Input Devices, A Review

ADVANCED INDUSTRIAL
ELECTRONICS
KXGI6101
PROJECT REPORT
PROJECT 20: INPUT DEVICES
Name: Nur Aini Syakimah binti Ahmad Shuyuti

Matric No.: KGZ150001
Lecturer: Prof. Dr Saad Mekhilef
NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

ADVANCED INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS (KXGI6101) PROJECT REPORT
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Table of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 3
2.0 TEMPERATURE SENSORS ...................................................................................... 6
2.1 Thermocouple ......................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Resistive Temperature Detector (RTD) ................................................................... 7
2.3 Thermistor............................................................................................................... 8
2.4 Integrated Circuit (IC) Solid-State Temperature Sensor .......................................... 8
2.5 Thermostat.............................................................................................................. 9
3.0 PRESSURE SENSORS ........................................................................................... 10
3.1 Types of Pressure Sensors ................................................................................... 10
3.2 Load Cell .............................................................................................................. 14
4.0 FLOW SENSORS .................................................................................................... 16
4.1 Pressure-Drop-Based Flow Meter ......................................................................... 16
4.2 Velocity Flow Meters ............................................................................................. 19
4.3 Positive Displacement Flow Meters....................................................................... 20
4.4 Mass Flow Meters ................................................................................................. 21
5.0 DENSITY AND VISCOSITY SENSORS ................................................................... 23
5.1 Density Sensor ..................................................................................................... 24
5.2 Viscosity Sensor ................................................................................................... 25
6.0 LEVEL SENSORS .................................................................................................... 26
6.1 Point-Contact Sensors .......................................................................................... 26
6.2 Continuous Level Sensors .................................................................................... 30
6.3 Using Weigh to Measure Level ............................................................................. 32
7.0 POSITION SENSORS .............................................................................................. 34
8.0 MOTION SENSORS................................................................................................. 40
8.1 Accelerometer....................................................................................................... 40
8.2 Tachometer........................................................................................................... 41
9.0 pH SENSORS .......................................................................................................... 42
10.0 HUMIDITY SENSORS.............................................................................................. 43
11.0 GAS DETECTORS ................................................................................................... 44
12.0 CASE STUDY: INPUT DEVICES IN CEMENT MANUFACTURING ......................... 45
12.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 45
12.2 Input Devices in Different Processes in Cement Manufacturing ............................ 47
13.0 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 51
14.0 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 51

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the industrial world, it is important to control the process to ensure that it runs smoothly and
the products or outputs are in the best condition. To instigate process control, the controller
must collect data from the outside environment and transmit signals to the production process.
Components required to apply this interface are input devices, signal conditioning circuits,
analog-to-digital converters (ADC) or digital-to-analog converters (DAC) and output devices.
Input devices can be defined as the devices used to acquire data or information in
forms of signals from the outside environment so that it can be processed with computerized
controller. The input devices are categorized into three types, which are transducer, sensor
and transmitter.
Definition of sensor is that it is a device which provides a usable output in response to

a specified measurand. It obtains a physical quantity and converts it into a signal suitable for
processing.
On the other hand, a transducer is defined as a device which converts one form of
energy to another (Kissel, 1997). A transducer may include a sensor to sense the measurands,
and a circuit to convert the amount of measurands to an electrical signal and transmit it to an
electrical control system where it is used as the process variable (PV) or feedback signal.
Another type of input devices is transmitter. A transmitter is a device that can transform
a very small signal to a more usable signal. The transmitters for the sensors used as industrial
feedback signals must typically convert very small electrical signals such as microvolts (µV),
millivolts (mV), milliamps (mA) or frequency into larger voltage and current signals such as 0-
10 volts or 4-20 mA. The transmitter usually uses devices such as operational amplifiers (op
amp) to amplify the output signal. The transmitter may also provide a zero and span circuit
that allows the signal to be calibrated with other parts of the electrical system such as the
single-point controller.
Sensors are built to detect the smallest amount of change in motion, light, pressure,
temperature, magnetic force, or chemical reaction. The change of energy that the sensor
senses must be changed into an electrical signal that is useful to an amplifier so that the final
electrical signal is in one of the computer-understandable format. Typically, electrical signal
formats are voltage, current, resistance, frequency, capacitance and inductance. In some
cases, a transmitter will provide additional signal conditioning, such as from voltage to current,
from current to voltage or frequency to voltage.
As most sensors provide a very small signal, it must be amplified or compared before
it is being used. The bridge circuit is utilized to compare the signal to some setpoint (SP) value

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and the op amp circuit is used to amplify any sensor signal that is too small. The Figure 1
below shows a temperature sensor called resistive temperature detector (RTD) and it is
connected to a bridge circuit. The variable resistor in the bridge is regulated to provide a SP.
If the temperature varies, the resistance in the RTD will change in proportion and the voltage
through the bridge will reflect this variation. Since the temperature can vary, the voltage at the
bridge can fluctuate to either positive or negative.
Figure 1 Resistive temperature device (RTD) connected to a bridge circuit
Another circuit that is commonly used with sensors is the op amp circuit. Because
sensors provide a voltage signal or a change in resistance, the op amp circuit must be able to
amplify either voltage or resistive signals. The Figure 2 below shows the op amp circuit with a
photoconductive cell. The sensor must also have a voltage supply. When light hits the
photoconductive cell, its resistance will vary. Since this resistance is the Rin for the op amp
circuit, it will change the gain of the op amp when the resistance varies. When the gain of the
op amp changes, it will change the output voltage of the op amp.
Figure 2 Photocell that changes its resistance when light strikes it
The op amp must also be able to amplify signals from sensors that change voltage
rather than resistance. The Figure 3 below shows a circuit with a solar cell (photovoltaic cell)
connected to the op amp circuit. When light strikes the solar cell, it will change voltage, and

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the op amp will amplify the small-signal voltage. This is the typical circuit that will be used for
all sensors that produce small voltages.
Figure 3 Photoconductive cell that is connected to an op amp.
In this report, we will discuss about the types of sensors that are used in the industries,
how they are constructed and the working principles of the sensors. The second part of this
report will discuss about the case study of input devices in cement manufacturing plant.

2.0 TEMPERATURE SENSORS
Temperature sensors are widely used in building, manufacturing plants such as chemical
process, engines, appliances, computers and many other appliances that require temperature
monitoring. Many physical occurrences depend on temperature, so we can measure the
temperature indirectly by measuring pressure, volume, electrical resistance and strain.
Temperature sensors measure the amount of heat or coldness that is produced by an

object or system, letting us to detect any physical change to that temperature producing either
an analogue or digital output. There are various types of temperature sensor available and all
have diverse characteristics depend on their application.
2.1 Thermocouple
Thermocouple is the most widely temperature sensors used in industries. This device ranges
from sub-zero to 2000˚C. This sensor works according to Seebeck Effect which states that if
two wires made from different metals are connected at both ends to make two junctions, when
one end is heated, a small amount of current would flow across the circuit.
As shown in Figure 4, thermocouple has two junctions of different metals, such as

copper and constantan that are joined together whether by welding process or pressing
process. One junction is kept at a constant temperature called the reference or cold junction,
while the other junction is the measuring junction called hot junction. When the two junctions
are at different temperatures, a voltage is developed across the junction which is used to
measure the temperature sensor.
Figure 4 Thermocouple
The working principle of thermocouple is that when the measuring junction is heated,
small direct current (DC) voltage (in mV) is generated in thermocouple wires. The

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thermocouple converts thermal energy into electrical energy. The cold junction usually is set
to 0˚C.
2.2 Resistive Temperature Detector (RTD)
Resistive Temperature Detector (RTD) is a precision temperature sensor made from high-
purity conducting metals such as platinum, copper or nickel wound into a coil. RTD’s electrical
resistance changes as a function of temperature. Figure 5 below shows RTD that is usually
used in the industries.
Figure 5 Resistive Temperature Detector (RTD)
The change in temperature is detected when the resistance of the wire varies. There
are two types of RTD, which are RTD that has positive thermal coefficient which will increase
the resistance with respect to temperature increment. The other type of RTD has negative
thermal coefficient which will decrease the resistance when the temperature increases.
RTDs are commonly used with the bridge circuit connection. The change in
temperature causes substantial resistance change which gives a voltage drop in line with the
thermal coefficient of resistance of the wire. This voltage is then amplified and the temperature
is read.
RTD is usually used in incinerators for automatic temperature measurement. As a

result of its compactness, it substitutes conventional thermometers as well as thermocouples
therefore eliminating the use of lots of wires. RTD is also being used in medical and chemical
laboratories to detect very low temperatures such as dry ice and liquid nitrogen. This is
because the electrical output is used wherever feedback system is required and corrective
action is hence taken in an automated system.

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2.3 Thermistor
A thermistor is a type of resistor that is used to measure temperature changes, depending on

the change in its resistance with changing temperature. Thermistor was invented by Samuel
Ruben in 1930. Thermistors are generally made of semiconductor materials such as
manganese, copper, cobalt, and nickel, as well as single-crystal semiconductors silicon and
germanium. Figure 6 below shows the thermistors usually used in the industries.
Figure 6 Thermistors
Thermistors can be classified into two types depending on the sign of first-order
temperature coefficient of resistance. If the coefficient is positive, the resistance rises with
temperature increment. This device is called a positive temperature coefficient (PTC)
thermistor or Posistor. If the coefficient is negative, the resistance drops with temperature
increment, and the device is called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
Thermistor is widely used as temperature measurement. It is also used in the time

delay mechanism which the self-heating from large current ‘opens’ the thermistor so it can be
used as a slow switch. It is also being used as a surge suppression when a circuit is first
energized. Current needs to flow through the thermistor for a while to heat it so that it ‘opens’,
and acts again as a switch.
2.4 Integrated Circuit (IC) Solid-State Temperature Sensor
Integrated Circuit (IC) also able to be used as temperature sensor because it can change the
amount of voltage across PN junction when it is forward biased as the temperature varies.
The semiconductor material provides a compact sensor when it is manufactured into an IC.
The IC sensors are very small and shaped like typical small transistors, which allows them to
be placed in printed circuit boards and other electronic circuits.

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2.5 Thermostat
Thermostat is a non-electrical temperature sensor. It is a contact type electromechanical

temperature sensor or switch. It basically comprises of two different metals such as nickel,
copper, tungsten or aluminium that are bonded together to form a Bi-metallic strip. Figure 7
shows the structure of thermostat.
Figure 7 Thermostat
Thermostat functions as the different linear expansion rates of the two dissimilar metals
creates a mechanical bending movement when the strip is subjected to heat. The bi-metallic
strip can be used itself as an electrical switch or as a mechanical way of operating an electrical
switch in thermostatic controls.
Thermostat is widely used to control hot water heating elements in boilers, furnaces,
hot water storage tanks as well as in vehicle radiator cooling systems.

3.0 PRESSURE SENSORS
Pressure sensors are widely used in industrial applications for determining the liquid level in
a tank, to measure the flow of liquid and to measure the temperature of an object. There are
many types of pressure sensors available depending on the usage and requirements in the
industries. Each sensor has a pressure range that it operates in. Most of the pressure sensors
have analog outputs that demand amplification and some of them have built-in amplifiers for
direct connection into microcontroller.
3.1 Types of Pressure Sensors
Table 1 below shows different types of pressure sensors.

Table 1 Types of Pressure Sensors
No. Types of Pressure Working Principles

Sensors
1. Vacuum Gauges and
Sensors
This type of sensor is called manometer (water) or

barometer (mercury). The water was pushed up the
column by the atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi) pushing
down on the open side of the manometer. It is observed
that 14.7 psi able to lift the column 33.9 ft. So, a complete
vacuum could lift a column of water 33.9 ft. In mercury,
a complete vacuum was able to lift a column of mercury
to 29.92 in.

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2. Bourdon Tube Pressure

Sensors
This type of pressure sensor has radially formed tubes

with an oval cross-section. The pressure of the
measuring medium acts on the inside of the tube and
creates a motion in the non-clamped end of the tube.
This motion is the measure of the pressure and is
indicated by the movement.
3. Diaphragm Pressure
Sensor
The diaphragm pressure sensor is designed to measure

lower pressures in the range of 330 psi and vacuums to
29.9 in. of mercury (in. Hg). The diaphragm is made of a
flexible membrane, which can be rubber for lower
pressures and metal for pressures up to 330 psi. The
diaphragm is fixed in the middle of the capsule so that it
creates two chambers. One of the chambers is open to
the atmosphere and the other is connected to the source
of pressure being measured. When pressure is applied
to the chamber, the diaphragm will expand slightly into
the open chamber. The amount of movement will be
proportional to the pressure being applied. The
movement can be applied directly to a switch to create a
low-pressure switch or it can be connected to a shaft that
can amplify the amount of movement through gears to
provide a direct reading on a gauge. The movement can
also be applied to a potentiometer so the signal can be

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converted to a change of resistance and then to a

change of voltage if the potentiometer is connected to a
bridge circuit. (Input Devices, 2015)
4. Differential Pressure
Sensor
This type of pressure sensor measures the difference

between two pressures, where one connected to each
side of the sensor. It is used to measure many
properties, such as pressure drops across oil filters or air
filters, fluid levels or flow rates.
5. Bellows Pressure Sensors
This sensor made of a sealed chamber that has multiple

ridges that are compressed slightly when the sensor is
manufactured. When pressure is applied to the
chamber, the chamber will try to inflate and open the
pleats. It uses a spring to oppose the movement of the
bellows and provides a means to adjust the amount of
travel the chamber will have when pressure is applied.

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6. Pressure Transducers and

Transmitters
Pressure transducer is a device that can be threaded

directly into a hydraulic or pneumatic line and read the
pressure of the system. It is available in pressure ranges
from 0-50 psi through 0-1500 psi. The typical output for
this type of sensor is rated like the load cell at 2 mV/V
with exciter voltage of 10 volts. It is easy to interface with
input modules for programmable logic controllers
(PLCs).
7. Piezoelectric Pressure
Sensors
In this type of sensor, when pressure is applied to the

crystal, it will deform and produce a small voltage. Op
amps are used to produce and amplify a usable signal.
8. Capacitance Pressure
Sensors
This sensor uses a thin diaphragm, as one plate of a

capacitor, exposed to the process pressure on one side
and to a reference pressure on the other. The changes

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in pressure cause it to deflect and change the

capacitance.
9. Variable Reluctance/ In this type of pressure sensor, when the pressure
Inductance Pressure moves the diaphragm, the core will move and change
Sensors the amount of inductance in the coil of wire. When the
amount of inductance changes, the amount of inductive
reactance also changes. If the coil is placed in an AC
circuit, the change of inductance can be used to change
the voltage drop across the inductor.
10. Ultralow Pressure Sensors This pressure sensor is useful in detecting extremely
low-pressure readings. It uses a rubber diaphragm that
is very sensitive.
11. Strain Gauges
A strain gauge consists of a grid of very fine wire that is

bonded to a surface. When the surface moves due to
changes in pressure, the resistance of the wire changes.
The strain gauge must be connected in a circuit such as
a Wheatstone bridge so that the change in resistance
can be converted to a change in voltage.
3.2 Load Cell
A load cell is a force or pressure sensor that utilizes strain gauges which are mounted in
specific patterns to provide a significant value of the change in pressure or weight. Usually,
load cells may be used to measure tension, compression and shear. Figure below shows an
example of load cells used in industrial application.

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Figure 8 Load Cells
Load cells are commonly used for mechanical testing, on-going system monitoring and
industrial scales and weighing. Load cells can be categorized into two types, which are
bending beam load cell and shear beam load cell.
Bending beam load cell applies a principle of measuring force on a cantilever beam. It
will have shear stress and bending stress along the cross-sectional area of the beam. The
stress can be measured by strain gauges and converted into an equivalent amount of
pressure. On the other hand, shear beam load cell utilizes an I-beam design because the
shear stress is uniform at the web of the beam.

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4.0 FLOW SENSORS
Flow sensors are used to sense the flow rate of fluid. There are two categories of flow sensors,
which are intrusive (obstructing the flow) and nonintrusive.
The flow sensors are used in the industrial applications as means to measure the flow
of cooling water to a large machine or process. They are also used to indicate when a filter is
clogged and to measure accurately the flow of gases or liquids that are used in processes.
4.1 Pressure-Drop-Based Flow Meter
This type of flow sensors obstruct the flow to create a pressure drop. Table 2 below discusses
the types of sensors under this category.
Table 2 Pressure-Drop-Based Flow Meters
No. Types of Sensor Working Principles

1. Venturi Flow Meters
A venturi is a point in a pipe that has been narrowed so that

the flow is restricted slightly. The high-pressure port is
provided to sample the increased fluid pressure where it will
increase slightly because of the restriction caused by the
venturi, and the low-pressure port is provided to sample the
pressure as it drops after it flows past the restriction caused
by the venturi. Extra pressure ports are given on both sides
of the restriction in larger venturies to allow an average
pressure to be measured.
2. Flow Tubes

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The front face of the pipe is rounded so that fluid flow is

disturbed as little as possible when it enters the tube. The
diameter of the flow tube is approximately half the diameter
of the original pipe so that a pressure drop is created as the
flow is redirected through the flow tube. A pressure tap is
provided prior to the flow tube to measure the higher
pressure and directly after the opening of the flow tube to
measure the lower pressure. The difference in the pressures
must be measured by a pressure differential sensor and the
pressure drop is used to calculate the flow.
3. Pitot Tubes
Pitot tube is a device that has two tubes that are placed in a
fluid flow to sense the impact pressure and the static
pressure used to determine the amount of pressure drop.
Two tubes are connected side by side. One of the tubes has
a hole in it that faces the fluid flow, called impact tube, while
the other tube has a hole in it that faces away from the fluid
flow or static tube. The impact tube measures the higher
pressure which is the impact pressure, and the static tube
measures the lower pressure which is the static pressure as
fluid flows past the tube. (Input Devices, 2015)

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4. Elbow Meters
The pressure of fluid will exhibit a slight pressure differential

as it flows through an elbow. The fluid that passes near the
inside radius of the elbow will have a marginally lower
pressure than the fluid that flows on the outer radius of the
elbow. The distance the fluid travels on the outer radius of
the elbow will be longer than the distance on the inner radius
of the elbow. Two low-pressure ports are provided on the
inner side of the elbow to provide the lower-pressure
reading, and two ports are provided on the outer side of the
elbow to provide the higher-pressure reading so that a better
average of each pressure is determined. As the amount of
pressure difference from this type of sensor is very small, a
manometer or ultralow differential pressure sensor must be
used to detect it. The pressure difference is then used in a
calculation to determine fluid flow. The amount of pressure
difference will increase when the fluid flow increases, and the
pressure difference will decrease when the fluid flow
decreases. (Input Devices, 2015)
5. Weirs
A weir is a narrowing of an open channel to create an

obstruction that is placed in the flow to cause a pressure drop
as fluid flows through it. When the fluid flow increases, the
pressure drop through the weir will increase.

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4.2 Velocity Flow Meters
This category of flow meters apply the change in velocity that occurs when fluid flow changes
to measure the amount of flow. Table 3 below shows the types of sensors under this category.
Table 3 Velocity Flow Meters
No. Types of Sensors Working Principles

1. Paddlewheel This type of sensor has a paddlewheel that is placed directly
in the fluid flow so that it can rotate freely as the fluid passes
it. The faster the fluid flows past it, the faster the paddle
wheel rotates. Each paddle or web of the paddlewheel has a
magnet mounted in it so that a sinusoidal waveform is
produced when it passes the detector mounted in the head
of the sensor. A frequency-to-voltage converter is used to
convert the sine wave signal to a variable-voltage signal.
2. Turbine
In this type of sensor, the turbine wheel is attached directly

in the flow. Each of the vanes of the turbine wheel has a
magnet mounted in it so that when the vane spins under the
magnetic pickup, an electric pulse is produced. When fluid
starts to flow, the wheel will begin to rotate. When the flow
increases, the wheel will rotate more quickly and the number
of electric pulses will increase. The electric pulses can be
averaged over time to provide a flow rate, or they may be
totalized to determine the total flow.
3. Vortex

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When the flow stream strikes the flow element, a series of

vortices is produced. When a vortex is produced, it causes
the fluid to create a swirling motion as it moves. A very
sensitive electronic detector can detect the presence of the
vortices. The number of vortices that are produced is directly
proportional to the flow rate.
4. Electromagnetic Magnetic flow meters are used to determine the flow of
electrically conductive liquids in full pipes. The pressure drop
through the meter is minimal. The detection of flow is
accomplished using the principle of electromagnetic
induction. As a conductor passes through a magnetic field, a
voltage is generated that is proportional to the velocity of the
conductor moving through the field. The higher the flow rate
the greater the generated voltage.
5. Ultrasonic
An ultrasonic flow meter uses Doppler meters to measure

the change of a frequency signal that is sent into the liquid
flowing through a pipe. The transmitting element sends a
signal with the given frequency into the fluid flow. Bubbles in
the fluid or any suspended solids in the fluid reflect back to a
receiver. The receiving element, also called a Doppler meter,
is placed a short distance downstream and it detects the
frequency as the fluid flows past it. A special circuit called a
time-of-travel meter measures the time delay or shift in
frequency that is caused by the fluid flow. The faster the fluid
flows, the more the frequency is shifted. (Kissel, 1997)
4.3 Positive Displacement Flow Meters
This type of flow meter is the most accurate compared to others. In this type of sensor, the
flow is split into segments and each segment is measured as the fluid moves pass it. A type
of positive-displacement flow meter utilizes a piston pump. The volume of the piston is known,
and all of the fluid flows through the piston pump. This lets the total volume of fluid to be
measured by counting the strokes of the piston. Another type of positive displacement flow
meter utilizes a set of oval gears or lobes that pumps a certain volume of fluid each time the

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gears mesh. The faster the flow moves, the faster the gears rotate. The number of revolutions
are counted and the flow rate can be calculated because the volume of fluid that is pumped
during each revolution of the lobes is known. Figure 9 below shows a positive displacement
flow meter.
Figure 9 Positive Displacement Flow Meter
Another type of positive displacement flow meter is the nutating disk. It is a movable disk that
is offset so that it makes a concentric circular motion each time it turns. The housing for the
disk is perfectly round, so that each time the disk rotates, its oval path will trap a certainamount
of fluid. As the volume of trapped fluid is known, the number of revolutions the disk makes can
be counted and the flow rate can be calculated.
4.4 Mass Flow Meters
A mass flow meter is one of the most accurate type of flow meters that is designed to measure
the flow of gases and liquids. There are two common types of mass flow meters which are
discussed in Table below.
Table 4 Mass Flow Meters
No. Types of Sensors Working Principles

1. Coriolis mass flow
meter

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This sensor uses a U-shaped tube that is created to vibrate

up and down at its natural frequency while all of the fluid
flows through it. A strong magnet is used to make the U-tube
vibrate. When the U-tube vibrates it will naturally move up
and down. When fluid is flowing through the tube, it will
oppose the up-and-down movement, which will cause the U-
tube to twist. The amount of twist will be directly proportional
to the amount of flow. Sensors are located near the tube to
detect the amount of twist and convert it to a usable variable-
voltage signal.
2. Thermal mass flow
meter
This sensor can be used for measuring the mass flow of

gases. This type of mass-flow meter uses a thermal element
whose temperature varies as fluid flows past it. The amount
of heat loss is directly proportional to the fluid flow. The
thermal element is fixed close to the fluid flow. This allows
this type of mass flow meter to be used in virtually all types
of applications where the density, pressure, and viscosity
may change.

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5.0 DENSITY AND VISCOSITY SENSORS
The flow of a liquid is affected by density, viscosity and the temperature of the liquid. Density
is an amount of mass per unit volume and also known as the specific gravity. Specific gravity
is a measurement of the density of a product at a fixed temperature compared to the density
of water. The specific gravity of water is 1.
The formula for density is given as
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
Where m is the mass of the liquid and V is the volume. As shown in the formula, the unit for
density is kg/cm3.
The formula for specific gravity is given as
𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑇1
𝑆𝐺𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑇1
Where ρsample at T1 is the density of the liquid sample at fixed temperature, T 1 and ρwater at T1 is
the density of water at the fixed temperature, T 1.
Density is usually measured in liquid-based products manufacturing line such as

orange juice, syrup, paint or petrochemicals.

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5.1 Density Sensor
Density sensor measures the density of the liquid as the liquid flow past a piping system. The
density sensor only test a small portion of the liquid from the piping system. So, it can be
placed in the pipe where the liquid flows to take a sample. Figure below shows a type of
density sensor.
Figure 10 Density sensor
Referring to the figure, usually a sensing chamber of the density sensor is located in
the pipe so that a small portion of the liquid will continually flow through it and the sample can
be measured. The sensing chamber has a totally immersed plummet fastened to a set of
calibrating chains at a few fixed reference points. When the density of the liquid rises, the
liquid will get thicker and the plummet will be lifted slightly. When the density reduces, the
liquid is thinner and the plummet will drop slightly. The change of distance the plummet moves
is measured by a position sensor called a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT). An
RTD is utilized to continually monitor the temperature of the liquid to adjust the reading of the
density.
There is also a signal conditioner used in density sensor to convert and amplify the
signals of both LVDT and RTD to 4-20 mA, 0-5 volts or -5 volt to +5 volt signal. The signals
from the sensor represents the density of the liquid being measured.

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5.2 Viscosity Sensor
Viscosity is the quantitative measure of the fluid’s resistance to flow. The viscosity affects the
speed at which a fluid flows.
Viscosity sensors are used widely in large pipeline operations and tomato paste
production. In both applications, the viscosity must be adjusted and monitored so that the
amount of product flowing can be calculated accurately. Viscosity can be controlled by
regulating the temperature or density of the product.
The device used to measure the viscosity of a liquid is called viscosimeter or

viscometer. Figure below shows three different types of viscosimeters, which are rotating disk
viscosimeter, differential pressure viscosimeter and vibrating element viscosimeter.
Figure 11 (a) Rotating disk viscosimeter (b) Differential pressure viscosimeter (c) Vibrating element viscosimeter
The rotating disk viscosimeter has a disk that is revolved at a certain speed. The
amount of torque required by the motor to rotate the disk will increase as the liquid become
more sticky. The second type of viscosimeter is differential pressure viscosimeter, utilizes a
venturi to determine the pressure differential of the liquid flowing across it. When the viscosity
of the product varies, the pressure drop across the venturi will also vary. The vibrating element
viscosimeter uses an component that is vibrated at a certain frequency. The amplitude of the
vibration will rise when the viscosity reduced.

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6.0 LEVEL SENSORS
In industrial applications, level sensors are used to measure the quantity of the products in
storage tanks or process tanks. The level sensors are commonly mounted in the storage tanks
and process tanks.
Level sensors have two categories, which are point-contact sensors that determine if
the level is to be measured at a given setpoint, and continuous level sensors measure the
level from minimum to maximum.
6.1 Point-Contact Sensors
There are many types of point-contact sensors available. Mostly, these types of sensors
contain a switch that is activated when the level reaches a specific point. Table 5 below shows
the different types of point-contact sensors.
Table 5 Types of Point-Contact Sensors
Point-Contact
No. Working Principles
Sensors
1. Float-Level Sensor
A float is attached to an arm, and the arm will trigger a limit switch
when the arm is elevated. The float will be raised when the level
of the liquid is high enough. The limit switch can be regulated so
that the accurate level where the switch is activated can be set.

27
2. Multiple Float-Level
Sensor
The multiple float-level sensor is similar to the single float-level

sensor except the multiple float-level sensor able to have
switches activated at more than one point. The liquid level moves
the float up and down on a guide that keeps it aligned with the
switches. The float has a magnet mounted inside it. When the
magnet in the float comes near each switch, it turns it on, and
when the magnet is not near the switch, the switch is turned off.
Any number of switches can be added to the system so that the
level at numerous points can be detected.
3. Displacer-Level
Sensor
This sensor has a displacer element positioned directly in the

liquid. The displacer element has a rod that attaches it to a switch
and when the level increases, the displacer element rises with
the level and moves the rod so that it activates the switch. When
the rod moves up, the magnet on the rod moves to where it is
placed close to the magnet that activates the switch. The magnet
in the switch activator is movable and when it is pulled toward the
magnet on the end of the rod, it will activate its contacts. When
the level drops and the displacer drops and the magnet on the
rod drops, the magnet on the rod will no longer have any effect
on the switch magnet. Small springs will cause the contacts to
move back into their original position. (Kissel, 1997)

28
4. Paddlewheel-Level
Sensor
This sensor uses a paddlewheel. The paddlewheel is rotated

slowly by a small motor. When the level of the liquid or solid
granules comes into contact with the paddlewheel, it will become
stalled. When this occurs an amperage detector determines that
the current has increased slightly, which indicates that the level
has increased to a point where it stops the motor shaft from
turning. The motor that is used for this type of sensor is a shaded
pole motor. The operation of the shaded pole motor allows it to
have its rotor - stalled and not damage the motor. When the rotor
stalls, the motor windings act similarly to a primary winding of a
transformer and a slight increase in current will occur.
5. Vibrating-Tines Level
Sensor
This sensor uses a set of tines that acts like a tuning fork to
determine when the level of material or liquid has exceeded the
level setpoint. An electronic circuit makes the tines oscillate at a
specific frequency. When the level of material rises and covers
the tines, it stops them from oscillating. An electronic circuit
detects the change in the oscillating frequency and activates a
switch.

29
6. Beam-Breaker Level
Sensor
A beam-breaker level sensor uses a light beam to detect the level

of solids to determine when the setpoint level has been
exceeded. Two probes are fixed horizontally so that one can
send a beam of light that is focused directly on the other. When
the level of the material increases adequately, it will block the
beam of light and the photoelectric detector will activate a switch.
These types of sensors are useful to measure the level of
granular solids.
7. Two-Wire,
Conductance-Level
Sensor
In this sensors there are two wires mounted at different heights

in a tank where the level is measured. One wire is mounted near
the bottom of the tank, and the second one is mounted at the
level that is used as the setpoint. When the liquid level rises to a
point where the second wire is covered, a small current is
conducted through the liquid between the two wires. This small
current is detected and the electronic circuit activates a switch.
When the liquid level is below the second wire, the resistance of
the air is too large and no current will flow. Some applications of
this type of sensor use additional sets is of wires that are
mounted at several points along the side of the tank to detect the
level of the liquid at more than one point. The liquid must have
conductivity properties. Some liquids are dielectrics or insulators.
8. Thermistor-Level The thermistor-level sensor operates from a principle that the
Sensor temperature of the liquid being measured will be different from
the temperature of the surrounding air. The thermistor is attached

30
in the tank at the specified level. Since it is not submerged in

liquid, it will be measuring the temperature of the air. When the
liquid level rises and covers the thermistor, it will be measuring
the temperature of the liquid. The small change of temperature
between the air and the liquid will cause the thermistor's
resistance to change, which can be detected in the bridge circuit.
The bridge circuit can be designed to activate a set of switch
contacts.
6.2 Continuous Level Sensors
Continuous-level sensors measures a continuous reading of levels from minimum to

maximum. These sensors give an analog signal (0-10 volts dc, or 4-20 mA). These sensors
are normally more expensive as they must provide a continuous signal. Several types of
sensor elements may be used to provide a continuous signal. Table 6 below shows types of
continuous level sensors.
Table 6 Types of Continuous Level Sensors
Continuous
No. Working Principles
Level Sensors
1. RF Admittance
(Capacitance)
Level Sensor
This sensor utilizes pulsed radio frequency waves to determine when

material or liquid is touching the end of its probe. As this type of sensor
uses the change in dielectric to determine the level of a liquid or
granular solid material, it is also called a capacitance-level.

31
2. Sonic-Level
Sensor
In this type of sensor, the sonic transmitter is mounted in the top of a

tank. The sensor has a transmitter and receiver attached in the same
head. An electrical pulse is given to a crystal that causes it to vibrate
against a diaphragm. When the diaphragm vibrates, sound waves are
produced and they are focused at the level of the liquid or solid that is
being measured. When the sound waves reach the liquid or solid, they
will be reflected back to the sensor. The receiver in the sensor will
detect the reflected sound waves and the electronic circuitry measures
the amount of time between the instant the sound waves are sent and
when they are received.
3. Sounding Tape
and Reel-Type
Level Sensors
In this sensor, a weight is attached to a line and the line is lowered from
the top of a tank. The weight will cause the line to have tension as long
as it is suspended in air. When the weight comes into contact with the
level of the material, the amount of tension will be reduced and a sensor
can detect this change. When the tension changes, a mechanism stops
the line from lowering and begins to retrieve the line. A spool is used
to reel the line in and the number of rotations the spool uses to reel the
line completely to the top is measured and converted to a level
measurement. Some of these sensors use a magnet in the spool and
the number of times the magnet passes a detector is counted. In other
applications a rotary potentiometer is connected to the spool and the
number of rotations is converted directly into a change of resistance.

32
In both types of sensors, the transducer signal is converted to a usable

4-20 mA output signal. (Input Devices, 2015)
4. Differential
Pressure Level
Sensor
This type of sensor uses the head pressure principles in determining

the level of liquid in a storage tank. The pressure sensor in this type of
instrument uses strain-gauge technology which is integrated into a
flexible diaphragm.
6.3 Using Weigh to Measure Level
Additional method to determine the level of liquid or granular solids in a tank is to weigh the
tank when it is empty and when it is full and develop a scale. For example, if a tank weighs
2000kg when it is empty and 3200kg when it is full, this means that the material weight 1200kg
when it is full. If the tank has a uniform shape, the material in the tank weight 600kg when it is
half full and 300kg when it is quarter full. A ratio can be developed by dividing the total weight
of the material by 100%. This means that 1% equals 12 kg. If the tank is in non-uniform shape,
a table will need to be developed to determine the weight at each height of the tank because
the values will not be linear. Figure below shows how weight is used to measure the level of
tanks.

33
Figure 12 Weighing System
The weighing system in this type of application uses load cell technology to measure
the weight. This type of sensor depends on the weight of the material to determine the level
in the tank. For this reason it is important that the material does not become wet because its
weight would not be the same as when dry and the instrument would think the tank was fuller
than it actually is.

7.0 POSITION SENSORS
Linear and rotary motion are used in many other sensors to sense pressure, flow, level and
temperature. In industrial application, position sensors are used to measure the distance
moved for many positioning and robotic applications.
The linear and rotary motion can be interchanged using ball screw mechanisms and
rack and pinion devices. Ball screw mechanisms can change rotary motion to linear motion.
While rack and pinion devices can change linear motion to rotary motion and vice versa. Figure
below shows an example of a rack-and-pinion and a ball screw mechanism.
Figure 13 a) Ball Screw Mechanism b) Rack and Pinion Mechanism
There are various types of position sensors available in the industrial applications.
Table 7 below shows the types of position sensors.
Table 7 Position Sensors
No. Position Sensors Working Principles

1. Linear Potentiometer
This type of sensor is a fixed resistor with a flexible

tap that allows the amount of resistance between the
tap and either end of the resistor to provide a portion
of the total resistance (0-100%).

35
2. Rotary Potentiometer
In this sensor, the shaft of the rotary potentiometer

converts rotary motion into a change of resistance.
There are either single-turn type or multiple-turn type.
The single-turn potentiometer permits the revolving
shaft to move the wiper from one end of the fixed
resistor to the other in one shaft rotation. The
revolution of the shaft is in degrees (0-360°). So, the
amount of resistance for each degree can be verified,
and then the amount of measured resistance can be
converted to angular displacement.
3. Linear Variable Differential
Transformers (LVDT)
This type of sensor is a position sensor that utilizes a

primary transformer winding and two identical
secondary transformer windings. These windings are
wound around a hollow tube which gives a cavity for
a movable core. The movable core is fixed to the part
of the system whose position is being measured. The
movable core provides a magnetic linkage between
the primary and secondary windings. When the
movable core is near the secondary winding, it will

36
produce the maximum amount of voltage, and when

the core is not near the secondary winding, the
secondary winding will produce the least amount of
voltage because the transformer essentially has an air
core at that time.
4. Magnetostrictive Type
Position Sensor
This type of position sensor uses a magnetic field that

is distorted as a waveguide is moved through the field
to determine position.
5. Proximity Switches
The proximity switch uses a principle called eddy

current killed oscillator and it is often called ECKO
switch. The proximity switch is a non-contact limit
switch.
6. Hall-Effect Sensors
This type of sensor works on a simple

electromagnetic principle. It provides a noncontact
means to detect and measure magnetic field

37
7. Linear and Rotary Encoders
An encoder is an electromechanical device that

monitors motion or position. Most encoders utilize
optical sensors to provide a series of pulses that can
be translated into motion, position, or direction. The
rotary disk is very thin and a stationary light-emitting
diode (LED) is mounted so that its light will continually
be focused through the glass disk. A light-activated
transistor is mounted on the other side of the disk so
that it can detect the light from the LED. The disk is
attached to the shaft of a motor or other device whose
position is being detected. When the shaft turns, the
disk also turns. When the disk lines up so the light
from the LED is focused on the phototransistor, the
phototransistor will go into saturation and an electrical
square wave pulse is produced. (Input Devices, 2015)
A linear encoder has two identical rectangular pieces

of glass that are both etched with opaque and
transparent segments. One of the pieces of glass is
fixed and the other moves by a sliding arm that is
attached to the movable part of a machine or robot.
When the robot or machine moves, the arm moves
the sliding piece of glass past the fixed piece of glass.

38
At each point along its movement, the opaque and

transparent segments of glass will create unique light
patterns (on and off segments) that are decoded into
a binary number that indicates a position. (Input
Devices, 2015)
8. Incremental Rotary
Encoders
Most incremental encoders have a second set of

pulses that is offset from the first set of pulses and a
single pulse which indicates each time the encoder
wheel has completed one revolution. Diagram 1
(below) illustrates an example of the two sets of
pulses that are offset. Since the two sets of pulses are
out of phase from each other, it's possible to
determine which direction the shaft is rotating by the
amount of phase shift between the first set and
second set of pulses. The first set of pulses are called
the A pulses, and the second set of pulses are called
the B pulses. A third light source is used to detect a
single pulse that appears once per revolution. This
pulse is called the command pulse, which is used to
count revolutions of the shaft where the encoder is
connected. (Input Devices, 2015)
9. Absolute Encoders
The absolute encoder in such a way that the machine

will always know its location. It has alternating opaque
and transparent segments like the incremental

39
encoder but the absolute encoder uses multiple

groups of segments that form concentric circles on the
encoder wheel like a "bull's eye" on a target or dart
board. The concentric circles start in the middle of the
encoder wheel and as the rings go out toward the
outside of the ring they each have double the number
of segments than the previous inner ring. The first
ring, which is the innermost ring, has one transparent
and one opaque segment. The second ring out from
the middle has two transparent and two opaque
segments, and the third ring has four of each
segment. If the encoder has ten rings, its outermost
ring will have 512 segments. If it has 16 rings it will
have 32,767 segments. (Input Devices, 2015)
10. Resolvers
Resolvers are used in accurate servo and robot

systems to measure angular displacement. Their
signal can be differentiated to obtain the velocity. The
rotor is connected with the rotating object and
contains a primary coil supplied by an alternating
current from a source voltage vref. The stator consists
of two windings separated by 90 o, with induced
voltages.

8.0 MOTION SENSORS
There are various types of motion sensors are being used in the industrial applications to
measure acceleration, velocity and speed. Both angular or linear speed and velocity are
important to be measured. The devices used to determine these values usually perform
indirect methods, such as utilizing piezoelectric materials to measure stress and the amount
of motion resulted is then calculated.
8.1 Accelerometer
Accelerometers are sensors that convert the motion that denotes the attribute of acceleration
into an electrical signal. In the industrial applications, accelerometers are used widely as
vibration monitoring devices for machines, structures and other types of motion detecting
devices for mines, highways and bridges. This is because small amounts of vibrations or
motions can be detected by the accelerometers can be amplified using signal conditioning.
These small signals are very important for early failure detection in most machines and
structures.
Acceleration is usually determined in rate of change of velocity over time (dv/dt) or by

Newton's law of motion that states force is equal to mass times acceleration. Hence, it is
feasible to determine acceleration by measuring the force and dividing it by the mass. Most
accelerometers employ quartz or ceramic crystals to produce a piezoelectric effect that is then
converted into an electrical output.
There are several types of accelerometers available in the industries, which are
seismic mass accelerometer, piezoelectric accelerometer, capacitive accelerometer,
piezoresistive accelerometer and thermal accelerometer. Figure 14 shows the types of
accelerometers.
Figure 14 Different types of accelerometer

41
Seismic mass accelerometer functions as a seismic mass is connected to the object

undergoing acceleration through a spring and a damper. While piezoelectric accelerometers
works as a microscopic crystal structure is attached on a mass that is having acceleration.
The piezo crystal is stressed by acceleration forces hence producing a voltage. The capacitive
accelerometer consists of two microstructures, which are micromachined features, forming a
capacitor. The acceleration forces move one of the structure causing a capacitance changes.
On the other hand, piezoresistive accelerometer consists of a beam or micromachined feature
whose resistance changes with acceleration. Lastly, thermal accelerometer traces position of
a heated mass during acceleration by detecting the temperature.
8.2 Tachometer
Tachometers are devices used to measure the angular speed of a rotating shaft. The unit for
speed measurement of a shaft is revolutions per minute (rpm). Figure 15 below shows a
tachometer used in the industries.
Figure 15 A set of tachometer
Tachometers are usually employed by the industries to measure the speed of a motor
shaft for motor drives on conveyors, as well as the speed of rotation of the screw shaft on a
plastic injection moulding machine. Both of the speed must be controlled in order to get the
optimum productivity and quality requirements.
There are three types of tachometers, which are DC generator tachometer, drag-cup
tachometer and frequency-type tachometer. DC generator tachometer and drag-cup
tachometer work like an unregulated generator. The faster the generators run, the more
voltage they generate. The difference between these tachometers is that DC generator
tachometer generates a DC voltage, while drag-cup tachometer generates AC voltage.
The frequency-type tachometer counts pulses formed by a rotating field tachometer,
toothed rotor tachometer or the photocell tachometer.

42
9.0 pH SENSORS
pH scale is a scale that shows the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is based on the
concentration of hydrogen ions (H+ and OH-) in a solution. The pH scale is a number scale
that runs from 0-14. Figure 16 below shows the pH scale.
Figure 16 pH Scale
pH sensors are used to measure the pH scale in the solution. The pH measurement is
essential for water-quality standards and treatment. If processed water from an industrial plant
is to be returned to a river, it must be neutral, so it will be analysed to determine if it is acidic.
If it is acidic, alkaline material will be added to become a neutral solution. There are various
types of pH sensors are available in industrial applications. These sensors have a probe and
a signal conditioner. The probe is positioned in a location where it can test the liquid being
measured. Figure 17 below shows an example of pH sensor commonly used in industries.
Figure 17 pH Sensor

43
10.0 HUMIDITY SENSORS
Relative humidity is the amount of moisture in the air compared to the total amount of moisture
that the air could retain when it is 100% saturated. It is vital to monitor the amount of air
moisture in industrial applications such as printing, plastic injection moulding raw material
storage and semiconductor manufacturing plant. Figure 18 below shows a type of humidity
sensor used in industrial application.
Figure 18 Humidity Sensor
Most of humidity sensors have temperature measuring device as the relative humidity
depends on temperature. After the sensors have measured the relative humidity, their signals
are normally used in feedback systems for dehumidifiers or humidifiers to adjust the humidity
to the required point.

11.0 GAS DETECTORS
In the industrial application, it is essential to measure different types of gases. Usually gas
detectors are used to determine the gases used in certain process of the manufacturing or
also to detect even small amounts of any harmful gas that can be dangerous to the
environment and to the individual. Figure 19 below shows a cutaway picture of a gas detector.
Figure 19 Cutaway picture of a gas detector
When gases must be measured, commonly mass flow meter apparatuses are also
employed. The amount of gas must be detected and measured to confirm the proper amount
is being added to a process, or the amount must be verified for billing. Gas detector must use
a sealed sensing head and a signal conditioner to provide a signal that can be used as an
indicator or alarm.

12.0 CASE STUDY: INPUT DEVICES IN CEMENT MANUFACTURING
12.1 Introduction
Cement manufacturing is one of the most challenging industries. This is because of the
environment of this type of plant has high concentrations of dust, extremes of temperature,
severe mechanical stresses on operating equipment and the process produces contamination
at all stages of production, from the procurement and milling of raw materials to final packing
and loading. Figure 20 and Figure 21below shows the typical environment of cement
manufacturing plants.
Figure 20 Cement Manufacturing Plant: Limestone Blasting Area
Figure 21 Cement Manufacturing Plant in Perlis, Malaysia
Figure 22 below shows the cement manufacturing process.

46
Figure 22 Cement Manufacturing Process
The process begins with limestone quarrying. Conventional explosive used for this
purpose. The limestone is then crushed using limestone crusher. The crushed limestone are
stored at limestone stockpile using conveyor. The crushed limestone are milled together with
clay and silica using raw mill to fine flour-like raw meal and it is then stored in blending silos.
The third process is heating process of the raw meal in kiln to dissociate calcium carbonate to
calcium oxide with the other components to form calcium silicates and aluminates and become
clinker. The clinker is then milled with a small amount of gypsum and becomes the final
product, which is cement. Cement is then transported to the cement silo and packaging section
through pneumatic conveying system.
Realizing the environment of cement manufacturing plant, proper selection of input

devices must be done to ensure the process flows are smooth as well as to control the cost of
procurement. The sensors must be physically robust to function with flying debris and high
vibration. Because of the dusty and corrosive environment, the input devices must have
corrosion protections. The input devices also must have good signal-to-noise ratio for bearing
defect detection. They must have low frequency response within 0.2 Hz. This is for very low
rotational speed of rolls. For high temperature measurement in rotary kiln, the input devices
used must be sustainable to heat.

47
12.2 Input Devices in Different Processes in Cement Manufacturing
12.2.1 Vibration Monitoring

There are many rotating components are used in cement manufacturing plant. These
components are found in the motors, pumps and fans that used in crushers, mills,
precipitators, kilns and silos. Even though the components are often protected with covers to
prevent the ingression of fine particles such as dust, the dust still can penetrate the
components.
Ingression of fine particles can lead to problems such as worn rotating parts,
mechanical imbalance, loose components and rubbing parts. However, this vibration can be
detected by appropriate sensors as these sensors can detect very low levels of vibration and
tiny changes in one vibration state to another. So, the appropriate action can be taken to avoid
malfunctionality of the components. Figure 23 shows accelerometer used in cement
manufacturing plant.
Figure 23 Accelerometer
In cement manufacturing applications typically use 4-20mA accelerometers connected

to Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) systems. Each sensor is hard-wired to a sealed local
junction box and then multicore cable is used to connect to a PLC or higher level control
system. This enables the accelerometers to be used for real time monitoring, alarm and critical
data analysis.
12.2.2 Lime Crushing Process

From the blasting process, large pieces of rock are freed from the solid bedrock. They are
then reduced to a small, uniform size by primary and secondary jaw and roller crushers.
It is important to ensure wear on the wear on the crushers as low as possible because
this will assure an efficient operation. This is done by monitoring the filling of the crushers. For
this purpose, either continuous lever sensors or point level sensors can be used, depending

48
on the types and methods of crusher feeding. Figure 24 shows the locations of level sensors
in the limestone crusher.
Figure 24 Sensors Location Inside Limestone Crusher
There are two types of level sensors commonly used in limestone crusher which are
radar sensor and microwave sensor. Radar sensor provides continuous measurement for
keeping the level within the ideal range. While microwave sensor detects the overfilling of the
crushers.
12.2.3 Major Raw Materials and Cement Products Storage Tanks

The raw materials, raw meals, clinkers and cement products are stored in silos. The storage
quantity of these materials can be detected using the level. This is for easy control and efficient
management to the company.
Level sensors are mounted in the silos to detect the level of the materials. There are
several types of level sensors used, which are Capacitance Level Switch, Rotary Paddle Level
Switch, Tuning Fork Level Switch, Vibrating Probe Level Switch, Electromechanical
Measuring System and RF-Capacitance Level Transmitter.
Figure 25 and Figure 26 show the location of the level sensors in the storage silos of
materials used in cement manufacturing plants.

49
Figure 25 Level Sensors Inside Silo
Figure 26 RF-Capacitance Level Transmitter
12.2.4 Heating Process in Kiln

In kiln, the raw meal is heated up to 1450̊C to become clinker. The temperature of heating
process are closely monitored to ensure the exact quality of clinker. Thermocouples are used
as temperature sensor for this purpose. Figure 27 shows types of thermocouples used in this
industry.
Figure 27 Thermocouples

50
As the heating process releases gases to the environment, it is important to monitor

the certain pollutants gases emitted by the cement plant. Gas measuring sensor is used for
this purpose. Figure 28 shows the location of this gas detector in the kiln exhaust.
Figure 28 Gas Detectors Inside Kiln
12.2.5 Transportation Equipment

There are two types of material handling system or transportation system in cement
manufacturing, which are using air-compressor conveying system and conveyor belt.
Pneumatic conveying is an effective method for transporting the raw meal and cement
inside the cement works. Input devices are used as a device in conveying control system to
ensure a stable flow of material through the pipes and channels of the conveying systems,
and for reliable monitoring of the compressors and feed pipes. For this purpose, pressure
sensors are used to ensure the smooth functionality of compressors and conveyor pipes.
Figure 29 below shows the location of pressure sensor in the pneumatic conveying system.
Figure 29 Sensor Location in Pneumatic Conveying System
The second type of material transportation is using conveyor belt. It is vital to ensure
the conveyor belt runs smoothly. This is to ensure optimum productivity of the cement
manufacturing.

51
Figure 30 below shows laser volume flow meter is used in the conveyor belting system.
This sensor gives non-contact detection of the volume flow on conveyor belts, based on the
principle of laser light time-of-flight measurement.
Figure 30 Laser Volume Flow Meter
13.0 CONCLUSION
As the types of sensors and the usage of the sensors had been discussed, we can conclude
that it is important to understand the working principles of the sensors in order to know what
is the best input device to be used in the process.
It is also important to know the condition of the industries in order to select the best
criteria of the input devices. The measurands and the characteristics of the signals to be
processed by the controller also must be identified so that the correct input devices output can
be produced and later be processed by the controller.
14.0 REFERENCES
How They Work. (22 December, 2015). Retrieved from SensorLand:

http://www.sensorland.com/
Input Devices. (22 December, 2015). Retrieved from Industrial Electronics Information for
Manufacturing Applications: http://www.industrial-electronics.com/
Kissel, T. E. (1997). Industrial Electronics. Prentice-Hall.


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ADVANCED INDUSTRIAL

Name: Nur Aini Syakimah binti Ahmad Shuyuti

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

Definition of sensor is that it is a device which provides a usable output in response to

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

Figure 1 Resistive temperature device (RTD) connected to a bridge circuit

Figure 2 Photocell that changes its resistance when light strikes it

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

Figure 3 Photoconductive cell that is connected to an op amp.

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

Temperature sensors measure the amount of heat or coldness that is produced by an

As shown in Figure 4, thermocouple has two junctions of different metals, such as

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

2.2 Resistive Temperature Detector (RTD)

Figure 5 Resistive Temperature Detector (RTD)

RTD is usually used in incinerators for automatic temperature measurement. As a

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

A thermistor is a type of resistor that is used to measure temperature changes, depending on

Thermistor is widely used as temperature measurement. It is also used in the time

2.4 Integrated Circuit (IC) Solid-State Temperature Sensor

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

Thermostat is a non-electrical temperature sensor. It is a contact type electromechanical

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

3.1 Types of Pressure Sensors

Table 1 below shows different types of pressure sensors.

No. Types of Pressure Working Principles

This type of sensor is called manometer (water) or

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

2. Bourdon Tube Pressure

This type of pressure sensor has radially formed tubes

The diaphragm pressure sensor is designed to measure

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

converted to a change of resistance and then to a

This type of pressure sensor measures the difference

This sensor made of a sealed chamber that has multiple

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

6. Pressure Transducers and

Pressure transducer is a device that can be threaded

In this type of sensor, when pressure is applied to the

This sensor uses a thin diaphragm, as one plate of a

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

in pressure cause it to deflect and change the

A strain gauge consists of a grid of very fine wire that is

3.2 Load Cell

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

Figure 8 Load Cells

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

4.0 FLOW SENSORS

4.1 Pressure-Drop-Based Flow Meter

Table 2 Pressure-Drop-Based Flow Meters

No. Types of Sensor Working Principles

A venturi is a point in a pipe that has been narrowed so that

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

The front face of the pipe is rounded so that fluid flow is

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

The pressure of fluid will exhibit a slight pressure differential

A weir is a narrowing of an open channel to create an

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)

4.2 Velocity Flow Meters

Table 3 Velocity Flow Meters

No. Types of Sensors Working Principles

In this type of sensor, the turbine wheel is attached directly

NUR AINI SYAKIMAH BINTI AHMAD SHUYUTI (KGZ150001)