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NEBOSH International General Certificate

Week 2 Element 8
Physical and Psychological Health Hazards
and Control

Learning Outcomes
On completion of this element, the candidate should be able to:

8.1 Outline the health affects associated with exposure to noise

and appropriate control.
8.2 Outline the health affects associated with exposure to
vibration and appropriate control.
8.3 Outline the principle health affects associated with heat,
ionising and non-ionising radiation and the basic protection
techniques.
8.4 Outline the causes and effects of stress at work and
appropriate control actions.

Noise at Work

What is Noise ?
Noise is unwanted sound.

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THE EAR
Ear drum
Outer Ear

Middle Ear

Cochlea
Inner Ear

Ear lobe

Hearing Loss
There are 2 types of hearing loss:

Conductive
• The inability of the sound waves to be conducted
to the Inner ear

Sensory Neural (Nerve Deafness)

• Not generally correctable and is due to damage of
the hair follicles in the Cochlea

Health Effects From Noise

CHRONIC EFFECTS (LONG TERM) ACUTE EFFECTS (SHORT TERM)

- Tinnitus – is ringing or similar sound in

- Trauma from loud sudden noise e.g.
the ears caused by over-stimulation of
explosion causing a burst eardrum.
the hair cells. It can be acute, chronic,
permanent or intermittent.
- Temporary Threshold shift - the hearing
is affected at a specific frequency but
- Permanent Threshold shift from long
recovers after a period of time.
duration exposure – permanent damage.

- Short term Tinnitus – the over stimulation

- Loss of Frequency – caused by damage
of the auditory nerves
to the hair cells of the inner ear.

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Secondary Effects

Secondary effects – e.g. stress, loss of

concentration, muscular tension, tightening blood
vessels, raised heart beat and effects on the
digestive system.

Terms Used In Noise

The main definitions are:

1. SOUND PRESSURE
Sound pressure is the local pressure deviation at a specific point
from the ambient atmospheric pressure, caused by a sound wave.

2. INTENSITY
Intensity is the measurement of the sound pressure level and is
measured in Decibels.

3. FREQUENCY
This is the pitch of the sound and is the number of wave fronts
passing a given point in one second and is measured in HERTZ.

THE DECIBEL SCALE

dB(A) refers to ‘A Weighted’ scale: It mimics the response
to the various frequencies of the human ear.

dB(C) refers to ‘C Weighted’ scale: This is use only for very

high frequency noise levels. Commonly used to measure
peak levels.

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Noise Risk Assessment

The assessment should consider:

 The risk of hearing impairment

 The degree of interference to speech communications
essential for safety purposes
 The risk of nervous fatigue, with due consideration to the
mental and physical workload and other non-auditory hazards
or effects

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Noise Prevention
For the prevention of adverse effects of noise, employers
should:
 Identify the sources of noise
 Seek advice from authorities / health services about exposure
limits and other standards
 Seek advice from supplier about expected noise emission
 Take account of noise changes throughout the day
 Record risk assessment
 Reassessment when there are any changes

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Noise Prevention
Some factors that could alter the noise exposure are:

Changes in the number of hours worked in noisy places.

Changes in the work pattern.
The introduction of different machinery or processes.
The implementation of noise control measures.

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Measuring Instrument: Noise Dosimeters

They are ideal for measurements over an entire shift, or for a
period of several hours during a shift.

 The microphone should be positioned on the shoulder of the

subject.
 The microphone should be prevented from touching the neck,
rubbing on, or being covered by, clothing or protective
equipment since this may distort the readings.
 People wearing dosimeters should be instructed not to
interfere with the instrument or microphone

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 They should also be instructed not to speak more than is

necessary as a person’s own voice should not be included in
an assessment
 Dose readings should relate to actual true noise exposure,
not false input from unrepresentative noise sources when the
meter is not supervised, for example artificial bangs, whistling,
blowing and tampering with the microphone.

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Comparison of Measurements to Exposure

Limits Established By Competent Authorities
The UK Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005, regulation 4 sets
out exposure limit values and action values.

1. The lower exposure action values are:

- a daily or weekly personal noise exposure of 80 dB (A-weighted);
and
a peak sound pressure of 135 dB (C-weighted).

2. The upper exposure action values are:

a daily or weekly personal noise exposure of 85 dB (A-weighted);
and
a peak sound pressure of 137 dB (C-weighted).

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3. The exposure limit values are:

a daily or weekly personal noise exposure of 87 dB (A-weighted);
and
a peak sound pressure of 140 dB (C-weighted).

4. Where the exposure of an employee to noise varies markedly from

day to day, an employer may use weekly personal noise exposure
in place of daily personal noise exposure for the purpose of
compliance with these Regulations.

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How is noise transmitted

There are three main ways noise can be transmitted:

Direct - Through the air from noise source to receiver

Reflected - Via walls, ceilings, and other structures

Ground and structure - Structure borne through wall or floor

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Noise Path

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Noise Control Technique

Source Path Receiver

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Noise Control Techniques

1. Source: Design, maintenance/lubrication, reduce
speed/energy

2. Path: location, enclosure, silencers, absorption,

damping, isolation, lagging, screens

3. Receiver: ear protection, job rotation

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On Plant
• Tighten loose equipment
• Regular lubrication
• Eliminate unnecessary gas or air leaks
• Properly adjust machinery
• Padded containers for catching components
• Switch equipment off - fans
• Use rubber or plastic bushes
• Specify noise emissions levels in equipment orders
• Check condition of installed noise control equipment

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2) Path - noise control measures

Distance
Move source away from noise sensitive area

Enclosure
Surround the noise source with sound insulating material

Silencers
Reducing noise using absorbent materials or baffles - exhaust
pipes etc.

Absorption
Surrounding/obstructing noise source with absorbent materials

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Damping
Reduction in structure born noise by use of rubber/cork,
springs etc

Isolation
By distance or sound proofed rooms.

Lagging
Insulation of pipes to reduce sound transmission.

Screens
Acoustic screens placed on the path

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3) RECEIVER
Practical measures that could be taken to reduce exposure to
excessive noise in the workplace are:
 Lubrication and maintenance
 Change the process
 Reduce energy
 Isolation
 Silencing
 Enclosure
 Insulation
 Absorption
 Damping
 PPE
 Reduce time of exposure

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Noise control programme - three

orders of priority
 Engineer the problem out by buying low noise
equipment, altering the process or changing operating
procedures
 Apply conventional methods of noise control such as
enclosures or silencers
 Last resort of providing personal protection should be
taken.

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Types Of Hearing Protection

Ear Plugs
• Inexpensive  Uncomfortable - long use
• Disposable, hygienic  Difficult to check for usage
• No interference with PPE  Training needed

Ear Muffs or Ear Defenders

• Comfort  Expensive
• Easy check for usage  Hygiene issue
• Reusable  Interfere with other PPE

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Selection of Hearing Protection

Factors to consider when selecting hearing protection
include:
• Comfort and fit
• Maintenance and care
• Training, information and instructions
• Issue to visitors – consider also hygiene issues
• Personal choice
• Noise reduction

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Maintenance of Hearing Protection

Proper care and maintenance of earplug or earmuff is

important to ensure optimal fit and protection over time.
Basic maintenance may be carried out by the wearer,
however intricate or specialise maintenance must be
carried out by trained and competent specialist.

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Hearing Protection
In summary, personal protective equipment (hearing
protection) should be the last choice because:
 It is not effective if not worn correctly or is not
maintained.
 It needs management attention to ensure its use.
 It may introduce secondary risks (failure to hear
alarms, instructions, vehicles.

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Reasons why people DO NOT

wear hearing protection
• Poor fit • Hygiene
• Resistance to use • Supervision
• Uncomfortable • Deterioration
• Incompatibility • Abuse
• Communication • Poor attenuation
interference

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Role of Health Surveillance

Where an assessment indicate a risk exists, health surveillance
is required to provide early diagnosis of loss of hearing and to
protect the hearing function.
If a doctor or specialists identifies a worker to have suffered from
hearing loss as a result of their work, the employer must ensure
that:
 The worker to be informed immediately by a competent
person
 Arrange for the person to be transferred to a different job to
reduce noise exposure

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Role of Health Surveillance

 Conduct a risk assessment
 Implement further control measures to risk to noise
exposure
 Continue with health surveillance

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Advantages of audiometric testing

 A pre-employment benchmark is obtained. New
employees may have existing hearing loss from previous
employment.
It is inexpensive.
It can be used to defend a civil compensation claim.
The symptoms of hearing loss can be detected at an
early stage.
The effectiveness of noise control measures are verified if
results indicate no adverse health effects.

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Limitations of audiometric testing

 It may detect irreversible damage.
 It may actually assist a civil compensation claim.
 The results depend upon the competence of the
tester and the calibration of the equipment.
 The subject can falsify the results.
 External noise interference may affect the results

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Occupations with Potential Noise

Exposure Problems
 Construction sites
 Entertainment sector
 Manufacturing industry
 Call centres
 Uniformed services

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8.2 Vibration

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Vibration
 Vibration is the term given to movement of a body back
and forth around a fixed point.
 Hand transmitted vibration - the use of hand held
equipment where the vibration energy is transferred to the
person
 Whole body vibration (WBV) – person’s body is supported
by a vibrating surface, e.g. sitting in a vibrating seat such
as a moving vehicle

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Vibration
Hand Arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVS):

• Associated with the use of hand held vibrating equipment -

jack hammers, compactors, grinders.

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Common effects of HAVS

Acute:
• Tingling or pins and needles in the hands and
extremities
Chronic:
• Numbness and blanching of the fingers
• Swollen painful joints
• Reduction in manual dexterity
• Reduction in the sensation of touch

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Risk Factors of vibrating tools

• Frequency of the vibration of equipment
• Amount of the energy (magnitude)
• Strength of the grip and other forces
• Duration of exposure - time
• Frequency of exposure
• Low temperature
• Individual factors – age, health

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Whole-Body Vibration (WBV)

Health Effects

 Lower back pain caused by various mechanisms of

vibration on the musculo-skeletal system of the body,
allowing tissues and nerves to be strained and pinched
leading to various back problems.
 Other health effects are piles, high blood pressure,
kidney disorders and impotence.

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Comparison of Measurements to
Exposure Limits
• Level of vibration and/or duration of exposure should
not exceed limits established by competent authority or
other internationally recognized standards.
• These standard tests facilitate comparison of the
vibration emissions of different models of equipment
and to be suitable for initial estimates of exposure.

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Control Measures For Vibrating Tools

• Eliminate the use of vibrating tools
• Select low vibration equipment
• Select ergonomically designed equipment
• Maintain equipment
• Reduce grip forces required
• Reduce exposure time
• Introduce health surveillance
• Provide gloves and heated pads
• Information and training on risks and injuries

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Work in cold areas

• Wearing gloves.
• Using heating pads to keep their hands warm.
• Tools with heated handles.
• Avoiding pneumatic exhausts, which discharged towards
the workers hands.
• Arrangements to allow warm up before starting work and
during work periods.
• Wearing warm weatherproof clothing in cold or wet areas.

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Role of Health Surveillance

Health surveillance should be conducted where there is a
risk of exposure to vibration. This will assist in the
identification of early signs of effects and for preventative
measures to be implemented to limit and control
exposure. An Occupational Health Specialist will usually
examine the hands to identify signs of blanching and
tingling.

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8.3 Radiation

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RADIATION

• Ionising Radiation
• Non-ionising Radiation

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Difference Between Non-ionising And

Ionising Radiation
Non-ionising radiation is electromagnetic e.g. visible light, ultra-
violet light, infrared light, radio waves or microwaves, may
deposit thermal energy in the body or have no effect at all.

Ionising radiation is not electromagnetic but is particulate, e.g.

alpha, beta, gamma, neutron and x-ray radiation, has sufficient
energy to cause chemical changes to biological molecules,
which can lead to ill-health effects. A large exposure to ionising
radiation may damage cells or tissues. Sources of ionising
radiation are radioactive materials and x-ray machines.

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Ionising Radiation
• Alpha – 2 protons and 2 neutrons – penetration 2cm in air
• Beta – High speed electron – penetration 80cm in air
• Gamma – Elecromagnetic – penetration 100m in air
• X-Ray – Elecromagnetic – similar to gamma radiation but
lower energy
• Neutrons – Very penetrating particles. Stopped by very
thick layers of concrete or water

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Radiation – Penetrating Power

Skin or paper stops Thin aluminium Thick Lead stops

Alpha stops Beta Gamma

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Using Alpha Particles in a Smoke Detectors

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BETA Radiation

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GAMMA Radiation

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X Ray

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Ionising Radiation Effects

Acute Effects Chronic Effects

• Tissue destruction • Cataracts

• Sterility • Cancer
• Burns • Possible genetic defects -
• Loss of hair abnormalities
• Radiation sickness
• Fatigue
• Death
• Still births

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Control Measures - Ionising Radiation

• Time: reduce exposure time or exposure frequency
through job rotation

• Distance: increase the distance between the source and

the individual

• Shielding: physical barrier between source and individual

• PPE: lead aprons

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Non-Ionising Radiation

• Ultra violet (UV)

• Infra red radiation (IR)

• Microwaves

• Lasers

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Ultra-Violet
Welding, sun rays
Two main hazards effects on
skin and eyes

Infra-red
Hot metal e.g. foundries
Heat and for eyes risk of
cataracts

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Lasers

Cutting Surgery
Eyes - damage from mild retina burns to permanent blindness

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Microwave

Risk of burns to skin and eyes

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Protection from non-ionising

radiation
• Time - reducing duration of exposure
• Distance - increasing distance between
source and person
• Shielding - isolating people from the source
• PPE – hats, sun block, clothes

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STRESS

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Stress Awareness
What is Stress?

A reaction people have to excessive pressures or

other types of demands placed upon them

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Stress
Home Work
• Sickness • Kind of work
• Children • Physical
• Marriage conditions
• Finances • Uncertainty
• Travel • Conflict
• Bereavement

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Factors that lead to stress

• Culture of the organisation
• Shift work, unsociable hours, excessive overtime
• Job insecurity - fear of redundancy
• Repetitive and monotonous work
• Lack of breaks and lack of control over job
• Work rate too high or too low
• The working environment
• Relationship problems with supervisors or peers
• Harassment and bullying
• Fear of violence
• Lack of communication
• Personal and social factors

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Work Problems Caused by Stress

Results in: This reflects in relationships

• Lack of motivation
• Lack of commitment
• Poor timekeeping
• Increases in mistakes
• Increases in absence
• Poor decision making
• Poor planning
at work as:
• Tension between colleagues and
supervisor
• Poor service to clients
• Industrial relations problems
• Increase in discipline problems

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Stress Control Measures

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