three Wire Resistance Measuring Circuit
With some resistance transducer circuits, the transducer may be situated a

relatively large distance from the bridge circuit, and the resistance of the
connecting leads may be significant and could affect the results. For these
situations the three wire connection arrangement is used.
R1 R2 R1 R2
DC DC
Supply G Long leads Supply G Long leads
2-wire 3-wire
R3 R3
R4 R4
(a) (b)
Fig 3.2
Fig 3.2 (a) shows the circuit with a resistance transducer R4 situated remotely
from the bridge and connected via two wires. The resistance of these wires will be
included in the measurement of R4.
Fig 3.2 (b) shows the three wire arrangement. One of the wires to the transducer is
now included in the R2 circuit and the other is in the R4 circuit. The resistance of
both circuits will therefore be increased equally and the effect on the balance
condition will be minimized, provided that the resistances of R2 and R4 are of
similar magnitudes.
The extra wire in the galvanometer circuit will have no effect on the reading, since
there is no current flowing in it at the balance condition.
36
3.5 The DIGIAC 1750 Facilities
Fig 3.3 shows the Wheatstone Bridge layout provided with the DIGIAC 1750 unit.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Fine D
Setting unlock
C 12k
A Switch
lock OUT
3 B
Coarse IN
Setting
1V
Rx
0V
Fig 3.3
A high quality 10-turn potentiometer fulfills the functions of the resistors R1 &
R3 for resistance, or a potentiometer for voltage measurements. The track
resistance of 10kΩ has a maximum non-linearity of 0.25%. The "Fine" dial is
calibrated 0 - 100 in steps of 2, and the "Coarse" reading is calibrated 0 - 10, thus
enabling readings to be estimated from the dial with a discrimination of 1:1000,
representing a resolution of 10Ω.
Reading the dial: If the number in the window (coarse setting) is 3 and the fine
setting is on 74, then the dial reading is 374. The resistance between the 0V
terminal and A (the wiper) is 10Ω x 374 = 3.74kΩ.
A close-tolerance 12kΩ resistor (R2) and an unknown resistor Rx (R4) are

provided for resistance measurement.
A switch open circuits the unknown resistor Rx to allow the measurement of other
unknown resistors which can be connected between socket C and the 0V terminal.
An accurate standard voltage of 1V is available at socket B.
The moving coil meter can be used as a center zero indicating instrument. Since it
is arranged as a 10V voltmeter its sensitivity is insufficient for a direct application
as a galvanometer. This problem can be overcome by using a differential amplifier
followed by a high gain DC amplifier from the signal conditioning circuits.
37

Measurement of Resistance
Fig 3.4 shows the layout diagram required for setting up the null detector.
DIFFERENTIAL
AMPLIFIER
O/P
B -
A-B
A +
MOVING COIL METER
0
AMPLIFIER #2 5 5
-10 +10
I/ P O/ P
+
.5 .6
- + .4 .7
-
L
1 .3 .8
J
100
.9 0V
10 .2
.1 1.0
OFFSET GAIN COARSE GAIN FINE
Fig 3.4
Initially the amplifier and meter configuration which forms the sensitive
galvanometer must be set up so that zero input produces zero output when the gain
is set to maximum.
 Connect the meter and amplifiers as shown in Fig 3.4 with the + & - inputs
to the Differential Amplifier short circuited so that the input is zero. Set the
Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE control to 10 and the GAIN FINE to 1.0.
 Switch the power supply ON and adjust the OFFSET control so that the
moving coil meter indicates approximately zero. Then set the GAIN COARSE
control to 100 and re-adjust the OFFSET control for zero output precisely.
You will find that this adjustment is very sensitive. That is why you were
instructed to obtain an approximate setting with the gain set to 10 first.
Note The setting of the offset control may require adjustment as the temperature
of the unit varies during use and it is advisable to use the above procedure to
check and re-adjust as necessary at regular intervals.
38
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE +5V

D
12k DIFFERENTIAL
C
AMPLIFIER
A
3 B OUT O/P
B -
IN A-B
1V A +
Rx
0V
MOVING COIL METER
0
5 5
AMPLIFIER #2
-10 +10
I/ P O/ P
+
.5 .6
- +
.4 .7
-
L
1 .3 .8
J
100
.9 0V
10 .2
.1 1.0
Fig 3.5
 With the switch on the Wheatstone bridge circuit set to IN (connecting the
unknown resistor in circuit) set the Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE control to 10
and connect the circuit as shown in Fig 3.5.
 Adjust the control of the 10-turn variable resistor so that the moving coil
meter reading is approximately zero, then set the GAIN COARSE control to
100. Finally adjust the 10-turn resistor control accurately for zero meter
(null) reading to balance the bridge.
Reading the dial: If the number in the window (coarse setting) is 3 and the fine
setting is on 74, then the dial reading is 374.
 Note the resistor dial reading (overleaf).
This represents the resistance R3 in the theoretical circuit considered earlier.
39
Dial reading =
= 10 x dial reading
Resistance R3 =
= 10,000 - R3
Resistance R1 =
Resistance R2 = 12,000Ω
R2
Unknown resistance Rx = x R3 =
R1
3.6a Enter your value for the unknown resistor Rx in k
Carry out further resistance measurements on the 10kΩ slide variable resistor to
obtain familiarity with the equipment and its adjustments as follows:
 Set the Wheatstone Bridge switch to OUT to remove the unknown resistor
Rx from the circuit. Connect the 10k Ω Slide variable resistor terminals
A & B to the Wheatstone Bridge circuit connections C & 0V.
 With the 10k Ω resistor control set to maximum, measure its resistance as
follows:-
1. Check that the amplifier offset is set correctly and adjust if necessary.
2. With Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE control set to 10, obtain an
approximate balance by adjusting the 10-turn resistor.
3. Set Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE control to 100 and obtain final
balance. Note the dial reading and enter the value in Table 3.1.
 Repeat the procedure to measure the resistance of the 10k Ω resistor for all
settings from 9 through 1, recording the dial readings at balance in Table
3.1.
 Calculate the resistance corresponding with each reading, recording the

results in Table 3.1. R2 is still 12kΩ.
Note: Since the quoted accuracy of the 10-turn variable resistor is 0.25%, this
represents 1 part in 400. There is no reason for giving results to any more
than four significant figures.
40
10kΩ Resistor Dial Reading R3 R1 R2

at Balance (10 x Dial) R4 = x R3
Setting (10kΩ - R3)
R1
10
kΩ kΩ kΩ
9
kΩ kΩ kΩ
8
kΩ kΩ kΩ
7
kΩ kΩ kΩ
6
kΩ kΩ kΩ
5
kΩ kΩ kΩ
4
kΩ kΩ kΩ
3
kΩ kΩ kΩ
2
kΩ kΩ kΩ
1
kΩ kΩ kΩ
Table 3.1
3.6b Enter your value for the 10k variable resistor at the setting 5 in k .
C
1kΩ
B
A
Fig 3.6
Note that a 1kΩ resistor is connected in series with the wiper of all potentiometers
on the D1750 Trainer. This prevents damage to the potentiometer in the event of
back-driving the output with a voltage, which could otherwise cause a heavy
current to flow as the wiper is moved towards terminal A.
41
3.7 Measurement of Voltage
Method 1
A calibrated variable resistor, standard voltage source and galvanometer are

required, these being connected as shown in Fig 3.7.
+
Unknown Rt G
Voltage
- Standard
R +
Voltage
-
Fig 3.7
The position of the slider of the variable resistor is adjusted until the circuit is
balanced with no current flowing in the galvanometer.
Under these conditions, the voltage across the R section of the variable resistance
is equal to the value of the standard voltage supply. The unknown voltage is
proportional to the total resistance of the variable resistor Rt and the section
resistance R, and can be calculated from:-
Rt
Unknown voltage = x Standard voltage
R
The method has disadvantages:-
1. The unknown voltage source is loaded by the variable resistor and hence the
voltage may be affected.
2. The method only allows measurement of voltages greater than the standard
voltage.
This method of measuring potential is the srcin of the term "potentiometer" for a
variable resistor. Early models of this measuring instrument were made of a highly
accurate, close tolerance, resistance wire which was stretched between terminals
on a scaled background. It was known as a Slide-Wire Potentiometer.
42

Measurement of Voltage Using Method 1
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
WIREWOUND TRACK
D
5 6 C DIFFERENTIAL
4 7
3 8 B C 12k AMPLIFIER O/P

A
OUT B -
2 9 B
A 3 A-B
1 10
IN A +
10k
1V
Rx
V 0V
0V +5V
MOVING COIL METER

AMPLIFIER #2 0
5 5
I /P O/P
-10 +10
.5 .6 +
- +
.4 .7
1 .3 .8 -
100
L
10 .9
J
.2
1.0
0V
.1
Fig 3.8
 First set the OFFSET control of Amplifier #2 using the same procedure used
in Practical Exercise 3.6:
Switch ON the power supply and with the Differential Amplifier inputs
shorted together and Amplifier #2 GAIN FINE set to 1.0, adjust the OFFSET
for approximately zero output with the GAIN COARSE set to 10. Adjust
finally for zero with the GAIN COARSE set to 100.
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 3.8 and set the switch on the Wheatstone
Bridge circuit to OUT to disconnect the 12k Ω ratio arm resistor and the
unknown resistor Rx from the circuit.
 Set the Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE to 10 and set the output from the 10k Ω
wirewound resistor to 4V as indicated by the digital meter. This represents
the "unknown" voltage.
 Adjust the 10-turn resistor for approximate balance and then obtain final
balance with Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE set to 100.
43
 Note the dial reading at balance, enter the value in Table 3.2 and calculate
the value of the unknown voltage from:-
1000
Dialreadin
1000
x
= Dialreadin 1V
 Repeat the procedure with the "unknown" voltage input set to each of the
values indicated in Table 3.2, recording the readings and calculating the
voltages for each value.
"Unknown" Dial Reading Calculated

Voltage at Balance Voltage
4.0
V
3.5
V
3.0
V
2.5 V
2.0
V
1.5
V
1.0
V
Table 3.2
3.8a Enter your dial reading with the "unknown" voltage set to 2.5V.
The method has the disadvantage of loading the unknown voltage source and this
can be demonstrated as follows:-
 Set the "unknown " voltage to 2.0V and obtain balance conditions.
 Now remove the connection from the output of the wirewound resistor
(socket B) to the Wheatstone bridge (socket D) and note the revised value of
the unknown voltage as indicated by the digital voltmeter.
44
"Unknown" Voltage:
When connected to the bridge = V
Disconnected from the bridge = V
3.8b Enter your value of the "Unknown" Voltage when disconnected from the
bridge in V.
3.9 Measurement of Voltage

Method 2
This method requires an additional DC source of voltage with a magnitude

exceeding the maximum value of the unknown voltages to be measured and
another variable resistor Rs. The schematic diagram is shown in Fig 3.9.
Rs
Rt G
+
Unknown
R Voltage
Standard +
Voltage
Fig 3.9
For measurement of voltages less than the standard voltage , the slider of the
variable resistor is set to its maximum position and, with the galvanometer
connected to the standard voltage source, the value of Rs is adjusted until there is
no current flowing in the galvanometer and the circuit is balanced.
45
The full resistance Rt is then calibrated to represent the value of the standard
voltage.
To measure an unknown voltage, the galvanometer is connected to the unknown

voltage and the slider position is again adjusted for circuit balance. The section R
at balance represents the magnitude of the unknown voltage.
R
Rt
For the measurement of voltages higher than the standard voltage , the variable
resistor can be calibrated against the standard voltage with the slider set to a
position lower than the maximum setting. This setting will now represent a
magnitude equal to the standard voltage.
Balance with an unknown voltage is obtained as before and the unknown voltage
calculated from :-
R(unknown connected)
R(standardconnected)
With this method, no current is taken from the unknown voltage source at balance
and hence the circuit is not loaded. The voltage obtained should therefore be
accurate, within the limits of accuracy of the variable resistor.
46

Measurement of Voltage Using Method 2
You should be familiar with the procedures for initially setting the amplifier offset
and balancing the bridge circuit by now. Instructions for the procedures will not
therefore be repeated in this exercise.
Measurement of Voltages Less Than the Standard Voltage.
 Carry out the OFFSET initializing procedure and then connect the circuit as
indicated in Fig 3.10, using the 100k Ω variable resistor as Rs (Fig 3.9) in the
supply circuit of the additional DC source.
Note that the output of the 10kΩ wirewound variable resistor is not
connected initially. This will be used as the source of the "unknown"
voltage.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE AMPLIFIER #2

D
I/P O/ P
DIFFERENTIAL
C 12k AMPLIFIER
A O/P .5 .6
- +
OUT .4 .7
3 B B -
A-B 1 .3 .8
IN
+ 100
A .9
1V 10 .2
Rx .1 1.0
0V OFFSET GAIN COARSE GAIN FINE
MOVING COIL METER

CARBON TRACK WIREWOUND TRACK
5 6 C 5 6 C 0
5 5
4 7 4 7
-10 +10
3 8 B 3 8 B
2 9 2 9 +
A A
1 10 1 10
100k 10k -
0V +5V
0V
L
J
V
Fig 3.10
 Set the 10-turn resistor to its maximum setting (1000) and adjust the setting
of the 100kΩ resistor for balanced conditions, i.e. null indication on the
moving coil (M.C.) meter. Set Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE control to 10
initially and then finally to 100 during the balancing.
47
When completed, the 10-turn resistor has been calibrated so that full scale
reading of 1000 represents a voltage of 1.000V.
 Replace the 1.0V reference voltage source (from the Wheatstone Bridge
circuit) with the “unknown” voltage output of the 10kΩ wirewound variable
resistor, by moving the lead that is connected to socket A of the Differential
Amplifier FROM socket B of the Wheatstone Bridge circuit TO socket B of
the 10kΩ wirewound variable resistor.
 Set the "unknown" voltage to 0.25V as indicated on the digital multimeter.
 Adjust the control of the 10-turn resistor for balance and note the dial
reading for this balance condition. This reading will represent the unknown
voltage directly in mV. Record the value in Table 3.3 and compare with the
reading indicated by the digital multimeter.
"Unknown" Voltage Input 0.25V 0.40V 0.60V 0.70V 0.80V 0.95V
Dial Reading at Balance

mV mV mV mV mV mV
Table 3.3
 Repeat the procedure for other "unknown" voltage inputs given in Table 3.3.
1000
Dial 900
Setting
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
"Unknown" Voltage
Graph 3.1
48
 Plot the characteristic of Dial Reading against "unknown" input voltage on

the graticule provided.
3.10a Read from your Graph 3.1 and enter the Dial Setting corresponding to an
input voltage of 0.53V.
Measurement of Voltages Greater Than the Standard Voltage.
 Remove the lead from socket C of the 10k Ω wirewound resistor to socket B
of the 100kΩ resistor to remove the 1V supply.
 Replace the 100k Ω resistor used for calibration with the 10k Ω slider unit
and apply the +12V supply to this and the 10kΩ wirewound instead of the
+5V.
 Set the control dial of the 10-turn resistor to setting 0100 and connect the A
socket of the Differential Amplifier back to socket B of the Wheatstone
Bridge as shown in Fig 3.10.
 Adjust the 10k Ω slider resistor control setting for bridge balance. When
completed, the 10-turn resistance has been calibrated so that a dial reading
of 0100 represents a voltage of 1.00V and a maximum dial reading of 1000
will represent a voltage of 10V.
 Remove the 1.0V reference voltage source from socket A of the Differential
Amplifier and connect the "unknown" voltage from socket B of the 10kΩ
wirewound resistor to socket A of the Differential Amplifier.
 Apply various "unknown" voltages in the range 0 - 10V to the circuit . Note
the dial reading for balance for each input voltage setting and enter the
values in Table 3.4.
"Unknown"
1 2 3 4 6 8 9
Voltage Input
Dial Reading
at Balance
Measured Voltage
(Volts) V V V V V V V
Table 3.4
49
Loading Effect
 Set the "unknown" input voltage to 5V and note the voltage change on the
digital meter when the lead to the Differential Amplifier is removed.
"Unknown" Voltage:
When Connected to the bridge = V
Disconnected from the bridge = V
3.10b Enter the apparent change of the "Unknown" Voltage in mV when the
amplifier is disconnected from the bridge.
The slight loading effect is due to the input resistance of the Differential
Amplifier.
Notes:
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........................................................................................................................
50
1000Ω 100Ω
+1V
G
0V
Rx
853Ω Unknown
Fig 1
1. For the circuit of Fig 1, the name of the circuit is:

a wirewound potentiometer b Wheatstone Bridge
c slide wire potentiometer d carbon track variable resistor
2. When the circuit of Fig 1 is balanced, the value of the unknown resistor Rx is:
a 85.3 Ω b 853 Ω c 1172 Ω d 8.53k Ω
3. For the circuit of Fig 1, if the supply voltage was increased to +2V the effect on the
balance condition would be to:
a double the resistance value b half the resistance value
c half the error in the measurement d make no change at all
4. For the circuit of Fig 1, which of the following components would NOT affect the
accuracy of the measurement?
a 100 Ω resistor b 853 Ω resistor c 1000 Ω resistor d galvanometer G
5. A resistance transducer is situated at a distance from the measuring bridge and is

connected to it via just two wires, each of which has a resistance of 10 . If the
resistance of the transducer is 120 , the bridge reading will be:
a 110 Ω b 120 Ω c 130 Ω d 140 Ω
Continued ...
51
6. If the circuit connection described in question 5 used a three-wire system, the bridge
reading would be:
a 110 Ω b 120 Ω c 130 Ω d 140 Ω
Rs
7438Ω +
+
V1 G V1 Rt G
+
- V3
2562 Ω 1.5V + R +
- V2
Fig 2 Fig 3
7. The circuits of Fig 2 and Fig 3 are for measuring:
a Fig 2 voltage, Fig 3 resistance b Fig 3 voltage, Fig 2 resistance

c both voltage d both resistance
8. When the circuit in Fig 2 is balanced, the value of V1 will be:

a 5.85V b 4.35V c 3.9V d 0.52V
9. The circuit of Fig 3 is calibrated against a standard voltage (V2) of 1V to a dial setting
of 0200. The dial has a discrimination of 1:1000. To be able to measure the maximum
unknown voltage the value of the additional supply (V1) must be:
a <1V b >1V c =2V d >5V
10. Which of the following is NOT an advantage of the circuit of Fig 3 compared to that of
Fig 2?
a measures higher and lower voltages b measures resistance

c does not load the voltage source tested d draws no current from the source tested
52
IT02 Temperature Measurement
Chapter 4
Temperature Measurement

this Chapter
 Describe the characteristics of an IC temperature
sensor.
 Describe the construction and characteristics of a
Platinum RTD resistance transducer.
 Describe the construction and characteristics of an
NTC thermistor.
 Discuss the characteristics of NTC thermistor bridge
circuits.
thermocouple.
 Deduce temperatures from a voltage reading across a
transducer.

this Chapter • 2 x Digital Multimeters.
• Stopwatch (not supplied).

• Scientific Calculator (not supplied).
53
Temperature Measurement IT02
4.1 The DIGIAC 1750 Temperature Transducer Facilities
Fig 4.1 shows the layout of the temperature transducer facilities of the DIGIAC
1750 unit. The active transducers are mounted within a clear plastic enclosure
which contains a heater.
REFERENCE TYPE 'K' THERMOCOUPLE IC TEMP SENSORS

THERMOCOUPLE
EXT.
(+ LM335) -
O/P
O/P
+
CLEAR INT.
PLASTIC REF
ENCLOSURE + +
HEATER B O/P
O/P
A
NTCTHERMISTORS PLATINUMR.T.D.
HEATER ELEMENT I/P
Fig 4.1
The heated enclosure is provided to raise the temperature of the sensor transducers
to allow measurements to be taken during experiments.
In the case of the NTC thermistors and the thermocouples, an additional, separate
unit is mounted outside the heated enclosure. The externally mounted sensors are
made available for comparison between ambient (room) temperature and the
temperature within the enclosure.
The externally mounted "K" type thermocouple is contained within a package in

contact with an IC temperature sensor (LM335) to act as a thermometer with
voltage output. This will be used in many of the experiments as the reference
(REF) thermometer.
Note: It is important to give the unit time to cool down between the experiments.
This will allow the enclosure to return to ambient temperature.
54
4.2 The IC Temperature Sensor
This is an integrated circuit containing 16 transistors, 9 resistors and 2 capacitors

contained in a transistor type package.
The device reference number is LM335 and it provides an output of 10mV/°K.

Measurements of the output voltage therefore indicate the temperature directly in
degrees Kelvin (°K). For example, at a temperature of 20°C (293°K) the output
voltage will be 2.93V.
The circuit arrangement provided with the IC Temperature Sensor on the DIGIAC
1750 unit is shown in Fig 4.2.
+5V
1kΩ 1kΩ
Ext.
O/P
Int.
LM
355 Socket for connection
of external LM335
0V
Fig 4.2
A 2-pin socket is provided for the connection of an external LM335 unit if

desired.
Note An LM335 unit is mounted on the Type "K" Thermocouple panel, external
to the heated enclosure and fitted in a heat sink together with another type
"K" thermocouple, its output being available from the REF socket on that
panel. The output from this can be used as an indication of the ambient
temperature outside the heated enclosure, and that from the INT. socket in
Fig 4.2 indicates the temperature within the heated enclosure.
The output from the REF socket does not give an accurate value of the room
(ambient) temperature when the heater is in use, due mainly to heat passing
along the PCB by conduction from the heater. An LM335 remotely mounted
or some other method is necessary if accurate measurement of ambient
temperature is required.
55

Characteristics of an LM335 IC Temperature Sensor
TYPE 'K' THERMOCOUPLE IC TEMP SENSORS

EXT.
-
O/P O/P
+
INT.
REF
+ +
B O/P
O/P
A V
N T C T H E R M IS T O R S P L A T IN U M R . T . D .
HEATER ELEMENT I/P
+1 2V 0V
Fig 4.3
 Connect a voltmeter to the circuit (as shown in Fig 4.3), switch the power
supply ON and note the output voltage, this (x100) representing the ambient
temperature in °K. Record the value in Table 4.1.
 Connect the +12V supply to the heater input socket and note the voltage
reading every minute until the value stabilizes. Record the values in
Table 4.1. (Note °C = °K - 273.)
Time (minutes) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Voltage
V V V V V V V V V V V
Temperature °K
°C
Table 4.1
4.3a Enter your temperature reading in C after 5 minutes.
56
Exercise 4.3 illustrates the characteristics of the LM335 transducer, indicates the
maximum temperature rise possible using the heater supplied at 12V, and also
gives you an idea of the time scale required for the unit to reach stable conditions.
4.4 The Platinum RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) Transducer
Laser Trimmed Platinum Film

Ceramic Substrate
Gold Contact Plates
Connections
Fig 4.4
The construction of the Platinum RTD Transducer is shown in Fig 4.4, consisting
of a thin film of platinum deposited on a ceramic substrate and having gold
contact plates at each end that make contact with the film.
The platinum film is trimmed with a laser beam to cut a spiral for a resistance of
100Ω at 0°C.
The resistance of the film increases as the temperature increases. It has a positive
temperature coefficient (PTC).
The increase in resistance is linear, the relationship between resistance change and
temperature rise being 0.385Ω/°C.
Rt = Ro + 0.385t
where Rt = resistance at temperature t°C
Ro = resistance at 0°C (= 100Ω)
Normally, the unit would be connected to a DC supply via a series resistor and the
voltage developed across the transducer is measured. The current flow through the
transducer will then cause some self heating, the temperature rise due to this being
of the order of 0.005°C/mW dissipated in the transducer.
57
The very simple electrical circuit arrangement of the DIGIAC 1750 unit is as
shown in Fig 4.5.
O/P
RTD
0V
Fig 4.5
The white dot signifies that this is a PTC, not NTC (negative temperature
coefficient) type of resistor which would have a black dot.
In the practical exercise you will connect the platinum RTD in series with a high
resistance to a DC supply and measure the voltage drop across it. Due to the small
variation of resistance, the current change will be negligible and the voltage drop
across the transducer will be directly proportional to its resistance.
Notes:
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58

Characteristics of a Platinum RTD Transducer
IC TEMP SENSORS SLIDE

C
EXT.
O/P B
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k
INT.
+ +
O/P
PLATINUM R.T.D.
HEATER ELEMENT I/P 0V +5 V
Fig 4.6
 Set the slider of the 10k Ω carbon resistor to mid-way and connect the circuit
as shown in Fig 4.6, with the digital multimeter set to its 200mV or 2V DC
range.
 Switch ON the power supply and adjust the slider control of the 10k Ω
resistor so that the voltage drop across the platinum RTD is 108mV
(0.108V) as indicated by the digital multimeter.
This calibrates the platinum RTD for an assumed ambient temperature of 20°C,
since the resistance of the RTD at 20°C will be 108Ω. Note that the voltage
reading across the RTD in mV is the same as the RTD resistance in Ω, since the
0.108
current flowing must be = 1mA.
108
Note: If the ambient temperature differs from 20°C, the voltage can be set to the
correct value for this ambient temperature if desired:
1. Set the voltmeter to its 20V range and measure the INT output from the IC
Temperature Sensor to obtain the ambient temperature:
Voltage x 100 = temperature in °K

Temperature in °C = °K - 273
2. RTD resistance = 100 + 0.385 x °C. Set the voltage drop across the RTD for
this value.
59
 Connect the voltmeter, set to its 20V DC range, to the INT output of the IC
Temperature Sensor. This represents the RTD temperature (voltage x 100 =
temperature in °K). Record the temperature in the first column of Table 4.2.
 Connect a second voltmeter, set to its 200mV range, to measure the voltage
output from the RTD transducer. This voltage (in mV) is equal to the RTD
resistance (in Ω). Record the resistance in the first column of the table.
 Connect the +12V supply to the Heater Element input and record the RTD
temperature (in °K) and RTD resistance (in Ω) after each of the times given
in the table.
Time (minutes) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
RTD °K
Temperature
°C
RTD Resistance
Ω Ω ΩΩΩΩΩΩΩ Ω Ω
Table 4.2
 Convert the RTD Temperature into °C (°K - 273) and add to Table 4.2.
 Plot the graph of RTD resistance ( Ω) against temperature (°C) on the axes
provided. Extend your graph down to cover 0°C.
130
128
126
RTD 124
Resistance 122
120
118
116
114
112
110
108
106
104
102
100
98
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
RTD Temperature o C
Graph 4.1
60
4.5a Enter the total change in the resistance of the RTD Transducer over the
temperature range 20-50 C in .
4.5b Is the resistance/temperature characteristic linear?

Yes or No
4.5c Enter your estimated (extrapolated) resistance of the RTD Transducer from
the graph at 0 C.
During the exercise, the current flowing was of the order of 1mA. Since the
applied voltage was +5V, the total circuit resistance was therefore of the order of
5kΩ (which you can see from the setting of the 10k Ω slider resistor).
The variation of resistance of the RTD Transducer therefore had little effect on the
circuit current and hence the voltage drop across it represented the resistance
value reasonably accurately.
The current of 1mA in the RTD represents a very low power dissipation in the
RTD. The self-heating effect would produce a temperature rise of 0.02°C.
 Calculate the power dissipation in the RTD Transducer at a temperature of

50°C when the standard circuit current of 1mA flows in it.
Power dissipation in the RTD Transducer = W
4.5d Enter your calculated value of the power dissipated in the RTD Transducer
in W.
61
4.6 The NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) Thermistor
The thermistor (thermally sensitive resistor) is manufactured with the intention

that its value will change with temperature. Unlike a normal resistor, a large
coefficient of resistance (change of resistance with temperature) is desirable.
Some are made with resistance which increases with temperature (positive
temperature coefficient, PTC) or decreases (negative temperature coefficient
(NTC). They are made in rod, disc or bead form.
The construction of a typical NTC thermistor is shown in Fig 4.7(a), consisting of

an element made from sintered oxides of metals such as nickel, manganese and
cobalt, with contacts made to each side of the element.
+5V
active Th1
disc
element
B
O/P
A
Th2
Contacts 0V
Construction Electrical Circuit

(a) (b)
Fig 4.7
As the temperature of the element increases, its resistance falls, the resistance/
temperature characteristic being non-linear.
The resistance of the thermistors provided with the DIGIAC 1750 unit is of the
order of 5kΩ at an ambient temperature of 20°C (293°K).
Two similar units are provided, one being mounted inside the heated enclosure.
This is connected to the +5V supply and designated A. The other is mounted
outside the heated enclosure. It is connected to the 0V (ground) line and is
designated B. The circuit arrangement is shown in Fig 4.7(b).
62

Characteristics of an NTC Thermistor
The resistance of the NTC thermistor varies over a wide range for the temperature
range available within the heated enclosure. For this reason the method used to
measure the resistance in Exercise 4.5 cannot be used this time.
If resistance readings are to be taken at regular intervals of 1 minute, the readings

must be obtained very quickly.
The method selected connects the thermistor in series with a calibrated resistor to
the +5V supply.
For each reading, the variable resistor is adjusted until the voltage at the junction
of the thermistor and resistor is half of the supply voltage. For this setting there
will be the same voltage drop across the thermistor and the resistor and, since the
same current flows in each, their resistances must be equal.
Hence the value of the resistance read from the calibrated resistor scale is the same
as the resistance of the thermistor.
+5V
n.t.c.
Calibrated 1k Ω 2.5V
Variable
V
0V + +
Schematic Diagram
B
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE O/P
D A
C 12k NTC THERMISTORS

A
OUT HEATER ELEMENT I/P
3 B
IN
1V
V Rx
0V
Fig 4.8
63
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 4.8. Set the switch on the Wheatstone
bridge circuit to OUT to disconnect the 12kΩ and Rx resistors from the
circuit, and set the calibrated variable resistor dial reading to approximately
500.
 Switch the power supply ON and adjust the resistor control until the voltage
indicated by the voltmeter is 2.5V.
 Connect a second voltmeter, set to the 20V DC range, to measure the INT
output of the IC Temperature Sensor. This represents the temperature
(voltage x 100 = temperature in °K).
 Record the values of temperature (in °K) and dial reading in the first column
of Table 4.3.
Time (minutes) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Temperature °K
(from IC °C
Transducer)
Dial Reading for 2.5V
Thermistor Resistance
(10 x Dial reading + 1k Ω) kΩ kΩ kΩ kΩ kΩ kΩ kΩ kΩ kΩ kΩ kΩ
Table 4.3
 Connect the +12V supply to the Heater Element input socket and, at one-
minute intervals, note the value of the temperature (in °K) and the dial
reading to produce 2.5V across the resistance. Record in Table 4.3.
 Convert the temperature measurements into °C (°K - 273) and add to the
table.
 For each of the dial readings recorded in Table 4.3, calculate the thermistor
resistance and record in the table.
Note: There is a 1kΩ resistor in the output lead of the variable resistance, so
the thermistor resistance will be 10 x Dial reading + 1k .
 Plot the graph of thermistor resistance against temperature on the axes

provided.
Due to the shape of the response characteristic, the device is not suitable for
applications where an accurate indication of temperature is required.
64
7k Ω
6k Ω
Thermistor
Resistance
5k Ω
4k Ω
3k Ω
2k Ω
1k Ω
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Temperature o C
Graph 4.2
4.7a From your graph, enter the resistance of your thermistor at a temperature of
35 in k .
Thermistors are used in very many electronic circuit applications for the control of
currents and voltages as equipment temperatures vary.
As transducer sensors they are more suitable for applications in protection and
alarm circuits where an indication of temperature threshold is required.
Some thermistors are available which have a rapid change of resistance when the
temperature exceeds a certain value.
65
4.8 Two Thermistor Bridge Circuits
When used for alarm or protection circuits, two thermistors would normally be
used, these being connected in a bridge circuit as shown in Fig 4.9.
R
Th1 A
DC O/P
Supply
B
R
Th2
Fig 4.9
The two resistors R have the same resistance as the "cold" resistance of the
thermistors.
When cold, there will be no output at the connections AB because the bridge will
be balanced under this condition.
As the temperature rises, the resistance of both thermistors will decrease. The
potential of connection A will rise and that of connection B will fall, giving a
larger output than would be obtained with a circuit using only one thermistor.

Characteristics of NTC Bridge Circuits
Two bridge circuits will be investigated, one containing only one thermistor (Th1)
and the other, two.
RV2
10kΩ Th1
Digital
DC 10kΩ (A)
Multimeter
Supply
RV1 V
Th2 RV3 10kΩ
(B)
Fig 4.10
66
Since the three branches to be used are all in parallel (Fig 4.10) they can be
connected at the beginning and brought into operation simply by moving the null
detector (digital multimeter).
Note that the second thermistor (Th2) is not contained within the heated enclosure
and will therefore not be subjected to the same heating effect as Th1. The circuit
will not be as efficient as can be expected from one in which both thermistors are
mounted in the same temperature environment.
Variable resistors, RV2 & RV3 are adjusted to balance the branch "cold"
resistances (approximately 5kΩ) to give 2.5V at the center-tap, and RV1 is also
adjusted for 2.5V at the wiper.
The circuit will then be ready for heating measurements.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
D
C 12k
A TYPE 'K' THERMOCOUPLE
B OUT
3
-
IN
O/P
1V +
Rx
0V
REF
+ +
SLIDE
C
B
B O/P
A
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k NTC THERMISTORS
HEATER ELEMENT I/P

WIREWOUND TRACK
+5V 5 6 C
4 7
V
3 8 B
2 9
A
1 10
0V
10k
Fig 4.11
Th1, the 10kΩ 10-turn resistor (RV3) and the 10k Ω wirewound resistor (RV1)
form the bridge circuit with one active thermistor.
Th1, the 10kΩ 10-turn resistor (RV3), Th2 and the 10kΩ carbon slide resistor
(RV2) form the bridge with two active thermistors.
67
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 4.11 and set the switch on the
Wheatstone Bridge circuit to OUT.
 Switch the power supply ON and adjust the 10k Ω wirewound resistor (RV1)
so that the voltmeter reading is 2.5V. The fixed branch of the bridge is now
set for center balance.
 Connect the voltmeter between socket B of the 10k Ω wirewound resistor

(RV1) and NTC thermistor A. Adjust the 10kΩ 10-turn resistor (RV3) on
the Wheatstone Bridge circuit for a voltage reading of zero.
 Now connect the voltmeter between socket B of the 10k Ω wirewound

resistor (RV1) and NTC thermistor B. Adjust the 10kΩ carbon slider resistor
(RV2) for an output voltage of zero.
 Both bridges are now set for zero output with the thermistors at ambient
temperature.
 Connect the voltmeter, set to the 20V DC range, to measure the INT output
of the IC Temperature Sensor. This represents the temperature (voltage x
100 = temperature in °K). Record the value in the first column of Table 4.4.
Time (minutes) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
°K
Temperature
(IC Temperature
°C
Transducer)
1 active NTC
Bridge V V V V V V V V V V V
Output
2 active NTC
Table 4.4
 Connect a second voltmeter, set to the 2V DC range, between socket A of
the NTC and socket B of the 10k Ω wirewound resistor (RV1). This is the
bridge output for 1 active NTC thermistor. Record your measured voltage in
the table.
 Move one of the connections for the second voltmeter from the 10k Ω
wirewound resistor (RV1), to socket B of the 10kΩ slide resistor (RV2).
This is the bridge output for 2 active NTC thermistors. Again record your
measured voltage in the table.
68
 Now connect the 12V supply to the heater input and, at one-minute
intervals, record the temperature (in °K) from the first voltmeter, and the
bridge outputs for the circuit with 1 active NTC and 2 active NTC
thermistors (by changing the connections for the second voltmeter as you
did before).

Draw graphs of output voltage against temperature for the two bridge
circuits on the same axes provided (Graph 4.3):
2.4
2.2
Output
Voltage 2.0
(volts) 1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Temperature o C
Graph 4.3
4.9a From your graph, enter the output voltage for the one transducer bridge at a
temperature of 50 in V.
4.9b From your graph, enter the output voltage for the two transducer bridge at a
temperature of 50 in V.
Note that the output with two active thermistors is greater than that with only one
thermistor. However, if both active thermistors were at the same temperature, the
output voltage would be twice that for one active thermistor.

4.9c Is the relationship linear ?
Yes or No
69
4.10 Type "K" Thermocouple
Chromel
Wire
Spot-welded
"Hot" junction "Cold" Output
junction Voltage
Alumel
Wire
Fig 4.12
Fig 4.12 shows the construction of a thermocouple, consisting of two wires of

different materials joined by welding together at one end.
For the type "K" thermocouple the two materials are alumel and chromel.
With this arrangement, when the ends that are joined together are heated, an
output voltage is obtained between the other two ends.
The ends that are joined together are referred to as the "hot" junction and the other
ends are the "cold" junction.
The magnitude of the output voltage depends on the temperature difference

between the "hot" and "cold" junctions and on the materials used.
For the type "K" thermocouple the output voltage is fairly linear over the
temperature range 0-100°C and of magnitude 40.28 µV/°C difference between the
"hot" and "cold" junctions.
Two thermocouples are provided with the DIGIAC 1750 unit, one being mounted
within the heated enclosure, this being the active unit which will have its "hot"
and "cold" junctions at different temperatures in operation.
The
heat other unit an
sink with is mounted
LM335 IC outside the heated
Temperature enclosure
Sensor so thatand
theistemperature
incorporatedofinthe
a
"cold" junction of the active thermocouple can be measured.
70
The second thermocouple is connected in series with the first with the wires of the
same material connected together. This ensures that the connections to the output
circuit are made from the same material which eliminates the possibility of an
EMF being introduced into the circuit by connections between different materials.
The second thermocouple does not contribute to the output voltage because its
"hot" and "cold" junctions are maintained at the same temperature.
The circuit arrangement is as shown in Fig 4.13.
+5V
Active
Thermocouple
Ref
LM +
O/P
335 -
Inactive
Thermocouple
0V
Fig 4.13
Due to the low output voltage of the thermocouple, amplification is required. An

amplifier gain of 200 will give readings within one range of the digital multimeter.
During operation, the temperature of the "cold" junction varies, due mainly to heat
conduction from the heater along the PCB and the junction is in effect "floating".
This is a common occurrence with thermocouple installations where the
thermocouple leads are short.
To overcome the problem, extra leads of the same material or different materials
having the same thermoelectric properties are used to extend the "cold" junction to
a point where a steady temperature can be maintained. These cables are referred to
as "compensating cables".
71

Characteristics of a "K" Type Thermocouple
INSTRUMENTATION x100 AMPLIFIER

TYPE 'K' THERMOCOUPLE
AMPLIFIER
O/P O/P
O/P - B - I/P
A-B +100V IN
+
A +
REF
+ AMPLIFIER #1
I/P O/P
.5 .6
- +
.4 .7
1 .3 .8
100
10 .2 .9
HEATER ELEMENT I/P 1.0
.1
OFFSET GAIN COARS E GAIN FINE
V
0V
Fig 4.14
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 4.14, set the voltmeter to the 2V DC
range and set Amplifier #1 GAIN COARSE to 10 and GAIN FINE to 0.2.
 Switch the power supply ON and set the Amplifier #1 OFFSET control as
follows:
1) Temporarily disconnect the inputs to the Instrumentation Amplifier.
2) Short circuit together the Instrumentation Amplifier input connections.
3) Adjust the OFFSET control for zero indication on the voltmeter.
 Re-connect the Thermocouple outputs to the Instrumentation Amplifier as

shown in Fig 4.14. The measured voltage should still be zero with the "hot"
and "cold" junctions at the same temperature.
 Connect a second voltmeter, set to the 20V DC range, to the INT. socket of
the IC Temperature Sensor. This represents the hot junction temperature
inside the heated enclosure (voltage x 100 = temperature in °K). Record this
in Table 4.5.
 Reconnect the second voltmeter to the REF output socket in the Type ‘K’
Thermocouple block. This represents the cold junction temperature outside
the enclosure (voltage x 100 = temperature in °K). Record this in Table 4.5.
72
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Hot Junction
Temp. (INT.)
Cold Junction
°K (REF)
Difference
Thermocouple O/P mV mV mV mV mV mV mV mV mV mV mV
Table 4.5
 Connect the +12V supply to the heater and at 1 minute intervals, record the
thermocouple output voltage (displayed on the first voltmeter), and the
voltages representing the hot and cold thermocouple junction temperatures
(by changing the connections for the second voltmeter as you did before).
 Construct the graph of thermocouple output voltage against temperature

difference between the "hot" and "cold" junctions on the axes provided.
320
300
280
260
240
220
Output 200
Voltage
(mV) 180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Temperature Differenceo C
Graph 4.4
73
4.11a Is the characteristic linear?

Yes or No
4.11b Deduce from your graph and enter the relationship in mV/ C.
The actual value of the transfer characteristic will depend on the gain provided by
the amplifier system at the settings used, which can be adjusted to calibrate the
system as desired.
Notes:
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74
1. The output voltages you would expect to obtain from an LM335 Temperature
Transducer at temperatures of (i) 0 C, (ii) 50 C & (iii) -20 C, are:
a (i) 0V, (ii) -0.50V, (iii) +0.20V b (i) 0V, (ii) +0.50V, (iii) -0.20V
c (i) 2.93V, (ii) 3.43V, (iii) 2.73V d (i) 2.73V, (ii) 3.23V, (iii) 2.53V
2. A platinum RTD Transducer has resistance of 100 at 0 C and 138 at 100 C. Its
resistance at 50 C will be:
a 119 Ω b 138 Ω c 150 Ω d 188 Ω
3. A platinum RTD Transducer has resistance of 100 at 0 C and 138 at 100 C. The
temperature when its resistance is 115.2 will be:
a 5.78°C b 15.2 °C c 30.4 °C d 40 °C
4. The resistance of an NTC thermistor is 5k at 20 C. If its temperature is i ncreased, its

resistance will be:
a less than 5k Ω b equal to 5k Ω c greater than 5k Ω d infinite
5. A thermocouple gives an output of 40µV/ C difference in temperature between the

"hot" and "cold" junctions. The output voltages expected for the junction temperatures
of (i) "cold" 0 C "hot" 50 C (ii) "cold" 20 C "hot" 70 C (i) "cold" 50 C "hot" 50 C
will be:
a (i) 2V, (ii) 2V, (iii) 0V b (i) 2mV, (ii) 2.8mV, (iii) 2mV
c (i) 2mV, (ii) 2mV, (iii) 0V d (i) 200 µV, (ii) 280µV, (iii) 0V
6. A thermocouple gives an output of 40µV/ C difference in temperature between the

"hot" and "cold" junctions. The amplifier gain required to enable the thermocouple
circuit to produce an output of 1V for a temperature difference of 100 C between the
"hot" and "cold" junctions is:
a 25 b 40 c 250 d 500
Continued ...
75
+5V 4kΩ Th1

O/P
0V
4kΩ
Th2
Fig 1
7. The characteristics of the devices Th1 & Th2 shown in Fig 1 are such that as the
temperature is increased:
a the voltage across them will rise b their resistance will increase
c their resistance will fall d the current through them will decrease
8. Two thermistors Th1 & Th2 having resistance 4k at 20 C and 1k at 60 C are

connected in the bridge circuit shown in Fig 1. The output voltage from the circuit at a
temperature of 20 C will be:
a 0V b 2.5V c 4V d 5V
9. Two thermistors Th1 & Th2 having resistance 4k at 20 C and 1k at 60 C are

connected in the bridge circuit shown in Fi g 1. The output voltage from the circuit at a
temperature of 60 C will be:
a 1V b 2V c 3V d 4V
10. The characteristics of an IC Temperature Sensor give an output voltage of:

a 1mV/°C b 10mV/ °K c 100mV/°C d 1V/ °K
76
IT02 Light Sensors
Chapter 5
Light Sensors

this Chapter
 Discuss the characteristics of a filament lamp.
photovoltaic cell.
phototransistor.
photoconductive cell.
PIN photodiode.

• Opaque box to cover the clear plastic enclosure.
77
Light Sensors IT02
5.1 The DIGIAC 1750 Opto-Transducer Facilities
Fig 5.1 shows the arrangement of the opto-electronic (light) transducers provided
on the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer.
The opto-sensors are contained within a clear plastic enclosure and can be
illuminated by a lamp which is placed centrally.
CLEAR
P.I.N. PHOTODIODE PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
PLASTIC
ENCLOSURE O/P
O/P
+ +
O /P O /P
LAMP PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELL PHOTOTRANSISTOR

LAMP FILAMENT I/P
Fig 5.1
All semiconductor devices are sensitive to light falling upon them. That is why the
devices (diodes, transistors, IC's) are contained within opaque encapsulations, to
prevent light getting at the active materials.
With some devices, the main effect of light irradiation will be to increase their
conductivity (reduce their resistance). In others either an EMF is generated or
currents are released to flow in an external circuit.
78
IT02 Light Sensors
5.2 The Incandescent Lamp
The light source to be used in the experiments is a tungsten filament lamp. The
filament glows more brightly as the power feeding the lamp is increased. Two
factors will be affected as the lamp voltage is increased:
1. The temperature of the filament is proportional to the input power. Power

varies with the square of the voltage, and is also affected by the resistance of
the lamp, which increases as the filament temperature increases (it has a
positive temperature coefficient).
2. The spectral response of the lamp varies with the filament temperature. At
low temperatures the light is in the infra-red region of the visible spectrum
and the light output gradually increases in frequency (red → orange →
yellow . . . ) as the temperature is raised.
These factors make it difficult to be too precise about the response of the sensors
which will be investigated.
In order to determine the response of the filament lamp an acceptable reference

must be established. The photovoltaic cell is a linear device, the output short
circuit current being directly proportional to the luminous flux (lux) being
received.
79
Light Sensors IT02

The Filament Lamp
MOVING COIL METER
0
5 5
-10 +10
+
P . I. N . P H O T O D IO D E P H O T O V O L T A IC C E L L
-
O/P
L
O/P
J
0V
+ +
O/ P O/ P
WIREWOUND TRACK
5 6 C POWER AMPLIFIER
4 7 PHOTOCONDU CTIV E CELL P HOTOTRA NSISTOR
A
3 8 B O/P LAMP FILAMENT I/P
9
I/P
2 Digital Multimeter
A
1 10
10k +12V 0V
Fig 5.2
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 5.2 with the digital multimeter
connected as an ammeter on the 200mA range in between the power
amplifier and the lamp filament socket. Switch ON the power supply.
 Set the 10k Ω wirewound resistor to minimum for zero output voltage (on the
moving coil meter) from the power amplifier.
 Take readings of lamp filament current as indicated on the digital multimeter

as the lamp voltage is increased in 1V steps. Record the results in Table 5.1.
Lamp filament
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
voltage (volts)
Lamp filament
current (mA)
Lamp
powerfilament
(mW)
Lamp resistance
( Ω)
Table 5.1
80
IT02 Light Sensors
 Calculate the corresponding values of lamp filament power (V xI) and

resistance (V÷I), recording the results in Table 5.1.
 Plot the graphs of lamp power and resistance against applied voltage on the
graticule provided.
800 200
750 190
700 180
Lamp 650 170 Lamp
Power Resistance
(mW) 600 160
550 150
500 140
450 130
400 120
350 110
300 100
250 90
200 80
150 70
100 60
50 50
0 40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Lamp Voltage (volts)
Graph 5.1
5.3a From your graph estimate and enter the lamp voltage necessary to give a
power dissipation of 250mW.
5.3b From your graph estimate and enter the resistance of the lamp filament when
the applied voltage is 4.5V.
81
Light Sensors IT02
5.4 Photovoltaic Cell
A photovoltaic cell is one which generates an EMF when light falls onto it.
P-type
Depletion N-type
Layer
Fig 5.3
One of the regions is made very thin (about one millionth of a meter, 1µm). Light
can easily pass through this without much loss of energy. When the light reaches
the junction, at the depletion layer, it is absorbed and the released energy creates
hole-electron pairs which diffuse across the junction.
The thin layer, which is only lightly doped, rapidly becomes saturated and charge
carriers can be released into an external circuit to form a current, pushed around
the circuit by the force (electro-motive force, EMF, electron-moving-force) of the
surplus of charge carriers released by the energy absorbed.
-200
-150
10,000 lux
Anode
Current -100
(microamps)
-50 2,000 lux

Symbol
+0.5
Anode Voltage (volts)
Fig 5.4
Note that the anode current is shown as negative because the internal current
inside any source of EMF must flow with opposite polarity to the external current,
the electrons arriving at the anode returning to the cathode inside the photo-cell.
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IT02 Light Sensors
The lux referred to in Fig 5.4 is the unit of incident light (light arriving at the cell).
O/P
0V
Circuit Arrangement
Fig 5.5
Characteristics of Photovoltaic Cell Type MS5B
Open circuit voltage (in sunlight) 500mV

Short circuit current (in sunlight) 10mA
Peak spectral response wavelength 840nm (IR) Note: IR = infra red
Response time 10 µ s
Table 5.2
If the output of the cell is short circuited there will be no output voltage at all,
since this will all be dropped internally across the resistance of the cell. The short
circuit output current obtained will vary from zero to maximum according to the
incident light.
The device can be used either as a voltage source or as a current source and is
inherently a linear device. To increase the output voltage, cells may be connected
in series. Parallel connection allows a greater current to be drawn.
When used as an energy source they are known as Solar Cells.
Note:
For the characteristic to be linear it is necessary for the light output of the lamp to
be of constant light frequency (spectral color) and for the light output (in lux) to
be directly proportional to the power input.
83
Light Sensors IT02

The Photovoltaic Cell
MOVING COIL METER
0
5 5
-10 +10
+
P .I .N . P H O T O D I O D E P HO T O V O LT A I C C E LL
-
O/P
L
O/P
J
0V
+ +
O /P O/P
WIREWOUND TRACK
5 6 C POWER AMPLIFIER A
4 7 PH OT OC O ND UC TI V E C E LL PH O TO TRA NS IS T OR
3 8 B O/P LAMP FILAMENT I/P
9
I/P
2
A
1 10
10k +12V 0V
Fig 5.6
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 5.6 with the digital multimeter
(ammeter) on the 2mA range to measure the short circuit current between
the Photovoltaic Cell output and Ground. Fit an opaque box over the Clear
Plastic Enclosure to exclude all ambient light.
 Switch ON the power supply and set the 10k Ω wirewound resistor to
minimum for zero output voltage from the power amplifier.
 Take readings of Photovoltaic Cell Short Circuit Output Current as indicated

on the digital multimeter as the lamp voltage is increased in 1V steps.
Record the results in Table 5.3.
Lamp filament
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
voltage (volts)
Short Circuit
Output Current µA µA µA µA µA µA µA µA µA µA µA
Open Circuit
Output Voltage V V V V V V V V V V V
Table 5.3
84
IT02 Light Sensors
 Switch OFF the power supply, set the multimeter as a voltmeter to read the
Open Circuit Output Voltage. Switch ON the power supply and repeat the
readings, adding the results to Table 5.3.
 Plot the graphs of Photovoltaic Cell Short Circuit Output Current and Open
Circuit Output Voltage against Lamp filament voltage on the graticule
provided.
1100 1.10
1050 1.05
1000 1.00
950 0.95
900 0.90
Photovoltaic Cell Photovoltaic Cell
Short Circuit 850 0.85 Open Circuit
Output Current Output Voltage
800 0.80
(µA) (volts)
750 0.75
700 0.70
650 0.65
600 0.60
550 0.55
500 0.50
450 0.45
400 0.40
350 0.35
300 0.30
250 0.25
200 0.20
150 0.15
100 0.10
50 0.05
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Lamp Filam ent Voltage (volts)
Graph 5.2
85
Light Sensors IT02
5.5a From your graph estimate and enter the short circuit output current in A
when the Lamp filament voltage is 7.5V.
5.5b Are the graphs linear?
Yes or No
5.6 The Phototransistor
The construction and circuit used are shown in Fig 5.7. The device is an NPN
three layer semiconductor device similar to a normal transistor, the regions being
called emitter (e), base (b) and collector (c).
+V
c Incident R
Incident Light Output
Light N eb c
P
N
b
e
Lens Case 0V
Fig 5.7
The device differs from the normal transistor in allowing light to fall onto the base
region, focused there by a lens.
The circuit connection is shown in Fig 5.7, the collector being connected to the
positive of a DC supply via a load resistor R. The base connection is not used in
this circuit but is available for biasing to change the threshold level.
With no light falling on the device there will be a small leakage current flowing
due to thermally generated hole-electron pairs and the output voltage from the
circuit will be slightly less than the supply voltage due to the voltage drop across
the load resistor R.
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IT02 Light Sensors
When light falls on the base region the leakage current increases. With the base
connection open circuit, this current flows out via the base-emitter junction and is
amplified by normal transistor action to give a large change in the collector
leakage current.
With increased current flowing in the load resistor R, the output voltage reduces
and is dependent on the light falling on the device.
Vout = V - Iceo R
where:
V = Supply voltage, Iceo = Collector leakage current, R = Collector load
resistance.
Fig 5.8 shows the circuit arrangement for the DIGIAC 1750 unit.
O/P
b
e
0V
Fig 5.8
The main characteristics of the device are:
Type MEL12
Collector Current Dark 100nA

Typical
(Vce = 5V) 3.5mA
ambient
Table 5.4
87
Light Sensors IT02

Characteristics of a Phototransistor
MOVING COIL METER P . I . N. P HO T O D I O D E P HO T O V O L T A I C C E LL

O/P
0 O/P
5 5
-10 +10
+ +
+ O/ P O /P
L
PH O TO CO NDUCT IV E C ELL PH O T OT RA NSI ST O R
J
0V
LAMP FILAMENT I/P
SLIDE
V C
WIREWOUND TRACK
B
4 7
O/P A
3 8 B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k
9
I/P
2
A
1 10
10k
+12V 0V +5V
Fig 5.9
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 5.9 and set the 10k Ω carbon slider
control to minimum setting (1) so that the Phototransistor load resistance is
approximately 1kΩ (protection resistor only).
 Connect the digital multimeter on the 20V DC range to measure the

Phototransistor output voltage. Fit the opaque box over the Clear Plastic
Enclosure to exclude all ambient light.
 Take readings of Phototransistor output voltage as indicated on the digital

multimeter as the lamp voltage is increased in 1V steps. Record the results in
Table 5.5.
88
IT02 Light Sensors
Lamp filament
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
voltage (volts)
Phototransistor
Table 5.5
 Plot the graph of Phototransistor Output Voltage against Lamp filament
voltage on the graticule provided.
5.5
5.0
Phototransistor
Output 4.5
Voltage 4.0
(V)
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Lamp Filament Voltage (volts)
Graph 5.3
5.7a From your graph estimate and enter the filament input voltage when the
Phototransistor output voltage is 2.5V.
5.7b As the filament input voltage increases the phototransistor output voltage
'levels out' at approximately:
a 4.5-5.5V b 3-4V c 1.5-2.5V d 0-1.0V
89
Light Sensors IT02
5.8 The Photoconductive Cell, LDR
Fig 5.10 shows the basic construction of a photoconductive cell, consisting of a

semiconductor disc base with a gold overlay pattern making contact with the
semiconductor material. The circuit arrangement for the DIGIAC 1750 unit is also
shown.
Cadmium Sulfide disk O/P
Contact Contact
0V
Gold Contact Fingers Circuit Arrangement
Fig 5.10
The resistance of the semiconductor material between the gold contacts reduces
when light falls on it.
With no light on the material, the resistance is high. Light falling on the material
produces hole-electron pairs of charge carriers and reduces the resistance.
Out of the various semiconductor materials available, a cadmium sulfide

photoconductive cell is used on the DIGIAC 1750 unit because it responds to light
with a range of wavelengths similar to those of the human eye (400-700nm).
An alternative name for this device is the Light Dependent Resistor, LDR.
Dark Ambient (typ.)

Cell Resistance 1MΩ 400Ω
Peak Spectral Response 530nm
Table 5.6
When
and thelight is removed
response from This
is sluggish. the device, the hole-electron
is indicated by the large pairs
fallingare slow totime.
response reform
90
IT02 Light Sensors

Characteristics of a Photoconductive Cell
MOVING COIL METER P . I . N. P HO T O D I O D E P H O T O V O LT A I C C E L L

O/P
0 O/P
5 5
-10 +10
+ +
+ O/P O /P
L
PH O TO C ONDUCT IV E C E LL PHOT OT RANSI ST O R
J
0V
LAMP FILAMENT I/P
V SLIDE C
WIREWOUND TRACK
B
4 7
O/P A
3 8 B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k
9
I/P
2
A
1 10
10k
+12V 0V +5V
Fig 5.11
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 5.11 and set the 10k Ω carbon slider
control to setting 3 so that the Photoconductive Cell load resistance is
approximately 3kΩ.
3kΩ
+5V
0V Output
LDR
Fig 5.12
 Connect the digital multimeter on the 20V DC range to measure the

Photoconductive Cell output voltage. Fit the opaque box over the Clear
Plastic Enclosure to exclude all ambient light.
91
Light Sensors IT02
 Take readings of Photoconductive Cell output voltage as indicated on the

digital multimeter as the lamp voltage is increased in 1V steps. Record the
results in Table 5.7.
Lamp filament
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
voltage (volts)
Photoconductive
Cell Output V V V V V V V V V V V
Table 5.7
 Plot the graph of Photoconductive Cell Output Voltage against Lamp
filament voltage on the graticule provided.
5.5
5.0
Photoconductive
Cell 4.5
Output
4.0
Voltage
(V) 3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 5.4
5.9a From your graph estimate and enter the lamp filament voltage when the
circuit output voltage is 3V.
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IT02 Light Sensors
5.10 The PIN Photodiode
Fig 5.13 shows the construction of the PIN photodiode.
Light
Light
+
N
Lens
Depletion Intrinsic (I)
I
Layers Region
P
Hole
Electron Electron/Hole pairs
generated in the I region
Contacts
Fig 5.13
This differs from a standard PN photodiode by having a layer of intrinsic (pure)

silicon, the I region, between the normal P and N regions. The main improvement
of the introduction of the I region is a reduction in the capacitance of the junction,
resulting in a faster response time which can be as high as 0.5ns.
The device can be operated in one of two ways:

(a) as a photovoltaic cell, measuring the voltage output, and
(b) by amplifying the output current and converting it into a voltage.
O/P
Sensitivity 0.55A/W
Current Characteristic 2856KnA/lx
Response Time 3.5ns
Peak Spectral Response 850nm (IR)
0V
Characteristics of a BPX65 PIN Diode
Fig 5.14
Fig 5.14 shows the circuit arrangement and characteristics for the PIN Diode
mounted on the DIGIAC 1750 unit.
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Light Sensors IT02

Characteristics of a PIN Photodiode
MOVING COIL METER P .I .N . P HO T O D I O D E P H O TO V O LT A I C C E L L

O/P
0 O/P
5 5
-10 +10
+ +
+ O/ P O/ P
L
P HOTO CO N DU CTIVECE LL P HO TO TRAN SISTO R
J
0V
LAMP FILAMENT I/P
AMPLIFIER #1
CURRENT AMPLIFIER
I/ P O /P
WIREWOUND TRACK O/P
4 7 I/P
.5 .6
O/P 104 I IN - + .4 .7
3 8 B
I/P 1 .3 .8
2 9
A 100
1 10 10 .2 .9
10k .1 1.0
+12V
V
0V
Fig 5.15
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 5.15, using the Current Amplifier to
measure the current output of the PIN Photodiode.
 Use the digital multimeter on the 20V DC range to measure the output
voltage of Amplifier #1. Fit the opaque box over the Clear Plastic Enclosure
to exclude all ambient light.
 Set the GAIN COARSE of Amplifier #1 to 10 and set the GAIN FINE to 1.0.
Check that the OFFSET is giving zero output for zero input and adjust if
necessary.
 Take readings of Amplifier #1 output voltage as indicated on the digital

multimeter as the lamp voltage is increased in 1V steps. Record the results in
Table 5.8 in the row labeled PIN Photodiode Current Amp. O/P.
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IT02 Light Sensors
Lamp filament
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
voltage (volts)
PIN Photodiode
Current Amp. O/P V V V V V V V V V V V
PIN Photodiode
Table 5.8
 Transfer the Current Amplifier input and output connections to the Buffer
Amplifier, so that the Buffer Amplifier replaces the Current Amplifier in the
circuit. This will allow you to measure the output voltage of the PIN
Photodiode.
 Take readings of PIN Photodiode amplified Output Voltage as the lamp

voltage is again increased in 1V steps. Record the results in Table 5.8 in the
row labeled PIN Photodiode Output Voltage.
 Plot the graphs of PIN Photodiode Current Amplifier Output Voltage and
Buffered Output Voltage against Lamp filament voltage on the graticule
provided.
4.5
4.0
PIN Photodiode
Output Voltage 3.5
(V)
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 5.5
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Light Sensors IT02
5.11a From your graph, estimate and enter the lamp filament voltage when the
circuit output voltage is 2V with the Current Amplifier connected.
5.11b From your graph, estimate and enter the lamp filament voltage when the
circuit output voltage is 2V with the Buffer Amplifier connected.
5.11c Are the two graphs similar shapes?

Yes or No
Notes:
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IT02 Light Sensors
1. As the input voltage is varied, the light output from a filament lamp is:
a directly proportional to the input voltage b of constant color temperature for tungsten
c a non-linear relationship d reduced as the voltage is increased
2. The Solar Cell is a form of:

a photovoltaic cell b light dependent resistor
c photoconductive cell d phototransistor
3. A photovoltaic cell gives an output of 0.5V for a certain illumination level and is
capable of a current output of 5mA. With two identical units connected (i) in series or
(ii) in parallel the output capability will be:
a (i) V = 0.5V, (ii) I = 5mA b (i) V = 1.0V, (ii) I = 5mA
c (i) V = 0.5V, (ii) I = 10mA d (i) V = 1.0V, (ii) I = 10mA
4. A phototransist
level of ambientor is connected
illumination tocollector
the a 10V DC supplyisvia
current a 2kTheload
2mA. resistor.
collector For one
voltage will
be:
a 2V b 4V c 6V d 8V
5. For the phototransistor in question 4 above, if the level of ambient illumination is

doubled and assuming that the device has a linear relationship, you would expect the
collector voltage to be:
a 2V b 4V c 6V d 8V
6. The Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is a form of:

a photovoltaic cell b PIN photodiode
Continued ...
97
Light Sensors IT02
7. As the level of illumination on a photoconductive cell is increased:

a its resistance is increased b a voltage is generated
c the junction temperature is increased d its resistance is reduced
8. The greatest advantage of a PIN photodiode over an ordinary photodiode is:

a simpler construction b less semiconductor regions
c greater capacitance d faster response times
9. Examining the characteristics of all of the opto-sensors seems to indicate that:

a there is no similarity between any of them
b the lamp has very little light output at low driving voltages
c all of the circuits give an increasing output voltage as the illumination is increased
d all of the circuits gave a decreasing output voltage as the illumination was increased
10. The characteristics of the PIN photodiode are most similar to those of the:
a photovoltaic cell b tungsten filament lamp
98
IT02 Linear Position or Force Applications
Chapter 6
Linear Position or Force Applications

this Chapter
 Describe the construction, principle and
characteristics of a Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT).
linear variable capacitor.
strain gauge.
Equipment
Required for • DIGIAC 1750 Transducer and Instrumentation Trainer.
• 4mm Connecting Leads.
this Chapter
• Digital Multimeter.
• Oscilloscope.
99
Linear Position or Force Applications IT02
6.1 The Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
The construction and circuit arrangement of an LVDT are as shown in Fig 6.1. It
consists of three coils mounted on a common former and having a magnetic core
that is movable within the coils.
Secondaries Primary
Primary
Coil Former
A B
A B
Core Motion
Magnetic Core Secondaries

Connections
Fig 6.1
The center coil is the primary and is supplied from an AC supply. The coils on
either side are secondary coils and are labeled A & B in Fig 6.1.
Coils A & B have equal number of turns and are connected in series opposing so
that the output voltage is the difference between the voltages induced in the coils.
Fig 6.2 shows the output obtained for different positions of the magnetic core.
AC Input AC Input AC Input

A B A B A B
C or e Core Cor e
Output Output Output

+ + +
I/P I/P I/P
0 0 0
- - -
+ + +
O/P O/P O/P
0 0 0
- - -
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 6.2
100
With the core in its central position as shown in Fig 6.2(b) there should be equal
voltages induced in coils A & B by normal transformer action and the output
voltage would be zero. In practice this ideal condition is unlikely to be found, but
the output voltage will reduce to a minimum.
With the core moved to the left as shown in Fig 6.2(a), the voltage induced in coil
A (Va) will be greater than that induced in coil B (Vb). There will therefore be an
output voltage Vout = (Va - Vb) and this voltage will be in phase with the input
voltage as shown.
With the core moved to the right as shown in Fig 6.2(c) the voltage induced in coil
A (Va) will be less than that induced in coil B (V b) and again there will be an
output voltage Vout = (Va - Vb) but in this case the output voltage will be
antiphase with the input voltage.
Movement of the core from its central (or neutral) position produces an output
voltage. This voltage increases with the movement from the neutral position to a
maximum value and then may reduce for further movement from this maximum
setting. Note that the phase will remain constant on either side of the neutral
position. There is no gradual change of phase, only an abrupt reversal when
passing through the neutral position.
An amplitude only measurement of the output voltage, such as that provided by a

meter, gives an indication of movement from the neutral position but will not
indicate the direction of that movement. Used in conjunction with a phase
detector, an output can be obtained that is dependent on both magnitude and
direction of movement from neutral position. The oscilloscope gives both phase
and magnitude indications.
Fig 6.3 shows the circuit arrangement and device characteristics of the
DIGIAC 1750 unit.
I/P Turns per coil 75

O/P
Inductance per coil 68 µ H
Output Voltage 10mV/mm from neutral
Mechanical Travel 15mm
0V
LVDT Characteristics
Fig 6.3
101

Characteristics of a Linear Variable Differential Transformer
A.C. AMPLIFIER 40kHz FILTER FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

LVDT VARIABLE CAPACITOR O/P
O/P O/P
I/P
I/P I/P
VIN
10 V
I/P O /P I /P O/ P 1000
100
GAIN 0V
40kHz OSCILLATOR MOVING COIL METER

O/P
0
AMPLIFIER #1 5 5
-10 +10
I /P O/ P
+
.5 .6
- +
.4 .7
-
L
1 .3 .8
J
100
.9 0V
10 .2
.1 1.0
Fig 6.4
In this exercise you will measure the rectified output using the digital multimeter
on the 20V DC range and also amplify and measure it using the M.C. analog
meter, as this gives a better impression of the variation of output voltage with core
position.
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 6.4 with the digital multimeter on the 2V
DC range to monitor the output of the Full-Wave Rectifier. Switch ON the
power supply.
 Set the A.C. Amplifier gain to 1000.
 Set the GAIN COARSE control of Amplifier #1 to 100 and GAIN FINE control
to 0.2. Check that the OFFSET control is set for zero output with zero input
and adjust if necessary.
 Adjust the core position by rotating the operating screw to the neutral
position. This will give minimum output voltage. Note the value of this
voltage from the digital multimeter and record in Table 6.1.
 Rotate the core control screw in steps of 1 turn for 4 turns in the clockwise
direction (when viewing the control from the left-hand side of the D1750
unit) and record your results in Table 6.1. Then turn the control screw in the
counter clockwise direction, again recording the results in Table 6.1.
102
Core position (turns from neutral) -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4
Digital meter
Output V V V V V V V V V
Voltage
Analog meter
V V V V V V V V V
Table 6.1
 Plot the graph of output voltage from the analog meter readings against core
position on the axes provided.
10
Output 9
Voltage
(volts) 8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4
Core Position (turns from neutral)
Graph 6.1
6.2a Enter your minimum voltage reading from the digital multimeter in mV.
6.2b Enter your voltage reading from the M.C. analog meter when the core is
turned 2 turns out (-2) from the neutral position in V.
103
A.C. AMPLIFIER
LVDT VARIABLE CAPACITOR O/P 40kHz FILTER
I/P O/P
I/P
10
I/P O/ P I/ P O /P 1000
GAIN 100
40kHz OSCILLATOR TP1 0V TP2 0V

O/P
CH .1 C H .2
OSCILLOSCOPE
Fig 6.5
 Change the circuit to that shown in Fig 6.5 to observe the effect of the
polarity ofchange
bottom in the output.
the DIGIAC Note panel
1750 Trainer that test
for points are provided
connection at the
of oscilloscope
probes.
 Note: for the LVDT considered here, unless the two secondary coils are
identical, there will be non-perfect coupling between each secondary coil
and the primary coil, resulting in a frequency-dependent phase shift in the
output voltage (relative to the input voltage).
 Set up the oscilloscope as follows:

lock the timebase to CH.1, trigger selector to AC
CH.1 Amplifier on AC input, 50mV/div
CH.2 Amplifier on AC input, 0.5V/div
timebase to 5µs/div
position both traces on the center horizontal line of the display
 Switch ON the power supply and vary the core position through its full
range and observe the effect on the output voltage as seen on CH.2 of the
oscilloscope display.
 Adjust the timebase fine control to give 1½ cycles of displayed waveform.
104
 Sketch the oscilloscope waveforms when the core is turned 2 turns in (+2) from
the neutral position on the graticule provided.
Waveform Sketch 6.1
6.2c The waveform sketch, for perfectly coupled coils, would look most like:
a CH.2 b CH.1 c CH.1 d CH.1

CH.1 CH.2 CH.2
CH.2
 Switch OFF the power supply and reset the timebase fine control to the
calibrated position.
Notes:
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
105
6.3 The Linear Variable Capacitor
Any capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator which is

referred to as the dielectric. The capacitance of the device is directly proportional
to the cross sectional area that the plates overlap and is inversely proportional to
the separation distance between the plates.
A variable capacitor can therefore be constructed by varying either the area of

plates overlapping or the separation distance.
Plated Brass Sleeve (fixed plate)

I/P O/P
length l
10kΩ
Spring
Metal Slug
(moving plate) 0V
Contacts
(a) (b)
Fig 6.6
Fig 6.6(a) shows the construction of the capacitor fitted in the DIGIAC 1750 unit,
being fitted at the end of the coil former of the LVDT. This uses the magnetic slug
core as the moving plate of the capacitor. The fixed plate consists of a brass sleeve
fitted around the coil former.
The capacitance magnitude depends on the length ( l) of the slug enclosed within
the brass sleeve, the capacitance increasing with increase of length l.
Fig 6.6(b) shows the circuit arrangement in the DIGIAC 1750 unit.
The main characteristics of the unit are:
Capacitance (minimum) 25pF
Capacitance (maximum) 50pF
Mechanical travel 15mm

Table 6.2
106

Characteristics of a Variable Capacitor Transducer

LVDT VARIABLE CAPACITOR O/P
O/P O/P
I/P
I/P I/P
VIN
10
I/P O /P I /P O /P 1000
100
GAIN DIFFERENTIAL
AMPLIFIER
O/P
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
40kHz OSCILLATOR B -
D
O/P A-B
A + 0V
C 12k
A
B OUT AMPLIFIER #1
V
3
IN I/ P O/ P
1V
Rx
+5V 0V .5 .6
- + .4 .7
1 .3 .8
100
10 .2 .9
.1 1.0
Fig 6.7
The purpose of the Differential Amplifier is to provide a reference to give zero

output voltage at any desired value of input voltage. The reference voltage is
adjusted by the setting of the 10-turn potentiometer.
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 6.7 with the digital multimeter on the
20V DC range connected to the output of Amplifier #1.
 Set the capacitor moving plate fully out to the minimum capacitance
position, and then turn it back in until the marker on the operating control is
first at the top. Now the device is near to its minimum capacitance position.
 Set the AC Amp gain to 1000.
 Switch ON the power supply and set the GAIN COARSE control of
Amplifier #1 to 100 and GAIN FINE control to 0.4. Check that the OFFSET
control is set for zero output with zero input and adjust if necessary.
 Adjust the 10-turn potentiometer on the Wheatstone Bridge panel to give

zero (as near as possible) output from Amplifier #1 (as close to 0V as
possible) as indicated on the digital multimeter.
 Turn the operating screw inwards in steps of 1 turn clockwise to increase the
capacitance and at each step note the output voltage and enter the value in
Table 6.3.
107
Approximate
25pF ←Screw full out, minimum Screw full in, maximum→ 50pF
Capacitance
Turns of screw 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
Output Voltage
Table 6.3
 Plot the graph of output voltage against core positions above on the axes
provided:
3.6
3.4
3.2
3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
Output 2.2
Voltage
(volts) 2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2 3 45678 9 10
Core Position (turns in )
Graph 6.2
6.4a Enter the output voltage when the core is in position 4 above in V.
6.4b Is the characteristic linear?

Yes or No
108
6.5 The Strain Gauge Transducer
Fine Resistance Wire

Fine Resistance Wire
(b)
Sensitive Axis
(c)
(a)
Fig 6.8
Fig 6.8 shows the construction of a strain gauge, consisting of a grid of fine wire
or semiconductor material bonded to a backing material.
When in use, the unit is glued to the beam under test and is arranged so that the
variation in length under loaded conditions is along the gauge sensitive axis
(Fig 6.8(a)).
Loading the beam increases the length of the gauge wire and also reduces its
cross-sectional area (Fig 6.8(c)). Both of these effects will increase the resistance
of the wire.
+5V
-
Load Strain O/P

Platform Gauges
Beam
0V
(a) (b)
Fig 6.9
The layout and circuit arrangement for the DIGIAC 1750 unit is shown in Fig 6.9.
Resistors are electro-deposited on a substrate on a contact block at the right-hand
end of the assembly.
109
The gauge is normally connected in a Wheatstone Bridge arrangement with the

bridge balanced under no load conditions. Any change of resistance due to loading
unbalances the bridge and this is indicated by the detector (Galvanometer).
Standard Strain Dummy Active

Resistance Gauge Gauge Gauge Dummy Active
DC D D D
Supply
Standard Standard Standard Standard Active Dummy
Resistance Resistance
(a) (b) (c)

Fig 6.10
Fig 6.10(a) shows the basic Wheatstone Bridge arrangement with one strain gauge
transducer. This circuit is liable to give inaccurate results due to thermal changes.
A variation of temperature will also produce a change of resistance of the gauge
and this will be interpreted as a change of loading.
To correct for this an identical gauge is used and connected in circuit as shown in
Fig 6.10(b). This gauge is placed near to the other gauge but is arranged so that it
is not subjected to any loading.
Any variation of temperature now affects both gauges equally and there will be no
thermal effect on the bridge conditions. The gauge subjected to loading is referred
to as the active gauge and the other is called the dummy gauge.
The output from the circuit is small and to increase this, four gauges are normally
used with two active gauges and two dummies as shown in Fig 6.10(c).
The DIGIAC 1750 uses two active gauges formed along the axis of the beam and
two dummies formed at right angles to these.
Load capacity 100g Non-linearity 0.10%
Maximum deflection 0.5mm Hysteresis 0.03%
Sensitivity 25µV/g Creep 0.05%

Table 6.4
110

Characteristics of a Strain Gauge Transducer
STRAIN GAUGE INSTRUMENTATION x100 AMPLIFIER

- AMPLIFIER
O/P O/P
O/P B - I/P
A-B +100VIN
+ A +
LOAD
MOVING COIL METER
0
AMPLIFIER #1 5 5
-10 +10
I/ P O/ P
+
.5 .6
- +
.4 .7
-
L
1 .3 .8
J
100
.9 0V
10 .2
.1 1.0
Fig 6.11
You will need ten similar weights, such as ten equal value coins, to increase the
loading in regular steps.

 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 6.11 and set Amplifier #1 GAIN COARSE
control to 100.
 Switch ON the power supply and with no load on the strain gauge platform,
adjust the offset control of Amplifier #1 so that the output voltage is zero.
 Place all ten of your weights on the load platform and adjust the GAIN FINE
control to give an output voltage of 7.0V as indicated on the moving coil
meter.
Note that this value of output voltage should cover all ranges of coins within
the setting of the GAIN FINE control.
 Place one weight (coin) on the load platform and note the output voltage.
Record the value in Table 6.5 overleaf.
 Repeat the process, adding further weights one at a time, noting the output
voltage at each step and recording the values in Table 6.5.
111
Number of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
coins
0
Output Voltage
Table 6.5
 Plot the graph of output voltage against number of coins on the axes
provided:
Output 7
Voltage 6.5
(volts) 6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 45678 9 10
Number of coins
Graph 6.3
6.6a Enter the output voltage obtained with four coins on the platform.
6.6b Your characteristic sketch is most similar to:
a b c d
112
1. A Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) has two secondary coils A and B.
When the core is moved to be nearest to coil A the voltages induced will be:
a the same in both coils b greater in coil A than in coil B

c greater in coil B than in coil A d reduced to zero
2. A Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) has its core centralized under the
primary and the voltage induced in one of the secondary coils is 500mV. The voltage
induced in the other coil will be:
a 250mV aiding b 500mV opposing c 500mV aiding d 1.0V opposing
3. A Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) has its core centralized under the
primary and the voltage induced in one of the secondary coils is 500mV. The secondary
output voltage will be:
a 0V b 250mV c 500mV d 1.0V
4. The output voltage of a Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is taken to

a full-wave rectifier. As the core is moved through the LVDT from one end to the other
the output voltage of the full-wave rectifier will:
a reverse polarity as the core passes through the central (neutral) position
b remain constant at all positions of the core
c gradually reduce from a maximum positive to zero
d reduce to minimum and then return to maximum positive again
Continued ...
113
5. The Linear Variable Capacitor mounted on the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer varies in
capacitance by changing:
a the nature of the dielectric

b varying the distance between the plates
c varying the effective cross-sectional-area of the plates
d the reactance of the capacitor due to a change in frequency
6. From the information given in the notes about the main characteristics of the Linear
Variable Capacitor, as the slug is moved the capacitance varies by about:
a 25pF/mm b 15pF/mm c 1.67pF/mm d 0.6pF/mm
7. When using a circuit similar to that investigated in Practical Exercise 6.4, as the slug
of a Variable Capacitor is moved in towards the middle of the sleeve the output
voltage:
a remains the same b increases c changes polarity d reduces
8. The main disadvantage of using a single Strain Gauge in a Wheatstone Bridge

sensing circuit is that it:
a has poor sensitivity b gives a non-linear response
c is affected by temperature d cannot be null-balanced
9. The strain gauge bridge used in the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer has:
a one active and one dummy strain gauges b two active and two dummy strain gauges
c four active strain gauges d two active and four dummy strain gauges
10. The difference between an active and a dummy strain gauge is that:
a they are made of different materials b an active gauge is longer than a dummy
c an active gauge is shorter than a dummy d they are mounted in different directions
114
IT02 Environmental Measurements
Chapter 7
Environmental Measurements

this Chapter
 Describe the construction and characteristics of an air
flow transducer.
 Describe the construction and characteristics of an air
pressure transducer.
humidity transducer.

115
Environmental Measurements IT02
7.1 The Air Flow Transducer
RTD and
Heater
RTD Unheated
Fig 7.1
Fig 7.1 shows the construction of an Air Flow Transducer, consisting of two
RTD's (Resistance Temperature Dependent) mounted in a plastic case. One of the
devices has an integral heating element incorporated with it and the other is
unheated.
The operation of the device uses the principle that when air flows over the RTD's,
the temperature of the heated unit will fall more than that of the unheated unit. The
temperature difference will be related to the air flow rate which will in turn affect
the resistance of the RTD's.
With the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer, the transducers are enclosed in a clear plastic
container and provision is made for air to be pumped over the device.
Fig 7.2 shows the electrical circuit arrangement and main characteristics of the
device in the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer.
+5V Heater power 1W

- Output impedance 1.7k Ω
Output voltage (-). Pump OFF 2.1V
+ Output voltage (+). Pump OFF 1.7V
RTD RTD Voltage change (airflow) 0.06V
0V Table 7.1
Heater
Fig 7.2
116

Characteristics of an Air Flow Transducer
AIR FLOW SENSOR AIR PRESSURE SENSOR

FLOW PRESSURE
- -
O/P PUMP O/P
OFF ON
MOVING COIL METER
+ +
V 0
AMPLIFIER #1 5 5
-10 +10
I /P O/P
0V INSTRUMENTATION
AMPLIFIER +
O/P .5 .6
- +
- .4 .7
B -
L
A-B 1 .3 .8
J
+ 100
A .9 0V
10 .2
.1 1.0
Fig 7.3
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 7.3 and set the GAIN COARSE control of
Amplifier #1 to 10 and GAIN FINE control to 1.0. Check that the pump
control is set to OFF.
 Set the digital multimeter to the 20V range.
 Switch ON the power supply and allow the temperature to stabilize.
 Adjust the OFFSET control of Amplifier #1 for zero output continuously

during this time, setting the GAIN COARSE control to 100 when stabilized
conditions are approached.
 Set the Flow/Pressure control to FLOW.
 Check that the OFFSET control is set for zero output voltage.
 Use the digital multimeter to note the voltages at the - and + outputs from
the transducer, then note the Amplifier #1 output voltage displayed on the
Moving Coil Meter. Record the values in Table 7.2 overleaf.
117
 Switch the pump ON and note the voltages again when conditions have
stabilized, recording the values in Table 7.2
Pump OFF Pump ON
Transducer - Output Voltage V V

Transducer + Output Voltage
V V
Amplifier #1 Output Voltage 0
V
Table 7.2
The RTD's have a positive temperature coefficient.
7.2a Which output is connected to the heated RTD, - a or + b ?
 Switch OFF the power supply and the pump.
Notes:
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
118
7.3 The Air Pressure Transducer
Fig 7.4 shows the construction of an air pressure transducer and also shows the
electric circuit arrangement of the DIGIAC 1750 unit. The device consists of an
outer plastic case which is open to the atmosphere via two ports. Within this case
is an inner container from which the air has been evacuated and a strain gauge
Wheatstone bridge circuit is fitted on the surface.
+5V
Backing Plate
Strain Gauge -
O/P
Ports Contacts
+
Vacuum Cavity
0V
Construction Electrical Circuit

Fig 7.4
The air pressure in the outer container will produce an output from the bridge and
variation of the pressure will produce a variation of this output.
The transducer output can be calibrated and may be called an absolute pressure
transducer.
Provision is made for air to be fed to the unit from the pump.
Type SPX200AN
Voltage difference
Sensitivity (typical) 300µV/kPa 35mV
Pump OFF
Temperature coefficient Voltage difference
1350ppm/°C 39mV
Pump ON
Output
Pump Voltage
OFF (-) 2.48V Output impedance 1.6kΩ
Output Voltage (+)
2.51V
Pump ON
Table 7.3
119

Characteristics of an Air Pressure Transducer
AIR FLOW SENSOR AIR PRESSURE SENSOR INSTRUMENTATION x100 AMPLIFIER

FLOW PRESSURE
AMPLIFIER
- - O/P O/P
B - I/P
O/P PUMP O/P
A-B +100VIN
OFF ON
A +
+ +
MOVING COIL METER
AMPLIFIER #1 0
5 5
I/P O/P
-10 +10
.5 .6 +
- + .4 .7
1 .3 .8 -
100
L
10 .9
J
.2
1.0
0V
.1
Fig 7.5
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 7.5 and set the Amplifier #1 GAIN
COARSE control to 10 and GAIN FINE control to 0.3. Ensure that the pump
switch is set OFF.
 Switch ON the power supply and adjust the OFFSET control of Amplifier #1
for zero output voltage. The unit is now calibrated zero for the current value
of the atmospheric pressure.
 Set the Flow/Pressure control to PRESSURE and then switch the pump ON.
The output voltage from the Amplifier #1 will increase. Note the value of
this voltage.
Output voltage (Pump ON) = V
7.4a Enter your value of output voltage with the Pump ON in V.
Note that a large amplification is required due to the low magnitude of the device
output.
 Switch OFF the power supply and the pump.
120
7.5 The Humidity Transducer
Fig 7.6(a) shows the construction of a humidity transducer, consisting of a thin

disc of a material whose properties vary with humidity. Each side of the disc is
metalized to form a capacitor.
I/P
Capacitor
Plates
Dielectric O/P
Disc
47kΩ
0V
Contacts
(a) (b)
Fig 7.6
Variation of humidity of the surrounding air alters the permittivity and/or

thickness of the dielectric material, changing the value of the capacitor. The unit is
housed in a perforated plastic case.
Fig 7.6(b) shows the electrical circuit arrangement for the DIGIAC 1750 unit.
The unit is connected in series with a resistor with the output taken from the
resistor. With an alternating voltage applied to the input, the output voltage will
vary with humidity due to the variation of capacitance of the transducer.
121
Type 90001
Capacitance (25°C, 45%R/H) 122pF ± 15%
Sensitivity 0.4pF/%RH
Humidity Range 10%-90% RH
Table 7.4
Amb ie nt H umid it y
Note: R/H is Relative Humidity, x 100%.
Sat urated Air
The device is slow to respond fully to humidity changes, taking in the order of
minutes, but this will normally be of no consequence in practice since natural
changes in humidity are very slow.
The variation of output voltage from the circuit is only a small percentage of the
output and this is difficult to detect.
In the practical exercise you will use signal processing circuits which are available
on the DIGIAC
standing 1750
DC level andTrainer to convert
thus enable the output
amplification to asmall
of the DC signal,
voltagebalance out the
changes.
Notes:
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
122

Characteristics of a Humidity Transducer

40kHz OSCILLATOR HUMIDITY SENSOR O/P
O/P O/P
I/P I/P
O/P
I/P I/P VIN
O/P 10
V
1000
100
GAIN DIFFERENTIAL
AMPLIFIER
SLIDE O/P
C 0V
B -
A-B
B
A +
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k MOVING COIL METER
0
AMPLIFIER #1 5 5
+5V -10 +10
I/ P O/ P
+
.5 .6
- +
.4 .7
-
L
1 .3 .8
J
100
.9 0V
10 .2
.1 1.0
Fig 7.7
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 7.7, setting the AC Amplifier gain
control to 10 and the Amplifier #1 GAIN COARSE control to 10 and GAIN
FINE to 1.0.
 Switch ON the power supply, remove the leads from the Differential
Amplifier inputs and connect a short circuit between them. Adjust the
OFFSET control of Amplifier #1 for zero output. Switch GAIN COARSE to 100
and make a final adjustment.
 Replace the connections to the inputs of the Differential Amplifier and

adjust the control of the 10k Ω carbon resistor for zero output from Amplifier
#1. It may be advisable to set the coarse gain to 10 initially and then back to
100 finally during this process.
The bridge circuit is now balanced for the ambient conditions, the Differential
Amplifier input from the 10kΩ variable resistor balancing that from the rectifier.
123
 Note the output voltage from the rectifier circuit as indicated by the digital
voltmeter.
Output Voltage Digital Meter Moving Coil Meter

0
Ambient
Conditions V V
After Breathing
V V
Table 7.5
 Now place your mouth near the humidity transducer and breath on it for a
short time. The reading indicated by the Moving Coil Meter will change
slowly.
 Note the maximum value of the voltage and also the reading of the digital
voltmeter.
Considering the readings obtained. Which meter do you consider gives a better
indication of the voltage changes:
a the Digital Multimeter, or b the Moving Coil Meter?
7.6a Enter your answer, a or b .
The time taken for the output voltage to return to zero after reaching the maximum
voltage illustrates the slow response of the device to humidity changes.
Time taken for output to return to zero =
Was the time taken for recovery less than 10 minutes a , or more b ?
7.6b Enter your answer, a or b .
Note: It is advisable to check the OFFSET of Amplifier #1 at regular intervals in

case there has been any drift. This can be checked by just removing both of
the input connections from the Differential Amplifier. The OFFSET control
can then be adjusted if necessary.
The ambient humidity conditions should not change during the test, but should a
change occur, the bridge output will not return to zero.
124
1. The operating principle of the Air Flow Transducer relies on the use of:
a strain gauges b RTD's c a capacitor d a pressure pump
2. The Instrumentation Amplifier used in these experiments is a form of:

a differential amplifier b bandpass filter
c AC amplifier d summing amplifier
3. In Practical Exercise 7.2 (Air Flow Transducer Characteristics) the moving coil meter
was balanced to zero at the start of the experiment using the:
a 10-turn variable resistor on the Wheatstone Bridge panel
b 10kΩ carbon slider potentiometer
c balancing inputs on the Instrumentation Amplifier
d offset control on Amplifier #1
4. The operating principle of the Air Pressure Transducer relies on the use of:
5. The output from an Air Pressure Transducer device is derived from a:

a series resistor b series capacitor c bridge circuit d x100 amplifier
6. At the start of the Air Pressure Transducer Characteristic experiment the output of the
device is calibrated zero against:
a relative humidity b ambient temperature
c atmospheric pressure d ambient illumination
Continued ...
125
7. The operating principle of the Humidity Transducer relies on the use of:
8. The output from a humidity detector circuit varies between DC values of 3.50V and
3.52V over its full humidity range. Which of the following signal processing circuits
would be necessary to provide an output range from 0 - 10V DC?
a AC amplifier b oscillator c DC amplifier d 40 kHz filter
9. In the Humidity Transducer investigation, the DC component of the full-wave rectifier

circuit was balanced out using:
a 10-turn variable resistor on the Wheatstone Bridge panel
b 10kΩ carbon slider potentiometer
c balancing inputs on the Instrumentation Amplifier
d offset control on Amplifier #1
10. The device investigated in this chapter with the slowest response time was the:
a Air Flow Sensor b Air Pressure Sensor
c Strain Gauge d Humidity Sensor
126
IT02 Rotational Speed or Position Measurements
Chapter 8
Rotational Speed or Position Measurements

this Chapter
 Describe the construction, principles and application
of Slotted Opto Transducers for counting and speed
measurement.
of Reflective Opto Transducers and Gray Coded Disc
for position measurement.

of Inductive Transducers for speed measurement.
of Hall Effect Transducers to speed and positional
measurement.
of a Tacho-Generator to speed measurement.

127
Rotational Speed or Position Measurements IT02
8.1 The Slotted Opto-Transducer
+5V +12V
Slotted
Spindle Aluminum
Disc
680Ω
Infra-red
Photo-transistor LED
Case O/P
47kΩ 470Ω
Contacts 0V
(a) (b)
Fig 8.1
Fig 8.1(a) shows the construction of a slotted opto transducer, consisting of a

gallium arsenide infra-red LED and silicon phototransistor mounted on opposite
sides of a gap in the case, each being enclosed in a plastic case which is
transparent to infra-red radiations.
The gap between them allows the infra-red beam to be broken when a solid object
is inserted.
The collector current of the phototransistor is low when the infra-red beam is
broken and increases when the beam is admitted. Positive voltage pulses are
obtained from the emitter circuit of the phototransistor each time the beam is
admitted and hence the device generates pulses which are suitable for counting
rotations.
A slotted aluminum disc connected to the motor shaft assembly rotates in the
transducer gap in the DIGIAC 1750 unit and an LED is provided to indicate when
the slot position allows the beam to be admitted.
Fig 8.1(b) shows the electrical circuit arrangement for the DIGIAC 1750 unit
Type K8102
Output Voltage (beam broken) 0.1V
Output Voltage (beam admitted) 4.9V

Table 8.1
128

Characteristics of a Slotted Opto Transducer
I/P DC MOTOR SLOTTED OPTO COUNTER/

SENSOR TIMER
I/P TIM E FR E E R U N
O/P R E SET C O U NT 1s
O/P
MOVING COIL METER
0
WIREWOUND TRACK 5 5
POWER AMPLIFIER
5 6 C -10 +10
4 7 V
O/P
3 8 B +
I/P
2 9
A -
1 10
L
10k
J
0V
+12V 0V
Fig 8.2
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 8.2 and set the 10k Ω wirewound resistor
control fully counter-clockwise for zero output voltage.
 Rotate the shaft by hand using the large aluminum disc provided with the
Hall effect device. Note and record in Table 8.2 the output voltage from the
Slotted Opto Transducer output socket and also the state of the indicating
LED:
(a) with the beam broken by the aluminum disc, and
(b) with the beam admitted through the slot in the aluminum disc.
Beam Broken Beam Admitted
Output Voltage V V
LED - ON/OFF
Table 8.2
129
 Set the Timer/Counter to COUNT and FREE RUN. The display should show
zero. If not, press RESET.
 Rotate the shaft backwards and forwards by hand so that the slot in the
aluminum disc passes between the opto transducer.
 Note the counter display, this should increment by 1 each time the slot is in
line with the transducer beam. This illustrates the use of the opto transducer
for counting applications.
 Now adjust the 10kΩ wirewound resistor control to give a drive voltage to
the motor of 2V as indicated by the Moving Coil Meter. The motor should
operate and rotate the shaft.
The counter value will increment once for each revolution of the shaft and
can be used to measure the shaft speed:
 Press the RESET button and hold down. With a watch, stop watch if
available, release the reset button at a suitable time and note the count value
after one minute. This value represents the shaft speed in revolutions per
minute (rev/min). Record the value in the last row of Table 8.3.
Motor Drive
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Voltage (volts)
Shaft Speed
(rev/sec)
Shaft Speed
(rev/min)
Table 8.3
 Repeat with a motor drive voltage of 3V and add the result to Table 8.3.
 Set the COUNTER/TIMER FREE RUN/1s switch to 1s (1 second). Set the 10k Ω
resistor to give a motor drive voltage of 4V. Press the RESET button of the
counter.
The counter now counts for one second and the count value is "frozen" at the
end of this time. The count displayed represents the number of revolutions
per second of the shaft. Press RESET again. The displayed value should
correspond with the previous value. Record the value in Table 8.3 in the
shaft speed (rev/sec) row.
130
 Repeat the procedure with the other motor drive voltages shown in Table 8.3
and for each setting note the shaft speed in rev/sec as displayed by the
counter and add to the table. Switch OFF the power supply.
 Multiply each recorded rev/sec value by 60 to give the shaft speed in

revolutions per minute (rev/min or rpm) and add to the last row of Table 8.3.
 Plot the graph of motor speed in rev/min against drive voltage on the axes
provided:
3000
2800
Motor
Speed 2600
(rev/min) 2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Motor Drive Voltage (volts)
Graph 8.1
8.2a From your graph deduce and enter the motor drive voltage needed to give a
speed of 1800 rev/min in V.
Keep the motor drive circuits connected for later experiments.
131
8.3 The Reflective Opto Transducer
Gray Code Disc

Drive Shaft
Infra-red Photo-
LED transistor
Motherboard
Reflective Opto-Sensors
PlanView SideView(elevation)
Fig 8.3
Fig 8.3 shows the construction of a reflective opto transducer, consisting of an

infra-red LED and phototransistor. This is similar to the slotted opto transducer,
but in this device the components are arranged so that the beam is reflected back if
a reflective surface is placed at the correct distance. A non reflective surface
breaks the beam.
Three separate units are provided with the DIGIAC 1750 unit, being mounted in
line vertically. The reflective surface is a Gray-coded disc, which is fixed
approximately 4mm from the transducers.
With the beam not reflected the output from the phototransistor emitter is low.
When the beam is reflected the output is high.
Three LED's are provided to indicate when the beam is reflected from the
respective transducer unit.
The output A is the least significant bit (LSB) and C is the most significant bit
(MSB).
The Gray code is used for the encoded disc rather than normal binary because only
one digit changes state at any boundary with this code and this minimizes any
possibility of error in identifying the actual position when at a segment boundary.
132
The arrangement of the Gray-coded disc and the respective LED outputs is shown
in Fig 8.4.
Gray Code Disc
4 5
A P osi t i on C B A
B 0 0 0 0
3 6 1 0 0 1
C
2 0 1 1
3 0 1 0
4 1 1 0
2 7 5 1 1 1
6 1 0 1
7 1 0 0
1 0
Fig 8.4
The dark areas break the beam and produce a low output from the associated
transducer and the bright areas reflect the beam and produce a high output.
The DIGIAC 1750 unit operates as a rotational angular position transducer but
similar principles can be used for linear position applications.
Slotted opto devices could be used with a transparent disc (transparent where the
above disc is reflective).
A
B
C
01234567
Linear Position
Fig 8.5
Fig 8.5 shows a linear Gray-coded track, the A track is the LSB and C the MSB.
The resolution provided with a 3-bit code (3 opto devices) is poor but this can be
improved by increasing the number of devices and tracks.
133
Note the Gray code pattern:
START REPEATS
LSB A 1 unit length '0' 2 unit lengths '1' 2 unit lengths '0'
B 2 unit length '0' 4 unit lengths '1' 4 unit lengths '0'

MSB C 4 unit length '0' 8 unit lengths '1' 8 unit lengths '0'
Table 8.4
The electrical circuit arrangement for the DIGIAC 1750 unit is shown in Fig 8.6:
+12V +5V
C
C B A
0V
Fig 8.6
Type K8711
Output Voltage (beam broken) 0.5V
Output Voltage (beam admitted) 5V

Table 8.5
134

Characteristics of Reflective Opto Transducers and Gray Code Disc
REFLECTIVE OPTO SENSORS
C B A
0V V
Fig 8.7
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 8.7 with the digital multimeter on the
20V DC range.
 Switch ON the power supply and rotate the drive shaft by hand to alter the
LED states.
 Rotate the shaft until it is in the position with all LED's OFF. Use the digital
multimeter to measure the voltage at each of the outputs and record in
Table 8.6.
Output Voltage
Output LED OFF LED ON
A
V V
B
V V
C
V V
Table 8.6
 Turn the shaft until all LED's are ON and repeat the readings, recording the
results again in Table 8.6.
135
 With the shaft initially in the position with all LED's OFF, rotate the shaft
counterclockwise, when looking at the coded side of the disc, and note the
state of the LED's at each change of state.
Denote an LED OFF as logic state 0 and LED ON as logic state 1.
 Record the values in Table 8.7.
Position C B A
7
Table 8.7
Check the sequence against that shown in the table in Fig 8.4.
8.4a Enter the voltage at the 'B' output when the LED is ON.
8.4b Enter the voltage at the 'B' output when the LED is OFF.
8.4c The code which you have recorded for step 6 in the form C B A is:
a 110 b 011 c 101 d none of these
136
8.5 The Inductive Transducer
Thick slotted disc
10kΩ
O/P
I/P
1mH
Ferrite bobbin Coil
Fig 8.8
Fig 8.8 shows the construction and electrical circuit arrangement for the Inductive
Transducer provided with the DIGIAC 1750 unit.
This consists of a 1mH inductor and a slotted aluminum disc fitted to the drive
shaft which rotates above the inductor. The inductance of the unit varies with the
position of the slot. With an aluminum disc the inductance increases with the slot
positioned directly above the inductor.
If a magnetic disc was used, the inductance would decrease for the condition when
the slot was above the inductor.
Note that, if unscreened, an inductor will be liable to pick up any stray

interference, such as that which may be generated by the motor commutator
switching. This can generate spurious short duration output pulses which may
need to be suppressed by using a low pass filter.
The main characteristics of the device (in circuit under the disc) are:
Inductance (under slot) 1mH
Inductance change (under disc) 7µH
Output voltage (under slot) 6.9mV
Output voltage change (under disc) 2mV

Table 8.8
137

Characteristics of an Inductive Transducer
40kHz OSCILLATOR INDUCTIVE

SENSOR A.C. AMPLIFIER
O/P 40kHz FILTER FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
O/P
I/P O/P O/P
I/P I/P
VIN
10
1000
I/P O/P 100
+5V GAIN
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE DIFFERENTIAL x100 AMPLIFIER

D AMPLIFIER
O/P O/P
C 12k B - I/P
A A-B +100VIN
B OUT A +
3
IN
1V
Rx
0V
MOVING COIL METER
0
AMPLIFIER #1 5 5
-10 +10
I/ P O /P
+
.5 .6
- +
.4 .7
-
L
1 .3 .8
J
100
.9 0V
10 .2
.1 1.0
Fig 8.9
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 8.9. Set the AC Amplifier gain to 1000
and Amplifier #1 GAIN COARSE to 10 and GAIN FINE to 1.0. Set the drive
shaft with the disc slot in the top vertical position.
 Remove the leads from the input to the Differential Amplifier, short the
inputs together and switch ON the power supply.
 Adjust the OFFSET control of Amplifier #1 for zero output.
 Replace the leads to the input of the Differential Amplifier and adjust the
control of the 10kΩ 10-turn resistor so that the meter reading is again zero.
The control setting will be critical with such high overall amplifier gains.
138
 Check the zero reading and then rotate the motor shaft to obtain the
maximum output voltage when the slot is immediately above the Inductive
Sensor. Note the value of this voltage:
Output voltage with slot over the inductor = V
8.6a Enter your maximum value of output voltage in V.
This indicates an application of inductive transducers to proximity detection of

metallic objects. The device can also be used for counting or speed measurement
applications.
 Switch OFF the power supply. Retain your circuit, but remove the Moving
Coil Meter from the output of Amplifier #1 and then add the circuits of
Fig 8.10.
LOW PASS FILTER DIFFERENTIATOR

O/P O/P
I/P I/P
dVIN
T
dt
I/P DC MOTOR 100ms 100ms

10ms 1s
1s 10ms
TIME CONSTANT TIME CONSTANT
To the output
of Amplifier#1 COUNTER/
TIMER
O/P
I/P TIME FREE RUN
WIREWOUND TRACK R ESET C O UN T 1s

POWER AMPLIFIER
5 6 C
4 7
O/P MOVING COIL METER
3 8 B
I/P
2 9 0
A 5 5
1 10
10k -10 +10
+
+12V 0V
-
0V
J
L
Fig 8.10
139
 Set the motor speed to zero.
 Set the TIME CONSTANT switches of the Low Pass Filter and the
Differentiator to 1s and set the counter to COUNT and 1s.
 Switch on the power supply.
 Apply 2V input to the DC motor so that the shaft rotates slowly. Press the
counter reset button several times and note the displayed value, this
represents the speed in rev/sec.
Speed of the shaft recorded with the Inductive Sensor =
 Remove the lead from the o/p of the Low Pass Filter to the Differentiator
and take the lead from the input of the Low Pass Filter and connect it to the
Differentiator input. Press the Counter RESET button several times and
observe the result. If the result is zero, then refer to the re-calibration
procedure described in the next point and repeat the counts with and without
the Low Pass Filter. When a reading has been observed restore the Low
Pass Filter back into the circuit by moving the lead back and adding the
connection between the Low Pass Filter and Differentiator.
Speed of the shaft recorded without Low Pass Filter =
 Re-calibrate the Inductive Sensor circuit by removing the lead from the MC
meter to the Power Amplifier and connecting it between the MC meter and
the output of Amplifier #1. Adjust the control of the 10KΩ 10-turn resistor
so that the meter reading is zero. Then reconnect the MC meter to the Power
Amplifier.
 Remove the Counter input lead from the Differentiator output and connect it
to the output from the Slotted Opto Transducer. Press the counter reset
button and note the displayed reading which also represents the shaft speed.
Compare these value with the value obtained from using the Inductive
Sensor.
 Repeat the two measurements for the motor input voltages and complete
Table 8.9 on the next page.
140
Motor Voltage
Shaft Speed (rev/sec) 2V 4V 7V 10V
Inductive
Transducer
Slotted Opto
Transducer
Table 8.9
8.6b When the Low Pass Filter was removed from circuit the effect on the Counter
readings was to:
a produce a constant count each time b make no change
c reduce the count d increase the count
You will note that a considerable amount of signal conditioning has been required
for the inductive transducer unit due to the small output voltage available and also
the problem of the susceptibility of the counter to voltage spikes.
Notes:
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
141
8.7 The Hall Effect Transducer
Magnetic Field
Thick Aluminum Disc
+5V
Drive Shaft Hall Effect Voltage VH
-
Current
634SS2 O/P
+
N
Hall Effect Sensor
S
Embedded Magnet 0V
Motherboard
Fig 8.11
Fig 8.11 shows the layout and electrical circuit arrangement of the Hall Effect
Transducer assembly fitted to the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer and illustrates the Hall
Effect principle.
Hall Effect Principle
When current flows through the flat slice of semiconductor at right-angles to a
magnetic field there is a force on each individual electron which tends to move it
in one particular direction (the motor principle).
The current is pushed to one side of the slice. The surplus of electrons on one side
of the slice means that this side is negatively charged, resulting in an EMF across
the slice (the Hall voltage VH) which is at right-angles to both the current and the
magnetic field. The value of this voltage is directly proportional to the strength of
the magnetic field.
The transducer provided on the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer also contains an active
silicon semiconductor device to increase the output voltage and provide
differential outputs, one going more positive and the other more negative (less
positive).
Output voltage (+) (no field) 1.75-2.25V
Output voltage (-) (no field) 1.60V

Output voltage change 7.5-10.6mV/mT
Output voltage change (under magnet) 380mV
Table 8.10
142

The Characteristics of a Hall Effect Transducer
I/P DC MOTOR HALL EFFECT

SENSOR COUNTER/
TIMER
DIFFERENTIAL
AMPLIFIER
O/P I/P TI ME FR EE RU N
B -
A-B
O/P
- A +
O/P R ESET C OU N T 1s
+
V MOVING COIL METER

WIREWOUND TRACK
POWER AMPLIFIER
5 6 C 0
4 7
AMPLIFIER #1 5 5
O/P
3 8 B -10 +10
I/P I/P O/P
2 9
A +
1 10
10k .5 .6
- + .4 .7
-
L
1 .3 .8
J
100
+12V 0V .9 0V
10 .2
.1 1.0
Fig 8.12
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 8.12. Set the Amplifier #1 GAIN COARSE
control to 10, GAIN FINE to 0.8 and the motor drive voltage to zero. Switch
ON the power supply.
 Set the drive shaft position so that the magnet in the Hall effect disc is
horizontal (to one side) so that there is no magnetic field cutting the Hall
effect device.
 Adjust the OFFSET control of Amplifier #1 for zero output indication on the
Moving Coil Meter.
 Note the output voltage from the - and + output sockets of the Hall Effect
device with the digital voltmeter directly on the Hall Effect Sensor panel and
also from the Moving Coil Meter. Record the results in Table 8.11.
Magnetic Digital Multimeter Moving

Field Output Voltage (-) Output Voltage (+) Coil Meter
0
None V V V
Maximum
V V V
Table 8.11
143
 Rotate the disc so that the magnet is directly above the Hall effect device.
This position will be indicated by the maximum output voltage.
 Note the voltages again and record in Table 8.11.
These readings illustrate the basic characteristics of the Hall Effect device and
indicate its application

measurement applications.to proximity detection. It is also suitable for speed
 With the output of Amplifier #1 connected to the Counter/Timer input set

the controls for COUNT and 1s.
 Transfer the digital multimeter to the output of the Power Amplifier and
apply an input voltage of 2V to the motor so that the shaft rotates slowly.
Press the Counter RESET button and note the displayed value, this
representing the shaft speed in rev/sec. Record the result in Table 8.12
 Remove the input to the counter from Amplifier #1 and connect it to the
output of the Slotted Opto Transducer unit. Press the counter "reset" button
and note the displayed value, this being the shaft speed for comparison with
the previous reading. Add the value to Table 8.12.
Motor Voltage
Shaft Speed (rev/sec) 2V 4V 7V 10V
Hall Effect
Transducer
Slotted Opto
Transducer
Table 8.12
 Repeat the procedure for the other values of motor drive voltage given in
Table 8.12 for comparison. Switch OFF the power supply.
8.8a Enter your value of output voltage from the (+) O/P of the Hall Effect sensor
with no magnetic field.
8.8b Enter your value of output voltage from the (+) O/P of the Hall Effect sensor
with maximum magnetic field.
Hall Effect devices are available for proximity detection, linear or angular
displacement, multiplier and current or magnetic flux density measurement
applications.
144
8.9 The DC Permanent Magnet Tacho-Generator
Fig 8.13 shows the construction and electrical circuit arrangement of the DC
Permanent Magnet Tacho-Generator fitted to the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer. This
consists of a set of coils connected to a commutator which rotate inside a
permanent magnet stator.
N
+12V
Coils O/P
Commutator
M
S Permanent Magnet Stator
Brushes
0V
Armature
-12V
Connections
Fig 8.13
The rotating assembly is called the armature. With the coils rotating, an alternating
EMF is generated in them. The commutator converts this to DC.
The magnitude of the generated EMF is proportional to the rate of cutting flux and
therefore to the rotational speed. The polarity depends on the direction of cutting
flux and therefore on the direction of rotation.
The diodes are fitted to limit any voltage spikes that may be generated by the
commutation process (i.e. conversion from AC to DC) to a maximum of ±12V.
Open circuit voltage (12V to motor) 10.5V

Short circuit current (12V to motor) 750mA
Output impedance 39Ω

Output noise 200mV p-p
Table 8.13
145

Characteristics of a Permanent Magnet DC Tacho-Generator
MOVING COIL METER

AMPLIFIER #1 0
5 5
I/P O/ P
-10 +10
.5 .6 +
- + .4 .7
1 .3 .8 -
100
L
10 .9
J
.2
1.0
0V
.1
I/P DC MOTOR SLOTTED OPTO TACHOGENERATOR

SENSOR
O/P
O/P
O/P
COUNTER/
WIREWOUND TRACK TIMER
POWER AMPLIFIER
5 6 C
4 7
O/P I/P
3 8 B T IM E F R E E R UN
I/P
2 9
A
1 10
10k
R ES ET C O UNT 1s
V
+12V 0V
Fig 8.14
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 8.14.
 Set the COUNTER/TIMER controls to COUNT and 1s.

Set Amplifier #1 GAIN COARSE control to 10 and GAIN FINE to 0.1.
146
 Apply an input to the motor and set the shaft speed to 5 rev/sec (Note:
Table 8.3 and Graph 8.1 may help) as indicated by the counter after pressing
the RESET button. Note the output voltages indicated on the Moving Coil
Meter and record the values in Table 8.14.
Shaft Speed 5 10 20 30 40
(rev/sec)
Output Voltage
(Moving Coil Meter) V V V V V
Table 8.14
 Repeat the procedure for the other shaft speed settings indicated in
Table 8.14.
 Draw the graph of output voltage against shaft speed on the axes provided.
10
Output 9
Voltage 8
(volts)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Shaft Speed (rev/sec)
Graph 8.2
8.10a Is the characteristic linear?

Yes or No
8.10b From your graph estimate and enter your recorded output voltage from the
digital multimeter when the shaft speed is 25 rev/sec.
147
Calibration of the Moving Coil Meter to Indicate Speed Directly.

The scale to be used is 20V represents 2000 rev/min (100 rev/min/V).
MOVING COIL METER

1000
500
5 0 1500
5
0 -7 +8
2000
-10 +10
+ rev/min
0V
L
J
Fig 8.15
 Transfer the connection of the Moving Coil Meter from the input of
Amplifier #1 to the output of Amplifier #1. Set the GAIN FINE control to just
a little above 0.3.
 Apply a low input to the motor and set the shaft speed to 5 rev/sec (300
rev/min) as shown on the Counter after pressing RESET. Adjust the OFFSET
control of Amplifier #1 to set the Moving Coil Meter reading to -7V
(Fig 8.15).
 Change the motor drive voltage to set the shaft speed to 30 rev/sec (1800
rev/min) as shown on the Counter after pressing RESET. Adjust the GAIN
FINE control of Amplifier #1 so that the Moving Coil Meter indicates +8V
(Fig 8.15).
 Repeat both of the above settings and adjustments as often as necessary to

make both of them correct (changing one of them will have altered the other.
Some anticipation may be helpful). The meter will then be calibrated as
shown in Fig 8.15.
148
 Use the calibrated Moving Coil Meter to set the motor speed as shown in
Table 8.15.
 Calculate the corresponding speed in rev/sec and then check at each setting
against those obtained from the Opto Transducer and Counter.
Shaft Speed 600 1000 1200 1600

(rev/min)
Calculated Shaft
Speed (rev/sec)
Shaft Speed from
Counter (rev/sec)
Table 8.15
8.10c Which was easier for setting the motor speed, the calibrated Moving Coil
Meter a , or the Counter b ?
8.10d Enter your motor speed as indicated on the Counter in rev/sec when the
motor speed was set to 1000 rev/min.
8.10e Enter your motor speed as indicated on the Counter in rev/sec when the
motor speed was set to 1200 rev/min.
 Switch OFF the power supply
149
1. For a slotted opto transducer to count revolutions of a shaft it requires a:

a slotted disc b reflective disc c non-magnetic disc d magnetic disc
2. The output voltage generated by the slotted opto transducer used in your experiments
was in the order of:
a 500 µV b 50mV c 5V d 12V
3. A shaft speed of 24 rev/sec corresponds to a motor speed in rev/min (rpm) of:

a 240 b 600 c 720 d 1440
4. Which of the following could NOT be in sequence (one after the other) for a Gray code
output?
a 0 1 1, 0 1 0 b 0 0 1, 0 1 0 c 1 1 0, 1 1 1 d 1 1 1, 1 0 1
5. The number of outputs generated by a 3-bit Gray code system is :
a 3 b 6 c 8 d 10
6. Comparing a slotted magnetic disc to a slotted aluminum disc, the effect on the
inductance of the slot passing over an inductive transducer is to:
a increase the inductance in both cases
b increase the inductance with a magnetic disc but decrease it with aluminum
c decrease the inductance in both cases
d decrease the inductance with a magnetic disc but increase it with aluminum
7. The purpose of the low pass filter used with the inductive transducer was to:
a remove interference pulses b respond to low revolutions only
c respond to high revolutions only d display only low revolution counts
150
8. The purpose of the differential amplifier in the inductive transducer experiment was to:
a respond to both increases or decreases in transducer output voltage
b balance out the steady DC component of the rectifier output
c invert the polarity of the signal from the transducer
d sharpen up the output pulses from the transducer
9. An output voltage is generated by a Hall effect device when:

a a slot in an aluminum disc passes over it b a magnetic field passes through it
c it is exposed to light radiations d an external EMF is applied
10. The expected change in output voltage of an activated Hall effect transducer of the type
fitted on the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer is of the order of:
a ±500µV b ±500mV c ±5V d ±12V
11. The magnitude of the output voltage generated by a permanent magnet tacho-generator
is dependent on:
a rate of cutting flux b direction of rotation
c frequency of interference pulses d number of commutator segments
12. The purpose of the commutator in a permanent magnet tacho-generator is to:

a increase the magnitude of the output voltage
b increase the frequency of the output voltage
c stabilize the input voltage
d convert the output from AC into DC
151
Notes:
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152
IT02 Sound Measurements
Chapter 9
Sound Measurements

this Chapter
dynamic microphone.
 Describe the construction and characteristics of an
ultrasonic receiver and transmitter.
 Compares the various methods of measuring sound
signals.

this Chapter • Oscilloscope.
• 12 inch (30cm) ruler (not supplied).
153
Sound Measurements IT02
9.1 The Dynamic Microphone
Fig 9.1
The construction of the dynamic microphone is shown in Fig 9.1(a), consisting of

a coil attached to a thin diaphragm, the coil being suspended in the field of a
permanent magnet.
The diaphragm moves in response to any vibration in the air caused by sound and
moves the coil in the magnetic field. An alternating EMF is induced in the coil, the
magnitude and frequency of which is proportional to the sound vibrations.
The electrical circuit for the device provided with the DIGIAC 1750 unit is shown
in Fig 9.1(b).
A resistor is fitted to provide a load matched to the output impedance of the

microphone.
Output impedance Typically 200 - 500Ω
Frequency response (-3dB) 100Hz - 10kHz
Output voltage 5mV (normal maximum)

Table 9.1
154

Characteristics of a Dynamic Microphone
It is most unlikely that your laboratory will include a broadband constant output
audio generator system/loudspeaker amongst its facilities. Even if it did, a full
acoustic booth would be required, and the noises generated would be unacceptable
for other laboratory users. We are therefore not able to test the full dynamic range
of a microphone, either for frequency or amplitude. It is therefore necessary for us
to limit the investigation to a review of the measurement techniques that can be
adopted, and it is these which will be examined, rather than the microphone itself.
A.C. AMPLIFIER FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

MICROPHONE O/P
O/P
I/P
I/P
O/P VIN
10
1000
100
GAIN L.E.D. BARGRAPH DISPLAY
I/P
AMPLIFIER #1
I/P O/P DRIVER I.C.
.5 .6
- + MOVING COIL METER
.4 .7
1 .3 .8
0
100 5 5
10 .2 .9
-10 +10
.1 1.0
+
AMPLIFIER #2
-
L
I/P O/P
J
0V
.5 .6
- +
.4 .7
1 .3 .8
100
10 .2 .9 TP1 0V
.1 1.0
Oscilloscope CH.1
Fig 9.2
155
In this exercise three different forms of monitoring device will be investigated.

The response time of digital multimeters is too slow to make any record of the
signals at all, due to the transient nature of sound.
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 9.2. Set the AC Amplifier gain control to
1000 and the Amplifier #1 GAIN COARSE to 1 and GAIN FINE to 0.4.
The LED bargraph display has an excellent response time and requires 0.5V for
each bar, 5V to light the whole display. This type of device is often used on HI-FI
systems.
 Switch ON the power supply. Check the OFFSET control of Amplifier#1 for
zero with the Moving Coil Meter temporarily connected to its output. Note
the display on the Bargraph when the bench is tapped with the finger.
 Tap the case of the 1750 unit and observe the effect on the Bargraph display.
 Change the GAIN COARSE of Amplifier #1 to 10 and the FINE GAIN to 1.0
then talk, cough, sing or whistle near the unit. You will find that the
bargraph will respond to any sound made, but needs more gain for speech or
whistling.
A Moving Coil Meter is frequently used by sound (audio) engineers to indicate

peak power (PPM, peak power meter), but requires a rectifier and amplifier since
the moving coil meter only responds to DC, and its movement is slow to respond
due to inertia and damping.
 The Moving Coil Meter is connected to the AC Amplifier output via the Full
Wave Rectifier and Amplifier #2. Set the GAIN COARSE to 10 and GAIN FINE
to 1.0, and zero the indication of the meter using the OFFSET control. Tap the
baseboard so that all LED's of the bargraph are lit and note the maximum
reading of the Moving Coil Meter.
Maximum voltage indication given by the Bargraph is 5V.
Maximum voltage output (Moving Coil Meter) = V
9.2a Enter your maximum voltage indicated by the Moving Coil Meter in V.
156
Without any doubt, the oscilloscope is the most versatile device for monitoring
sound, since it is able to give an indication of frequency, waveform and magnitude
of signals and is very sensitive, even to small signals.
 Set the timebase of the oscilloscope to 2ms/div and the CH.1 Y1 amplifier to
1V/div.
 Generate various types of sound and observe the display on the oscilloscope.
Note that sound engineers, to save their embarrassment, will often count -
say from one through ten and back again - to test a microphone circuit.
It may be necessary to vary the Y amplifier setting to obtain the most

satisfactory displayed waveform.
 Change the timebase setting to 0.5ms/div. and try whistling two different
notes, one low pitch and the other high, and observe the effect on the number
of cycles (frequency) of the displayed waveform.
9.2b The most commonly observed waveform for all types of sound is a:
a square wave b sinewave c triangular wave d irregular wave
9.2c The steadiest, purest waveform was produced by:

a tapping b talking c coughing d whistling
9.2d The effect of a high-pitched note compared to a low note was to produce:
a the same number of cycles b less cycles, lower frequency
c more cycles, higher frequency d no difference at all
157
9.3 The Ultrasonic Transmitter/Receiver
O/P I/P
Case
Fine Wire
Mesh Cavity
Diaphragm
Piezo Ultrasonic Ultrasonic
Ceramic Receiver Transmitter
Element 0V 0V
Contacts
(a) (b)
Fig 9.3
The construction of both ultrasonic devices and their electrical circuit

arrangements for the DIGIAC 1750 unit are shown in Fig 9.3.
The receiver and transmitter are almost identical and consist of a slice of ceramic
material with a small diaphragm fixed to it, inside the case of the unit.
The operation of the receiver relies on the principle that certain ceramic materials
produce a voltage when they are stressed. This is referred to as the piezo-electric
principle. Vibration of the diaphragm stresses the ceramic material and produces
an output voltage. The reciprocal applies to the transmitter. An applied alternating
voltage produces stress which causes the ceramic slice to vibrate.
The dimensions of the components are arranged so that there is resonance (best
response) at around 40kHz. This is above the audible range (maximum 20kHz) and
is therefore referred to as ultrasonic. The ceramic slice is arranged in four quarters
which are connected in series for the receiver and in parallel for the transmitter.
The main characteristics of the devices are:
Receiver Transmitter
Peak resonance (typical) 40kHz
Directional angle 30°
Impedance 30kΩ 500Ω

Output amplitude 5-60mV
Table 9.2
158

Characteristics of an Ultrasonic Transmitter/Receiver
40kHz OSCILLATOR ULTRASONIC ULTRASONIC RECEIVER

TRANSMITTER
O/P
I/P O/P
A.C. AMPLIFIER LOW PASS FILTER

O/P 40kHz FILTER FULL WAVE RECTIFIER O/P
I/P O/P O/P I/P
I/P I/P
VIN
10 100ms
1000 10ms
100 1s
GAIN TIME CONSTANT
L.E.D. BARGRAPH DISPLAY

I/P
AMPLIFIER #1
DRIVER I.C.
I/P O/P
MOVING COIL METER

.5 .6
- +
.4 .7
0
1 .3 .8 5 5
100 -10 +10
10 .2 .9
.1 1.0
OFFSET GAIN COARSE GAIN FINE +
0V
L
J
Fig 9.4
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 9.4. Set the AC Amplifier gain control to
1000 and Amplifier #1 GAIN COARSE control to 10 and GAIN FINE to 0.5.
Switch the Low Pass Filter time constant to 100ms.
 Switch ON the power supply and adjust Amplifier #1 OFFSET to give zero
output on the Moving Coil Meter.

 Note the bargraph display as you move your hand or any other object over
the ultrasonic devices. The display should respond, indicating the receipt of a
signal of frequency 40kHz by the ultrasonic receiver.
159
 Place a small book (approximately 6 inches (15cm) × 4 inches (10cm) or

other flat object 3 feet (90cm) above the Ultrasonic Transducers. Slowly
move the object closer to the transducers, watching the output reading on the
bargraph display, until the object is covering the transducers.
9.4a At which of the following positions is the maximum output obtained?

a Object in contact with the Ultrasonic Tranducers.
b Object 4 inches (10cm) above the unit.
c Object 12 inches (30cm) above the unit.
d Object 3 feet (90cm) above the unit.
Remove any other equipment from the vicinity so that you have free access to the
ultrasonic transmitter/receiver area.
 Increase the Amplifier #1 GAIN FINE control to 1.0. Hold a thin object such
as a pencil approximately 6 inches (15cm) above the Ultrasonic Transducers,
move it horizontally and vertically and note the effect on the output
response. This indicates how critical the direction angle is for the device.
9.4b Is the position of the reflector critical?

Yes or No
 Put a sheet of paper over the Ultrasonic Transducers to intercept the path and
move your hand up and down above the transducers.
9.4c Does the beam pass through a piece of paper?

Yes or No
In this exercise the received signal has been amplified, rectified, filtered (to
remove all unwanted frequencies) and then amplified again to operate the display.
Pulsed ultrasonic devices can be used for distance measurement to reflecting

surfaces by measurement of the time between the transmission and return of the
pulsed signal.
160
1. The dynamic microphone operates due to:

a a change of resistance b the piezo electric effect
c the Doppler effect d a conductor cutting magnetic flux
2. The output impedance of the microphone fitted on the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer is:
a 25 - 75 Ω b 100 - 150 Ω c 200 - 500 Ω d 1500 - 1200 Ω
3. The most versatile test instrument for monitoring sound signals is the:
a digital multimeter b oscilloscope c LED bargraph d moving coil meter
4. The Moving Coil Meter cannot respond to sound signals without a:

a rectifier b low pass filter c band pass filter d 40kHz oscillator
5. Ultrasonic Receivers and Transmitters rely for their operation on:

a a change of resistance b the piezo electric effect
c the Doppler effect d a conductor cutting magnetic flux
6. The peak resonance of the ultrasonic receiver and transmitter used on the D1750 unit
is at a frequency of:
a 20kHz b 30kHz c 40kHz d 60kHz
7. Which audio transducer on the D1750 unit has the highest impedance?
a Ultrasonic receiver b Ultrasonic transmitter
c Microphone d Low pass filter
8. The frequency response (-3dB) of the microphone used on the D1750 unit is:
a 0 - 40KHz b 0 - 10KHz
c 100Hz - 40KHz d 100Hz - 10KHz
161
Notes:
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162
IT02 Sound Output
Chapter 10
Sound Output

this Chapter
moving coil loudspeaker.
buzzer.

this Chapter • BNC to 4mm Connecting Lead.
• Digital Multimeter.
• Oscilloscope.
• Function Generator.
163
Sound Output IT02
10.1 The Moving Coil Loudspeaker
Paper Cone
I/P
Contacts 100Ω
Frame Loudspeaker
S S
Permanent Coil
N 0V
Magnet
(a) (b)
Fig 10.1
The construction of a moving coil loudspeaker is shown in Fig 10.1(a). It is

similar to the moving coil microphone. The permanent magnet, coil and
diaphragm are much the same but in this device the diaphragm is attached to a
large paper cone supported by a frame. The cone is free to move with the coil.
Alternating currents flowing in the coil cause it react with the magnetic field and
move in and out. With applied currents at frequencies in the audible range, the
cone movement will cause a variation of pressure in the surrounding air particles
and produce sound waves that are audible to the human ear. If a speaker is placed
in a vacuum, there are no air particules, so the movement of the cone does not
produce any sound.
The electrical circuit of the device fitted to the DIGIAC 1750 unit is shown in
Fig 10.1(b). The 100Ω resistor is fitted to limit the maximum power dissipation to
100mW, half of the rated value for the loudspeaker.
The main characteristics of the device fitted to the DIGIAC 1750 unit are:
Impedance 8Ω
Power rating 200mW rms.
Frequency response (-3dB) 400-5000Hz

Table 10.1
Note that the speaker response is well below the maximum frequency detectable
by the human ear (approximately 20kHz).
164
IT02 Sound Output

Characteristics of a Moving Coil Loudspeaker
Function
WIREWOUND TRACK
Generator POWER AMPLIFIER LOUDSPEAKER
5 6 C
4 7
O/P
3 8 B
I/P I/P
2 9
A
1 10
10k
MICROPHONE x100 AMPLIFIER

0V
O/P
O/P
I/P
+100VIN
TP1 0V TP2 0V
Oscilloscope
CH.1 CH.2
Fig 10.2
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 10.2 and switch ON the power supply.
 Set the 10kΩ wirewound variable resistor to position 5 on its scale (see
Fig10.2).
 Set the oscilloscope timebase initially to 1ms/div, CH.1 Y amplifier to

5V/div and CH.2 Y amplifier to 0.2V/div.
 Set the function generator to 200Hz sinewave output and adjust the
amplitude control to maximum and then adjust the 10kΩ wirewound resistor
to give a signal input of 10Vp-p (2 div.) as seen on CH.1 of the oscilloscope.
The signal input level of 10Vp-p is to be carefully maintained for tests at all
frequencies.
The microphone and its amplifier will pick up all of the background sounds and
interference
signal levels.inYou
the laboratory. Try to ignore
will be contributing these
to other in taking
peoples your readings
background at so
noises, lower
try
to keep yours to a minimum.
165
Sound Output IT02
 Take readings at each of the frequencies given in Table 10.2, ensuring that
the input signal remains constant at 10Vp-p.
Frequency (Hz) 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1k 2k 3k
Output Voltage
Vpeak-to-peak
Table 10.2
 One of your readings should have been much greater than any of the rest.
Return to this frequency and use the fine frequency control on the function
generator to peak the signal to maximum. Record the value in Table 10.3.
 Ensure that the timebase controls are in the calibrated settings and measure
the number of divisions taken for one complete cycle. Record in Table 10.3.
 Measure the frequency as follows, adding the results to Table 10.3:
One cycle
6.7 div.
Peak Signal Number of Time for Frequency

Amplitude divisions one cycle (Τ) f= 1
Τ
Vp-p ms Hz
Table 10.3
The time for one cycle is calculated by multiplying by the timebase setting,
for example 6.7 x 0.2ms = 1.34ms.
1
. 4 × 10 − 3 = 746Hz.
The reciprocal of this gives the frequency: 13
Note that this example has been chosen to be different from the result which
you should get.
166
IT02 Sound Output
The frequency which you calculate is the natural resonant frequency of the
loudspeaker. The response curve of the loudspeaker has a very pronounced peak at
this frequency. It is caused by the dimensions of the loudspeaker cone, largely the
cone diameter.
 Plot the response of the loudspeaker on the axes provided. A logarithmic

scale is used for frequency because this matches the response of the ear.
0.5
Output
Voltage
(Vp-p)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
100 200 500 700 1k 2k 5k 7k 10k

frequency (Hz)
Graph 10.1
If this type of loudspeaker was used for music output then the response of the
electronic driving circuit would need to be shaped to compensate for the response.
This would be done by boosting both the lower and higher frequencies.
If used as an alarm generator then it would be best to choose the resonant

frequency for greatest efficiency, to generate the loudest sound output from a
given power input.
10.2a Enter your calculated loudspeaker resonant frequency in kHz.
167
Sound Output IT02
10.3 The Buzzer
The construction of the buzzer used in the DIGIAC 1750 unit is shown in
Fig 10.3(a).
Diaphragm I/P
Magnet Spring
Iron core Circuit board
Coil
0V
Contacts
(a) (b)
Fig 10.3
A small transistorized oscillator circuit feeds an alternating EMF to an iron cored

coil. The alternating magnetic field produced by the coil attracts and repels a small
permanent magnet attached to a spring. This magnet vibrates against a diaphragm
and creates a loud noise.

In control system applications the device is used as an alarm indication.
The electrical circuit of the device is shown in Fig 10.3(b).
The diode is fitted to prevent damage to the transistorized circuit if the supply is
connected with incorrect polarity. The polarity of the input supply should be
positive. The rated voltage is 12V.
The main characteristics of the device fitted to the DIGIAC 1750 unit are:
Supply voltage 8V 12V 16V (max.)
Supply current 15mA - 30mA
Output frequency - 400Hz -

Output sound level 70dBA at 7.87" (20cm)
Table 10.4
168
IT02 Sound Output

Characteristics of a Buzzer
WIREWOUND TRACK
POWER AMPLIFIER BUZZER MICROPHONE
5 6 C
4 7
8
O/P A I/P O/P
3 B
I/P
2 9
A
1 10
10k
COUNTER/
0V +12V TIMER
A.C. AMPLIFIER DIFFERENTIATOR I/P TIME F RE E R U N

O/P O/P
I/P I/P
dVIN
T
dt
R E SE T COUNT 1s
10 100ms
1000 1s MOVING COIL METER
100 10ms
GAIN TIME CONSTANT
0
5 5
-10 +10
0V
L
J
Fig 10.4
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 10.4. Set the control of the 10k Ω resistor
for zero output voltage (fully counter-clockwise). Connect the digital
multimeter as an ammeter on the 20/200mA range between the output of the
power amplifier and the buzzer to monitor the buzzer current. Set the A.C.
Amplifier to 1000 and the Differentiator to 1s.
Note: When you first switch on, there may be readings on the counter
immediately, due to background noise being picked up by the microphone
and processed by the Counter. The readings should be ignored as they will
not affect the experiment results.
169
Sound Output IT02
 Switch ON the power supply and adjust the 10kΩ resistor to increase the
voltage applied to the buzzer. Note the voltage on the Moving Coil Meter at
which the buzzer begins to operate. Press RESET on the Counter to read the
buzzer frequency.
The buzzer begins to operate at V at a frequency of Hz
 Alter the setting of the 10k Ω resistor to increase the voltage applied to the
buzzer to 4V, 6V, 8V and then 10V as given in Table 10.5. Record the
current and frequency at each step.
Voltage 4V 6V 8V 10V 12V
Current
mA mA mA mA mA
Frequency
Hz Hz Hz Hz Hz
Table 10.5
 Transfer the positive lead of the digital multimeter from the output of the
Power Amplifier to the +12V socket to bypass the 10k Ω resistor and Power
Amplifier and apply the full 12V directly to the buzzer. Record the current
and frequency again in Table 10.5.
10.4a Enter your minimum voltage for buzzer to operate.
10.4b Enter your current reading in mA when the applied voltage is 10V.
10.4c Enter your frequency reading in Hz when the applied voltage is 12V.
170
IT02 Sound Output
1. From this chapter or a previous one, identify a device that emits a sound wave of
constant frequency in the audio range when a DC voltage is applied:
a microphone b ultrasonic transmitter

c loudspeaker d buzzer
2. From this chapter or a previous one, identify a device that emits a pressure wave at
higher than audio frequencies:
3. From this chapter or a previous one, identify a device that emits sound waves over a
wide range of audio frequencies:
4. The maximum sound wave frequency which is detectable by a human ear is

approximately:
a 20Hz b 5kHz c 20kHz d 40kHz
5. The reason for the diode fitted in series with the buzzer in the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer is
to:
a rectify the applied AC
b protect the electronic circuit against wrong polarity
c convert the output to DC
d prevent interference spikes being generated by the buzzer
Continued ...
171
Sound Output IT02
6. The resonant frequency of the loudspeaker fitted in the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer is
nearest to:
a 0-200Hz b 300Hz-950Hz c 1kHz-1.5kHz d 2kHz-3kHz
7. A loudspeaker is fed with a 1kHz signal and placed in a vacuum. The effect would be:
a no sound because a vacuum has no air particles
b very reduced sound because of the box enclosing the vacuum
c increased frequency (pitch) of the note produced by sound waves in a vacuum
d an impure tone due to the signal waveform producing the sound
172
IT02 Linear or Rotational Motion
Chapter 11
Linear or Rotational Motion

this Chapter
 Describe the construction and characteristics of a DC
solenoid.
relay.
solenoid air valve.
permanent magnet motor

173
Linear or Rotational Motion IT02
11.1 The DC Solenoid
Coil +12V
Soft iron core/Actuator shaft
I/P
Return spring 0V
End stop -12V
Case
(a) (b)
Fig 11.1
The construction of a DC solenoid is shown in Fig 11.1(a), consisting of a soft

iron core and actuator shaft which is free to move inside a coil.
When the coil is energized, the soft iron core is attracted inside the coil and is held
in position. When the coil is de-energized, the core returns to its neutral position
under the action of a return spring.
The voltage required to attract the core into the coil will be less than the rated
value and will depend on the load applied to the actuator shaft. The voltage at
which the core is pulled in by the coil is referred to as the pull-in voltage.
With the coil energized and the core attracted, if the coil voltage is reduced
gradually, when the voltage has fallen sufficiently the core will return to its neutral
position under the action of the spring. This voltage is referred to as the drop out
or release voltage. The release voltage will be much less than the pull-in voltage.
Fig 11.1(b) shows the electrical circuit arrangement of the device fitted to the
DIGIAC 1750 Trainer.
When the coil is de-energized a large EMF can be induced in the coil, the
magnitude depending on the inductance and the rate of change of current. Diodes
are provided to limit the induced voltage to a maximum of ±12V.
The main characteristics of the coil fitted to the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer are:
Resistance 50Ω Pull-in voltage 6V
Coil rating 12V/3W Release voltage 1V

Table 11.1
174

Characteristics of a DC Solenoid
SOLENOID
WIREWOUND TRACK
POWER AMPLIFIER
4 5 6 7 C
O/P
3 8 B
I/P
A
2 9
A I/P
1 10
10k
MOVING COIL METER

0V +1 2V
0
5 5
-10 +10
0V
L
J
Fig 11.2
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 11.2 and set the 10k Ω resistor for zero
output voltage (control fully counter clockwise). Connect the digital
multimeter as an ammeter on the 200mA range in between the Power
Amplifier and the Solenoid.
 Switch ON the power supply and rotate the 10kΩ resistor control to
gradually increase the voltage applied to the solenoid coil. Note the voltage
at which the iron core of the solenoid is attracted fully into the coil. This
value is the pull-in voltage. Record this voltage and the current in Table 11.2
overleaf.
Note: The core will start to move at a lower value than the pull-in voltage, the
actual pull-in voltage will be the value when you hear the click, as the core
aligns itself inside the coil. In this position you will find a distinct resistance
to pushing the actuator back towards its neutral position.
175
Unloaded Loaded
Readings Voltage Current Voltage Current
Pull In
V mA V mA
Drop-out
(Release) V mA V mA
Table 11.2
 With the coil energized and the core in its pulled in position, slowly reduce
the coil applied voltage and note the value at which the core returns to its
neutral position, the drop-out or release voltage. Record voltage and current
again in Table 11.2.
 Repeat the process with your finger against the actuator shaft to exert a little
load and note the voltage and current required for pull in and release.
11.2a With the actuator shaft loaded the effect on the voltage and current required
for pull-in was:
a voltage increased, current reduced b both voltage and current reduced
c voltage reduced, current increased d both voltage and current increased
11.2b With the actuator shaft loaded the effect on the voltage and current required
for drop-out (release) was:
a voltage increased, current reduced b both voltage and current reduced
c voltage reduced, current increased d both voltage and current increased
176
11.3 The DC Relay
+12V
N.O.
I/P
(COM.)
0V N.C.
-12V
Common Coil N.O. N.C.
Contacts
(a) (b)
Fig 11.3
The construction of a DC relay is shown in Fig 11.3(a). It consists of a coil with

an iron core which has a soft iron armature attached to a spring which holds it just
above the core.
Changeover contacts are attached to the spring and with the armature in its rest
position it makes contact with one of the terminals. This is referred to as the
normally closed (N.C.) contact. With the coil energized, the core will be
magnetized and attract the soft iron armature. The spring is moved, which breaks
the connection to the N.C. terminal and makes the contact to the other terminal.
This terminal is referred to as the normally open (N.O.) contact.
With this construction, the contacts will bounce for a short period each time they
close or open (make or break) and this can cause problems with some circuits. The
problem can be overcome by using an electronic debounce circuit or a time delay
prior to checking the contact state after operation.
Fig 11.3(b) shows the electrical circuit arrangement of the device fitted to the
DIGIAC 1750 Trainer. The diodes limit any induced voltages to a maximum of
approximately ±12V, as for the solenoid device.
The main characteristics of the device fitted to the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer are:
Coil rated voltage 12V Operate/release time 5ms

Coil resistance 320Ω Contact rating 12V, 1A
Coil operating voltage 7.5V Lifetime cycles 5x106
Coil release voltage 1.8V
Table 11.3
177

Characteristics of a DC Relay
P . I . N . P H O TO D I O D E P HO TO V O LT A I C CE LL
O/P
O/P
+ +
O/ P O/ P
MOVING COIL METER
P HO TO CON D UCTIV E CELL P HOTO TRA NSISTO R 0

5 5
+12V LAMP FILAMENT I/P
-10 +10
WIREWOUND TRACK RELAY

POWER AMPLIFIER +
5 6 C
4 7 A N.O.
O/P -
3 8 B
L
I/P
J
2 9 I/P 0V
A
1 10
10k N.C.
0V
Fig 11.4

Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 11.4 and set the 10k Ω resistor control
for zero output voltage.
 Switch ON the power supply. The relay will be in its de-energized state.
Note the state of the Lamp. Lamp ON means that the contacts are closed.
Lamp OFF means that the circuit is broken because the contacts are open.
 The relay coil will have pull-in and release voltage characteristics similar to
those for a solenoid.
 Determine the pull-in and release voltages and currents for this device by
gradually increasing and decreasing the applied voltage. Record the results
in Table 11.4 opposite.
 Note when a change of state of the Lamp connected to the N.O. contact
occurs.
 Move the lamp connection to the N.C. terminal and observe the effect on the
lamp switching. Add to Table 11.4.
178
Lamp state ON/OFF

when connected to:
Voltage Current N.O. contact N.C. contact
Pull In V mA
Drop-out
(Release) V mA
Table 11.4
11.4a Enter the pull-in voltage for your relay in V.
11.4b Enter the drop-out current for your relay in mA.
Notes:
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179
11.5 The Air Valve
Inlet port Coil

Return spring
+12V
I/P
0V
Inlet valve -12V
Exhaust valve
Exhaust port
Cylinder port
(a) (b)
Fig 11.5
Fig 11.5(a) shows the construction of the device fitted to the DIGIAC 1750
Trainer. It is similar to the solenoid considered previously, but the soft iron core
now operates on two valves, the inlet and the exhaust valves.
With the coil de-energized the core is held, by the return spring, in the position
with the inlet valve closed and the exhaust valve open. In this position the cylinder
port is connected to the exhaust port outlet.
When the coil is energized, the core is attracted and held in the position with the
exhaust valve closed and the inlet valve open. In this position the inlet port is
connected to the cylinder port
In the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer, the inlet port is connected to the pump and the
cylinder port is connected to a pneumatic actuator. With the pump ON, the
pneumatic actuator will be operated when the coil is energized and illustrates the
principle of electrical control of pneumatic devices.
The electrical circuit arrangement of the device fitted to the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer
is shown in Fig 11.5(b).
Rated voltage 12V

Coil resistance
140Ω
Coil pull-in voltage 8.3V
Coil release voltage 1.7V
Table 11.5
180

Characteristics of an Air Valve
AIR FLOW SENSOR AIR PRESSURE SENSOR AIR VALVE

FLOW PRESSURE
I/P
- -
O/P PUMP O/P
OFF ON
+ A +
MOVING COIL METER

WIREWOUND TRACK
POWER AMPLIFIER
5 6 C 0
4 7 5 5
O/P
3 8 B -10 +10
I/P
2 9
A +
1 10
10k
-
0V + 12V 0V
L
J
Fig 11.6
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 11.6. Set the 10k Ω resistor control for
zero output voltage (fully counter clockwise) and set the pump control (Air
Pressure/Flow Sensor panel) to PRESSURE.
 Switch ON the power supply and then switch the pump ON. The coil is de-
energized in this state, the inlet valve is closed, and the pneumatic actuator
will not operate.
 Adjust the resistor control to apply 10V to the solenoid coil. The coil will be
energized, the inlet valve will open and the exhaust valve will close. The
pump pressure will be applied to the pneumatic actuator. Observe the effect
on the actuator.
 Reduce the voltage and observe the effect on the pneumatic actuator
 Switch the pump OFF. Observe the effect on the operation of the pneumatic
actuator with no air pressure when the solenoid voltage is raised and
lowered.
181
11.6a With the pump OFF the pneumatic actuator:

a still operates but more slowly b operates at a higher voltage
c does not operate at all d operates in reverse
The Air Valve solenoid will have pull-in and release voltages and currents as for
any solenoid. To determine these values for the device:
 With the pump switched OFF, increase and decrease the applied voltage
gradually and note the voltages at which switching occurs. You will hear a
faint click when the device switches.
Voltage Current
Pull In
V mA
Drop-out
(Release) V mA
Table 11.6
11.6b Enter the pull-in voltage for your Air Valve solenoid in V.
11.6c Enter the drop-out current for your Air Valve solenoid in mA.
11.6d Using your pull-in figures of voltage and current, calculate and enter the
resistance of your Air Valve solenoid in .
182
11.7 The DC Permanent Magnet Motor
Coils
Commutator
S Permanent Magnet Stator

Brushes
Armature
Connections
Fig 11.7
The construction of a permanent magnet DC motor is shown in Fig 11.7. The unit
is identical with the tacho-generator unit but for a motor, a DC supply is fed to the
armature coils.
Current flowing in the armature coils sets up a magnetic field which reacts with
the field of the permanent magnet to produce a force causing the armature to
rotate.
The force acting on the armature is proportional to the current flowing.
When the armature rotates, an EMF is induced in the coils, in exactly the same
way as in the tacho-generator. The self-induced EMF opposes the applied voltage
and is referred to as the back EMF. The armature accelerates until the speed is
such as to produce a back EMF ( e) equal to the applied voltage (V) less the voltage
dropped across the armature resistance rai.
V = e + rai
The speed with no load on the shaft is thus roughly proportional to the applied
voltage.
When a load is applied to the shaft, the speed will tend to fall, reducing the back
EMF. More current flows from the supply and the current self-adjusts to the value
that produces a torque (turning force) just sufficient to balance the load torque.
The speed will fall slightly with load due to the increase in voltage lost across the
armature coils due to the higher current.
183
The electrical circuit arrangement of the device fitted to the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer
is shown in Fig 11.8.
+12V
L2 I/P
C2
L1
O/P
C1
1Ω
-12V
Fig 11.8
The 1Ω resistor is fitted in series with the armature to allow monitoring of the
armature current by measurement of the voltage dropped across it. Since the
resistor is 1Ω, voltages measured across it in mV will directly correspond to
currents in mA.
The diodes limit any voltage spikes to a maximum of approximately ±12V.

Capacitor C1 provides some noise filtering at the output and the combination L1,
L2 and C2 reduces radiation of radio frequency noise.
DC resistance 6.2Ω
No load current (12V applied) 120mA
Stall current (12V applied) 1.93A
Shaft speed (no load, 12V applied) 2400 rev/min (max.)
Starting torque 7 Ncm/A
Torque constant 3.5 Ncm/A
Time constant 19.6ms
Efficiency 82% (max.)
Table 11.7
184

Characteristics of a DC Permanent Magnet Motor
I/P DC MOTOR SLOTTED OPTO COUNTER/

SENSOR TIMER
I/P TIM E F R EE R U N
O/P R E SET C O U NT 1s
O/P
MOVING COIL METER
0
WIREWOUND TRACK 5 5
POWER AMPLIFIER
5 6 C -10 +10
4 7
O/P
3 8 B +
I/P
2 9
V 10 A -
1
L
10k
J
0V
-12V 0V +12V
Fig 11.9
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 11.9. Set the 10k Ω resistor control for
zero output voltage, (control fully counter clockwise), and set the counter
controls to COUNT and 1s.
 Switch ON the power supply and set the voltage applied to the motor, as
indicated by the Moving Coil Meter, to 10V. The motor should run at a high
speed. Allow it to run for a short time and then note the reading of the digital
voltmeter.
This reading in mV represents the current in mA taken by the motor, since it

is the voltage dropped across a 1Ω resistor.
 Press the Counter RESET button and note the displayed Counter value. This
represents the motor speed in rev/sec. Record the values in Table 11.8
overleaf.
 Repeat the procedure, noting the speed and current readings for motor
applied voltages of 8V, 6V, 4V and 2V and record the values in Table 11.8.
185
Motor Applied Voltage 10V 8V 6V 4V 2V
Armature Current
mA mA mA mA mA
Speed (rev/sec.)
Speed (rev/min.)
Table 11.8
 Multiply the speed in rev/sec by 60 to convert to rev/min and add the results
to Table 11.8.
 Slowly reduce the applied voltage until the motor just stops turning and
observe the effect on the voltage and the current.
Stopped voltage = V
Stopped current = mA
 Construct the graph of speed in rev/min. against applied voltage and

armature current on the axes provided:
Applied Voltage (volts)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101 11 2
3000
2800
2600
Motor
Speed 2400
(rev/min) 2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Armature Current (mA)

Graph 11.1
186
11.8a From your graph deduce and enter the armature current needed to give a
speed of 1500 rev/min in mA.
11.8b Examine the two graphs. Which of the following statements is most true?
a they are identical

b shaft speed is directly proportional to the applied voltage
c shaft speed is directly proportional to the armature current

d both characteristics are non-linear
11.8c As the applied voltage is very slowly reduced, the moment the motor stops the
effect on the armature current is to:
a reduce it directly with the applied voltage
b show a sharp increase due to loss of back EMF
c fall immediately to zero as torque stops

d increase slightly due to reduction in armature resistance
 Set the applied voltage to 7V and note the armature current taken and the
shaft speed when the motor is unloaded. Record in Table 11.9.
Applied Voltage = Unloaded Loaded

7V
Armature current 400mA

mA
Shaft speed (rev/sec)

Table 11.9
 Now place your left hand near the Hall effect disc with the finger nails down
and touching the baseboard of the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer. Move your fingers
gently
and theforward so that
baseboard and your
exertsmiddle
a smallfinger comes
load on between the Hall effect disc
the motor.
 Vary the pressure of the load so that the current is approximately 400mA
(0.4V reading on the digital voltmeter) and then note the shaft speed by
pressing the Counter RESET button. Record in Table 11.9.
187
11.8d Enter your speed in rev/sec with the motor loaded and the armature drawing
a current of about 400mA.
 Set the control of the 10k Ω resistor to the zero output voltage position.
Disconnect socket C of the 10kΩ resistor from the +12V supply and re-
connect it to the -12V supply.
11.8e The direction of rotation is:

a the same as before b reversed
11.8f Is the same speed range possible?

Yes or No
The characteristics are typical for this size of machine, larger machines would not
have such a large drop in speed with load.
188
1. For any solenoid in which a soft iron core is drawn inside a coil, the pull-in current:
a and release current will be the same b will be greater than the release current
c will be less than the release current d will depend on the applied voltage
2. A pneumatic actuator, which is used to indicate gas pressure, is controlled by an

electrically operated air valve in a similar configuration to that used on the D1750 unit.
The actuator will operate:
a if there is both an electrical input and adequate gas pressure.
b if there is an electrical input but there is no gas pressure.
c if there is adequate gas pressure but there is no electrical input.
d if neither the electrical input nor adequate gas pressure is present.
3. A relay has changeover contacts marked N.C. and N.O. When the relay is de-energized
a lamp will operate if it is connected to a supply via:
a neither of them b N.C. c N.O. d either of them
4. The term N.C. applied to the contacts of a relay means:

a Not Contacted b Not Changeover
c Normally Closed d Neither Connection
5. A solenoid has a coil rated for operation at 10V. You might expect the pull-in and drop-
out voltages to be:
a pull-in = 12V, drop-out = 5V b pull-in = 5V, drop-out = 8V
c pull-in = 10V, drop-out = 3V d pull-in = 5V, drop-out = 2V
Continued ...
189
6. For the Air Valve investigated in this Chapter, if the coil is de-energized the air valve
will:
a not be affected b rise immediately

c drop down immediately d fall back slowly
7. The DC Permanent Magnet Motor investigated in this Chapter is:

a completely unlike the tacho-generator
b identical to the tacho-generator
c similar to the tacho-generator but with the commutator reversed
d similar to the tacho-generator but with more coils
8. A DC Permanent Magnet Motor with an armature resistance of 5 , runs at 1200

rev/min. when the applied voltage is 6V. The speed for 12V applied is likely to be:
a 600 rev/min b 1200 rev/min c 1800 rev/min d 2400 rev/min
9. The voltage applied to the DC Motor in question 8 above is slowly reduced, the motor
stops when the applied voltage is 2V. The armature current will then be:
a 20mA b 50mA c 100mA d 400mA
10. If the DC motor in question 8 is loaded without any increase of applied voltage, the
effect is likely to be:
a reduced speed and increased armature current
b reduced speed and armature current
c increased speed and reduced armature current
d increased speed and armature current
190
IT02 Display Devices
Chapter 12
Display Devices

this Chapter
 Describe the characteristics and application of the
Counter/Timer.
LED Bargraph Display.
Moving Coil Meter.
 State and calculate the requirement to extend the
voltage range of a Moving Coil Meter.
 Select a suitable device for a particular voltage
measurement.

• Stopwatch (not supplied).
191
Display Devices IT02
12.1 The Timer/Counter
Decade
Counter Decoder/
Driver
1 second 1s
Reset Delay
FREE RUN
Decade Decoder/
COUNT Counter Driver
100Hz
Oscillator TIME +5V
Decade Decoder/
I/P & Counter Driver
&
Fig 12.1
A system logic diagram of the Counter/Timer facility provided with the DIGIAC
1750 unit is shown in Fig 12.1. The output display uses three 7-segment LED's.
The unit can be used in three ways:
1. Time measurement, with the controls set to TIME and FREE RUN.
2. Counting (pulses), with the controls set to COUNT and FREE RUN.
3. Frequency (pulses/sec), with the controls set to COUNT and 1s.
In addition, with some signal conditioning, it can be used for voltage

measurement.
The main characteristics of the unit are:
Input impedance 1MΩ
Input voltage levels (TTL) +5V max.
Timing intervals 10ms

Timing accuracy 5%
Table 12.1
192
Time TIME and FREE RUN
With the input at TTL logic level "1", (+5V), the display increments at 10ms
intervals, or every 1 second. With the input at logic level "0" (0V), the
100
displayed value is held.
The unit will therefore display the time in hundredths of a second that the input is
held at logic level "1". Note that with a 3-digit display, the maximum count is 999
and hence one complete cycle from 0-999 will represent 1000 x 10ms = 10s.
Counting COUNT and FREE RUN
The count increments by 1 each time the input voltage level changes from TTL
logic level "0" to level "1", i.e. on receipt of a positive edge of a pulse of
amplitude 5V. Set in this way the Counter counts input pulses and displays the
total.
With the 3-digit display the maximum count will be 999.
Frequency COUNT and 1s
The unit counts the number of positive pulses at TTL logic level "1" that are
received at the input in a period of one second, following a RESET of the Counter,
thus giving the count rate in pulses per second, or the frequency in Hz.
Note that you have already used the Counter/Timer to count the number of pulses
received in one minute and to measure frequency in pulses/sec.
193

Time Measurement and Counting
COUNTER/
TIMER
I/P T IM E F R EE R UN
AMPLIFIER #2
I/ P O/ P R ES ET C O U NT 1s
MOVING COIL METER

.5 .6
- +
.4 .7
0
1 .3 .8 5 5
100 -10 +10
10 .2 .9
.1 1.0
OFFSET GAIN COARSE GAIN FINE +
0V
L
J
Fig 12.2
Time Measurement
With the Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE control set to 100 and GAIN FINE to
1.0, adjust the OFFSET control for +5V output. Switch the GAIN COARSE
control to 1. The output voltage will drop to nearly zero.
 Set the Counter/Timer controls to TIME and FREE RUN and press the RESET
button. The display should show zero.
 Switch the Amplifier #2 coarse gain control to 100. The counter display
should increment at 10ms ( 1 sec.) intervals. Return the GAIN COARSE
100
control to 1, the display will be held. This illustrates the application of the
unit to time measurement, the display indicating the number of 10ms
intervals (or the time in hundredths of a second) that the input is held at
+5V.
 With Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE set to 1, RESET the Counter display to zero.
Switch Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE to 100 and note the time taken for the
count to complete one cycle from 0 to 999 and back to 0.
194
12.2a The time taken for a complete cycle of counting is:

a 10ms b 100ms c 1s d 10s
 Use the timer facility to time some operations and obtain practice in its use,
such as the time taken for you to verbally count from zero through to 250, or
to write down a long word.
Counting Pulses
 With the circuit still as shown in Fig 12.2, set the Counter/Timer controls to
COUNT and FREE RUN and RESET the display to zero.
 Switch Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE control from 1 to 100 and back to 1.
12.2b The count increments by:

a 1 b 10 c 100 d 1000
 Repeat the process, you will find that the count increments for each change
of the gain from 1 to 100, or on the application of a +5V pulse to the counter
input.
 Remove the Counter input lead from the output of Amplifier #2 and touch it
on the +5V supply socket.
 Return the Counter input lead back to the output of Amplifier #2 and, with
the GAIN COARSE set to 100, alter the OFFSET control to give zero output.
Slowly raise the setting again and watch the Counter display for a response.
 Note the threshold level on the Counter input from the indication on the
Moving Coil Meter.
Threshold voltage level = V
12.2c Enter the threshold level for an increment of the count in V.

195

Frequency Measurement
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
D DIFFERENTIATOR
O/P
C 12k V/F CONVERTER I/P
O/P dVIN
A T
OUT dt
3 B I/P
IN 100ms
1s
V 1V 10ms
Rx
0V TIME CONSTANT
COUNTER/
COMPARATOR TIMER
+5V
OFF ON
HYSTERESIS O/P I/P TI M E F R E E R UN
B -
A +
RES ET C O UNT 1s
Fig 12.3
The connection of the +5V supply places the 12k Ω fixed resistor in series with the
10kΩ 10-turn resistor to make low voltage settings easier. Switch the unknown
resistor Rx OUT.
A Voltage to Frequency (V/F) Converter is available in the signal conditioning

circuits. This unit converts a DC voltage input to a pulsed output of frequency
1kHz/volt of input. For example, an input of 0.6V will produce an output
frequency of 0.6kHz or 600Hz.
The pulses from the V/F Converter are unsuitable to be fed directly to the input of
the Counter/Timer. The Differentiator and Comparator are used to shape the
pulses from the V/F Converter, so that they may be detected by the
Counter/Timer.
Set the Counter controls to COUNT and 1s. Set the Differentiator TIME
CONSTANT to 1s and switch OFF the Comparator HYSTERESIS.
 Set the 10k Ω 10-turn resistor output voltage to 0.1V, press the Counter
RESET button and note the displayed reading. Enter the value in Table 12.2.
196
Input Voltage to
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
V/F Converter
Counter Display
(Hz)
Table 12.2
 Repeat the procedure for the other voltage settings shown in Table 12.2 and
record the displayed values that are obtained following the pressing of the
reset button.
The accuracy in the calibration of the V/F converter will affect the readings
as will your accuracy in setting the voltages and also the accuracy of the 1s
delay in the Counter/Timer.
12.3a Enter your Counter Display reading for an input voltage of 0.5V.
In this exercise the V/F converter was used purely as a means of obtaining a
variable frequency. However, the method used also illustrates the
application of the unit to voltage measurement. The displayed Counter
readings represent the voltage in mV, as can be seen from Table 12.2.
The maximum voltage range is limited by the frequency capability of the

counter and the number of digits in the display. The voltage range can be
extended by attenuating the input to the V/F converter using the additional
circuits shown in Fig 12.4. Also, carefully note the change of the voltage
feed to the 10kΩ 10-turn resistor.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
D
V/F CONVERTER
C 12k
A O/P
B OUT I/P
3
IN
V 1V
Rx
0V
BUFFER #1 SLIDE
C
O/P
B
I/P
+VIN A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k
+12V 0V
Fig 12.4
197
The Buffer Amplifier is used to reduce the loading on the 10k Ω 10-turn resistor.
The circuit will be calibrated so that a counter display of 600 represents a voltage
of 6V.
 Connect the additional circuitry shown in Fig 12.4, to the V/F converter
input. The V/F Converter, Differentiator, Comparator and Counter/Timer
remain connected as shown in Fig 12.3. Set the output control of the
10kΩ slide resistor for zero output (to the left).
 Set the output voltage from the 10-turn resistor to 6V as indicated by the
digital voltmeter and then slowly adjust the 10kΩ slide resistor until the
Counter display indicates 600 after the RESET button is pressed.
You will find that the setting of the resistor control is very sensitive, it is
possible to set accurately but if it is too difficult, set the value as near as you
can. The unit is now calibrated.
 Set the 10-turn resistor control in steps to each of the other voltage values
indicated in Table 12.3. Note the Counter displayed value after pressing the
reset button. Record the values in Table 12.3.
Input Voltage 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9.5
Counter Display 600

Table 12.3
12.3b Enter your displayed reading for an input voltage of 3.5V.
Using this principle, the counter could be calibrated for any desired voltage range.
AC measurements are possible if the Full-Wave Rectifier circuit is added and the
unit re-calibrated for RMS values.
198
12.4 The LED Bargraph Display
Light pipe
LED Chip
Connections
Fig 12.5
The construction of the Bargraph device is shown in Fig 12.5, consisting of 10

separate light emitting diodes (LED's) fitted in a 20-pin package. The light from
each diode is collected by a light pipe and appears at the top surface as a red bar.
A dedicated IC driver chip controls the device and provision is made for adjusting
the voltage levels required for adjacent LED's to light. With the device as fitted to
the DIGIAC 1750 unit the voltage level between adjacent LED's is 0.5V and
hence the minimum voltage for all LED's to light is 5.0V.
The device has a high input impedance, a low time constant, and is suitable for
indication of an approximate and rapidly varying voltage level, but the resolution
is low.
Input impedance 1MΩ

Input voltage range ±35V
Accuracy 2%
Segment overlap 1mV
Table 12.4
The unit is adjusted so that an input of +5V just lights the last LED.
199

Characteristics of an LED Bargraph Display
WIREWOUND TRACK
5 6 C L.E.D. BARGRAPH DISPLAY
4 7
8
I/P
3 B
2 9
A DRIVER I.C.
1 10
10k V
+12V 0V
Fig 12.6
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 12.6. Set the 10k Ω Wirewound resistor
control for zero output voltage (fully counter clockwise).
 Switch ON the power supply. Adjust the resistor control to increase the
voltage applied to the bargraph unit gradually and note the voltage values at
which each LED lights. Record the values in Table 12.5.
LED number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Input Voltage
V V V V V V V V V V
Table 12.5
12.5a Enter the input voltage required just to light LED number 7 in V.
 Vary the voltage rapidly by rotating the control quickly in both directions
and note how the display follows. Repeat the procedure, this time noting the
display on the digital meter. Switch OFF the power supply.
12.5b When the voltage was varied rapidly:

a both displays responded immediately to the variations
b only the LED Bargraph was able to follow the variations precisely
c only the digital multimeter was able to follo w the variations precisely
d neither display responded at all
200
12.6 The Moving Coil Meter
0
5 5
-10 +10
Scale
Pointer
Radial magnetic field + V

Soft-iron core
Hairspring
-
Permanent
Magnet N S
0V
Pivot Coil
Connections
Fig 12.7
The construction and electrical circuit arrangement of the moving coil meter fitted
to the DIGIAC 1750 unit are shown in Fig 12.7.
Using the connections + and -, the voltage difference between any two points in a
circuit can be measured. By connecting the - socket to 0V, the voltage of any point
with respect to 0V (ground) can be measured using the + connection.
The moving coil meter consists of a coil suspended between the poles of a
permanent magnet with a pointer attached to the coil which moves over the meter
scale.
The coil is held in its center position by two hairsprings. A set zero screw is
attached to one of the hairsprings for adjustment of the pointer position to zero
with no voltage applied to the meter.
When current is fed to the coil via the hairsprings, a force is produced by
interaction between the current in the coil and the permanent magnetic field, and
the coil rotates. The direction of rotation depends on the direction of the current
through the coil (Fleming's Rule), and the amount of rotation depends on the
magnitude of the current flowing. The coil rotates until the force produced by the
current is balanced by the force exerted by the hairsprings.
The coil is wound on an aluminum former. When the coil rotates, an EMF is
induced in this former, similar to the back EMF induced in the armature coils of a
DC motor. This produces a current and a force opposing the motion of the coil
(Lenz's Law).
201
The coil movement is thus damped and allows the pointer to take up its final
position, after a step change of current, with the minimum of oscillation (or
hunting) occurring. The meter movement is a damped control system and this
effect together with the inertia of the coil system limits the response speed of the
pointer.
The hairsprings are fine to allow a large angular movement and high sensitivity.
The amount of coil current needed for full-scale deflection (f.s.d.) will be
determined by the tension of the hairsprings. The current flow in the meter circuit
must be limited to this value of current.
When used as a voltmeter, a series resistor (called a multiplier) is fitted to limit

the current to the value required to produce full-scale deflection. For instance, if
the f.s.d. current for a particular meter is 1mA, then the value of the multiplier
1
(series resistor) must be or 1kΩ for each volt (1kΩ/V) to be represented
1 × 10 − 3
by full-scale deflection. This figure (1kΩ/V) is known as the sensitivity of the
meter. From this figure it is possible to calculate the loading resistance of a meter
when it is operated on any voltage range.
A 10V voltmeter using a 1mA f.s.d. meter would require a multiplier of 10 x 1k Ω
= 10kΩ.
Many analog multimeters are based on a 50 µA meter movement (50µA f.s.d.).
12.6a Calculate and enter the sensitivity of a 50 A meter movement in k /V.
The main characteristics of the meter fitted to the DIGIAC 1750 unit are:
Full-scale current ±1mA
Sensitivity 1kΩ/V
Total voltmeter resistance 20kΩ
Accuracy ± 1-2%
Table 12.6
202

Characteristics of a Moving Coil Meter
MOVING COIL METER
WIREWOUND TRACK 0
5 6 C 5 5
4 7 -10 +10
3 8 B
9 +
2
A Set Zero
1 10
10k -
L
V
J
0V
+12V -12V
Fig 12.8
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 12.8. Set the resistor control to its
central position and check that the Moving Coil Meter pointer is at zero.
Adjust the Set Zero screw (Fig 12.8) if necessary to set the pointer to zero.
Use only the correct small screwdriver for this task.
 Switch ON the power supply. Set the resistor output voltage to 0V as

indicated by the digital multimeter and note the voltage indicated by the
Moving Coil Meter. Enter the value in Table 12.7.
Digital Meter 0 +2 +4 +6 +8 +10

V V V V V
Moving Coil
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2
Meter V V V V V V
Table 12.7
 Repeat the procedure for all positive values of voltage listed in Table 12.7.
 Repeat the procedure for the negative values of voltage indicated in Table
12.7, but setting up with the Moving Coil Meter and reading the digital
multimeter. Record the results in Table 12.7. Switch OFF the power supply.
12.7a Which meter gives the greatest resolution (indicates the smallest change)?
a Digital Multimeter b Moving Coil Meter

12.7b Which meter is the easiest to use to set up a selected voltage?
a Digital Multimeter b Moving Coil Meter
203

Extending the Voltage Range of a Moving Coil Meter
MOVING COIL METER
CARBON TRACK WIREWOUND TRACK 0

5 6 C 5 6 C 5 5
4 7 4 7 -10 +10
3 8 B 3 8 B
9 9 +
2
A
2
A V
1 10 1 10
100k 10k -
+12V -12V
0V
L
J
Fig 12.8
The voltage range of a moving coil meter can be increased by adding a resistor in
series with it to extend the existing multiplier.
 Connect the 100k Ω variable resistor in series with the Moving Coil Meter as
shown in Fig 12.8. Note that the ±12V supplies are being used together as a
single-ended +24V supply.
 Switch ON the power supply and use the 10k Ω variable resistor to set the
voltage to 10V as indicated on the digital multimeter.
 Adjust the 100k Ω variable resistor so that the Moving Coil Meter reads
+5V.
 Keep re-adjusting both settings until they are correct.
When completed, the Moving Coil Meter is calibrated for a voltage range of ±
20V.
 Check this by setting the voltage to 20V (digital multimeter) and note the
Moving Coil Meter scale reading. Switch OFF the power supply.
Moving Coil Meter scale reading with 20V applied = V
 Isolate the 100k Ω Carbon Track Resistor from the circuit and use your
digital multimeter on an Ohms (Resistance) range to measure the resistance
of the part of the 100k Ω variable resistor which was connected into circuit.
12.8a Enter your measured value of the 100k variable resistor in k .
204

Comparison of Voltage Display Devices
L.E.D. BARGRAPH DISPLAY

I/P
DRIVER I.C.
+12V
MOVING COIL METER
WIREWOUND TRACK 0
5 6 C 5 5
4 7 -10 +10
3 8 B
9 +
2
A
1 10
10k V -
-12V
0V
L
J
Fig 12.9
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 12.9. All three voltage display devices
are connected in circuit for comparison of their characteristics.
 Vary the output voltage slowly over the range 0V through +5V and back to
0V and note the meter indications.
12.9a From your observations, which of the following is true?

a the Bargraph is too slow to follow the variations
b the Digital Multimeter responds to the changes accurately and immediately
c both the Moving Coil Meter and the Ba rgraph follow the variations well
d the Moving Coil and Digital Meters give the best response
205
 Vary the output voltage over the same range rapidly and note the readings of
the Moving Coil Meter and Bargraph.
12.9b The fastest response came from the:

a Moving Coil Meter b Bargraph
 Increase the input voltage from 0V to +3V, with the 3V indicating LED of
the Bargraph just on, and note the readings of all the meters. Record the
results in Table 12.8
Digital Moving Coil

Voltage indications Bargraph
Multimeter Meter
All three devices 3V
in circuit (sixth bar) V V
Moving Coil Meter
removed V
Table 12.8
12.9c Enter your reading from the Moving Coil Meter in V.
 Remove the lead to the + connection of the Moving Coil Meter thus
disconnecting it from the circuit. Note and record in Table 12.8, the revised
readings of the Digital Multimeter and Bargraph.
12.9d Enter your reading from the Digital Multimeter in V when the Moving Coil
Meter is removed from circuit.
12.9e The loading caused by the Moving Coil Meter can be improved by:
a only using it on low voltage ranges b only using it on AC
c using a full-wave rectifier for DC d using a buffer amplifier
206
The following questions all relate to devices fitted to, or recommended for use with, the
1. For the Counter/Timer unit to measure a period of time, the TIME/COUNT and
FREE RUN/1s switches are set to:
a TIME & FREE RUN b COUNT & FREE RUN
c TIME & 1s d COUNT & 1s
2. For the Counter/Timer unit to count input pulses, the TIME/COUNT and FREE RUN/1s
switches are set to:
3. For the Counter/Timer unit to measure frequency, the TIME/COUNT and FREE RUN/1s
switches are set to:

4. The Counter/Timer display reads 254 when the unit is used to measure time. The
amount of time elapsed is:
a 254 µs b 254ms c 2.54s d 25.4s
5. The LED Bargraph is displaying six LED's ON. The input voltage is in the range:
a 2.50-3.45V b 3.0-3.45V c 2.75-3.25V d 6.00-6.45V
Continued ...
207
6. The device with the fastest response time for measurement of voltage is the:
a Moving Coil Meter b Digital Multimeter
c Counter/Timer d Bargraph
7. The f.s.d. current of the Moving Coil Meter is:

a ±50µA b ±500µA c ±1mA d ±10mA
8. The Moving Coil Meter has a multiplier (series resistor) to range it for 10V. The
value of additional multiplier for a range of 30V is:
a 10k Ω b 20k Ω c 30k Ω d 50k Ω
9. The best device for monitoring a rapidly, randomly varying voltage would be:
a digital multimeter b moving coil meter
c bargraph d oscilloscope
10. The best device for monitoring a slowly varying, precise voltage measurement (such
as that found when adjusting a voltage setting to, say, 3.7V) would be:
11. The best device for monitoring instantaneous repetitive variations of voltage at very
high frequencies would be:
12. The best device for voltage measurements in a high impedance circuit:
208
IT02 Signal Conditioning Amplifiers
Chapter 13
Signal Conditioning Amplifiers

this Chapter
 Describe the characteristics and application of DC
amplifiers.
 Explain the term "Offset" and the need for offset
control.
 Describe the characteristics and application of an
AC amplifier.
 Describe the characteristics and application of a

power amplifier.
Describe the characteristics and application of a
current amplifier.
buffer amplifier.
 Describe the characteristics and application of an
inverter amplifier.
differential amplifier.
Equipment
• DIGIAC 1750 Transducer and Instrumentation Trainer.
• Oscilloscope.
• BNC to 4mm connecting lead.
209
Signal Conditioning Amplifiers IT02
13.1 DC Amplifiers
I/P O/P
Fig 13.1
The symbol used for a DC amplifier is shown in Fig 13.1. The device consists of
directly coupled amplifiers (without coupling capacitors) which are therefore
capable of amplifying both DC and AC signals.
There may be many active devices (transistors) in a DC amplifier such as the types
of Integrated Circuit (IC) Operational Amplifier (Op Amp) chosen for the
The ratio of the output signal voltage to the input signal voltage is referred to as
the voltage gain of the circuit (Av).
With the input to these amplifiers at zero, the output should be zero, but there
could be a small value of voltage. This is more of a problem with high gain
circuits and an offset control may be provided to counteract the effect. This
control is adjusted with zero input, to set the output voltage to zero.
Given data for an amplifier normally specifies the input offset voltage for the
device. This represents the difference in voltage at two input connections that may
be required to produce zero output voltage. The second input connection is not
accessible for the DC amplifiers provided with the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer although
an offset control is provided for Amplifier #1/2 connected internally.
Various DC amplifier circuits are provided with the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer, but
only three are specifically designed for amplification applications, these being:
1. Amplifier #1 having a variable preset gain over the range of 0.1 to 100
approximately. This amplifier is provided with an "offset" control.
2. Amplifier #2 which is identical to Amplifier #1.
3. X100 Amplifier which has a fixed gain of 100 and has no offset control.
210
The requirements for an ideal amplifier are:

High input impedance to prevent loading the signal source.
Low output impedance to ensure good transfer of signal to any succeeding
stage and prevent loss of signal.
High gain to reduce the number of amplifier stages required.
Broad bandwidth to ensure that all required signals for a given band of
frequencies are passed without attenuation.
Low distortion so that only the amplitude of the signal is altered (high
fidelity).
Low noise factor to reduce the introduction of unwanted signals or
interference.
Stability. No tendency to self- (spurious) oscillation.
These requirements apply to any type of amplifier, not just to DC amplifiers.
Amplifiers can be connected in cascade (one after another), to increase the overall
gain, if required.
Note The output voltage that can be provided by a DC amplifier cannot exceed
the value of its supply voltage. In the case of the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer the
output voltage is limited to a maximum of approximately ±10V.
The main characteristics of these devices are:
Amplifier #1/2 X100 Amplifier
Input signal voltage (max.) 12V 12V
Voltage gain (nominal) 0.1 - 100 100
Voltage gain error (max.) ± 30% ± 4%
Output noise voltage (typ.) 10mV 10mV
Output offset voltage (max.) fully adjustable ± 30mV
Input impedance 100kΩ 101kΩ

Table 13.1
211

Characteristics of DC Amplifiers
SLIDE BUFFER #1
C
O/P
B
I/P
+VIN
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k MOVING COIL METER
0
AMPLIFIER #1 5 5
+5V -10 +10
I/ P O/ P
+
.5 .6
0V - + .7
.4
V -
L
1 .3 .8
J
100
.9 0V
10 .2
-5V
.1 1.0
Fig 13.2
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 13.2 with the Amplifier #1 in circuit. Set
the GAIN COARSE control to 100 and GAIN FINE to 1.0 for both amplifiers,
Amplifier #1 and Amplifier #2.
Note that Buffer #1 is needed so that the OFFSET adjustment does not affect
the input voltage.
 Switch ON the power supply. Set the 10k Ω variable resistor mid-way for
exactly zero volts output as indicated by the digital multimeter. Adjust the
OFFSET control of Amplifier #1 so that the output voltage is zero (or as near
as it is possible to get to zero).
 Increase the input voltage positively and note the output voltage. This
increases to saturation quickly and then remains at this maximum value for
further increase of input voltage. Record the value of this saturation voltage
at the Moving Coil Meter in Table 13.2.
 Repeat for the negative saturation voltage, recording again in Table 13.2.
 Set the input voltage so that the output voltage is between +7 and +8V
(Moving Coil Meter) and use the digital multimeter to note the values of the
Amplifier #1 input and output voltages. Record the results in Table 13.2.
212
Outp ut volta ge
 Calculate the gain ( ), this representing the maximum gain
Inp ut vo ltage
with positive polarity possible for the amplifier. Add this to Table 13.2.
Gain (Av) set to Amplifier #1 Amplifier #2

x = 100
1001.0 Positive Negative Positive Negative
Saturation voltage V V V V
Input voltage mV Vm Vm mV
Output voltage V V V V
Voltage gain (Av)

Table 13.2
 Repeat with the 10k Ω variable resistor adjusted to give between -7 and -8V,
to determine the gain of the amplifier for negative polarity input signals.
13.2a Enter your value of positive polarity gain for Amplifier #1 with maximum
gain settings.
13.2b Enter your value of negative polarity gain for Amplifier #1 with maximum
gain settings.
This dual-polarity operation signifies that the amplifier is capable of amplifying

AC signals as well as DC voltages.
 Replace Amplifier #1 in the circuit with Amplifier #2 and repeat the

procedures to adjust the OFFSET and to determine its maximum positive and
negative gain values.
13.2c Enter your value of positive polarity gain for Amplifier #2 with maximum
gain settings.
13.2d Enter your value of negative polarity gain for Amplifier #2 with maximum
gain settings.
213
 Reset both Amplifier #1 and Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE control to 1 and

GAIN FINE to 0.1 for minimum amplifier gain.
 With Amplifier #1 in circuit and an input voltage of +4V approximately,

note and record the values of the input and output voltages in Table 13.3.
Gain (Av) set to Amplifier #1 Amplifier #2

x = 0.1
10.1 Positive Negative Positive Negative
Input
V voltage
V V V
Output
V voltage
V V V
Voltage gain (Av)

Table 13.3
 Reset the input to -4V and repeat the readings, recording the results in Table
13.3.
 Change to Amplifier #2 and repeat the readings for both polarities.
 Using the values of input and output voltages given in Table 13.3 calculate
the gain for each of the four conditions and add the results to the table.
13.2e Enter your value of positive polarity gain for Amplifier #1 with minimum
gain settings.
13.2f Enter your value of negative polarity gain for Amplifier #2 with minimum
gain settings.
 Replace Amplifier #2 with the X100 Amplifier. Temporarily ground the

input and note the output voltage with zero input voltage (the output offset
voltage) using the digital multimeter.Use the same 0V patch panel as you
use for the digital multimeter.
Note that there is no offset control with this amplifier. The offset is adjusted
to an acceptably low figure during production.
214
Nominal Gain X100 Amplifier

(Av) = 100 Positive Negative
Saturation voltage V V
Input voltage mV Vm
Output voltage V V
Voltage gain (Av)

Table 13.4
 Repeat the procedures to measure the saturation voltages and the input and
output voltages with the output set to a value between±(7-8)V. Record the
 Calculate the gain for both polarities and add these to Table 13.4.
13.2g Enter your calculated value for the gain of the X100 Amplifier with positive
polarity.
13.2h Enter your calculated value for the gain of the X100 Amplifier with negative
polarity.
 Compare the results with the amplifier specifications given earlier.
215
13.3 The AC Amplifier
The symbol for an AC amplifier is the same as for a DC amplifier.
I/P O/P
Fig 13.3
The AC amplifier provided with the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer is a two-stage IC

amplifier which has three fixed gain settings, 10, 100 and 1000. The mimic
diagram on the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer shows the capacitors in the input and output
circuits. These capacitors remove any DC level and hence there is no offset
problem with an AC amplifier.
Two of the main aspects of amplifiers are in conflict with each other, gain and
bandwidth. As the gain of an amplifier is increased its bandwidth will be reduced.
It is common to specify a gain bandwidth product for an amplifier. For instance,
an amplifier with a gain bandwidth product of 106 could have a gain of 100 with a
bandwidth of 104 or 10kHz, or a gain of 1000 with a bandwidth of 1kHz.
This is why the amplifier on the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer is a 2-stage circuit; to get a
bandwidth of 16kHz (covering the full audio band) and a gain of up to 1000.
When the gain is switched to 100 (or 10) the bandwidth will be increased.
Input voltage (max.) ±12V
Bandwidth (-6dB, gain = 1000) 10Hz - 16kHz

Maximum gain at 40kHz 225
Output noise voltage (gain = 1000) 100mV
Table 13.5
A high proportion of the output noise will be found to be stray pick-up of the
output of the 40kHz oscillator which is adjacent to the AC Amplifier.
216

Characteristics of the AC Amplifier
From Function Generator

A.C. AMPLIFIER
SLIDE O/P
C I/P
B
A 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k 1000
100
GAIN
0V TP1 0V TP2 0V
Oscilloscope
C H. 1 CH.2
Fig 13.4
 Construct the circuit of Fig 13.4. Set the slider of the 10kΩ variable resistor
to mid-way. This is to operate as a fine amplitude control on the input signal.
Switch the AC Amplifier to maximum gain, 1000.

 Switch the output of the Function Generator to a 1kHz sinewave. Switch the
oscilloscope timebase to 0.5ms/div, Y1 amplifier (CH.1) to 10mV/div and
the Y2 amplifier (CH.2) to 5V/div.
 Switch ON the power supply and adjust the Function Generator output
amplitude control to obtain 20Vp-p output from the AC Amplifier as
indicated on CH.2 of the oscilloscope. Use the 10k
Ω slider variable resistor
for the final adjustment if necessary. Measure the input amplitude (CH.1)
and record in Table 13.6.
Gain setting 1000 100 10
Output voltage 20Vp-p 20Vp-p 20Vp-p
Input voltage
mVp-p mVp-p Vp-p
Amplifier gain
Table 13.6
217
 Switch the AC Amplifier gain to 100 and repeat the setting of the output
voltage to 20Vp-p and again measure the input signal amplitude, changing
the Y1 amplifier setting as required. Record the result in Table 13.6.
 Switch the AC Amplifier gain to 10 and repeat the setting and measurement.
 Calculate the amplifier gain ( Outp ut volta ge ) for each setting of the gain
Inp ut voltage
switch and add the results to Table 13.6.
13.4a Enter your value of gain at 1kHz with the AC Amplifier set to x100.
 Change the Function Generator frequency to 40kHz and the oscilloscope

timebase setting to 5µs/div, switch the AC Amplifier gain to 1000 and repeat
the setting and measurement.
Input voltage for 20Vp-p output = mVp-p
 Calculate the amplifier gain at 40kHz.
Amplifier gain at 40kHz =
13.4b Enter your value of gain at 40kHz with the AC Amplifier set to x1000.
218
13.5 The Power Amplifier
The symbol for a power amplifier is again the same as that for any DC amplifier.
I/P O/P
Fig 13.5
The main characteristic of a power amplifier is the capability of a large power

output.
In order to do this the output impedance of the amplifier must be very low in order
to provide a heavy current to a load without loss of output voltage across the
output impedance.
The components used must also be capable of dissipating the heat generated in
high current circuits.
The device provided with the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer has unity gain and a
maximum output current of the order of 1.5A.
The main characteristics of the device are as follows:
Input impedance 100kΩ

Output current 1.5A
Output power (limited by power supply) 9W

Upper -3dB frequency 10.6kHz
Table 13.7
219

Application of a Power Amplifier
POWER AMPLIFIER
O/P
I/P
From Function Generator

A.C. AMPLIFIER
SLIDE O/P LOUDSPEAKER
C
I/P
B
I/P
A 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k 1000
100
GAIN
0V TP1 0V TP2 0V
Oscilloscope
CH.1 CH.2
Fig 13.6
 Connect the circuit of Fig 13.6.
 Switch ON the power supply and adjust the Function Generator to give a
sinewave input at 1kHz to the AC Amplifier. Increase the amplitude to give
maximum undistorted output from the amplifier.
 Connect the Loudspeaker directly to the output of the AC Amplifier and

observe the effect on the output waveform.
220
13.6a With the Loudspeaker connected directly to the output of the AC Amplifier
the waveform looks like:
a b c d
 Transfer the output of the AC Amplifier to the input of the Power Amplifier.
Transfer the oscilloscope CH.2 connection to the output of the Power
Amplifier. Finally connect the output of the Power Amplifier to the
Loudspeaker.
13.6b With the Loudspeaker connected via the Power Amplifier the waveform
looks like:
a b c d
Note that you have already used the Power Amplifier for DC applications
when driving the lamp for opto-electronic experiments and for driving the
motor for rotating motion investigations.
221
13.7 The Current Amplifier and Buffer Amplifier
I/P O/P
Fig 13.7
The symbol for a current amplifier is once more the same as for any DC amplifier.
The amplifier converts an input current to an output voltage.
The device provided with the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer is intended for use with the
P.I.N. photodiode, giving an output voltage 10,000 times the input current. An
input current of 1mA (max.) will provide 10V (max.) at the output.
The main characteristics of the Current Amplifier are shown in Table 13.8 below.
The symbol for a buffer amplifier is again as shown in Fig 13.7. These amplifiers
have a high input impedance and a low output impedance and are inserted in the
circuit between a device having a high output impedance and one having a low
input impedance to prevent loading, as shown in Fig 13.8.
Device 1 Device 2
(High output Buffer (Low input
impedance) impedance)
Fig 13.8
The characteristics are similar to those of the Power Amplifier but they have a
much lower output current capability, (of the order of 20mA maximum for the
devices provided with the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer).
Two buffer amplifiers are provided with the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer, Buffer #1 and
Buffer #2 and their main characteristics are shown in Table 13.9.
Input current (max) 1mA Input offset voltage 300µV

Transfer ratio 10,000V/A Voltage gain 1.0
Table 13.8 Table 13.9
222

Characteristics and Applications of Current and Buffer Amplifiers
SLIDE CURRENT AMPLIFIER

C
O/P
B
I/P
104 I IN
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k
MOVING COIL METER

+5V
BUFFER #1 0
5 5
WIREWOUND TRACK O/P -10 +10
5 6 C
4 7 I/P
+VIN +
3 8 B
2 9 -
A
L
1 10
J
10k
V 0V
0V
Fig 13.9
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 13.9 with the Buffer Amplifier out of
circuit initially. Set the 10kΩ wirewound resistor for zero output (control
fully counter clockwise) and the 10kΩ slider resistor for maximum
resistance (slider to right).
 Switch ON the power supply and set the output voltage from the 10k Ω
wirewound resistor to 1V as indicated by the digital voltmeter.
 Vary the slider resistor control from maximum resistance to minimum and
note the reading of the digital voltmeter. You will note that it falls due to the
increased current loading. Note the lowest value.
10k slider resistance minimum voltage = V
The current has varied from 0.1mA to 1.0mA approximately but this has been
sufficient to produce the voltage drop above. The Buffer Amplifier can be used to
reduce this loading effect.
223
 Disconnect the lead between socket B of the Wirewound Track

potentiometer and socket A of the Slide potentiometer.
 Connect socket B of the Wirewound Track to the input socket of Buffer #1.
Connect the output socket of Buffer #1 to socket A of the Slide
potentiometer. Buffer #1 is now connected between the Wirewound Track
potentiometer and the Slide potentiometer.
 With the 10k Ω slider control at maximum (slider to right) set the voltage as
indicated by the digital voltmeter to 1.0V. Vary the 10k Ω slider control over
its full range and note the reading of the digital voltmeter.
13.8a The variation of voltage with the Buffer Amplifier in circuit was:
a >0.5V b <0.5V, >0.3V c <0.3V, >0.1V d virt ually nil
 Check that the output from the 10k Ω wirewound resistor is still 1.0V and
then remove the digital multimeter from the circuit, switch to a 2mA range
and reconnect it as an ammeter into the circuit between the 10k Ω slider
resistor and the Current Amplifier to monitor the input current.
 Set the 10k Ω slider resistor control to each of the settings indicated in
Table 13.10 and for each setting note the input current and the output
voltage for the Current Amplifier.
Resistor setting 10 8 6 4 2 1
Input current mA mA mA mA mA mA
Output voltageV V V V V V
Table 13.10
 Plot the graph of Output voltage against Input current for the Current
Amplifier.
224
10
9
Output
Voltage 8
(volts)
7
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Input current (mA)
Graph 13.1
13.8b Is the graph linear?

Yes or No
13.8c For each 0.1mA of input current the output voltage of the Current Amplifier
changes by approximately:
a 0.1V b 0.5V c 1.0V d 2V
This exercise has illustrated the characteristics of the current amplifier and the
application of a buffer amplifier for circuits requiring a low output current.
225
13.9 The Inverter
Yet again the symbol is the same as for any amplifier.
I/P I O/P
Fig 13.10
The inverter amplifier, as the name implies, reverses the polarity of the voltage
applied to the input, either DC or AC. The device provided with the DIGIAC 1750
Trainer has a voltage gain of unity.
One aspect of all IC amplifiers which has not been mentioned before is the slew
rate. This imposes a limitation on alternating signals on the rate at which the
output voltage can change with respect to time. You can have either a small signal
voltage at a high frequency or a larger signal voltage at a lower frequency.
This is not quite the same thing as the gain/bandwidth product which was
introduced earlier, as you will see from the experiment which follows.
Voltage gain -1.0
Input offset voltage 300µV

Slew rate (typ.) 0.15V/µs
Table 13.11
226

Characteristics of an Inverter
INVERTER
O/P
I/P
-VIN
-5V 0V +5V
Fig 13.11
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 13.11.
 Switch ON the power supply. With the Inverter input connected to the +5V
supply note the value of the output voltage in Table 13.12.
Inverter input +5V -5V
Inverter output
V V
Table 13.12
 Transfer the Inverter input to the -5V supply and again note the value of the
output voltages.
13.10a The polarity of the output voltage is:

a the same as the input b opposite to the input
The output voltage magnitude may not be identical with the input due to the offset
voltage. No facility for adjusting this has been provided.
227
40kHz OSCILLATOR SLIDE INVERTER

C
O/P
O/P
B
I/P
-VIN
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k
0V TP1 0V TP2 0V
Oscilloscope
CH.1 CH.2
Fig 13.12
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 13.12. Switch ON the power supply.
 Set the oscilloscope timebase to 5 µs/div. and both Y amplifiers (CH.1 &
CH.2) to 0.5V/div.
 Adjust the control of the 10k Ω slider resistor to give an input voltage of
1Vp-p.
 Sketch the input and output (Output 1) waveforms on the graticule provided:
Input
Output 1
Output 2
Waveform Sketch 13.1
228
 Change the Y2 (CH.2) amplifier to 1V/div and increase the setting of the
10kΩ slider resistor until the full effect of the slew rate is observed.
 Add a sketch of the output (Output 2) waveform.
13.10b Your sketched waveforms are most similar to:

a b c d
voltage
 Check the slew rate ( ) against the specification given earlier.
ti me ( µs)
13.10c Enter the value of peak-to-peak output voltage at which the slewing first
occurred with an input signal of 40kHz.
 Replace the input to inverter with a 5kHz sinewave output from the Function
Generator.
 Increase the amplitude of the signal until slewing again begins to occur.
Note the maximum peak-to-peak value of the undistorted output signal.
13.10d Enter the value of peak-to-peak output voltage at which the slewing first
occurred with an input signal of 5kHz.
229
13.11 The Differential Amplifier
B -
I/P's O/P
A +
Fig 13.13
The symbol for a differential amplifier is shown in Fig 13.13.
The amplifier has two inputs which can be driven by separate signals. It is called
differential because the output voltage depends on the difference in voltages
applied to the two inputs. If the two inputs are driven by the same signal in phase
then theoretically there should be no output. There will, however, be a small
output the amount being determined by the common mode gain, which is
designed to be as near to zero as possible.
For the device provided on the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer, the output voltage is given
by (VA - VB).
Two differential Amplifier".

"Instrumentation amplifier circuits are provided,
This carries the basic
out the same secondfunctions
being labeled
as the
differential amplifier but has an improved (reduced) common mode gain.
The main characteristics of the devices are:
Differential Instrumentation
Amplifier Amplifier
Differential gain 1.0
Common mode gain (max.) 0.02 0.006
Input impedance (input A) 200kΩ 100kΩ
Input impedance (input B) 100kΩ

Table 13.13
230

Characteristics of a Differential Amplifier
SLIDE
C
DIFFERENTIAL
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k AMPLIFIER
O/P
B -
WIREWOUND TRACK
A-B
+5V 5 6 C
4 7 A +
3 8 B
V
2 9
-5V A
1 10
10k 0V
Fig 13.14
 Moving the digital voltmeter lead as necessary, set the voltage at input A of
the Differential Amplifier to -3V and input B also to -3V and note the
resulting output voltage. Record the value in Table 13.14.
Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Input B voltage -3V +1V +4V +2V 0V +4.5V +2V -2.7V
Input A voltage -3V +1V +4V +4V +3V +2.2V -3V +3.6V
Output voltage
V V VV V V V V
Table 13.14
 Repeat the procedure for each of the other pairs of inputs in Table 13.14 and
record the output voltage again.
231
13.12a Enter your output voltage reading for Step 1 in V.
13.12b Enter your output voltage reading for Step 3 in V.
13.12c Enter your output voltage reading for Step 5 in V.
13.12d Enter your output voltage reading for Step 6 in V.
13.12e Enter your output voltage reading for Step 7 in V.
13.12f Enter your output voltage reading for Step 8 in V.
13.12g In Steps 1, 2 & 3 the amplifier was working in:

a differential mode b inverting mode
c common mode d opposing mode
232
1. The term "input offset voltage" applied to a DC amplifier means the voltage:
a at the input with no signal applied
b at the output with no signal applied
c needed at the input for zero output voltage
d needed at the input with signal applied
2. The main difference between an AC amplifier and a DC amplifier is that the:

a AC amplifier does not suffer from offset
b only the AC amplifier can amplify AC signals
c DC amplifier will not pass low frequency signals
d gain of an AC amplifier will be greater
3. The type of amplifier which will pass AC signals is:
a the DC amplifier only b the AC amplifier only

c either the DC or the AC amplifier d neither the DC nor the AC amplifier
4. The purpose of a buffer amplifier is to:

a remove DC signals from AC signals
b increase the signal level at low frequencies
c convert positive polarity signals into negative polarity signals
d reduce loading on a high impedance source
5. Comparing a buffer amplifier to a power amplifier, the buffer amplifier will:

a only operate on DC b deliver less current
c only operate on AC d restrict the bandwidth
Continued ...
233
6. A signal source has an open-circuit EMF of 10V and an output impedance of 100k . If
this was connected directly to a 10k load the voltage delivered to the load would be:
a 10V b 5V c 1.1V d <1V
7. For the situation referred to in question 6 above the type of amplifier which would
restore the voltage delivered to the load would be:
a AC b buffer c inverter d differential
8. A current amplifier has a transfer ratio of 5000V/A. If the input current is 2mA the
output voltage will be:
a 2.5V b 5.0V c 10V d 10000V
9. A current amplifier has a transfer ratio of 5000V/A. If the output voltage is 5V the input
current will be:
a 10mA b 5mA c 2.5mA d 1mA
10. A differential amplifier has inputs VA connected to the non-inverting (-) input and VB
connected to the inverting (+) input. The amplifier has unity (1.0) gain. If the input
voltages are VA = +5.0V, VB = +2.0V then the output voltage will be:
a +3V b +7V c -7V d +10V
voltages are VA = -5.0V, VB = +2.0V then the output voltage will be:
a +3V b +7V c -7V d +10V
voltages are VA = +5.0V, VB = -5.0V then the output voltage will be:
a 0V b +5V c -5V d +10V
234
IT02 Signal Conversions
Chapter 14
Signal Conversions

this Chapter
 Describe the characteristics of a voltage to current
converter (V/I).
 Describe the characteristics of a current to voltage
converter (I/V).
 Describe the characteristics of a voltage to frequency
converter (V/F).
 Describe the characteristics of a frequency to voltage
converter (F/V).
 Describe the characteristics of a full wave rectifier.

• Oscilloscope.
235
Signal Conversions IT02
14.1 Voltage to Current Converter
The voltage to current converter converts an input voltage to an output current.
The device operates as a constant current source within the limits of the supply
voltage. As an example of this, if 20mA is supplied to a load of 50 Ω, then the
voltage dropped across the load is:
20x10-3 x 50 = 1.0V.
With the V/I converter supplied from +12V DC this is no problem. If, however,
the load resistance is increased to 1k Ω, then the voltage across the load at 20mA
would be:
20x10-3 x 1000 = 20V,
which the device would be unable to provide from a +12V supply.
A simple block diagram is used to represent the V/I Converter on the DIGIAC
1750 Trainer. The standard symbol for a constant current source is given in
Fig 14.1.
0-24mA
Fig 14.1
Input voltage range 0-1.5V

Output current range (max.) 0-24mA
Transfer ratio 16mA/V

Table 14.1
236

Characteristics of a Voltage to Current Converter
B O/P
O/P
A
+5V
N T C T H E R M IS T O R S P L A T I NU M R . T . D .
0V HEATER ELEMENT I/P
SLIDE V/I CONVERTER

C A
O/P
B
I/P
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 V8 9 10 10k
Fig 14.2
Note that a second meter is shown as an ammeter connected between the output of
the V/I Converter and the load (the heater element on the thermal transducer
panel). If a second instrument is available then the measurements will be
simplified. The instructions will be given assuming that this is not the case.
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 14.2 and set the 10k Ω resistor for zero
output voltage (slider to left).
 Switch ON the power supply. Set the input voltage to the V/I converter to
0.5V.
 Remove the digital multimeter from the circuit, range it as an ammeter (up
to 25mA will be needed), and reconnect it in between the output of the V/I
Converter and the load. Measure the load current and record the result in
Table 14.2. Restore the digital multimeter as a voltmeter in the srcinal
position as shown in Fig 14.2.
Input voltage 0V 0.5V 1.0V 1.5V
Output current
mA mA mA mA
Table 14.2
237
 Repeat the procedure for input voltage settings of 1.0V and 1.5V and record
the results in Table 14.2. Keep the multimeter connected as an ammeter
monitoring the load current after the final reading.
 Connect the input of the V/I Converter to 0V (ground) and note the effect on
the output current. Record the result in Table 14.2.
 Plot the characteristic of output current against input voltage for the V/I
Converter on the axes provided:
25
Output
Current 20
(mA)
15
10
0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Input Voltage (V)
Graph 14.1
14.2a Is the output current proportional to the input voltage?

Yes or No
 Calculate the Transfer Ratio from any pair of voltage and current readings.
Transfer Ratio = mA/V
14.2b Enter your value of the Transfer Ratio in mA/V.
 Restore the input of the V/I Converter to terminal B of the 10k Ω slider
resistor and the input voltage to 1.5V. Transfer the digital multimeter to the
output of the V/I Converter. First unplug the load and note the effect on the
output voltage of the V/I Converter. Then connect the Lamp Filament on the
opto-transducer panel as the load and note the voltage again.
238
14.2c Is the output voltage constant?

Yes or No
14.3 Current to Voltage Converter
The current to voltage converter converts an input current to an output voltage and
is thus the converse of the voltage to current converter.
The V/I and I/V Converters provided with the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer are arranged
to have parameter values that are the reciprocal of each other.
This means that the pair of devices could be used to send a voltage down a long
wire without attenuation, since the current which is launched into the transmission
line at one end must also appear at the termination (except in the unlikely case of
leakage current, which can be restricted by good insulation).
I
Input V/I I/V Output
Voltage Converter Converter Voltage
Fig 14.3
The actual voltage on the transmission line is irrelevant unless it tries to be greater
than the supply feeding the V/I Converter.
The main characteristics of the I/V converter are:
Input current range 0-24mA (100mA max.)
Output voltage range 0-1.5V (6V max.)
Transfer ratio 62.5mV/mA

Table 14.3
239

Characteristics of a Current to Voltage Converter
SLIDE V/I CONVERTER I/V CONVERTER

C
O/P O/P
B I/P I/P
V A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k
0V +5 V
Fig 14.4
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 14.4. Set the 10k Ω slider resistor for
zero output voltage.
 Set the input voltage to the V/I converter to 0.5V. Transfer the digital
multimeter to the output of the I/V Converter and note the output voltage.
Record the value in Table 14.4.
 Repeat the procedure for input voltage settings of 1.0 and 1.5V and enter the
Input voltage (V/I) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Output voltage (I/V)

V V V V
Table 14.4
 Transfer the input of the V/I converter to 0V (ground) and note and record
the output voltage from the I/V Converter in Table 14.4.
14.4a Enter your value of output voltage when the input voltage was 1.0V.
240
14.5 Voltage to Frequency Converter
This device converts an input voltage to an output frequency, the frequency being
proportional to the input voltage.
The circuit is based on a dedicated (designed for the job) IC type LM331. The
output waveform is in the form of short duration (approximately 60 µs) negative-
going pulses, the repetition rate of which can be controlled over a very wide range.
The negative excursion duration remains constant as the frequency is increased.

This limits the overall time period of the output waveform to about 85 µs, or a
frequency of just under 12kHz. The pulse shape is degraded at frequencies above
about 10.5kHz.
The Counter/Timer facility has a limited range, having only a 3-digit display, but
it is better for counting pulses at very low frequencies. The oscilloscope gives a
very good display of the waveform and can also be used for measurement of
higher frequencies.
The main characteristics of the device provided with the DIGIAC 1750 are:
Type LM331
Input voltage (max.) 12V
Transfer ratio 1kHz/V
Maximum frequency 10kHz
Non-linearity (typ.) 0.024% full scale
Non-linearity (max.) 0.14%

Table 14.5
241

Characteristics of a Voltage to Frequency Converter
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE V/F CONVERTER DIFFERENTIATOR

D O/P
O/P I/P
C 12k I/P T dV IN
dt
A
B OUT
3 100ms
IN 1s
10ms
V 1V TIME CONSTANT
Rx
0V
COUNTER/
TIMER
COMPARATOR
+12V I/P T IME F RE E R U N
OFF ON
HYSTERESIS O/P
TP1 0V B -
A + RE SE T COUNT 1s
CH.1
Oscilloscope
Fig 14.5
The Counter/Timer
frequencies, is range.
within its used as
Thea Differentiator
frequency meterand to measure the
Comparator lowershaping
are pulse output
circuits to enable the V/F Converter output to trigger the Counter/Timer.
An oscilloscope is used to monitor the output waveform and to determine

frequencies above the range of the Timer/Counter.
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 14.5. Set the Differentiator control to 1s,
the Counter controls to COUNT and 1s, the Comparator HYSTERESIS OFF and
the 10kΩ 10-turn resistor to zero.
 Switch ON the power supply and set the input voltage to 0.2V. Press the
RESET button of the Counter and note the displayed value, which represents
the frequency output of the V/F converter. Record the value in Table 14.6.
Input Voltage (volts) 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Output frequency (Hz)
Table 14.6
242
 Repeat the procedure for input voltage settings of 0.4, 0.6, 0.8V and 1.0V
recording the output frequency values in Table 14.6.
 Continue with further increased values of input voltage if possible while the
Counter/Timer unit is registering the frequency correctly. The unit may
operate beyond 1kHz, this being signified by the count going through 999.
When the frequency is too high for the counter, the display will only reach a
low value and not pass through 999.
 Reset the frequency to 1kHz (1.0V input) and turn your attention to the
oscilloscope. Disconnect the feed to the Differentiator, since the loading
effect will degrade the output waveform of the V/F Converter.
 Set the oscilloscope timebase to 0.2ms/div and ensure that the variable
control is in its calibrated position. Set the Y1 amplifier (CH.1) to 2V/div.
You should have a stable trace of 2/3 negative-going pulses of about 5V (2.5
div) amplitude.
 Measure the time taken for one cycle along the X axis (for instance, one
cycle covering 2.8 div. would be 2.8 x 0.2ms = 0.56ms) and record this in
Table 14.7. Take the reciprocal of this to convert to frequency (for instance,
1 0.56 × 10-3 = 1786Hz or 1.79kHz).
Input voltage (volts) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time for one cycle

ms ms µs µs µs µs µs µs µs µs
Frequency = 1 (kHz)
T
Table 14.7
 Take measurements and calculations at each of the other input voltages
listed in Table 14.7, changing the oscilloscope timebase setting as necessary.
14.6a Is the output frequency proportional to the input voltage?

Yes or No
14.6b Calculate and enter the Transfer Ratio in kHz/V.
243
14.7 Frequency to Voltage Converter
This device converts an input frequency to an output voltage.
Each input pulse triggers a monostable multivibrator to generate a constant period

pulse which pumps one packet of charge into a reservoir capacitor. The voltage
across the capacitor is therefore dependent on how many pulses are received each
second.
For the unit provided with the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer, the parameters are arranged
to be reciprocal to those of the V/F converter.
A communication channel would again be possible with frequency as the

transmission medium.
The main characteristics are:
Input frequency (max.) 10kHz
Transfer ratio 1V/kHz
Time constant 100ms
Settling time 0.7s
Accuracy ± 0.1%
Output ripple 10mV

Output impedance 100kΩ
Table 14.8
244

Characteristics of a Frequency to Voltage Converter
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE V/F CONVERTER F/V CONVERTER

D
O/P O/P
C 12k I/P I/P

A
B OUT
3
IN
V 1V
Rx
0V
+5V
Fig 14.6
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 14.6. Switch ON the power supply and
set the input voltage to the V/F converter to 1.0V. Note the value of the
output voltage from the F/V converter and record the value in Table 14.9.
Input voltage (V/F) 1 2 3 4 5
Output voltage (F/V)

V V V V V
Table 14.9
 Repeat the procedure for input voltage settings of 2, 3, 4 and 5V.
14.8a Enter your output voltage when the input voltage is 3V.
 You will see from the specification that the output impedance of the F/V
Converter is 100kΩ. If you measure the output voltage using the M.C. meter
the reading will be affected by the low loading impedance. Try it with the
output voltage set 5V, recording the results in Table 14.10.
Digital M. C. Meter M. C. Meter

Instrument
Multimeter only only via Buffer #1
Output voltage
V V V
Table 14.10
14.8b Enter your output voltage reading when using the M. C. Meter via Buffer #1.
245
14.9 The Full Wave Rectifier
The full wave rectifier converts a sinewave AC input into a series of unidirectional
positive half cycles as shown in Fig 14.7.
The negative half cycles are inverted so that the output is always of one polarity.
+ +
Full Wave
0 0
Rectifier
Fig 14.7
With an input DC signal of either polarity the output is always positive, the
magnitude of the output being the same as that of the input signal.
In the case of an input consisting of an AC waveform riding on a DC component,

the output waveform will be a mixture of the input components, the negative
components being inverted to be positive. If the DC component of the input is
greater than the AC component then the same waveform will appear at the output,
but always with positive polarity, irrespective of the polarity of the input.
The circuit is active, containing two operational amplifiers; not just a full-wave
diode bridge, since this cannot be adjusted to compensate for losses. It is not
intended for delivery of DC power.
Measurements of AC quantities using DC instruments are possible with accuracy

using Full Wave Rectifiers.
The main characteristics of the device provided with the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer
are:
Input voltage 12V (max)
Output voltage error 2% (typ.), (6% max.)

Table 14.11
246

Characteristics of a Full Wave Rectifier with DC Applied
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
O/P
I/P
VIN
-5V 0V +5V
Fig 14.8
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 14.8. Switch ON the power supply and
note the values of the input and output voltages for the Full Wave Rectifier
with +5V applied to the rectifier input. Record the output voltage in Table
14.12.
Input voltage +5V -5V

Output voltage
V V
Table 14.12
 Transfer the input of the Full Wave Rectifier to the -5V supply and repeat
voltage readings, recording the output voltage in Table 14.12 again.
14.10a Is the output polarity the same for both input polarities?
Yes or No
14.10b Is the output magnitude approximately the same as the input?
Yes or No
247

Characteristics of a Full Wave Rectifier with AC Applied
SLIDE 40kHz OSCILLATOR

C
O/P
B
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k
A.C. AMPLIFIER 0V
O/P
I/P FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
O/P V
I/P
10 VIN
1000
100
GAIN
TP1 0V TP2 0V
Oscilloscope
CH.1 CH.2
Fig 14.9
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 14.9. Set the gain of the AC Amplifier to
10.
 Set the oscilloscope timebase to 5 µs/div and both Y amplifiers to 1V/div.
 Switch ON the power supply and adjust the slider of the 10k Ω resistor so
that the amplitude of the output of the AC Amplifier (CH.1) is the same as
that of the 40kHz Oscillator (CH.2).
 Switch the selectors on your Y amplifiers between DC and AC. Any

movement of the waveform on the screen means that there is a DC
component. If there is no DC component the waveform will not move.
14.11a When switching between AC and DC inputs to the oscilloscope Y amplifiers,
the waveform(s) having a DC component is/are:

a the 40kHz Oscillator b the AC Amplifier
c both of them d neither of them
248
 Transfer CH.2 of the oscilloscope from the output of the 40kHz Oscillator to
the output of the Full Wave Rectifier.
 Sketch the input and output waveforms of the Full Wave Rectifier on the
graticule provided, marking in the amplitude of the waveforms:
14.11b Your waveforms (CH.1 at the top) are most like:

a b c d
 Record the DC value of the Full Wave Rectifier output from the digital
multimeter reading, then switch OFF the power supply.
DC value of the Full Wave Rectifier output = V
14.11c The reason for the difference between the amplitude of the output waveform
and the measured DC value on the multimeter is:
a they are both DC quantities
b the multimeter responds to the average of the waveform

c the input waveform is measured in RMS
d the input waveform is measured in peak-to-peak
249
1. A Voltage to Current Converter, supplied from a 12V supply has a Transfer Ratio
of 12mA/V. If the input voltage was 1.2V, the short-circuited output current would be:
a 1mA b 10mA c 12mA d 14.4mA

of 12mA/V. If the input voltage was 1.2V, the voltage across a 75 load would be:
a 0.52V b 1.08V c 1.2V d 5.2V
of 12mA/V. If the input voltage was 1.2V, the voltage across a 1k load would be:
a 1.2V b 8V c 12V d 14.4V
4. A Voltage to Current Converter with Transfer Ratio of 10mA/V is connected in cascade

to a Current to Voltage Converter having a Transfer Ratio of 0.25V/mA. With an input
voltage of 1.5V applied to the input to the V/I Converter, the output voltage from the
I/V converter will be:
a 1.5V b 2.5V c 3.75V d 5.25V

5. A Voltage to Current Converter with Transfer Ratio of 10mA/V is connected in
cascade to a Current to Voltage Converter. In order for the output voltage from the
I/V Converter to be the same as the input to the V/I Converter the Transfer Ratio
of the I/V Converter would need to be:
a 1V/mA b 0.1V/mA c 10mV/mA d 1mV/mA
6. A Voltage to Frequency Converter has a Transfer Ratio of 0.5kHz/V. The input

voltage required for an output frequency of 3.5kHz will be:
a 1.75V b 3.5V c 4.0V d 7.0V
7. The Voltage to Frequency Converter referred to in question 6 is to be cascaded with

a Frequency to Voltage Converter. In order for the output voltage of the system to be
the same as the input voltage, the Transfer Ratio of the Frequency to Voltage
Converter will need to be:
a 0.5V/kHz b 0.5kHz/V c 2.0V/kHz d 3.5V/kHz
250
The following questions refer to a Full Wave Rectifier similar to the one provided on
the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer.
8. A Full Wave Rectifier has an input voltage of -5V DC. The output will be:
a -5V b 0V c +5V d ±2.5V
0V 0V 0V
(a) (b) (c )
Fig 1
9. The waveform of Fig 1(a) is applied to the input of a Full Wave Rectifier. The output
waveform will be:
a0V b 0V c d
0V 0V
10. The waveform of Fig 1(b) is applied to the input of a Full Wave Rectifier. The output
waveform will be:
a b c d
0V 0V
0V 0V
11. The waveform of Fig 1(c) is applied to the input of a Full Wave Rectifier. The output
waveform will be:
a b c d
0V 0V
0V 0V
251
Notes:
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252
IT02 Comparators, Oscillators and Filters
Chapter 15
Comparators, Oscillators and Filters

this Chapter
 Describe the characteristics of a comparator.
 Explain the effect of hysteresis on the operation of a
comparator.
 Describe the characteristics of an alarm oscillator.
 Explain the term "latch" applied to an alarm oscillator.

Describe the characteristics of an electronic switch.
 Describe the characteristics of a 40kHz oscillator.
 Describe the characteristics of band pass filters.
 Describe the characteristics of low pass filters.

• Oscilloscope.
253
Comparators, Oscillators and Filters IT02
15.1 The Comparator
B -
I/P's O/P
A +
Fig 15.1
The symbol for a comparator is shown in Fig 15.1. It is the same as for a
differential amplifier but the characteristics of the comparator are different.
The differential amplifier investigated in Chapter 13 had unity gain. The output
voltage was the simple mathematical difference between inputs A and B.
The gain of a comparator is very high, so that only a very small difference between
the two inputs will cause the output to saturate at a voltage near to the supply
voltage, with either polarity. The comparator therefore has two possible output
voltage states:
1. with input voltage A more positive than B, the output is a maximum
positive.
2. with input voltage A more negative than B, the output is a maximum
negative.
Only the very slightest variation between the inputs causes the output voltage to
change from one state to the other and the circuit is therefore susceptible to noise
variations.
To overcome this problem, the circuit is modified so that the voltage at A must
rise to a threshold value above B for switching to occur. Similarly, with the
voltage falling, the voltage at A must fall to a different threshold value below B
before the circuit switches back.
This is referred to as hysteresis and the difference in the voltages is referred to as

the hysteresis voltage.
254
This is illustrated in Fig 15.2.
Threshold
A Voltage Voltages
B Voltage Rising
+V +V
Input
Voltage Falling
0V 0V
+V +V
Output
0V 0V
Voltage
-V -V
N oH y s t e r e s i s W i t hH y s t e r e s i s
Fig 15.2
With no hysteresis and voltage A varying, the output changes state frequently.
With hysteresis the output does not change state for small variations of voltage
around theoflast
switching theswitching
circuit. voltage, a large change of voltage is required to cause
The circuit with hysteresis does not respond to any noise with a voltage amplitude
less than the hysteresis voltage.
are:
Input offset voltage 9mV
Output Voltage (no load) (-11.8) to (+12)V

Hysteresis voltage (switch ON) 4.2V
Table 15.1
255

Characteristics of a Comparator
+12V 0V
CARBON TRACK WIREWOUND TRACK COMPARATOR V

5 6 C 5 6 C
4 7 4 7 OFF ON
HYSTERESIS O/P
3 8 B 3 8 B
B -
2 9 2 9
A A
1 10 1 10 A +
100k 10k
0V +5V MOVING COIL METER
0
5 5
-5V
BUFFER #1 -10 +10
O/P +
I/P
+VIN -
0V
L
J
Fig 15.3
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 15.3. Ensure that the Comparator
HYSTERESIS switch is set to OFF. Set the controls of both resistors fully
counter clockwise.
 Switch ON the power supply. The voltage at input B will be 0V, that at A
will be -5V and the output will be approximately -12V.
 Gradually rotate the control of the 10k Ω resistor clockwise, making the
voltage at input A (V A) less negative. Note the voltage at which the output
voltage switches polarity with V A rising (VR). Record the value of V R in
Table 15.2. Record also in Table 15.2 the Comparator output saturation
voltage above threshold with V A rising.
 Continue to increase input V A and observe the effect on the output voltage
above switching.
256
No Hysteresis VB= 0V V B = +4V

Output
Saturation
VA VA
Voltage
VA rising (VR)
V V V
VA falling (VF)
V V V
Table 15.2
 Reduce V A and note the value at which the output voltage switches back to a
negative value with VA falling (VF). Note the value of the comparator output
saturation voltage below threshold with VA falling.
 Repeat the procedure with input B set to +4V, noting the switching voltages
at input A. The comparator output voltage values will not alter so there is no
need to record them.
15.2a Enter your measured value of the threshold voltage VA when the voltage at
the B input VB = +4V.
 Set the HYSTERESIS switch in the ON position and repeat the procedure for
voltage settings at the B input of 0V and +4V.
With Hysteresis VB= 0V V B = +4V

Output
Saturation
VA VA
Voltage
VA rising (VR)
V V V
VA falling (VF)
V V V
Table 15.3
15.2b Calculate and enter your measured hysteresis voltage in V.
The circuit will have similar characteristics for all settings of the input voltage at
B. Alternatively, the voltage at A may be set and that at B varied. The value of the
hysteresis voltage can be set in the design stage to any desired value by adjusting
the circuit component values.
257
15.3 The Alarm Oscillator
The alarm oscillator consists of two stages.
Voltage
Reference
Comparator
-
Alarm
O/P
Oscillator
I/P +
Fig 15.4
The input circuit is a comparator which is followed by the oscillator. With the
input voltage low, the comparator output prevents the oscillator from operating.
Oscillations only occur when the input voltage exceeds a level that is decided by
the circuit component values.
With the "latch" switch in the OFF position, the oscillator will be ON or OFF
depending on whether the input voltage is above or below the threshold level.
With the "latch" switch in the ON position, the oscillator is latched ON by the
input voltage exceeding the threshold. It remains ON continuously, even if the
input voltage is reduced below threshold, until the power supply is turned off.
The unit is used as an alarm indication when the value of a controlled parameter
exceeds a pre-determined level.
are:
Trip voltage (threshold) 2.3V
Oscillator frequency 540Hz

Output impedance 4kΩ
Table 15.4
258

Characteristics of an Alarm Oscillator
DIFFERENTIATOR COUNTER/
O/P TIMER
I/P dVIN
T I/P TIME F RE E RU N
dt
100ms
1s
10ms RE S E T CO UN T 1s
TIME CONSTANT
WIREWOUND TRACK
ALARM OSCILLATOR LOUDSPEAKER
5 6 C
4 7 OFF ON
LATCH O/P
3 8 B
I/P I/P
2 9
10
V A
1
10k
0V +5 V
Fig 15.5
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 15.5. Set the Alarm Oscillator LATCH
switch to OFF and turn the 10kΩ resistor control fully counter clockwise.
Switch the Counter to COUNT and 1s, and the Differentiator to 1s.
 Switch ON the power supply and rotate the resistor control slowly clockwise
to gradually increase the input voltage to the Alarm Oscillator. Note the
input voltage threshold at which oscillations start. Record the threshold level
in Table 15.5.
Start Stop Oscillator

Threshold Threshold Frequency
Without latch
V V
With latch
V V Hz
Table 15.5
259
 Increase the voltage to maximum and note the effect on the oscillator output.
 Now gradually reduce the input voltage and record the voltage threshold at
which the oscillations stop in Table 15.5.
 Set the latch switch to ON and repeat the procedure, noting the input voltage
at which the oscillations start and then noting the effect of reducing the input
voltage to zero.
 Press the RESET button on the Counter to determine the oscillation

frequency and add this to Table 15.5.
 Switch the power supply OFF and then ON again to observe the effect.
Repeat the start and stop actions.
Note: The output sound level will be low due to the high output impedance of the
oscillator. This can be increased if necessary by feeding the loudspeaker via
the power amplifier, but this is not advisable in the laboratory situation.
15.4a Enter your voltage threshold level with the LATCH OFF.
15.4b Enter your oscillation frequency from the Counter reading (in Hz).
260
15.5 The Electronic Switch
A simplified diagram of the Electronic Switch is given in Fig 15.6.
+12V O/P
Voltage
Reference
I/P -
+ Comparator
Fig 15.6
The series PNP transistor operates as a switch.
When the input voltage to the Comparator (inverting input) is low the Comparator
output is high and the transistor is switched off. If the input voltage is taken above
the threshold
low established
and forward bybase-emitter
biases the the referencejunction
voltage,ofthe
theComparator output switches
switching transistor to turn
it on and supply voltage to the load.
The maximum permissible output current is limited by the parameters of the series
switching transistor.
are:
Trip voltage +2.1V
Output current (max.) 1A

Table 15.6
261

Characteristics of an Electronic Switch
O/ P O/ P
P H OT OCONDU CT I V E CE L L P H OT OT R A N S I ST OR
LAMP FILAMENT I/P
WIREWOUND TRACK
ELECTRONIC SWITCH
5 6 C
4 7 +12V
O/P
3 8 B
I/P
2 9
A
1 10
10k V
0V +5V
Fig 15.7
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 15.7. Set the resistor control fully
counter clockwise.
 Switch ON the power supply and note the output voltage from the electronic
switch. Record in Table 15.7.
Output voltage Input trip voltage Output voltage Input trip voltage
with input below rising with input above trip falling
trip
V V V V
Table 15.7
 Transfer the meter to the Electronic Switch input and increase the input
voltage gradually and note the value of input voltage at which switching
occurs and also the value of the output voltage after switching. Add these to
Table 15.7.
 Now gradually reduce the input voltage and note and record the value when
the circuit switches off. Switch OFF the power supply.
15.6a Enter your value of trip voltage (input rising).
262
15.7 40kHz Oscillator
Colpitts Emitter Output

Follower
Oscillator Buffer
Fig 15.8
This nominally 40kHz oscillator produces a sinusoidal output of suitable

frequency for use with some of the AC driven transducers provided with the
The Colpitts oscillator uses an LC tuned circuit with two capacitors in the
feedback loop, giving good stability of oscillation frequency and amplitude.
The effective component values are L = 1mH, C = 15nF giving a design

oscillation frequency of:
1
fosc = = 41.09 kHz
2π L C
The buffer gives a low output impedance and prevents loading of the oscillator
which might cause frequency shifting.
Output frequency range 37-46kHz
Output frequency (typ.) 41kHz

Output amplitude 6Vp-p
Output impedance 1.1kΩ

Table 15.8
263

Characteristics of a 40kHz Oscillator
40kHz OSCILLATOR TP1 0V

O/P
Oscilloscope CH.1
SLIDE
C
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k 0V
Fig 15.9
 Connect the circuit of Fig 15.9 with the variable resistor slider to the right
for maximum resistance. The slider resistor will not be used initially.

Set the oscilloscope
amplifier to 1V/div. timebase to 5 µs/div (calibrated) and the Y1 (CH.1)
 Note the amplitude of the 40kHz Oscillator output and the time taken for
one cycle. Record these in Table 15.9.
Open circuit Time taken Output

Frequency
amplitude for one cycle Impedance
Vp-p µs kHz kΩ
Table 15.9
 Calculate the reciprocal of the time taken for one cycle (the time period) to
obtain the frequency and add this to Table 15.9.
264
Measurement of the Output Impedance
Ro
E R
Fig 15.10
 Connect socket B of the 10k Ω slider resistor to the output of the 40kHz
Oscillator and reduce its value until the output amplitude of the oscillator
falls to half of the open circuit value. You may find it convenient to change
the setting of the Y1 Amplifier to 0.5V/div to do this measurement. The
display amplitude will then be the same as before.
When this is done the voltage dropped across the 10kΩ slider resistor (R in
Fig 15.10) is the same as the output impedance of the 40kHz Oscillator (Ro).
Since the two resistances are in series, the current through them must be the
same, so their resistances must be the same. This is a standard technique for
measurement of output impedance.
 Switch OFF the power supply, disconnect the 10k Ω slider resistor from
circuit (without changing the setting) and measure the resistance of the
section used with your digital multimeter as ohmmeter. Add the result to
Table 15.9.
15.8a Enter your measured value of the frequency in kHz.
15.8b Enter your measured value of the output impedance in k .
265
15.9 Filters
LPF BPF BSF HPF

Fig 15.11
There are four main classifications of filter, specified by the range of frequencies
passed:
1. Low pass filter, LPF, passing all frequencies below the design (cut-off) value.
2. Band pass filter, BPF, passing those frequencies within the design range.
3. Band stop filter, BSF, passing those frequencies outside the design range.
4. High pass filter, HPF, passing all frequencies above the design (cut-off) value.
The symbols used to represent the four types are shown in Fig 15.11.
The cut-off frequency is sometimes called the break or corner frequency and is the
frequency at which the output first falls to -3dB (0.707V max) from the mid-band.
Only a bandpass and a low pass filter are provided with the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer.
The main characteristics of these are:
Bandpass Filter Low Pass Filter

Lower cut-off frequency (typ.) 39.5kHz -
Upper cut-off frequency (typ.) 42.5kHz 16, 1.44 or 0.14Hz
Time constants - 10ms, 100ms or 1s
Input impedance 10kΩ 1MΩ
Output impedance 10kΩ -

Input voltage (max) - 12V
Table 15.10
266

Characteristics of a Bandpass Filter
The very low cut-off frequencies of the Low Pass Filter make it difficult to
investigate the response because of the demands which would be made on the
function generator ranges. This investigation is therefore limited to the 40kHz
Bandpass Filter.
Function Generator
SLIDE 40kHz FILTER

C
O/P
B I/P
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k
0V TP1 0V TP2 0V
Oscilloscope
CH.1 CH.2
Fig 15.12
 Connect the circuit of Fig 15.12. The 10k Ω slider resistor is being used to
provide a convenient monitoring point for the input signal rather than for
signal amplitude adjustment. Set it to about scale point 7.
 Set the oscilloscope timebase to 5 µs/div (calibrated), the Y1 (CH.1)

amplifier to 1V/div and the Y2 (CH.2) amplifier to 0.5V/div. Inject a
sinewave signal of large amplitude at about 40kHz.
 Adjust the fine frequency control of the function generator to peak the
output of the 40kHz Filter to maximum as seen on CH.2 of the oscilloscope,
then adjust the amplitude to 2.5V peak-to-peak (5 div.) using either the
function generator amplitude control and/or the 10k Ω slider resistor.
If you are unable to obtain 2.5Vp-p from your function generator then the
investigation can be carried out with any convenient lower value but this
may result in some interference with the output signals.
267
 Calculate the time for one cycle from the oscilloscope display and record
this in Table 15.11.
Peak response Upper cut-off Lower cut-off
Time period
µs µs µs
Frequency
kHz kHz kHz
Table 15.11
 Without any further adjustment to amplitude, increase the frequency from

the function generator until the amplitude of the CH.2 waveform is reduced
to 3.5 div. This is a reduction of -3dB (0.707V) from the maximum value
and corresponds to the upper cut-off frequency.
 Calculate the time for one cycle again from the oscilloscope display and
record this in Table 15.11.
 Reduce the frequency back through the peak and carry on until the
amplitude again falls to 3.5 div. at the lower cut-off frequency. Again record
the time for one cycle in Table 15.11.
 Take the reciprocal of the three time periods to find the center frequency and
the upper and lower cut-off frequencies.
15.10a Enter your upper cut-off frequency in kHz.
15.10b Enter your lower cut-off frequency in kHz.
268
Input A
Input B
Inputs
(a)
Inverting
Input
-
(b)
Non-inverting
Input
+
(c)
(d)
Fig 1
The following questions 1 - 5 relate to the waveforms given in Fig 1.

1. Input A is applied to the non-inverting (+) input and Input B to the inverting (-) input
of a differential amplifier which has unity gain. The output waveform is given by:
a waveform (a) b waveform (b) c waveform (c) d none of these
of a comparator which has latch but no hysteresis. The output waveform is given by:
a waveform (a) b waveform (b) c waveform (c) d waveform (d)
of a comparator which has hysteresis. The hysteresis levels are shown by the two
horizontal dotted lines on the input waveform diagrams. The output waveform is given
by:
Continued ...
269
of a comparator which has both latch and hysteresis. The hysteresis levels are shown
by the twoishorizontal
waveform given by: dotted lines on the input waveform diagrams. The output
5. Input A is applied to the inverting (-) input and Input B to the non-inverting (+) input
of a comparator which has no hysteresis. The output waveform is given by:
a waveform (a) b waveform (b) c waveform (c) d none of these.
6. An oscillator is a circuit which gives:

a a square wave output b a sinewave output only
c an alternating output from a DC input d a larger AC output than input
7. The function of the electronic switch investigated in this chapter is to control:
a small signal circuits from a large input voltage

b power circuits from a small input switching voltage
c main power switching from a low DC source
d the power output from a DC motor
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig 2
8. Fig 2(a) represents a:

a high pass filter b band stop filter c low pass filter d band pass filter
270
IT02 Mathematical Operations
Chapter 16
Mathematical Operations

this Chapter
 Describe the characteristics of a summing amplifier.
 Describe the characteristics of an integrator.
 Describe the characteristics of a differentiator.
"sample and hold" circuit.

• Oscilloscope.
271
Mathematical Operations IT02
16.1 The Summing Amplifier
I F RF
R1 I1
V1
R2 I2
V2 -
V3 R3 I3 -
+ VO
Summing +
VG Inverter
Amplifier
Fig 16.1
The gain of an operational amplifier is typically one million. To keep within

saturation limits the input voltage must therefore be less than one millionth of the
output voltage, or a few microvolts. The input voltage is so low that the input is
known as the a virtual ground (VG) (Fig 16.1).
The input impedance of the operational amplifier is very high, typically measured
in MΩ. With an input voltage in µV and an input impedance in M Ω, the input
current to the Op Amp is non-existent, or at least negligibly small.
From Kirchhoff's Laws, the current(s) into a junction must be the same as the
current(s) out of the junction, so, since there is no current flowing into the Op
Amp, the feedback current (IF) must be equal to the sum of the three input currents
(I1, I2 & I3).
VO V V V
= 1 + 2 + 3 +....
RF R1 R2 R3
If all of the resistors are made the same size, then they cancel out in the equation
leaving:
VO = V1 + V2 + V3 + . . . .
The output voltage is the sum of the three input voltages. However, since the
inverting input has been used it will be of opposite sign or polarity, so an inverter
has been added to restore the srcinal polarity. Other input branches may be
added.
The main characteristics for the device provided are:

Voltage gain 1.0
Output voltage (max.) (VA + VB + VC) ±10V
Table 16.1
272

Characteristics of a Summing Amplifier
SLIDE SUMMING AMPLIFIER

A C
O/P
B A
B A+B+C
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k C
CARBON TRACK WIREWOUND TRACK MOVING COIL METER
4
5 6
7
C B 4
5 6
V 7
C C 0
5 5
3 8 B 3 8 B
-10 +10
2 9 2 9
A A
1 10 1 10 +
100k 10k
-
-5V 0V + 5V 0V
L
J
Fig 16.2
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 16.2. Set the variable resistors to their
central positions.
 Switch ON the power supply and adjust the controls of the three resistors to
vary the output voltage. Note that variation of any of the input voltages
affects the output voltage.
You will find that increase of input voltage will increase the output voltage
up to a certain maximum (saturation) after which any further increase of
input does not increase the output any more.
 Determine this maximum (saturation) output voltage.
Maximum possible output voltage = V
 Set the Summing Amplifier input voltages to the values indicated in the first
row of Table 16.2. Note the expected output voltage and also note and
record the actual output voltage obtained in Table 16.2.
273
Inputs (volts) Output

A B C -(A + B + C) Voltage
1 +1 +1 +1 +3V
V
2 +2 +1 +3 V V
3 +2 +4 +3
V V
4 -3 +4 +2
V V
5 -3 -2 -2
V V
6 +3 +5 +4
V V
7 +3 -5 +4
V V
8 -3.5 +2.7 -1.4

V V
Table 16.2
 Repeat the procedure for the other settings listed in Table 16.2 to verify that
the output voltage is the sum of the input voltages as long as you keep
within the saturation limits.
16.2a Enter your measured output voltage with the inputs of row 2.
16.2b Enter your measured output voltage with the inputs of row 4.
16.2c Enter your measured output voltage with the inputs of row 6.
16.2d Enter your measured output voltage with the inputs of row 8.
274
16.3 The Integrator
i CF
R i
Vin -
VO
+
Fig 16.3
An integrator is a circuit having an output voltage that is proportional to the

average of the input voltage multiplied by units of time. In mathematical terms
this is referred to as the integral of the voltage. Note that, in the feedback path, the
resistor has been replaced by a capacitor, since the voltage across a capacitor at
any time depends on the amount of current that has been flowing and the time for
which it has flowed.
Expressed in mathematical terms:
1
Vc = i. dt , where the symbol means the integral of . . .
C
∫ ∫
The feedback current ( i in the above equation) is fixed by the input voltage Vin
V
and the input resistor R (Fig 16.3), i = in . Substituting this into the equation:
R
1 Vin 1
Vo =
C ∫ R
. dt =
CR ∫ V . dt
in
The output voltage is the integral of the input voltage, multiplied by a factor,
1
.
CR
With the input voltage constant, the output voltage will increase linearly with
time. The time taken for the output voltage to reach the input voltage is referred to
as the time constant of the circuit and is equal to CR seconds (from the equation).
The maximum possible value of the output voltage is limited by the supply to the
saturation voltage of approximately ±11V for the device provided.
275
are:
Time constants (switchable) 100ms, 1s & 10s

Gain error 1%
Table 16.3
Notes:
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276

Characteristics of an Integrator
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE MOVING COIL METER

D
0
INTEGRATOR 5 5
C 12k O/P -10 +10
A
OUT I/P
3 B 1
VIN dt +
IN
T
1V -
V Rx 1s
L
0V 10s
J
RESET 100ms 0V
TIME CONSTANT
+5V
Fig 16.4
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 16.4. Set the Integrator time constant
switch to 1s.
 Switch ON the power supply. Set the input voltage to 1V. Press and hold the
RESET button. This sets the output voltage to 0V. Release the RESET button
and you will note that the output voltage increases and will reach a
maximum value after approximately 12 seconds. Note this maximum value
using the 20V digital meter.
Maximum output voltage = V
 Press the RESET button and release it to allow the output voltage to increase
from 0V again. Remove the Integrator input lead when the voltage reaches
approximately 5V.
16.4a When the input lead is removed from the Integrator the output voltage:
a immediately falls to zero b gradually reduces towards zero
c remains where it was d increases to supply voltage
 Replace the input lead and observe the effect on the output voltage.
277
16.4b When the input lead is replaced the Integrator output voltage:
a continues to increase from where it was
b gradually reduces towards zero
c starts again from zero
d immediately increases directly to supply voltage
The Timer facility of the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer will now be introduced. This
allows you to accurately determine the time taken to reach any given voltage. The
system will be made entirely automatic by using another facility of signal
conditioning circuits, the Comparator.
MOVING COIL METER

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
D 0
5 5
12k INTEGRATOR -10 +10

C O/P
A
OUT I/P +
3 B 1
VIN dt
IN T
-
L
1V
V 1s
J
Rx 0V
10s
0V RESET 100ms
TIME CONSTANT
SLIDE COMPARATOR
C
OFF ON COUNTER/
HYSTERESIS O/P TIMER
B
B -
I/P TIM E F R EE R UN
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k A +
+12V
RESET C O UNT 1s
Fig 16.5
Note that the non-inverting input of the Comparator is taken to a positive

reference voltage, the value of which is determined by the setting of the 10k Ω
slider resistor. If this is set to 10V then the Comparator will give a high output
until the output of the Integrator (which is connected to the inverting input of the
Comparator) exceeds 10V, when the Comparator output will go low.
While the Comparator output is high the Timer is enabled and will count in
hundredths of a second. The moment the output of the Integrator goes above the
Comparator reference voltage (in this case 10V) the Comparator output goes low
and stops the Timer.
278
 Construct the additional circuit of Fig 16.5, noting that the supply voltage to
the variable resistors has been changed to +12V.
 Reset the input voltage to 1V.
 Ignore the Timer function for the moment. Press the Integrator RESET button
and,
it thatusing the secondoutput
the Integrator hand voltage
of a clock or watch,
reaches 10V note the timeon
as indicated after
thereleasing
Moving
Coil Meter.
This enables the circuit time constant to be determined. The input voltage is
1V. The output voltage should reach 1V after one time constant and should
reach 10V after 10 time constants. The time constant can therefore be
determined by dividing the time taken by 10. Record the results in row 1 of
Table 16.4.
Input Reference Number of Time taken Calculated

Switched
Voltage voltage time constants to reach ref. time constant
time constant
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
1 1s 1V 10V 10
s s
2 100ms 1V 10V
s ms
3 100ms 0.2V 5V
s ms
4 10s 5V 2V
s s
Table 16.4
 Switch the Timer to TIME and FREE RUN. If necessary press RESET to zero
the display.
 Move the digital multimeter to terminal B of the 10k Ω slider resistor and
adjust the reference voltage to 10V.
 Press the Timer RESET to zero the display. Re-adjust the Integrator input
voltage to 1V, set the time constant to 100ms and VERY BRIEFLY press
its RESET button. You must not hold the RESET button down or the Timer
will be counting too soon. Observe the effect on the Timer. This will count
up from zero until the output voltage of the Integrator exceeds the reference
voltage applied to the Comparator. The display will be in hundredths of a
second. For example, a display of 487 represents 4.87 seconds.
279
 Repeat the test a few times to become familiar with the action. Zero the
Timer each time. Record the result in row 2 of Table 16.4.
 Calculate the time constant as follows:

The number of time constants is the reference voltage divided by the applied
voltage:
(iii) = (ii) (i)
The measured time constant is the time taken to reach the reference voltage
divided by the number of time constants:
(v) = (iv) (iii)
Add the calculated time constant to Table 16.4.
 With the Integrator time constant still at 100ms, change the input voltage
(10kΩ 10-turn resistor) to 0.2V and the reference voltage (10k Ω slider
resistor) to 5V and repeat the test and calculation. Remember to zero the
Timer each time. Record the results in row 3 of Table 16.4.
 Change the Integrator time constant to 10s, the reference voltage (10k Ω
slider resistor) to 2V and the input voltage (10kΩ 10-turn resistor) to 5V and
repeat the test. Record the result in row 4 of Table 16.4.
 Calculate the time constant and add to Table 16.4.
16.4c Enter your measured value of the time constant (in seconds) from row 1 of
Table 16.4 when switched to 1s.
16.4d Enter your measured value of the time constant (in ms) from row 3 of Table
16.4 when switched to 100ms.
16.4e Enter your measured value of the time constant (in seconds) from row 4 of
Table 16.4 when switched to 10s.
280
16.5 The Differentiator
A simple differentiator is shown in Fig 16.6.
Input
Voltage
Input Output across
capacitor
Output
across
resistor
Fig 16.6
The output voltage is proportional to the rate of change of the input voltage.
Examine the waveforms of Fig 16.4. Initially the capacitor is uncharged and there
is similarly no voltage across the resistor.
When the input voltage suddenly rises to a positive value the capacitor voltage
cannot change instantaneously so the full applied voltage appears across the
resistor. Current flows and the capacitor charges.
As the voltage rises across the capacitor it must fall across the resistor, until the
capacitor is fully charged. The time taken for this will depend on the size of the
resistor (controlling the charging current) and the size of the capacitor (how much
charge is needed to raise the capacitor voltage).
One time constant is the time it would take for the capacitor to fully charge to the
applied voltage if the initial current could be maintained. Obviously the current
must reduce as the voltage across the resistor reduces, so the rate of charge falls
away. In theory it never reaches full charge. However, for all practical purposes
full charge is reached after 5 time constants.
The time constant is calculated from the value of the capacitor in farads multiplied
by the value of the resistor in ohms:
time constant t = CR seconds
281
Note that for long time constants such as 1s, using a 1µF capacitor (typically the
largest value non-electrolytic capacitor) the value of the resistor would need to be
1MΩ. Non-electrolytic capacitors are needed so that the capacitor can be charged
with negative polarity.
The high value of resistor raises the problem of a very high output impedance for
the circuit. If any load was applied to the differentiator the operation would be
seriously affected.
To overcome this problem an active differentiator circuit is used on the DIGIAC

1750 Trainer, consisting of an active differentiator Op Amp followed by a unity
gain buffer stage.
Note that a sudden change of input voltage produces a similar change at the
output, the amplitude of this being limited by the saturation voltage of the
differentiator active circuits.
With the input voltage then held constant, the output voltage falls exponentially,
the rate of fall depending on the circuit time constant, the initial rate of fall aiming
at a time span equal to the time constant.
A steadily on
depending changing input voltage
the rate-of-change results
of the involtage.
input a constant output voltage, the value
are:

Input voltage rate of change (max.) 10-3V/µs
Output saturation voltage (typ.) ±12V

Output noise (time constant 1s) 50mV
Table 16.5
282

Characteristics of a Differentiator
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE INTEGRATOR DIFFERENTIATOR

D O/P O/P
I/P I/P
12k 1 dVIN
C VIN dt T
T dt
A
B OUT
3 1s 100ms
IN 10s 1s
RESET 100ms 10ms
1V TIME CONSTANT TIME CONSTANT
V Rx
0V
MOVING COIL METER
0
5 5
+12V
-10 +10
0V
L
J
Fig 16.7
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 16.7. Set the time constant controls of
the Integrator and Differentiator to 1s. The Moving Coil Meter is used to
monitor the change of voltage at the Integrator output.
 Switch ON the power supply. Set the input voltage to the integrator to 1V,
then transfer the digital multimeter to the output of the Differentiator. Press
and then release the RESET button on the Integrator and note the output
voltage from the Differentiator.
The Integrator output voltage will be changing at 1V/s for approximately

11s and the output from the Differentiator should remain constant during
this time. Note the output voltage.
Output voltage = V
16.6a Enter your value of output voltage during the time the Integrator is charging.
16.6b When the integrator voltage reaches its maximum value the Differentiator
output voltage:
a falls sharply to zero b remains constant at the former value
c increases to maximum d falls slowly to zero
283
Function
Generator
DIFFERENTIATOR
SLIDE O/P
C
I/P
dVIN
T
B dt
A 100ms
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k 1s
10ms
TIME CONSTANT
0V TP1 0V TP2 0V
Oscilloscope
CH.1 CH.2
Fig 16.8
 Change to the circuit of Fig 16.8. Set the function generator to a 30Hz
square wave output. Set the 10kΩ slider resistor to mid-way. Switch the
oscilloscope timebase to 5ms/div chop mode, the Y1 amplifier (CH.1) to
0.5V/div and Y2 amplifier (CH.2) to 2V/div.
 Set the Differentiator time constant to 10ms and adjust the signal input
(function generator amplitude control and/or 10kΩ slider resistor) to give an
input signal (CH.1) of 1Vp-p.
 Sketch the two waveforms on the graticule provided with the input at the
top:
284
 Compare these waveforms with the theoretical waveforms given in the

previous section (16.5).
 The Differentiator will almost certainly be loading the function generator

output to some extent and changing the waveform. Remove the lead to the
Differentiator input and observe the effect on the function generator output
waveform.
This distortion is very common and, as you can see from the output
waveform, does not seriously affect the operation of a differentiator.
16.6c The output waveform from the function generator with the differentiator
disconnected is most like:
a b c d
16.6d Your Waveform Sketch 16.1 is most like:

a b c d
Notes:
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
285
16.7 A Sample and Hold Circuit
Input
Output
Droop
-
SAMPLE O/P
I/P +
Hold Hold
Sample Sample Sample
(a) (b)
Fig 16.9
This circuit allows the value of an input signal at any instant of time to be stored
on command and held for processing.
In the sample mode (SAMPLE button pressed), the instantaneous value of the input
signal is tracked at the output. When the SAMPLE button is released the circuit
enters the hold mode and the value of the input at that instant is held as a charge
on a capacitor, Fig 16.9(a).
The capacitor voltage will fall gradually with time as the capacitor discharges
through leakage paths and this fall in voltage is referred to as droop.
Fig 16.9(b) illustrates the characteristics during sample and hold periods of
operation.
The circuit is normally used in connection with analog to digital conversion of a

varying signal. The signal would be sampled frequently and, during the hold time,
the value is digitally encoded.
are:
Input voltage range (max.) ±12V

Input time constant 1ms
Droop rate 10mV/minute

Table 16.6
286

Characteristics of a Sample and Hold Circuit
Function
Generator
WIREWOUND TRACK SAMPLE AND HOLD MOVING COIL METER

5 6
4 7 C I/P O/P 0
5 5
3 8 B
-10 +10
2 9
A
1 10 SAMPLE +
10k
-
L
0V
J
0V
TP1 0V TP2 0V
Oscilloscope
CH.2
CH.1
Fig 16.10
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 16.10. Set the function generator output
to 40Hz sinewave with high amplitude. Switch the oscilloscope timebase to
5ms/div, Y1 amplifier (CH.1) to 10V/div, chop mode (near the top of the
screen) and Y2 amplifier (CH.2) to 2V/div, DC input (near the middle).
 Switch ON the power supply and adjust the amplitude of the signal (function
generator amplitude control and/or 10kΩ wirewound resistor) to give an
input of 20Vp-p. If your function generator does not give 20Vp-p then use
the AC Amplifier (GAIN = 10) to boost the signal input. Move CH.1 of the
oscilloscope to the output of the AC Amplifier.
 Press and release the SAMPLE button to catch a sample of the input voltage
to the circuit. Note that while the SAMPLE button is pressed the input signal
appears at the output (CH.2 of the oscilloscope). When released a random
sample is captured and appears as a DC voltage at the output as indicated by
the meter. Try several times and record the results in Table 16.7.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Output voltage V V V V V V V V V V
Table 16.7
16.8a Is the output truly random?

Yes or No
287
1. A summing amplifier supplied from a 12V power supply has positive unity gain and
three inputs. The value of the output voltage for input voltages +2v, +4V, +1V will be:
a +3.5V b +7V c +8V d -7V
three inputs. The value of the output voltage for input voltages +6v, +4V, +5V will be:
a +15V b +9.8V c +12V d -9.8V
three inputs. The value of the output voltage for input voltages -5v, +4V, +3V will be:
a +2V b -2V c +12V d -12V
three inputs. The value of the output voltage for input voltages -6.3v, +4.5V, -5.2V will
be:
a +3.4V b -5.6V c -12V d -7V
5. An integrator supplied from a 10V power supply has a time constant of 1s. A constant
voltage of +3V is applied to the input. With the output initially zero, the output voltage
after 1s will be:
a 9V b 6V c 3V d 1V
voltage of +3V is applied to the input. With the output initially zero, the output voltage
after 2s will be:
a 12V b 6V c 3V d 1V
voltage of +2.5V is applied to the input. With the output initially zero, the output
voltage after 5s will be:

a 12.5V b 10V c 7.5V d 5V
288
voltage of +3V is applied to the input. With the output initially +3V, the output voltage
after a further 2s will be:
a 12V b 10V c 9V d 6V
9. A differentiator has a time constant of 2s. If a voltage is applied to the input which is
increasing steadily at a rate of 4V/s, the output voltage will be:
a steadily decreasing at a rate of 4V/s b constant at 4V
c constant at 8V d steadily increasing at a rate of 4V/s
10. A square wave is applied to the input of a differentiator which has a time constant
which is short compared to the time period of the applied square wave. The waveform
at the output will be:
a b c d
Continued ...
289
6
Input
Voltage
(volts)
4 4Vp-p AC
2
+4V DC
30 60 90 120
time (µ s)
Fig 1
11. The waveform of Fig 1 is applied to the input of a "sample-and-hold" circuit similar
to that on the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer. If the SAMPLE button is pressed and held down
the output will be:
a the DC component of the input only b the same as the input
c the AC component of the input only d zero
12. The waveform of Fig 1 is applied to the input of a unity gain "sample-and-hold"
circuit. If the hold function is engaged 70 s after the start of the cycle the output
voltage will be:
a 2V b 3V c 4V d 5V
290
IT02 Control Systems Characteristics
Chapter 17
Control Systems Characteristics

this Chapter
 Describe the characteristics of an ON/OFF system.
 Describe the characteristics of a Proportional system.
 Describe the characteristics of an Integral system.
 Describe the characteristics of a Derivative system.
 Explain that a practical system may incorporate
Proportional,
be referred to Integral and (or
as a 3-term Derivative components and
PID) controller.
291
Control Systems Characteristics IT02
17.1 A Basic ON/OFF Closed Loop System
A controlled variable is any physical system which we may wish to control, such
as a heated environment (hot water tank), lighting level (PIR controlled lighting),
mechanical systems (speed, position or direction, linear or rotational), and many
more. For instance, the modern airplane is full of electrical control systems.
An error is any difference between a desired result and an actual result. In an

electrical control system the output is converted into an electrical quantity by a
transducer.
Fig 17.1 shows a simple closed loop control system, the error detector detecting
the difference between the actual and the desired value of the controlled variable.
Error
Detector
Reference Error Controlled Output
Input + Controller
- Variable
Feedback
Fig 17.1
The output of the controlled variable (the transducer) is compared with a

reference input (command input) and an error signal is fed to the controller
which initiates an actuating signal to alter the state of the controlled variable and
reduce the error, ideally to zero.
In an ON/OFF system the controller will have only two states:

1. With the value of the controlled variable less than that desired, the controller
output is maximum.
2. With the value of the controlled variable greater than that desired, the
controller output is zero.
292
This method of control is suitable for systems having inertia (a long time constant)
such as the temperature control of a room, using a heater. The method might give
characteristics as illustrated in Fig 17.2.
Initially, the heater is ON and the temperature rises exponentially from its ambient
state. When the desired temperature is reached, the heater is switched OFF.
Maximum
Actual
Temperature
Reference
ON OFF ON OFF ON
Time
Fig 17.2
The temperature will continue to rise or overshoot for a time due to the residual
heat in the heater, but will eventually fall, the rate of the fall increasing with time.
When the temperature has fallen below the desired value, the heater will again be
switched ON but the temperature will continue to fall for a time before the heater
has any effect.
The resulting characteristic will be as shown in Fig 17.2, with the temperature
varying continuously between two limits, provided that there is no change in the
operating conditions, such as heat loss variations or a change in the thermostat
setting (command input).
293
17.2 Proportional Control
With this system of control, the output from the controller is proportional to the
magnitude of the error signal (not just ON or OFF).
Controller output = Kp x Error
where Kp is the proportional gain of the controller

The characteristics of the system depend on the value of Kp.
For large values of gain in the feedback loop the characteristics are similar to
those for ON/OFF control. For small values of gain the system will be sluggish
and very slow to respond.
Output High gain - underdamped

Critical damping
Reference
Low gain -overdamped
Time
Fig 17.3
Fig 17.3 shows the characteristics of proportional control in response to a step

input (or sudden change) and illustrates that a high gain results in a rapid response
but produces an overshoot of the desired reference setting, together with
oscillations about the reference setting.
Medium gain results in a slower response with minimum overshoot and

oscillations.
Low gaintheresults
reaching in asetting.
reference slow response with no oscillations but possibly never
294
The term damping is used to cover the inertia or friction of a feedback system.
Characteristics such as those for high gain in Fig 17.3 are referred to as
underdamped and for low gain, overdamped.
A response which rises most rapidly to the reference with no overshoot is referred
to as critically damped.
The degree of damping is normally referred to in terms of the damping ratio,

which is given the Greek symbol (Zeta). Critical damping has damping ratio of
1.0. For underdamping the damping ratio is less than 1.0 and for overdamping,
greater than 1.0.
Position
Input
Underdamped
Output
Velocity lag
time
Fig 17.4
Fig 17.4 shows the response of a proportional control system to an input varying
with time (ramp input). The output tends to follow the input but, due to inertia
within the system, the error between the input and output quantities has to increase
to a threshold before there is sufficient actuating signal to produce a variation of
the output.
The output will thereafter follow the input but will lag behind the input, this being
referred to as velocity lag. The magnitude of the lag will depend on the gain of the
system, the friction and the output loading.
There may be oscillations in the output characteristic as shown dotted, depending

on the system gain.
295
These characteristics mean that pure proportional control is unsuitable for

applications where the input may vary with time. In addition the system has some
disadvantages with constant input (command) conditions.
Consider the system operating with a set input and with the output at the reference
setting so that there is no error. Under these conditions there will be no controller
output.
A load imposed on the output will produce a change of output state. An error
signal will be produced to counteract this and reduce the error, but the output will
not now be at the desired reference state. The error introduced will vary with the
loading imposed on the output.
Proportional control on its own is therefore unsuitable for control applications.
In practice, due to saturation effects within the system, the controller output will
be proportional to the error only over a part of the full range.
Output +
Proportional band
- +
Error
Fig 17.5
This is illustrated in Fig 17.5. The range over which the output is proportional to
the error is referred to as the proportional band.
296
17.3 Integral Control
Integral control can be used to eliminate any error present between the reference
and actual output setting. An integrator produces an output that is proportional to
input time and hence, if the error signal is fed via an integrator circuit, its
output will increase with time. With this output fed to the system controller, an
actuating signal will be produced to reduce the error, the time taken depending on
the integrator time constant.
Error Detector
Input + Integrator Controller
- Variable
Feedback
Reference
Input
Output
time
Error
Integrator output
Fig 17.6
Fig 17.6 illustrates the operation of integral control for ramp input conditions.
While there is an error, the integrator output increases. This output, fed to the
controller, produces an actuating signal to correct the error. When the error has
been reduced to zero, the integrator output remains constant, thus compensating
for the velocity error that would have been present without the integral control.
Any further error, however caused, will be automatically compensated, provided

the output required is within the capacity of the integrator circuit.
Normally, the integral control would be combined with proportional control, the
proportional control being the main control and leaving the integral control for
final adjustments of the output setting.
297
17.4 Derivative (or Differential) Control

Friction losses in a system produce damping and thus allow operation under
proportional control with a higher system gain, but the introduction of friction
represents a power wastage and increases the time taken to reach stable conditions
following any disturbance.
The same effect can be produced using an adder fed with derivative control, by
feeding back a signal that is proportional to the rate-of-change of the output or the
rate-of-change of the error signal. This is illustrated in Fig 17.7.
Error Detector Adder

Input + + Controller
- - Variable
Differentiator
Feedback
Input (i) Output(ii)
time
Error
(iii)
Rate-of-change
of output
(differential)
(iv)
Actuating
signal
(v)
Fig 17.7
Error (iii) = Input (i) - Output (ii)

Rate-of-change of output (iv) = slope of Output (ii)
Actuating signal (v) = Error (iii) - Rate-of-change of Output (iv)
17.5 PID Controller

A practical system incorporating some elements of Proportional, Integral and
Derivative components may be referred to as a 3-term, or PID, controller.
298
1. An ON/OFF control system is one in which the:

a error detector is switched ON or OFF
b controlled variable is switched ON or OFF
c controlled variable is continuously varied
d controlled variable is switched ON when the control system is OFF
2. A suitable application for a simple ON/OFF control system would be for:

a temperature environment control b motor speed control
c rotational position control d light level control
3. The term proportional control means that the controller output is proportional to the:
a error signal b supply voltage
c reference frequency d rate of change of the output
4. The term integral control means relating the output of the controller to the:
a input amplitude only b input x time
c rate-of-change of input d frequency of the input
5. The term derivative control means feeding back to the error detector a signal
proportional to the output:
a amplitude b polarity c rate-of-change d frequency
6. When a load is applied to a system with proportional control, the output may have:
a greater amplitude b a continual error
c less range of response d a slower response
Continued ...
299
0V 0V 0V 0V
Fig 1 Fig 2 Fig 3 Fig 4
7. The waveform of Fig 1 is applied to the input of an integral controller. The output
waveform will be:
a Sat. b Sat. c Sat. d Sat.
0V 0V 0V 0V
8. The waveform of Fig 2 is applied to the input of an integral controller. The output
waveform will be:
Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat.
a b c d
0V 0V 0V 0V
9. The waveform of Fig 3 is applied to the input of a derivative controller. The output
waveform will be:
Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat.
a b c d
0V 0V 0V 0V
10. The waveform of Fig 4 is applied to the input of a derivative controller. The output
waveform will be:
Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat.
a b c d
0V 0V 0V 0V
11. A 3-term PID control system is one which uses:

a post-integral differentiation in the feedback loop
b partially integral design in three blocks
c combined proportional, integral and derivative systems
d a proportion of input derived feedback
300
IT02 Practical Control Systems
Chapter 18
Practical Control Systems

this Chapter
 Describe the characteristics of an ON-OFF
temperature control system.
 Describe the characteristics of a light controlled
ON-OFF system.
 Describe the characteristics of a positional control
system having:
proportional,
proportional + integral,
proportional + derivative and
proportional + integral + derivative control.
 Describe the characteristics of a speed control system.

• Calculator (not supplied).
301
Practical Control Systems IT02

Characteristics of an ON/OFF Temperature Control Syst em
TYPE 'K' THERMOCOUPLE IC TEMP SENSORS P . I. N . P H O T O D I O D E P HO T O V O LT A I C C EL L

EXT. O/P
- O/P
O/P
+ O/P
+ +
INT.
REF O/ P O/ P
+ +
PHOT OC ONDU CT IV E C ELL PHOT OT RANS ISTOR

B O/P LAMP FILAMENT I/P
O/P
A
+5V 0V
WIREWOUND TRACK
N T C T HE R M I ST O R S P LA T I N U M R . T . D .
5 6 C
4 7 COMPARATOR ELECTRONIC SWITCH
HEATER ELEMENT I/P
OFF ON +12V
3 8 B HYSTERESIS O/P O/P
2 9 B - I/P
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE A
1 10
D 10k A +
C 12k
A
OUT DIFFERENTIAL V/F CONVERTER
3 B
AMPLIFIER
IN O/P O/P
V 1V B - I/P
Rx A-B
0V
A +
DIFFERENTIATOR COUNTER/
O/P x100 AMPLIFIER INVERTER TIMER
I/P O/P O/P
dVIN
T dt I/P I/P I/P TIM E FREE RUN
+100VIN -VIN
100ms
1s
10ms RESET COUNT 1s
TIME CONSTANT TEMPERATURE INDICATOR
Fig 18.1
The shaded area within the broken line is a digital thermometer indicating
temperature in increments of 0.1°C.
The internal Temperature Sensor is an integrated circuit which gives an output of

10mV/°K, so the output at an average room temperature of 20 °C will be 2.93V.
The 10-turn potentiometer on the Wheatstone Bridge panel is adjusted to give

2.73V to the inverting input of the Differential Amplifier. The output from the
Differential Amplifier will therefore be 0.01V/ °C, or 0.2V at 20°C.
The V/F Converter gives an output of 1kHz/V, so an input of 0.2V will give an
output of 200Hz (200 pulses in one second).
302
The Differentiator, x100 Amplifier and Inverter shape the pulses to be compatible
with the Counter/Timer input, which will therefore display 200 for a temperature
of 20°C, or the temperature in tenths of a degree. A display of 213 = 21.3 °C.
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 18.1. Switch the comparator

HYSTERESIS OFF and set the 10kΩ resistor control fully counter clockwise.
Set the Differentiator to 1s and the Counter/Timer controls to COUNT and 1s.
 Remove the output lead from the Electronic Switch while you carry out the
initial setting up.
 Switch ON the power supply and adjust the 10k Ω 10-turn potentiometer for
a voltage of 2.73V on the inverting input of the Differential Amplifier. This
will set up the digital thermometer to display the ambient temperature in °C.
Press the RESET button on the Counter/Timer each time you need to obtain a
temperature reading.
 Transfer the voltmeter to the output of the IC Temperature Sensor and note
the output voltage (You may need to remove one of the leads while you do
this).
I.C. Temperature Sensor output voltage = V
 Transfer the voltmeter again to the output of the 10k Ω resistor and set the
output voltage to a value 0.2V above the output value obtained from the IC
Temperature Sensor. This sets the reference temperature of the system to
20°C above the ambient temperature.
Reference voltage setting = V
 Restore the output lead to the Electronic Switch to start the heating process.
Note the temperature-time characteristic of the system by noting the
displayed temperature and the heater state (whether ON or OFF) at time
intervals of 30s (0.5 minute).
Note: The heater state will be indicated by the lamp, lamp ON = heater ON and
lamp OFF = heater OFF. Enter the details in Table 18.1.
303
Time 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5
(minutes)
Heater State
ON/OFF
Temperature
°C
Table 18.1
 Plot the temperature-time characteristic on the axes provided:
Temperature
o
C 60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0
time (minutes)
Graph 18.1
 Shade in blocks at the bottom of your graph to represent when the Heater
was switched ON.
 Mark in a line on your graph to represent the reference temperature setting.
18.1a Enter your value of the temperature variation (maximum - minimum)
around the reference temperature (in C).
18.1b From your recorded Reference voltage setting on the previous page enter
your reference temperature setting (aiming temperature) in C.
304
 If time permits add an alarm circuit to the system. The alarm is to operate if
the temperature exceeds 30 °C above the ambient temperature.
 Select suitable components from the devices available with the DIGIAC
1750 unit, connect, and check the operation of the system by simulating a
fault. Do this by disconnecting the feedback from the Temperature Sensor to
input B of the Comparator. Finally, switch OFF the power supply.
Notes:
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305

Characteristics of a Light Controlled ON/OFF System
A system is to operate a solenoid. The solenoid is to be ON with the light level

low and is to be automatically turned OFF when the light level exceeds a preset
level.
P . I . N . P H O T O D IO D E P HOT OV O L T A I C C E L L ELECTRONIC SWITCH

O/P COMPARATOR +12V
O/P O/P
OFF ON
HYSTERESIS O/P I/P
+ + B -
O /P V O/ P
A +
SOLENOID
P HOTOCONDU CTIV E CELL P HOTOTR AN SISTOR
POWER AMPLIFIER
LAMP FILAMENT I/P
O/P
SLIDE I/P
C
I/P
B
A MOVING COIL METER

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k
0
CARBON TRACK WIREWOUND TRACK 5 5
-10 +10
5 6 C 5 6 C
4 7 4 7
8 8
+
3 B 3 B
2 9 2 9 -
A A
L
1 10 1 10
J
100k 10k 0V
+5V 0V +12V
Fig 18.2
 Connect the circuit shown in Fig 18.2.
 Switch the Comparator HYSTERESIS OFF and set the resistor controls as
follows:-
fully counter clockwise for the carbon track,
fully to the left for the slide,
fully clockwise for the wirewound track.
 Switch ON the power supply (the Solenoid should energize).
306
 Move the slide resistor to the right so that the Solenoid is just de-energized.
This represents the preset conditions for operating the system with the
lighting at the ambient level.
 Move your hand over the Photoconductive Cell. You will note that the
Solenoid will change its state as the lighting level falls due to your shadow
(the Solenoid energizes, indicating that the electronic switch is closed).
With no hysteresis in the Comparator circuit, only a small drop in lighting level is
required to produce the change. Introduction of some hysteresis would increase
the lighting change required, but the hysteresis provided with the Comparator is
too great for this application and would operate as a latch.
 Cover the opto-sensor clear plastic enclosure with an opaque box to exclude
all ambient light. The Solenoid should immediately energize as the light
level is reduced.
 With the voltage applied to the lamp filament at 0V (control of the lamp
voltage is via the 100k Ω carbon track resistor) as indicated on the Moving
Coil Meter, move the slide resistor further to the right until the Solenoid
changes state.
Lamp Filament
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Voltage
Slide Resistor
Setting
Table 18.2
 Adjust the lamp filament voltage to each of the settings given in Table 18.2,
and repeat the procedure noting the slide resistor setting required for a
change of state of the Solenoid. Record the results in Table 18.2.
307
 Plot the graph of slide resistor setting against lamp voltage on the axes
provided.
10
Slide 9
Resistor
Setting 8
7
6
5
4
3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 18.2
This exercise has illustrated the use of an ON-OFF lighting control system. The
slide resistor can be set to any value, within the range noted, to produce circuit
switching at any desired value of lighting level.
18.2a From your graph deduce and enter the slide resistor setting corresponding to
a lamp filament voltage of 5V.
308

Characteristics of a Positional Control System - 1
Proportional Control
SERVO
I/P DC MOTOR POTENTIOMETER
POWER AMPLIFIER
O/P DIFFERENTIATOR
I/P O/P
I/P
dVIN
T
O/P dt
0/P
100ms
1s
10ms
V TIME CONSTANT
INTEGRATOR
O/P
I/P 0V
1
V dt
T IN
SUMMING AMPLIFIER
WIREWOUND TRACK 1s
DIFFERENTIAL INSTRUMENTATION 10s O/P
5 6 C RESET
4 7 AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER 100ms A
O/P O/P TIME CONSTANT
3 8 B B A+B+C
B - B -
9
INVERTER
2 A-B A-B C
A
1 10 A + A + O/P
10k
I/P
-VIN
-5V +5V
AMPLIFIER #1 AMPLIFIER #2 MOVING COIL METER
I/P O /P I/P O /P 0
5 5
.6 .6
-10 +10
.5 .5
- + - +
.4 .7 .4 .7
.8 .8
+
1 .3 1 .3
100 100
10 .2 .9 10 .2 .9 -
L
.1 1.0 .1 1.0
J
OFFSET GAIN COARSE GAIN FINE OFFSET GAIN COARSE GAIN FINE 0V
Fig 18.3
Study the diagram.

The proportional control section runs across the middle of the diagram. The
10kΩ wirewound resistor is the command input. The function of the Differential
Amplifier is to inject a step input voltage later in the investigation. The step
voltage is generated by Amplifier #2 offset voltage, which is the only purpose for
including this amplifier. You will see that it does not need an input for this
purpose.
Integral control will be added later by connecting the Integrator in between the
Error Detector (the Instrumentation Amplifier) and the Summing Amplifier.
Derivative control will also be added later via the Summing Amplifier. The
Inverter in between the Differentiator and the Summing Amplifier is to provide
negative feedback.
309
The Summing Amplifier combines all of the control systems as required.
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 18.3. This circuit is arranged for
proportional control only.
 Press the left hand side of the mounting plate of the Servo Potentiometer and
then release it to engage with the drive shaft.
 Set Amplifier #1 GAIN COARSE control to 10 and GAIN FINE to 0.1 to give an
overall gain of 1.0.
 Remove the power connection to the Motor. Switch ON the power supply.
 Set Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE control to 100 and GAIN FINE to 1.0 and
adjust the OFFSET control for an output of +3V. Return the GAIN COARSE
control to 1. The output voltage should fall to near zero volts. Note that
since this +3V step is fed into the system via the inverting input of the
Differential Amplifier the actual step injected will be -3V.
 Transfer the Moving Coil Meter to terminal B of the 10k Ω wirewound

resistor. Adjust the setting of the 10k Ω resistor control to its central position
to give 0V output.
 Zero the setting of the Servo Potentiometer dial against the pointer.
 Transfer the Moving Coil Meter to the output of the Power Amplifier and
adjust Amplifier #1 OFFSET to give 0V. Restore the Motor power
connection.
 Rotate the 10k Ω wirewound resistor control slowly over its full travel.
The Motor drive shaft and the Servo Potentiometer dial should rotate and
follow the movement of the command input, although the system may be
sluggish and there will be a lag before the Servo Potentiometer starts to
follow the input setting. This is because the system gain is low, Amplifier #1
gain being set to 1.0.
Amplifier #1 Gain = 1.0 Positive Negative
Maximum Dial Reading

(degrees)
Table 18.3
310
18.3a Enter your maximum Servo Potentiometer dial reading with positive input
voltage in degrees when Amplifier #1 gain is 1.0.
 Return the 10k Ω resistor to its central position. Set Amplifier #1 GAIN FINE
to 0.5 (overall gain 5) and repeat the procedure. With this higher setting of
the gain control the Servo Potentiometer should follow the input closely for
no load on the drive shaft and it should be possible to obtain the full travel
of the wirewound track resistor in both directions.
Rotate the input control slowly when nearing the end of the travel or the
Servo Potentiometer contact may overshoot and pass the end of the
track, causing the drive shaft to rotate continuously. If this occurs,
return the 10k resistor quickly to its central position.
 Note the full range of travel of the Servo Potentiometer against the setting of
the 10kΩ wirewound resistor command input. Record the results in Table
18.4.
Control Setting 1 2 3 4 5 0V 6 7 8 9 10
Servo-Potentiometer 0/
Dial Reading (deg.) 360
Table 18.4
180
Servo Potentiometer
Dial Reading 150
(degrees) 120
90
60
30
0/360
330
300
270
240
210
180
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 0
Control Setting
Graph 18.3
311
 Plot the graph of Dial Reading against Control Setting on the axes provided
on the previous page (Graph 18.3).
 Repeat the readings in the reverse direction and compare the dial readings
obtained with the previous readings recorded in Table 18.4.
18.3b Read from your graph and enter the approximate Control Setting for a Servo
Potentiometer dial reading of 90 .
 Set Amplifier #1 GAIN FINE to 1.0 and use the input command control to
return the Servo Potentiometer dial reading to 0°.
 Move the Servo Potentiometer dial by rotating the Hall effect disc by hand
and note the total range (for example +20° to -10° = 30°, it may not be
symmetrical) over which the dial can be moved without the system
responding and moving the dial back. This value represents a deadband over
which the system does not respond. Record the result in Table 18.5.
Amplifier #1 Gain 10 x 1.0 = 10 10 x 0.5 = 5 10 x 0.1 = 1
Deadband (deg.)
Table 18.5
 Repeat the procedure for Amplifier #1 GAIN FINE settings of 0.5 and 0.1,
adding the results to Table 18.5.
18.3c The effect of system gain on the deadband is:

a high gain gives a small deadband
b high gain gives a large deadband
c gain makes no difference to deadband
d there is no change in deadband below a gain of 5
18.3d Enter your value of deadband in degrees when the gain of Amplifier #1 is 5.
312
 Set Amplifier #1 GAIN FINE to 0.1.
 Switch the GAIN COARSE control of Amplifier #2 from 1 to 100 and note the
effect on the output shaft position. Return the control to 1 and again note the
effect. Repeat the procedure several times.
Take care not to touch the OFFSET control when you are doing this as
the setting is very critical.
 Repeat the procedure with the Amplifier #1 GAIN FINE set 0.5 and then 1.0.
18.3e The effect of gain on the response to a step input was that the speed of
response was:
a greatest with high gain b slowest with high gain
c the same for any value of gain d no response with gain less than 2.5
18.3f The effect of gain on the response to a step input was that overshoot was:
a greatest with high gain b least with high gain
c the same for any value of gain d no response with gain less than 2.5
18.3g A proportional control system which has low gain in the feedback loop will
have:
a large deadband and underdamped response to a step input
b small deadband and overdamped response to a step input
c large deadband and overdamped response to a step input
d small deadband and underdamped response to a step inp ut
 Switch OFF the power supply, but:
Keep the circuit connected if possible for the following Exercises.
313

Proportional + Integral Control
SERVO
POWER AMPLIFIER
O/P DIFFERENTIATOR
I/P O/P
I/P
dVIN
T
O/P dt
0/P
100ms
1s
10ms
V TIME CONSTANT
INTEGRATOR
O/P
I/P 0V
1
VIN dt
T
SUMMING AMPLIFIER
WIREWOUND TRACK 1s
5 6 C RESET
3 8 B B A+B+C
B - B -
9
INVERTER
2 A-B A-B C
A
1 10 A + A + O/P
10k
I/P
-VIN
-5V +5V

I/P O /P I /P O/P 0
5 5
-10 +10
.5 .6 .5 .6
- + .4 .7 - + .4 .7
.8 .8
+
1 .3 1 .3
100 100
10 .2 .9 10 .2 .9 -
L
.1 1.0 .1 1.0
J
Fig 18.4
 If necessary, re-connect the circuit as shown in Fig 18.4 (without the

Integrator output connected initially). Re-check the settings as follows:
 Remove the power connection to the Motor. Zero the setting of the Servo
Potentiometer dial against the pointer. Ensure that the potentiometer is
engaged with the drive shaft.
 Connect the Moving Coil Meter temporarily to terminal B of the 10k Ω

resistor and check the setting to its central position to give 0V output.
314
 Transfer the Moving Coil Meter back to the output of the Power Amplifier
and check the adjustment of Amplifier #1 OFFSET to give 0V.
 Transfer the Moving Coil Meter to the output of Amplifier #2, set the GAIN
COARSE control to 100 and GAIN FINE to 1.0 and check the adjustment of the
OFFSET control for an output of +3V. Return the GAIN COARSE control to 1.
This control will again be used to introduce a step input.

 Restore the power connection to the Motor. With the Integrator time
constant set to 1s, press and hold the RESET button, connect the Integrator
output lead to the Summing Amplifier input as shown by the arrow in Fig
18.4 and then release the RESET button.
 In the event of continuous rotation of the Motor shaft in the following

tests, immediately return the Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE switch to 1 and
then hold the Integrator RESET button until the shaft becomes
stationary.
 Note the effect on the output Servo Potentiometer dial reading when a step
input is applied by switching Amplifier #2 GAIN COARSE to 100 and then
back to 1. Watch the long term effect on the Integrator output voltage (on
the digital voltmeter) and on the dial setting.
18.4a The Integrator output voltage:

a goes negative and then quickly returns to zero volts
b goes positive and then quickly returns to zero volts
c goes quickly to a positive voltage and then remains constant
d is still varying after two minutes
18.4b The Servo Potentiometer Dial Setting:

a moves slowly and smoothly towards a target
b moves rapidly towards a target, overshoots and stays there
c moves rapidly towards a target, overshoots and then returns
d moves slowly towards a target in jerking steps

 Repeat the procedure with the Amplifier #1 GAIN FINE set 0.5 (overall gain
of 5) and then 1.0 (overall gain of 10) and respond to the following
questions:
315
18.4c With Amplifier #1 gain set to 5 compared to the gain at 1, the effect on speed
of response was:
a faster b slower c the same d no rotation
18.4d With Amplifier #1 gain set to 5 compared to the gain at 1, the effect was:
a more overshoot b less overshoot
c no overshoot d continuous oscillation
18.4e With Amplifier #1 gain set to 10 compared to the gain at 5, the effect on speed
of response was:
a faster b slower c the same d no rotation
18.4f With Amplifier #1 gain set to 10 compared to the gain at 5, the effect was:
a more overshoot b less overshoot
c no overshoot d continuous oscillation
 With Amplifier #1 GAIN COARSE set to 10 and GAIN FINE to 1.0, repeat the
procedure
effect. with the time constant set to 10s and then 100ms and note the
 Count the number of overshoots for each of the time constant settings (if
possible).
18.4g The time constant which gave the smallest number of overshoots was:
a 1s b 10s c 100ms d all the same
 With the time constant switched to 100ms and Amplifier #1 GAIN FINE set to
0.5, note the effect of displacing the output from its stable position manually
by moving the Hall effect disc about 10° on the dial and then releasing it.
18.4h A very short time constant may result in:

a no overshoot on return b some overshoot on return
c build up to continuous running d slow response
 Switch OFF the power supply but keep the circuit connected if you can.
316

Proportional + Derivative Control
SERVO
POWER AMPLIFIER
O/P DIFFERENTIATOR
I/P O/P
I/P
dVIN
T
O/P dt
0/P
100ms
1s
10ms
V TIME CONSTANT
INTEGRATOR
O/P
I/P 0V
1
VIN dt
T
SUMMING AMPLIFIER
WIREWOUND TRACK 1s
5 6 C RESET
3 8 B B A+B+C
B - B -
9
INVERTER
2 A-B A-B C
A
1 10 A + A + O/P
10k
I/P
-VIN
-5V +5V
I/ P O/ P I/P O/ P 0
5 5
-10 +10
.5 .6 .5 .6
- + - +
.4 .7 .4 .7
1 .3 .8 1 .3 .8
+
100 100
10 .2 .9 10 .2 .9 -
L
.1 1.0 .1 1.0
J
Fig 18.5
 If you still have the circuit connected then remove the lead from the
Integrator output to the Summing Amplifier and connect the output from the
Inverter to the Summing Amplifier as shown in Fig 18.5. Otherwise connect
the circuit as shown.
Re-check the settings as follows:

Remove the power
Potentiometer dial connection
against thetopointer.
the Motor. Zerothat
Ensure the the
setting of the Servo
potentiometer is
317
 Transfer the Moving Coil Meter temporarily to terminal B of the 10k Ω

 Transfer the Moving Coil Meter temporarily to the output of the Power
Amplifier and check the adjustment of Amplifier #1 OFFSET to give 0V.
 Transfer the Moving Coil Meter back to the output of Amplifier #2, set the
GAIN COARSE control to 100 and GAIN FINE to 1.0 and check the adjustment
of the OFFSET control for an output of +3V. Return the GAIN COARSE control
to 1.
 Restore the power connection to the Motor.
 Set the Differentiator time constant to 1s and note the output Servo
Potentiometer response to a step input of +3V applied by changing
Amplifier #2 gain control from 1 to 100 and then back to 1.
 Repeat the procedure and note the response for Differentiator time constant
settings of 100ms and 10ms.
18.5a After the step input has been applied in both directions the Servo
Potentiometer dial reading:
a returns accurately to zero setting
b may not return to zero setting
c returns nearest to zero setting with a time constant of 1s
d overshoots when the time constant is long
 With the Differentiator time constant set to 10ms, note the effect of
manually moving the output from its stable position by about quarter of a
turn with the Hall effect disc.
18.5b Is there any tendency to re-adjust and correct the error?

Yes or No
318
18.5c Derivative control affects the response:

a when the output is in the steady state
b during change of output only
c when there is no error signal
d only when the command input is steady
18.5d Increasing the time constant of the differentiator:

a causes the output to change more quickly
b increases the damping effect
c corrects any steady state error
d results in faster response
 Switch OFF the power supply, but
Keep the circuit connected if possible for the next exercise.
319

Proportional + Integral + Derivative Control
SERVO
POWER AMPLIFIER
O/P DIFFERENTIATOR
I/P O/P
I/P
dVIN
T
O/P dt
0/P
100ms
1s
10ms
V TIME CONSTANT
INTEGRATOR
O/P
I/P 0V
1
VIN dt
T
SUMMING AMPLIFIER
WIREWOUND TRACK 1s
5 6 C RESET
3 8 B B A+B+C
B - B -
9
INVERTER
2 A-B A-B C
A
1 10 A + A + O/P
10k
I/P
-VIN
-5V +5V
I/ P O/P I/ P O/ P 5 0 5
-10 +10
.5 .6 .5 .6
- + - +
.4 .7 .4 .7
.3 .8 .3 .8
+
1 1
100 100
10 .2 .9 10 .2 .9 -
L
.1 1.0 .1 1.0
J
Fig 18.6
 Re-construct the circuit of Fig 18.6 if necessary, making sure that the output
of the Inverter is connected to the input of the Summing Amplifier but do
not connect the Integrator to the Summing Amplifier at this stage.

Remove the power
Potentiometer dial connection
against thetopointer.
the Motor. Zerothat
Ensure the the
setting of the Servo
potentiometer is
320
 Connect the Moving Coil Meter temporarily to terminal B of the 10k Ω

 Transfer the Moving Coil Meter back to the output of the Power Amplifier
and check the adjustment of Amplifier #1 OFFSET to give 0V.
 Transfer the Moving Coil Meter to the output of Amplifier #2, set the GAIN
COARSE control to 100 and GAIN FINE to 1.0 and check the adjustment of the
OFFSET control for an output of +3V. Return the GAIN COARSE control to 1.
This control will again be used to introduce a step input.
 Press the Integrator RESET button and then connect the Integrator output to
the Summing Amplifier input. Set Amplifier #1 GAIN COARSE to 10 and
GAIN FINE to 1.0.
 Note and record in Table 18.6 the effect of applying a 3V step input to the
system with all the possible combinations of Integrator and Differentiator
time constants to note their effect and determine the combination giving
optimum response, possibly with one small overshoot.
321
Integrator Differentiator Continuous Response time Number of

Test
time constant time constant running YES/NO SLOW/MEDIUM/FAST Oscillations
1 1s
2 10s 100ms
3 10ms
4 1s
5 1s 100ms
6 10ms
7 1s
8 100ms 100ms
9 10ms
Table 18.6
 Check your best results against each other, referring to the question below.
18.6a Which of the following is the most desirable characteristic for a positional
control system?
a Continuous running
b Slow response time, no oscillations
c Fast response time, no oscillations
d Fast response time, two or more oscillations
 Switch OFF the power supply, but
Keep the circuit connected if possible for the next exercise.
322

Use of Velocity Feedback from a Tachogenerator
SERVO
TACHOGENERATOR
POWER AMPLIFIER
O/P
I/P O/P
O/P
0/P
WIREWOUND TRACK
5 6 C DIFFERENTIAL INSTRUMENTATION INTEGRATOR
4 7 O/P
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER
3 8 B O/P O/P I/P
1
B - B - VIN dt
2 9 T
A A-B A-B
1 10
10k A + A + SUMMING AMPLIFIER
1s
10s O/P
RESET 100ms A
- 5V +5V 0V TIME CONSTANT
B A+B+C
SLIDE INVERTER C
C
O/P
B
I/P
A -VIN
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k
MOVING COIL METER

AMPLIFIER #1 AMPLIFIER #2
0
I/ P O/ P I/P O/ P 5 5
-10 +10
.5 .6 .5 .6
- + - +
.4 .7 .4 .7
+
1 .3 .8 1 .3 .8
100 100
.9 .9 -
10 .2 10 .2
OFFSET GAIN COARSE

.1
GAIN FINE
1.0
OFFSET GAIN COARSE
.1
GAIN FINE
1.0
0V
L
J
Fig 18.7
 Construct the circuit shown in Fig 18.7.
 If you have retained the former circuit, remove both of the connections
to the Differentiator and add the connection to the Tachogenerator shown in
Fig 18.7. Also add connections from socket B of the slider resistor to the
Inverter input, and from socket A of the slider resistor to 0V. The slider
resistor is used to vary the magnitude of the velocity feedback from the
Tachogenerator. Set its control initially fully to the left, that is, with no
feedback. The system is equivalent to the previous 3-term PID system.
323
 Remove the power connection to the Motor. Zero the setting of the Servo
Potentiometer dial against the pointer. Ensure that the potentiometer is
 Set the Integrator time constant to 10s.
 With the Moving Coil Meter connected to the output of Amplifier #2, set
the GAIN COARSE control to 100 and GAIN FINE to 1.0 and check the
adjustment of the OFFSET control for an output of +3V. Return the GAIN
COARSE control to 1.
 Transfer the Moving Coil Meter temporarily to terminal B of the 10k Ω

 Reset the Integrator.
 Transfer the Moving Coil Meter to the output of the Power Amplifier and
check the adjustment of Amplifier #1 OFFSET to give 0V.
 Note the output response to a +3V step input for various settings of the
10kΩ slider resistor control to verify that similar responses to those
previously can be obtained. Note: allow the servo potentiometer dial to
return to zero after each step input is applied then removed (manually
turning the Hall Effect disc using the supplied Load Simulator if necessary).
Also, reset the Integrator before each new +3V step input is applied.
 Note and record in Table 18.7 opposite the effect of applying a +3V step
input to the system with all the possible combinations of Integrator time
constants and settings of the 10kΩ slider resistor (remembering to zero the
servo potentiometer dial and resetting the integrator between applications of
+3V step inputs).
Note: in cases where overshoot occurs, count the number of oscillations before
steady state is achieved, and in cases where undershoot occurs, estimate the
initial movement as a percentage of the steady state value, by dividing the
initial angle swept (A) by the final angle swept (B) and multiplying by 100
to give the percentage (C).
324
Integrator 10kΩ Continuous Response Overshoot Undershoot

Test
time Slider running time Number of Angles
constant Resistor YES/NO SLOW Oscillations Swept
MEDIUM (if any) (A) (B) (C)
Setting
FAST
1 2
2 4
3 10s 6
4 8
5 10
6 2
7 4
8 1s 6
9 8
10 10
11 2
12 4
13 100ms 6
14 8
15 10
Table 18.7
18.7a All control systems that have a fast response will overshoot and oscillate
before reaching their final value, regardless of damping.
Yes or No
325

Characteristics of a Speed Control System
I/P DC MOTOR SLOTTED OPTO TACHOGENERATOR

SENSOR DIFFERENTIATOR
POWER AMPLIFIER O/P
O/P I/P
dVIN
T
I/P O/P dt
100ms
O/P 1s
O/P 10ms
TIME CONSTANT
COUNTER/
AMPLIFIER #1 TIMER
I/P O/P
V I/P TIME FREE RUN
.5 .6
- +
.4 .7
1 .3 .8
100 R ES ET COUN T 1s
10 .2 .9
.1 1.0
WIREWOUND TRACK OFFSET GAIN COARSE GAIN FINE
5 6 C
4 7
INTEGRATOR
DIFFERENTIAL O/P MOVING COIL METER
3 8 B
AMPLIFIER
9 O/P I/P 0
2 1 5 5
A VIN dt
1 10 B - T
10k -10 +10
A-B
SUMMING AMPLIFIER
A + 1s
10s O/P +
0V +1 2 V RESET 100ms A
TIME CONSTANT -
B A+B+C
L
SLIDE
C INVERTER
J
C 0V
B O/P
I/P
A -VIN
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10k
Fig 18.8
 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 18.8 (with the integral and derivative
control components NOT initially connected to the Summing Amplifier).
 Set Amplifier #1 GAIN COARSE control to 10 and GAIN FINE to 0.1, the
Integrator time constant to 1s, the Differentiator time constant to 10ms, the
Counter/Timer controls to COUNT and 1s and both resistor controls to
minimum, fully counter clockwise or to the left.
 Press the mounting plate of the Servo Potentiometer to disengage it from the
drive shaft and thus minimize wear on the unit.
The 20V digital voltmeter is used to monitor the Motor current, indicating the volt
Ω
drop across a 1 resistor. The indicated voltage represents current in amperes.
The Moving Coil Meter is used to monitor the drive voltage to the Motor.
The Counter/Timer is used to monitor the Motor shaft speed.
326
 Remove the feedback connection from the Tachogenerator to the

Differential Amplifier so that the circuit is operating in open loop. Switch
ON the power supply and set the 10k Ω wirewound resistor control so that
the Motor speed is 15 rev/s as indicated by the Counter/Timer (after pressing
the RESET button). The Motor voltage required is of the order of 4V
Hall effect disc

Motor Load Simulator
Fig 18.9
 Load the Motor by placing the Load Simulator vertically on the baseboard
and
will then
find moving
that theit Motor
forwardcan
to apply
easily pressure on the
be stopped, andHall
theeffect
Motordisc. You
current
increases.
18.8a Enter your Motor current when the Motor is stalled (in A).
 Repeat the procedure with Amplifier #1 GAIN FINE settings of 0.5 and 1.0.
You will find that the amplifier gain only affects the setting of the 10k Ω
wirewound resistor control but has no effect on the Motor characteristic.
 Re-connect the Tachogenerator feedback connection to the Differential

Amplifier so that the system is operating in closed loop. Set Amplifier #1
GAIN COARSE control to 10 and GAIN FINE to 0.1 and the Motor speed to
15 rev/s. This will require the same voltage as previously.
 Load the Motor as before. You will find that the torque is greater and the
current and voltage applied to the Motor will increase. Note the values of
Motor voltage and current with the Motor stationary and record in
Table 18.8.
327
Amplifier #1 10 x 0.1 = 1 10 x 0.3 = 3 10 x 0.4 = 4

gain
8-10 8-10
Motor voltage
V V V
Motor current
A A A
Motor speed
rev/s rev/s
Table 18.8
 Increase the GAIN FINE setting to 0.3 and re-adjust the speed to 15 rev/s.
Load the Motor until its applied voltage is 8-10V. The Motor will probably
still rotate. Record the Motor current and speed.
 Repeat the procedure with the GAIN FINE set to 0.4 and initial speed to 15
rev/s, recording the results again in Table 18.8.
18.8b Enter your value of current when the Amplifier gain is 3 and the Motor is
loaded so that the applied voltage is 8-10V.
18.8c Enter your recorded Motor speed in rev/s when the Amplifier gain is 4 and
the Motor is loaded so that the applied voltage is 8-10V.
With closed loop control, the amplifier gain obviously affects the characteristic,
increase of gain increasing the torque available.
On no-load the Motor may be very noisy at this low speed setting if the gain is
increased much above 0.4, due to small errors producing large power fluctuations.
 With Amplifier #1 GAIN FINE set to 0.1 and the Integrator time constant set
to 1s, press and hold the Integrator RESET button, connect the Integrator
output to the Summing Amplifier and then release the RESET button.
Transfer the digital multimeter to the output of the Integrator.
 Set the Motor speed to 15 rev/s on no-load and then load the Motor until the
Motor voltage is 8-10V and maintain this loading as constant as possible.
You will note that the Motor speed initially drops, then the Integrator output
voltage increases. The Motor speed then increases again. The Integrator output
voltage then remains constant if the loading is kept constant.
 Note and record the speed after loaded conditions have settled down with
the Integrator output voltage risen to about 8.5-9.0V.
328
Motor Speed recovers to rev/s
 Release the load and immediately press RESET on the Counter to read the
Motor speed. Record the Motor speed immediately after releasing the load.
Initial recovery speed = rev/s
18.8d Enter the initial recovery speed in rev/s when the load is first released.
After releasing the load the speed initially rises and then the Integrator output falls
gradually and the speed is reduced to the preset value of 15 rev/s again.
 Restore the loading and then take note of the time for the Integrator output
voltage to recover to the unloaded voltage after the load is released.
Recovery time on removing the load = s
18.8e Enter the recovery time with an Integrator time constant of 1s in seconds:
 Set the Integrator time constant to 100ms and repeat the process.
18.8f The recovery time with an Integrator time constant of 100ms is:
a shorter b longer c the same d zero
Fast Integral
Integral Control
Speed
Medium Integral Slow Integral
High gain
Proportional
Control
Low gain
Open loop
LOAD
time
Fig 18.9
 Set the integrator time constant back to 1s increase the Amplifier #1 GAIN
FINE control to 0.3 and repeat the process. You will note that the
329
characteristics are similar but the response times are shorter due to the
higher gain of the system.
The characteristics of the system are shown in Fig 18.9.
Introduction of derivative control affects the rate of response to transient
conditions in the same way as for the positional control system.

 Connect the derivative output from the Inverter to the Summing Amplifier.
Set the Differentiator time constant to 100ms, the Integrator time constant to
100ms, the 10kΩ slider resistor control to the left, so that the derivative
feedback is zero and Amplifier #1 GAIN COARSE control to 10 and GAIN
FINE to 0.3.
 Set the Motor speed to 15 rev/sec on no-load and then very briefly increase
the slider to 10, then back to 1 on the slider scale.
You will note that with derivative feedback the Motor operation becomes noisy.
This is due to the voltage spikes generated by the Tachogenerator during the
commutation process, the Differentiator differentiates these and produces large
outputs, making the direct feedback of the derivative signal unsatisfactory. This is
a common problem with derivative feedback systems where there may be noise on
the signal, being differentiated.
 To overcome this problem, feed the output from the Differentiator to the
10kΩ slider resistor via the Low Pass Filter to remove the high frequency
spikes. Set the Low Pass Filter time constant to 10ms. You will find that the
10kΩ slider resistor control can now be adjusted over its full range giving
full control over the magnitude of the derivative feedback with a much
smaller increase in noise.
Derivative feedback makes a very small change to the characteristics of the speed
control system.
 Move the 10k Ω slider fully to the left. Apply the Load to the Hall Effect disc
briefly and heavily (so that it only just turns) for less than a second, then
release it.
330
When the load is released the motor should be heard to greatly increase in speed
before settling back to the steady state value.
 Set the Differentiator to 1s and move the 10k Ω slider resistor control to
around 3-4 and repeat the procedure.
When the load is released, the motor should return to its steady state speed with
much greater control, without greatly increasing in speed.
When the load is removed, the output voltage of the Summing Amplifier should
reduce then oscillate around its steady state value (approximately 4.5V) before
becoming stable. This oscillation is due to the overshoot of the differentiator, then
the integrator and differentiator, trying to increase the speed of the shaft back to its
steady state value.
 Repeat the loading of the motor with derivative feedback and watch the
analog M.C. meter for oscillation as the system returns to its steady state
speed.
The effect of derivative feedback on the system is small due to the system's slow
response. For derivative feedback to be effective the time constant of the
differentiator must be matched to the time constant of the system.

331
1. A room heating system consists of an electric heater having a constant output when
ON, this being controlled by a thermostat, the contacts operating at 70 C. The range
of temperature
measured you
for the expect
room, thetowindows
measureand
if adoors
temperature-time
remaining characteristic
closed would be:were
a 20 - 70 °C b 50 - 70 °C c 50 - 90 °F d 65 - 75 °C
2. For the system described in question 1 above, a plot of the temperature characteristic
when the system is tested when operating normally would look like:
a b c d
3. In setting up a system you wish to combine the signals from three different sources
together to generate an output. The signal conditioning circuit from those provided
on the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer which you would select for this purpose is the:
a Differential Amplifier b Instrumentation Amplifier
c Summing Amplifier d Integrator
4. One of the three signals referred to in question 3 above has the wrong polarity. The
signal conditioning circuit from those provided on the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer which
you would select for to overcome this problem is the:
a Differentiator b Inverter c Buffer d Integrator
5. A step input is often used to test the response of a control circuit. This term refers to:
a an abrupt change of voltage level of either polarity
b a smoothly changing input voltage
c repetitive sudden variations of voltage, ON and OFF at regular intervals
d a steady increase of voltage from 0V to +3V
332
6. Derivative control feeds back a signal which is proportional to the output signal:
a rate of change b amplitude c frequency d polarity
Gray Code
Control
Inputs
A Photovoltaic
-
Zero Cell +5V Alarm
Reference Differential +
Amplifier M VR
0V
Fig 1 Fig 2
7. A control circuit is required which will always return a rotational position system
to the zero setting of a 3-output Gray-code disc (such as the one on the DIGIAC 1750
Trainer), that is with the three outputs all zero. A suitable circuit for carrying this
out is given in Fig 1. Selecting signal conditioning circuits from the DIGIAC 1750
Trainer, the Control block might contain:
a proportional, derivative and integral controls
b a summing amplifier
c three DC amplifiers
d differentiator, integrator and inverter
8. The component marked A in the circuit of Fig 1, selected from the signal conditioning
circuits of the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer is a:
a power amplifier b AC amplifier c Buffer d current amplifier
9. The effect of changing the setting of variable resistor VR in Fig 2 above might be to
make the Alarm sound:
a above a higher light threshold b louder
c below a higher light threshold d intermittently
333
Notes:
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334
IT02 Using a Multimeter
Curriculum Manual Appendix A
Appendix A
Using a Multimeter
Units and Quantities
There are three basic quantities to be considered in an electrical circuit:
1. An EMF is applied to the circuit to provide the force or pressure which

causes the current to flow around the circuit. This EMF is measured in
volts.
2. The current consists of a quantity of electrons which travel around the

circuit in a given time. This current is measured in amps (amperes).
3. As the current flows around the circuit it meets up with opposition due to the
resistance of the circuit or its component parts. This resistance is
measured in (ohms).
Multimeters
The term multimeter derives from the ability to use one instrument for a multitude
of different measurements. One instrument is capable of taking measurements of
all three of the above quantities, and switches are provided for a wide range of
values of each quantity, from the very small (µ - micro or m - milli) to the large (k
- kilo or M - Mega). Also both direct current and voltage (DC) and alternating
current and voltage (AC) measurements can be taken with the same instrument.
● Examine the instrument(s) which you have available and familiarize

yourself with the range switch(es), display and connection sockets/terminals.
= DC = AC
335
Using a Multimeter IT02
Appendix A Curriculum Manual
Types of Meters
There are two basic types of instrument, those which give a digital display of the
reading, and those in which a pointer is moved across a scale by an angle which is
analogous to the quantity being measured.
POWER
OFF ON
V V
200 1000 750 200
20 20
2 2
200m 200m
20M 200µ
2M 2m
20m A
200K 10A
200m
20K
2
Ω 2K
200 2
200m
200 2m
200µ 20m
10A
A
V-Ω COM A 10A
(a) Digital Multimeter (b) Analog Multimeter

Fig A.1
The digital instrument will be found to be more convenient for taking static
readings of a quantity, their accuracy tends to be very good, and it is less likely
that you will make a mistake in reading the quantity. The analog instrument, on
the other hand, has advantages when reading quantities which are subject to
change during adjustments or otherwise. The load (in terms of current drawn)
presented by the meter to the circuit under test also varies.
336
Reading the Analog Scale
Fig A.2
The instrument scale represented above might refer to a meter with ranges 50µA,
250µA, 2.5mA, 10mA, 25mA, 100mA, 250mA, 1A, & 5A and a selection of
voltage ranges. Assuming that the 2.5mA scale has been selected then the scale
can be read directly in milliamps. The pointer is between 1.5 & 2.0, so the reading
lies between these limits. There are five divisions between 1.5 and 2 on the scale
so each one represents a value of 0.1. The pointer is between the second and third
divisions so the reading is between 1.7 & 1.8, or 1.7+. It is possible to make an
estimate (guess) as to how far it lies between the two divisions, but it is advisable
not to go any further than to say 0.05 (half way), although I am sure that you will
try. So a reasonable reading of the scale would be 1.75mA.
If the selected range is 100mA then the 0-10 scale is used and the pointer is half
way between 6 & 8. The scale reading gives us 7. The scale factor is determined
by dividing the full-scale marked value into the range value, 100mA ÷ 10 =
10mA. Multiply the reading by this factor: 7 x 10mA = 70mA.
If the selected range had been 50µA then the 0 - 50 scale should be used and the
pointer is half way between 30 and 40. The scale reading gives us 35. The scale
factor is 35 x 1µA = 35µA.
This is a major disadvantage of the analog multimeter. It is relatively easy to make

an error in interpreting the scale and range settings. This factor alone is
responsible for many people preferring the digital instrument. Try interpreting for
yourself on the assumption that you have selected the 250V range.
You should have arrived at a reading of 175V.
337
Testmeter Connections
1. Voltage Readings
POWER
OFF ON
V V
200 1000 750 200
20 20
2 2
200m 200m
20M 200 µ
2M 2m
(a) 200K
20K
20m
10A
200m
A
2
Ω 2K
200 2
200m
200
2m
200 µ 20m
10A
A
V-Ω COM A 10A
POWER
OFF ON
V V
200 1000 750 200
20 20
2 2
200m 200m
20M 200 µ
(b)
2M 2m
20m A
200K 10A
200m
20K
2
Ω 2K
200 2
200m
200
2m
200 µ 20m
10A
A
V-Ω COM A 10A
Fig A.3 - (a) DC and (b) AC Voltmeter Connections
The voltage appears across the component. Therefore the meter must be
connected in parallel with (or across) the component to measure the volt drop
across it with the circuit still connected to the supply.
Note that this is therefore the easiest of readings to be taken, since it involves no
disconnections and is taken with the supply still connected.
Ensure that the correct type AC or DC is selected, and always start with the
highest range and work down unless you have every reason to expect a
reasonably lower voltage. You will never damage a meter by connecting it to a
lower voltage than it is adjusted to display.
338
2. Current Readings
POWER
OFF ON
V V
200 1000 750 200
20 20
2 2
200m 200m
20M 200µ
2M 2m
(a) 200K
20K
20m A
10A
200m
2
Ω 2K
200 2
200m
200
2m
200µ 20m
10A
A
V-Ω COM A 10A
POWER
OFF ON
V V
200 1000 750 200
20 20
2 2
200m 200m
20M 200µ
(b) 2M
200K
2m
20m A
10A
200m
20K
2
Ω 2K
200 2
200m
200
2m
200µ 20m
10A
A
V-Ω COM A 10A
Fig A.4 - (a) DC and (b) AC Ammeter Connections
The current flows around the circuit so it must be broken to allow the meter to
be connected in series with the component under test. The circuit current then also
flows through the meter and it can give an indication of how much this current is.
This is often very inconvenient in practice, since it is not always easy to break into
a circuit in the way required.
339
3. Resistance Readings
POWER
OFF ON
V V
200 1000 750 200
20 20
2 2
200m 200m
20M 200µ
2M 2m
20m A
200K 10A
200m
20K
2
Ω 2K
200 2
200m
200
2m
200µ 20m
10A
A
V-Ω COM A 10A
Fig A.5 Ohmmeter Connection
It is essential that the resistor to be checked should be isolated from the power
supplies and also desirable, when possible, from the remainder of the circuit.
Analog Multimeter - A battery in the instrument applies a voltage to the resistor

under test and then the instrument measures the current which flows. Since the
battery voltage is known the current flowing can be calibrated into resistance. The
scale is not linear since resistance is inversely proportional to current, zero
resistance resulting in maximum current. A zeroing control is provided to allow
for variation of the battery EMF with ageing.
Digital Multimeter - The instrument contains a constant current generator, this

current being fed to the resistor under test. The instrument measures the voltage
dropped across the resistor and converts this to resistance. Since resistance is
directly proportional to voltage this is a linear function and conversion to a digital
display of resistance is simple.
340
IT02 The Oscilloscope
Curriculum Manual Appendix B
Appendix B
The Oscilloscope
How it Works
Your understanding of the operation of this most valuable item of test equipment
will be greatly enhanced if you have at least a superficial knowledge of its
fundamentals.
glass envelope
screen
cathode focus Y plates
grid X plates
electron beam
heater
Fig B.1
The heater, made of tungsten wire, raises the temperature of the cathode, which is
a nickel alloy cylinder coated with a mixture of oxides.
The heated cathode emits electrons which are attracted by the high potentials on
succeeding electrodes to form a divergent electron stream or beam.
The electric field of the focus assembly accelerates the electrons in the beam and
converges them so that they all meet at one spot at the screen.
The internal face of the screen is coated with phosphorescent materials which
glow when bombarded by the electron beam.
341
The Oscilloscope IT02
Appendix B Curriculum Manual
The grid, which surrounds the cathode, allows control of the number of electrons
leaving the cathode, and therefore the strength of the electron beam, and the
intensity or brightness of the spot. The group of electrodes which generate the
beam are known collectively as the electron gun.
The screen is the faceplate of a glass envelope, which encloses all of the
electrodes. This envelope is evacuated so that there are no gas atoms to impede the
free movement of the electrons in the beam. Any voltage (potential gradient)
across the Y plates will cause the beam to be deflected up or down as it passes
through.
The X plates will have a similar effect in the horizontal direction.
The oscilloscope is therefore capable of drawing graphs with conventional X and

Y axes. The inputs to X and Y channels must be in the form of voltages which can
be applied to the plates.
The primary purpose of the oscilloscope is to allow us to examine electrical

waveforms in a circuit which are readily obtainable in the form of voltage (Y)
against time (X).
The Y drive is therefore already in the correct form - a voltage.

The time scale for the X axis is provided as a function of the oscilloscope's
circuitry known as the timebase. This generates a voltage which is steadily
changing with time. The time is adjustable by front panel controls. The waveform
necessary for this purpose has a sawtooth shape.
voltage
stroke or flyback
scan
time
Fig B.2
The faceplate is scanned from left to right, relatively slowly, during which time
the waveform to be examined is applied to the Y plates. The flyback is rapid and
the Y signal is suppressed so that it cannot interfere with the forward display.
342
Practical Oscilloscope
It is now time to examine the layout of the front panel of a typical oscilloscope
and its controls. These may seem a little awe-inspiring at first, but you will find
that you can easily master them.
All oscilloscopes have the same basic functions. If the instrument which you have
available is substantially different from that shown pictorially here, then you will
find controls which perform the same functions, although they may sometimes
have slightly different labels on them. Start by setting all controls to known initial
conditions as follows:
POWER X-Y TIME/DIV. AT/NORM.

on/off
ms .5 .2 .1
µs
SLOPE 2 50
X-POS. +/- 5 20
10 10 LEVEL
TR
20 5
50 2
INTENS. 100 1
200 .5 TRIG. INP.
FOCUS AC 100Vp-pmax.
TRIGGER DC ms µs
HF
SELECTOR LF EXT.
CAL.
LINE
Y-POS. I VOLTS/DIV. VOLTS/DIV. Y-POS.I I

.5 .2 .5 .2
1 .1 1 .1
VAR.
2.5:1
CH.I 2 50 2 50 CH.II
DC DC
AC 5 20 CAL. 5 20 AC
GD GD
10 10 10 10
CAL. COMPONENT 1MΩ 30pF 1MΩ 30pF
X-MAG. V 20 5 mV V 20 5 mV
0.2V 400Vp-p 400Vp-p
max. INV.I CHI/II DUAL ADD max.
2V HOR.
X10 TESTER INP.
TRIG.I/II CHOP
Fig B.3
The arrowed rectangles and squares are push-on push-off buttons.
● Ensure that they are all in their out positions.
There are several round buttons in various colors with an

indicator line on them. Turn all of these so that the line is
pointing vertically upwards. This does not apply to the focus
control.
The pointed triangle on some colored knobs is a calibration

indicator. The coarse setting on the outer switch is only correct
when this arrowhead points to the left. Set them this way now.
343
1 3

on/off
ms .5 .2 .1 µs
SLOPE 2 50
X-POS. +/- 5 20
10 10 LEVEL
TR
20 5
50 2
INTENS. 100 1
200 .5 TRIG. INP.
TRIGGER DC ms µs
HF
SELECTOR LF EXT.
CAL.
LINE
2 1
.5 .2
.1
VAR.
1
.5 .2
.1 2
2.5:1
CH.I 2 50 2 50 CH.II
DC DC
5 20 CAL. 5 20
AC AC
GD GD
10 10 10 10
1MΩ 30pF V 5 mV V 5 mV 1MΩ 30pF
20 20
400Vp-p 400Vp-p
HOR.
TRIG.I/II CHOP INP.
4 4
Fig B.4
Adjust the controls shown in Fig B.4 as follows:
● 1 TRIGGER SELECTOR to the upper (AC) position.

● 2 Y amplifier inputs both to the lower (GD) position.
● 3 TIMEBASE set upwards to the 1ms/div position.
● 4 Y AMPLIFIER sensitivity both counterclockwise to the 20V/div

position.
Note that the lower panel in Fig B.4 above contains the controls for two Y
amplifiers. There is provision to operate the oscilloscope with either one or two
traces (graphs) so that two waveforms of the same frequency (or harmonically
related) can be observed at the same time.
This is achieved by switching the electron beam from one trace position to the
other and, at the same time, switching the inputs to the Y plates.
The upper panel contains the controls for the screen and for the timebase settings.
You will also see some controls marked TRIG or TRIGGER. These are to
maintain a stable trace. More will be said about this function later.
344
Operation
You are now ready to power up.
● Locate the power switch ( 1 in Fig B.5 below) and switch ON.
1 4

on/off
ms .5 .2 .1 µs
SLOPE 2 50
X-POS. +/- 5 20
10 10 LEVEL
TR
2 20
50
5
2
INTENS. 100 1
200 .5 TRIG. INP.
FOCUS AC 100Vp-p max.
TRIGGER DC ms µs
HF
SELECTOR CAL.
LF EXT.
LINE
Fig B.5
After a brief warm-up period you will find that you have a line across the screen
caused by the spot moving from left to right across the screen under the influence
of the internal timebase.
● Adjust the brightness or intensity 2 to give a line of minimum intensity for

comfortable viewing.
● Adjust the focus 3 to give the sharpest line.
● Adjust the X POSITION 4 to centralize the line across the screen.
● Switch the TIMEBASE selector (see Fig B.4) fully counterclockwise to the
200ms/div position.
If you have a watch or clock available with a second hand, time how long it takes
for - say - five passes across the screen. You should find that it takes about ten
seconds for five scans.
345
Timebase
Examine the timebase control switch. This is pointing at 200ms/div. There are ten
divisions across the screen. Count them. So it takes 10 x 200ms for one scan.
2000ms is 2 seconds, so 5 x 2 = 10 seconds for five scans.
Turn the inner variable control clockwise. See that the spot
speeds up. It is possible to set the speed to anything that you
want (within limits) but you only know what speed it is when
the pointer is to the left (the calibrated position).
● Return it counter-clockwise.
Look to the left of the tip of the pointer and you will see a C (for calibrated)
under a dot. There is one of these symbols to the left of each of the variable
controls, including the two on the lower panel, to indicate the calibration
position.
● Switch the timebase selector to 100ms/div. Note that the spot now travels
across the screen in about one second. Gradually increase the speed.
When you get to 20ms/div the spot has become a short line. This is due to two
factors, one being the afterglow of the phosphor (which takes a small time to die
away) and the other is the persistence of vision (where our eyes retains an image
for a small period of time). This latter is what makes it possible for us to see
apparently moving pictures on a television screen from a rapid sequence of still
pictures.
At 10ms/div the spot becomes a continuous line with a small amount of flicker as
our eyes still try to follow the individual movements of the spot. Beyond this all
we see is a steady line.
When the timebase setting is increased to the maximum of 0.5µs/div the screen is
being scanned in five millionths of a second (5µs). It is still accurate and linear.
346
Frequency Measurement
Please note that if it takes 5µs (millionths of a second) for one trace and the traces
follow each other continuously then there will be 200,000 scans in one second
(200,000 x 5µs = 1s), the frequency is 200kHz.
This concept is the one above all other that newcomers to electronics find most
difficult to accept, the speed at which electronic devices can operate, far, far faster
than our brains want to accept.
The reciprocal of the time taken for one cycle of events is the frequency of that
event. This is important and should be remembered.
1
frequency =
time period
This allows us to make measurements of frequency on an oscilloscope by noting

the time taken for one cycle and then calculating the reciprocal of that time.
6.4 div
Fig B.6
347
For instance, in the example in Fig B.6 opposite, if the timebase setting is
calibrated and switched to 0.2ms/div then the time taken for the cycle indicated is:
6.4 x 0.2 = 1.28ms
and the frequency of the waveform represented will be:
1
. 8 x 10 -3 = 78126
12 . Hz
● Try the following example for yourself:
Assume that the timebase is correctly calibrated and switched to 20µs/div.
Fig B.7
● What frequency is represented in Fig B.7 if the two vertical lines represent
one cycle of a waveform?
You should have arrived at about 5.95kHz. The reading of the time scale cannot
be very accurate, certainly not to 5 parts in 600, so it might be better to call this
6kHz.
348
Y Amplifiers
Turn your attention now to some of the controls on the lower panel, the Y
amplifiers.
1 1
.5 .2
.1
VAR.
1
.5 .2
.1 3
2.5:1
CH.I 2 50 2 50 CH.II
DC DC
5 20 CAL. 5 20
AC AC
GD GD
10 10 10 10
20 20
400Vp-p 400Vp-p
HOR.
TRIG.I/II CHOP INP.
2 4
Fig B.8
1 This is the channel 1 (CH.1) Y amplifier shift or position control. It applies a

direct voltage to the Y plates.
● Try this now. Move the trace line up and down.
The effect is that you are applying a signal to the Y plates, only relatively very
slowly. Electronics can do it much faster. Do not try to rotate the knob too quickly
or you may damage the track of the control.
● Set the timebase to minimum speed (200ms/div) and try moving the Y1 shift
again. You can almost draw a sinewave, if you are careful, but of course it
dies away very quickly.
349
Dual Trace Operation
● Set the timebase back to high speed at 0.2ms/div and position the trace in the
top half of the screen.
● 2 Press the button marked DUAL to select both Y traces.
A second trace will now have appeared near to the center of the screen.
● 3 Move the new trace down to the lower half of the screen with the Y2 shift
control.
● Reduce the timebase speed again to 100ms/div.
You will see that the oscilloscope draws the Y1 and Y2 traces alternately.
This is the simplest form of dual mode operation, but is not very satisfactory for
low frequency signal inputs. You would have great difficulty in comparing
waveforms on the two traces.
● 4 Press the button marked ALT/CHOP (or ADD/CHOP). Both traces are
now drawn simultaneously.
What is happening is that the circuit chops between the two traces very many
times during one scan, so quickly that you cannot see it doing it.
This is the best mode of operation for timebase speeds below 2ms/div.
You will see that operating the ALT/CHOP switch has little effect at timebase
speeds of 2ms/div and above, but the difference is easily observed at 5ms/div and
below.
350
Voltage Measurements
2 2
0V
Y-POS.I 0V
VOLTS/DIV.
.5 .2
VOLTS/DIV.
.5 .2
Y-POS.I I
0V.1
1 1
VAR.
1 .1
1
2.5:1
CH.I 2 50 2 50 CH.II
DC DC
5 20 CAL. 5 20
AC AC
GD GD
10 10 10 10
1MΩ 30pF V 20 5 mV V 20 5 mV 1MΩ 30pF
400Vp-p 400Vp-p
3 max. INV.I CHI/II DUAL ADD max.
HOR.
3
TRIG.I/II CHOP INP.
Fig B.9
● 1 Set both channel input switches to AC, and
● 2 both Y amplifier sensitivity switches to 0.1V/div.
● 3 Plug an oscilloscope probe lead into each of the input sockets.
● Adjust the Y shift controls to locate the Y1 trace in the middle of the upper
half of the screen and the Y2 in the lower.
Locate the calibrator (CAL) terminal

lug on the panel just below the
screen and hook the CH.1 probe on.
Note the amplitude given for this

signal besides the terminal(s).
If you have more than one voltage

available, then select the one nearest
to 0.2V.
X-MAG.
CAL. COMPONENT Note: The ground clip is not needed
0.2V
X10 2V TESTER
since this
internally. is completed
Fig B.10
351
You will now have a square wave displayed on the upper trace. The vertical edges
of the waveform are so fast that they do not have time to leave any evidence of
their presence. It appears as though the change from negative to positive is
instantaneous. Increasing the brightness to maximum may just show them very
faintly.
● Re-adjust for normal intensity.
The waveform should cover two divisions in the vertical direction (2 x 0.1V=
0.2V).
● Clip the CH.2 probe on as well.
You now have waveforms displayed on both traces.

.5 .2 .5 .2
1 .1 1 .1
VAR.
2.5:1
CH.I 2 50 2 50 CH.II
DC DC
5 20 CAL. 5 20
AC AC
GD 10 10 10 10
GD
20 20
400Vp-p 400Vp-p
HOR.
TRIG.I/II CHOP INP.
Fig B.11
● Press the INVERT 1 button and observe that the CH.1 display is inverted,
the CH.2 trace remaining unaffected.
● Increase the CH.1 Y amplifier sensitivity to 50mV/div and observe how

many squares are now covered by the waveform.
352
AC/DC Operation
● Return both amplifier input switches to the GD (ground) position.
The waveforms are removed.
● Using the Y shift (position) controls centralize both traces across the middle
of the screen so that they are overlayed on top of each other.
You should now only be able to see one line.
● Return the CH.1 Y amplifier input switch to AC and the waveform

reappears at the center of the screen with the Y2 trace acting as a base (0V)
line.
You are now looking at the AC component of the waveform. However, this
waveform has a DC component equal in amplitude to the peak value of the AC
signal.
● Switch the CH.1 Y amplifier input switch to DC.
The waveform moves up to sit on the 0V base line provided by the Y2 trace. The
DC component of the signal is now being passed to the display as well as the AC.
In fact the waveform has two amplitude levels, 0V and 0.2V.
This facility of being able to suppress the DC component if you wish can be very
useful if a small AC component rides on top of a very large DC component. The
AC can be inspected with the amplifier set to a very sensitive setting which would
move the DC component well off the viewable screen area taking the AC
component with it !
Generally speaking, it is better to retain the DC component of any waveform in

the display if you can.
353
Frequency Measurement Example
You have already been introduced to this most important aspect of the
oscilloscope's measurement capability.
Let us now use it in practice.
The calibration signal is only intended for checking the sensitivity of the Y
amplifiers and probe compensation.
The frequency of the signal is not precise, and therefore provides us with an
excellent example for practice.
T = Time taken
T for one cycle.
Fig B.12
● Read off the number of divisions for one complete cycle - T as precisely as
possible along the center line.
● Multiply by the setting of the timebase selector to convert this into a time.
1
● Use a calculator to take the inverse (reciprocal x ) of this to give the
frequency.
You should have found a frequency somewhere near 1kHz.
354
Trigger
● Return the CH.1 Y amplifier input switch to GD and switch the CH.2 input
to AC.
You can see the waveform, but it is not stable. This is because the trigger or
synchronizing facility is automatically allocated to the CH.1 signal until you say
otherwise.

.5 .2 .5 .2
1 .1 1 .1
VAR.
2.5:1
CH.I 2 50 2 50 CH.II
DC DC
5 20 CAL. 5 20
AC AC
GD GD
10 10 10 10
20 20
400Vp-p 400Vp-p
HOR.
TRIG.I/II CHOP INP.
Fig B.13
● Press the CHI/II TRIG.I/II button.
Trigger control is transferred to the CH.2 input waveform and the signal locks in.
If you now reverse the settings to display the CH.1 waveform with CH.2
grounded, the waveform will be unstable again until you release the CHI/II
TRIG.I/II button again. Automatic triggering is quite a complex operation and it is
worth examining the theory of this a little more closely.
● Switch trigger control back to CH.2 to unlock the display.
The displayed trace may be only marginally out of lock, giving a slowly moving
waveform, or it may be considerably out, giving no readable waveform.
Using the timebase fine tuning control (the one with the
arrowhead) try to stop the trace from moving. You will find
that this is very difficult, since the slightest thing will change
the frequency enough to de-synchronize the waveform.
355
You will probably find two different settings within the range of the control which
will give you either one complete cycle or one and a half.
● Switch control back to CH.1 to lock the trace again.
You find that there are very nearly two complete cycles when the control is in the
properly calibrated position. As the fine timebase control is adjusted when the
waveform is locked, all that happens is that the waveform is stretched or
contracted to display more or less cycles. Note, however, that the trace always
starts with the positive-going edge of the waveform.
Fig B.14
This is the trigger point, at the zero crossing of the test waveform (in a positive-
going direction).
The timebase in the oscilloscope is held off until this point is reached and then
allowed to run. In this way the displayed waveform always starts at the same
point (crossing zero in a positive-going direction) so each successive trace
overlays the previous one and the display appears stationary.
There are several features on the timebase panel which affect the triggering.
356
Triggering
3 1

on/off
SLOPE ms 2 .5 .2 .1 50 µs
X-POS. +/- 5 20
10 10 LEVEL
TR
20 5
INTENS.
50
100 1
2
2
200 .5 TRIG. INP.
TRIGGER DC ms µs
HF
SELECTOR LF EXT.
CAL.
LINE
4 5 6
Fig B.15
1 AT/NORM. This means Automatic Trigger or NORMal operation. In

automatic triggering (button out) the action is as described above.
With the button pressed the trigger point voltage level is adjustable by the LEVEL
control 2 .
The effect of this is to change the starting point voltage so that the display starts at
any point you choose on the waveform. If you set the level higher or lower than
the extremities of the test waveform then the timebase never triggers and there is
no display, the screen remains blank. With the level button pointing vertically
upwards the trigger point is the zero voltage crossing level.
You cannot see the effect of this control if you only have the calibration waveform
available. The square wave has only two levels, ON or OFF. However, if you have
a signal source with sine or triangular waveform then connect this to one of the Y
channel inputs, adjust for a good display using timebase (X) and sensitivity (Y)
controls, then press the AT/NORM. button and adjust the level control. Observe
the effect and then return the AT/NORM. button to the out position.
The +/- button 3 inverts the display by selecting the zero crossing trigger point
when the waveform is negative going instead of positive.
357
● With any waveform displayed and locked, press the +/- button and observe.
Return to the out position.
The displayed waveform can be very complex and contain components at many
different frequencies. The automatic trigger circuits are periodic, i.e. they are
sensitive to frequency.
For some displays the trigger circuits may need a little help in the form of
selecting the frequency. The calibration waveform is a middle frequency and any
setting of the TRIGGER SELECTOR 4 except LINE will provide a stable
display. The settings of this selector are:
AC The alternating component of the test waveform is passed to the trigger

circuits. This will normally cover frequencies from DC to 10MHz.
DC The DC component passes to the trigger circuits. To use this facility
NORMal triggering must be selected.
HF Frequencies above 10MHz.
LF Frequencies below 1kHz. This would normally be used with a complex
wave containing many frequency components where you wish to lock on
to the low frequency component(s) rather than the high, such as an
amplitude modulated carrier wave as used in radio communication.
LINE Many oscilloscopes are used for television servicing, so many are provided
with line synchronizing pulse separators to lock onto these pulses which
define the termination of each line of the picture.
picture
information
line line
sync. sync.
pulse pulse
Fig B.16 Television Waveform
358
This function will only lock on to short duration (5µs) negative-going pulses. It
will sometimes be required to examine waveforms which are too weak to provide
a satisfactory signal to the trigger circuits so that automatic triggering cannot be
achieved.
An alternative source of higher voltage waveform(s) at the same frequency will

often be available.
This alternative source can be fed in directly to the trigger as an "external" trigger
source so that a weak but stable display can be achieved. The EXT. TRIG. button
5 selects this functi on, but at the same time switches off the intern al, automatic
triggering.
● Press the EXT. TRIG. button and note that the display is no longer locked.
● Take the probe from the CH.2 input and plug it into the EXT. TRIG. input
socket 6 . Couple this to the cal. signal.
Note that the display is again locked and that all of the other triggering functions
can be selected with this input.
359
Component Tester
Many oscilloscopes are provided with this most valuable facility, which enables
the instant display of the characteristics of many electronic components.
An alternating voltage is applied to the component under test and also to the X
plates of the oscilloscope. The current drawn flows in a series resistor mounted
inside the oscilloscope, developing a volt drop across it which is proportional to
the current drawn. This is applied to the Y plates.
The instantaneous values of both voltage applied and current drawn are therefore
plotted.
CAL. COMPONENT
X-MAG.
0.2V
2V
X10 TESTER
test
component
Fig B.17
● Connect the component to be tested as in Fig B.17 above. Testmeter leads

will be ideal for this purpose.
● Press the Component Tester button (arrowed).
The characteristic will immediately be displayed.
360
With no component connected the display will be the characteristic of an open

circuit, no current, whatever the voltage.
A lead connected between the two terminal sockets indicated will be a short
circuit. Can you anticipate the display?
Here are a few other samples:
Fig B.18
This facility is very useful when troubleshooting.

By now you should feel more confident in the use of your oscilloscope. You will
find it an invaluable instrument in future investigations of electronic circuits.
361
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An Introduction To Transducers and Instrumentation

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An Introduction to

Transducers and Instrumentation

Curriculum Manual IT02

Keep fingers clear of all

Technical Publications Department

Chapter Contents Pages

Basic Control Systems

Chapter 1 Basic Control Systems Equipment and Terms Used ..........1 - 16

Chapter 2 Positional Resistance Transducers ...................................17 - 32

Chapter 12 Display Devices............................................................191 - 208

Signal Conditioning Circuits

Chapter 13 Signal Conditioning Amplifiers ...................................209 - 234

Closed Loop Control Systems

Chapter 17 Control System Characteristics ....................................291 - 300

Appendix A Using a Multimeter ...................................................... 335 - 340

This comprehensive course of study is based on a single panel Transducer and

The unit is self-contained and enables the characteristics of many individual

As each item is introduced there is a description of the principles of the device,

The treatment is non-mathematical and little previous knowledge is assumed,

DC voltage: 200mV to 20V

Note that some of the exercises in Chapter 4 (Temperature Measurement) will

Some examinations of voltage waveforms will be required using an oscilloscope.

The Module Power Supplies

Making Circuit Connections

Depending on the laboratory environment in which you are working, your

Using this Manual at a Computer Managed Workstation

In order to use this curriculum manual at a computer managed workstation you

♦ D3000 Hand-held Data Terminal.

♦ Log onto the management system and request work.

D3000 Lesson Module 17.50

Using this Manual at a Workstation that is not Computer Managed

Good luck with your Studies.

Basic Control Systems Equipment and Terms Used

Objectives of Having studied this Chapter you will be able to:

 Write the expression for the overall gain of a negative

 Calculate the overall gain of a negative feedback

 List the basic components of a closed loop system and

 Explain the meaning of terms associated with control

1.1 Open Loop System

Reference I/P Controlled O/P

1.2 Closed Loop System

1.3 Gain in an Open Loop System

1.4 Gain in a Closed Loop System

Feedback (HVo) Attenuator

H = the fraction of the output fed back to the input

1.6 Practical Closed Loop Control System

Signal conditioning may consist of signal amplification, attenuation or linearising,

1.7 Controlled Variables

The controlled variable may be:-

devices used to accomplish this energy conversion are referred to a

1.8 Glossary of Terms - Transducers

Transducer: A device which converts information from one energy system to

1.9 Glossary of Terms - Signal Conditioning Circuits

Hysteresis: The transfer characteristic of a non-linear device for increasing

Output Output for

I/P Hysteresis Switchin

Output for Falling

Latch: A circuit having two possible output states depending on the

V/F Converter: A circuit converting a DC input voltage to an alternating voltage,

Differentiator: A circuit having an output voltage that is proportional to the rate-

1. In Fig 1 block numbered 1 is a:

c controlled variable d error detector

2. In Fig 1 block numbered 4 is a: