Particle Aspects of Cosmology

and
arXiv:hep-ph/0302020v1 4 Feb 2003

Baryogenesis∗
Riazuddin
National Center for Physics
Quaid-e-Azam University
Islamabad 45320 Pakistan
and
Department of Physics
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
Dhahran 31261 Saudi Arabia
February 1, 2008

Abstract
An introduction to particle aspects of cosmology with particular
refrence to primordial nucleosynthesis, dark matter and baryeogenesis
is provided. In particular, various scenarios–Grand Unified Theory
baryogenesis, electroweak baryogenesis and baryogenesis through lep-
togenesis are reviewed.

∗
Lectures delivered at Department of Physics, KFUPM, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia (April
2002 and September 2002).

1
1 Introduction
I will first discuss Nucleosynthesis and show how it leads to two big problems
in cosmology: Dark Matter and Baryogenesis. Before I discuss Primordial
Nucleo-synthesis, I give you some background:

Cosmology – Physics of Early Universe

↓
High Temperature
l
High Energy
↑
Particle Physics – Physics at Short Distances

2 Thermal Equilibrium
Consider an arbitrary volume V in thermal equilibrium with a heat bath at
temperature T . The particle density ni (i, particle index) at temperature T
is given by
!3 Z −1
Ni gi kB T ∞ E
  
ni = = 2 exp ±1 z 2 dz. (1)
V 2π h̄c 0 kB T

The energy density is given by

!3 −1 
gi kB T ∞ E E
Z    
2
ρi c = 2 (kB T ) exp ±1 z 2 dz 2 , (2)
2π h̄c 0 kB T kB T

where
qc   2 1/2 
z= , E = (qc)2 + mi c2 (3)
kB T
and gi are the number of spin states, q is the momentum of the particle and
mi is its mass. The + sign is for the fermions (F ) and − sign is for the bosons
(B). In particular for i = photon, m = 0, g = 2. In writing Eqs. (1) and (2),

2
we have put the chemical potential µi = 0. For photon µ = 0. Since particles
and antiparticles are in equilibrium with photons µi = −µī . If there is no
asymmetry between the number of particles and antiparticles, µi = µī = 0.
If the difference between the number of particles and antiparticles is small
compared with the number of photons,
 µi   µ 
   
  =  ī  ≪ 1 (4)

kB T   kB T 
and the chemical potential can be neglected. For the photon gas, we get from
Eqs. (1) and (2) [T0 = 2.7250 K, subscript 0 denotes the present value of the
temperature of cosmic background (CMB) radiation]
!3
ζ (3) kB T 1.2 1 3
 
nγ = 2 2 =2 2 (kB T )3 (5)
π h̄c π h̄c
 3
2.4 1
nγ0 = (kB T0 )3 = 410.50 cm−3 (6)
π 2 h̄c
3
T

nγ (T ) = 410.50 cm−3 , (7)
2.725
ζ (4) 1 3
 
ργ c2 = 6 2 (kB T )4
π h̄c
π2 1 3
 
= (kB T )4 ≃ 2.7nγ (kB T ) (8)
15 h̄c
ργ0 = 2.60 × 10−10 GeV cm−3 (9)
The zeta functions are defined as follows
Z ∞ 2
z dz
= Γ (3) ζ (3)
0 ez − 1
Z ∞ 2
z dz 
−2
 3
z
= 1 − 2 Γ (3) ζ (3) = Γ (3) ζ (3)
0 e +1 4
Z ∞ 3
z dz
= Γ (4) ζ (4)
0 ez − 1
Z ∞ 3
z dz 
−3
 7
z
= 1 − 2 Γ (4) ζ (4) = Γ (4) ζ (4)
0 e +1 8
For a gas of extreme relativistic particles (ER), kB T ≫ mi c2 , qc ≫ mi c2 , we
thus get
gB gB
   
nB = nγ , ρB = ργ (10a)
2 2

3
 3 gF 7 gF
   
nF = nγ , ρF = ργ . (10b)
4 2 8 2
The entropy S for the photon gas is given by

R3 4
S= ργ (T ) . (11)
T 3
For any relativistic gas
R3 4
S= ρ (T ) . (12)
T 3
Thus for a gas consisting of extreme relativistic particles (bosons and fermions):
(h̄ = c = 1)
1 ′
n(T ) = g (T ) nγ (T )
2
1.2 ′
= 2
g (T ) (kB T )3 (13)
π

1
ρ (T ) = g∗ (T ) ργ (T )
2
π2
= g∗ (T ) (kB T )4 (14)
30
R3 2
S= g∗ (T ) ργ (T ), (15)
T 3
where
3X
g ′(T ) =
X
gFgB + (16a)
B 4 F
X 7X
g∗ (T ) = gB + gF (16b)
B 8 F

are called the “effective” degrees of freedom. We note that entropy per unit
volume is given by

1 S s 2π 2
3
= = g∗ (T ) (kB T )3 . (17)
kB R kB 45

4
For non-relativistic gas kB T ≪ mi c2 , we use the Boltzmann distribution
!3 Z
gi kB T ∞ E
 
ni = 2 exp − z 2 dz (18)
2π h̄c 0 kB T

1 q 2 c2
" #
2
E ≈ mi c 1+ . (19)
2 (mi c2 )2
This gives
!3  !3/2 
mi c2
" #
gi kB T c2 /k BT
ni =  e−mi  (20)
(2π)3/2 h̄c kB T

ρi = ni mi . (21)
Expansion rate is given by the Hubble Parameter
Ṙ
H=
R
where [R (t) is a scale factor for distances in co–moving coordinates and
describes the expansion of the universe]
8πGN ρ 2 Λc2 R2
Ṙ2 = R − kc2 + (22)
3 3
The second term on the right hand side is due to curvature of space while the
third term containing the cosmological constant Λ, which being very small
(|Λ| < 3 × 10−52 m−2 ) is usually neglected. There is now evidence that k = 0
(in any case for early universe ρ ∼ 1/R4 and as such the second and third
terms on r.h.s. of Eq. (22) can be neglected compared to the first term).
Thus
Ṙ 8πGN ρ 1/2
 
H= ≃ (23)
R 3
For relativistic particles as already seen
π2
ρ (T ) = g∗ (T ) (kB T )4
30
and
X 7X
g∗ (T ) = gB + gF
Bosons 8 F

5
denote the effective degrees of freedom. Thus
s
2
4π 3 ∗ 1/2 (kB T )
H = [g (T )]
45 h̄Mpl
(kB T )2
= 1.66 [g ∗ (T )]1/2
h̄Mpl
!2
∗ 1/2 kB T
= 0.21 [g (T )] s−1 (24)
MeV
−1/2
where h̄Mpl = GN is the Planck mass: Mpl ≃ 1019 GeV.

2.1 Freeze Out

At high temperatures (kB T ≫ m), thermodynamic equilibrium is maintained
through the processes of decays, inverse decays and scatterings. As the uni-
verse cools and expands, the reaction rates will fail to keep up with the
expansion rate and there will come a time when equilibrium will no longer
be maintained. At various stages then, depending on masses and interaction
strengths, different particles will decouple with a “freeze out” surviving abun-
dance. We now determine conditions under which the statistical equilibrium
is established.
¿From dimensional analysis, the reaction rate for a typical process can be
written as follows. For the decay of a X−particle, the decay rate is given by
mX
γX = gd αX mX h i1/2 , (25)
(kB T )2 + m2X
f2
where mX is the mass of the X−particle, αX = 4πX is the measure of coupling
strength of X−particle to the decay products, and gd are number of spin
states for the decay channels.Note that

gd αX mX
(
kB T ≪ mX
γX ≈ m2 (26)
gd αX kBXT kB T ≫ mX .
The reaction rate for the collision processes is given by
[number of target particles per unit volume
γc = hσ vi
which is proportional to (kB T )3 ].

6
 Thus
2
gd αX (kB T )5
γc ≃ h i2 (27)
(kB T )2 + m2X
γ ≥ H Equilibrium (28)
γ ∼ H Freeze Out (29)
γ ≪ H Out of Equilibrium (30)

3 Primordial Nucleosynthesis
After the discovery of cosmic back ground radiation (CMB), the firse success
of big bang cosmology was the correct prediction of primordial abundance of
He (≃ 24%). This was cooked by nuclear reactions when the universe was
seconds old (T ≃ 1010 K= 1 MeV)
At temperatures ≥ 1 MeV, the weak reactions such as

ν̄e + p ↔ e+ + n
e− + p ↔ νe + n (31)

are still fast compared with the expansion rate of the universe to maintain
thermodynamic equilibrium between p and n. The abundance ratio at equi-
librium is given by
n
∼ e−∆m/(kB T ) , kB T > kB TD ∼ 1 MeV, t = 1 sec. (32)
p
Using ∆m = (mn − mp ) = 1.3 MeV and kB T = kB TD = 1 MeV, we find
n/p = 0.27. The rates for the above reactions are given by weak interactions
except that we have to take into account Pauli’s exclusion principle. Then
1 G2F Z 2 2 h i−1 h  i−1 
(n→p)
γ = 2 3 A Ee pν dpν 1 + eEν /kB T 1 − 1 + eEe /kT (33)
π h̄ π
where
 
A = gV2 + 3gA2 = gV2 1 + 3gA2 /gV2 , gA /gV ≃ 1.26, gV ≃ 0.9750, (34)

gV and gA are vector and axial vector coupling constants of the nucleon.
The second factor in the integral is due to Pauli Principle which suppresses

7
the rate by a factor equal to fraction of all states that are unfilled. For
kB T ≫ Q = (mn − mp ) we have
Ee ≃ Eν ≃ pν c = qc = (kB T ) z.
Thus we obtain
!3
1 G2 kB T ∞
Z h i−1
γ (n→p)
≃γ (p→n)
≃ 2 FA (kB T )2 z 4 dz [1 + ez ]−1 1 + e−z
π π h̄c 0

The integral can be evaluated by differentiating by parts

7 ∞ dz z4 ∞ z4
Z Z
z −1 ∞

Γ (4) ζ (4) = z3 = (1 + e )  − (−1) ez (1 + ez )−2
8 0 1 + ez 4 0 0 4
1Z ∞ 4 h i−1
= z [1 + ez ]−1 1 + e−z
4 0
Thus we get
!5
1 G2 7 7π 2 2   kB T
γ = 2 (kB T )5 F A· 6ζ (4) = GF gV 1 + gA2 (kB T )5 = 0.8 s−1
π π 2 30 MeV
(35)
The decoupling temperature is given by
γ = H (36)
!2
kB T
= 0.21g ∗1/2 s−1
MeV
where
7 7
 
∗
g = 2 1 + · 2 + · 1 · Nν
8 8
γ e± ν/ν̄
22 + 7Nν
=
4
This gives the decoupling temperature
!5 1/2 !2
kB TD 22 + 7Nν kB TD

0.8 = (0.21)
MeV ∆ MeV
" 1/2 #1/3
kB TD 0.21 22 + 7Nν

=
MeV 0.8 .2
≃ 1 (37)

8
if Nν = 3.
As the temperature cools past the decoupling temperature kB TD ≈ 1
MeV, it is no longer possible to maintain the thermal equilibrium. The ratio
n/p thereafter is frozen out and is approximately constant (it decreases slowly
due to weak decay of neutron). The freeze out n/p ratio is given by

Xn∗ = n/p ≈ e−Q/kB TD ≈ 0.16, (38)

Xn (t) = Xn∗ e−t/τn

where τn is neutron life time and we have used the Q−value Q = (mn −
mp ) + me = 1.8 MeV for the reactions (31). Helium nucleosynthesis occurs
at T < TS because of deuteron bottle neck. For T > TS , the deuteron formed
is knocked out by photo dissociation

γ + D → p + n,

since the binding energy ∆B for the deuteron is only 2.2 MeV. The formation
of deuteron actually starts after kB TS ≈ 0.1 MeV; TS is called nucleosynthesis
temperature. The estimate that kB TS ≈ 0.1 MeV can be obtained as follows
[η = nnB0
γ0
]:
ndiss
γ 1
∼ e−∆B/kB T ≤ 1. (39)
nB η
Thus
∆B
− ≈ ln η. (40)
kB TS
Using ∆B ≈ 2.2 MeV , and η ≈ 10−10 , we find kB TS ≈ 0.1 MeV.
For T > TS , photodissociation is so rapid that deuteron abundance is
negligibly small and this provides a bottleneck to further nucleosynethesis.
The deuteron “bottleneck” thus delay nucleosynthesis till kB T ≤ 0.1 MeV.
But once the bottleneck is passed, nucleosynthesis proceeds rapidly and es-
sentially all neutrons are incorporated into 4 He :

n+p → D+γ
D+D → 3 H + p, 3 He + n
3
H +D → 4 He + n
3
H + 4 He → 7 Li

9
It is clear from the above reactions that 4 He abundance is given by

2 (n / p) 0.32
Y = = = 0.276. (41a)
1+n / p 1.16

The ratio Y changes from TD to TS due to the neutron decay n → p+e− + ν̄e .
During this time n/p changes from 0.16 to 0.14. Thus at T = TS ,
0.28
Y = = 0.246. (41b)
1.14
It is clear from Eqs. (37) and (40) that

Nν ↑ =⇒ TD ↑=⇒ Xn∗ ↑=⇒ Xn (τN ) ↑=⇒ Y ↑

η ↓ =⇒ TS ↓=⇒ Xn ↓=⇒ Y ↓

We take Nν = 3 as given by LEP data and use Y to constraint η.

It turns out that a small amount of D remained unburned. The amount
of unburned D is very sensitive to η:

η↑ TS ↑, Y ↑⇒ less unburned D

Now D/H ratio in primeval samples of the universe has been measured.
The UV light (neutral H and D are seen by their UV absorption) came from
distant quasars and absorbers were pregalactic gas clouds. The abundance
was found to be:
D/H = (3.0 ± 0.1) × 10−5 ,
pinning
η = (6 ± 3) × 10−10 (42)
We now want to express it in terms of baryon density as a fraction of the
critical density ρc
nB0
ρB = mN nB , η = , nγ0 = 410.50cm−3
nγ0
ρB
ΩB =
ρc
3H02
ρc = = 1.054 × 10−5 h20 GeVcm−3
8πGN

10
H0 (the present value of Hubble parmater)

= 100h0 kms−1 Mpc−1

 −1
= h0 1 × 109 yr
h0 = 0.65 ± 0.05

Combining these relations

ΩB h20 = 366 × 105 η = (0.019 ± 0.001)

ΩB = 0.045 ± 0.01. (43)

This is confirmed by an independent determination of ΩB involving measure-

ments of microwave background (CMB) anisotropy, where the underlying
physics is very different, gravitational rather than nuclear. This gives

ΩB = 0.042 ± 0.008 (44)

in very good agreement with the value inferred from Big-Bang Nucleosyn-
thesis [BBN].

4 Dark Matter
At a large scale, measurements of velocity flows of galaxies give
ρm
Ωm = = 0.35 ± 0.007 (45)
ρc
Such a matter density is much larger than the visible matter density. This
implies that most of the mass in the universe is dark; it does not emit or
absorb any of the electromagnetic ratio. The value of ΩB given in Eq. (43)is
far below the amount of dark matter needed to hold structures in the universe
together. The situation is summarized in the pyramid shown in Fig. 1.
The detection of the CMB signature of acoustic oscillations in measuere-
ments of CMB anisotropy also implies

ΩT = 1.03 ± 0.06
Ωk = 0

11
In the inflationary scienario of the universe, Ω is driven to unity, in agreement
with the above observed value of Ω. Now from the relation (22)

Ṙ2 8π kc2 1 2
H2 = = G N ρ − + Λc
R2 3 R2 3
we obtain
1 = Ωm + Ωk + ΩΛ (46)
where we have expressed the cosmological constant in terms of vacuum energy
ρΛ :

Λc2 = 4πGN ρΛ (47)

ρΛ
ΩΛ =
ρc
Further Ωk = 0 and Ωm = 0.35 implies that

ΩΛ = 1 − Ωm
= 0.65 (48)

In anology with Dark matter, it is called the Dark energy. Finally

2
ρΛ ≃ ρc ≃ 3 × 103 eVcm−3 (49)
3
giving
Λ = 4 × 10−58 cm−3 (50)
The nature of both the Dark Matter and the Dark energy is a mystry.

4.1 Matter-antimatter asymmetry

We also note that η has another role. It appears that the Universe is matter-
antimatter
h asymmetric.
i For example anti-proton p̄ to proton p ratio in cosmic
p̄ −4
rays is p ∼ 10 . In general p and p̄ may annihilate if they are brought
togather. In a typical reaction

p + p̄ → γ + γ.

12
The question we wish to answer is, how does the interchange affect the nuclear
density nB or nB̄ . We start with nB = nB̄ . At T ≤ 1GeV, the equilibrium
abundance of nucleons and antinucleons is, using Eqs. (20) and (5)
nB n
η = = B̄
nγ nγ
gi 1 mN 3/2 −mN /kB T
 
= (2π)1/2 e (51)
2.4 4 kB T
The freeze out temperature T is given by
1
γann ≃ H = 1.66 (g ∗ )1/2 (kB T ∗ )2 (52)
Mpl

where
γann = nB hσvi
σ is the nucleon-antinucleon annhilation crosssection which we may take as
1
m2
with v ≃ c = 1. Thus using Eq. (20) for nB
π

!3/2
mN kB T ∗ ∗ 1 1
gi e−mN /kB T 2
= 1.66 (g ∗)1/2 (kB T ∗ )2 (53)
2π mπ Mpl

For nucleons (p, n) and antinucleons, gi = 8, and

7 7
g ∗ = gγ + gF = 2 + 8 = 9
8 8
mN
Putting x∗ = kB T ∗
we have

1 1 −x∗ 1
8 3/2
mN x∗1/2 2
e = 1.66 (9)1/2 (54)
(2π) mπ Mpl
∗ 8 1 Mpl
x∗−1/2 ex = mN ≃ 5 × 1019 (55)
3 (1.66) (2π)3/2 m2π

Hence x∗ = 47. Thus T ∗ = 20 MeV.

With T = T ∗ = 20 MeV, gi = 8, Eq (51) gives
nB n
η= = B̄ = 2 × 10−18 (56)
nγ nγ

13
This contradicts η = (6 ± 3) × 10−10 , which then reflect some primordial
baryon asymmetry in the universe. To summarize

nB → nB − nB̄
nB − nB̄
η = ≃ (6 ± 3) × 10−10 (57)
nγ

5 Baryogensis
5.1 Sakharov’s Conditions
Towards finding a solution of the second big problem of Cosmology, namly,
that of baryogensis (η ≃ 3 × 10−10 ), Sakharov’s three conditions, which we
enumerate below, must be satisfied: Assuming that the universe started with
a complete matter-antimatter symmetry in a standard big bang picture, one
can obtain matter-antimatter asymmetry in the universe provided that the
following three conditions are satisfied
(i) Underlying theory must posses

∆B 6= 0

where B is the baryon number.

(ii) Charge Conjugation, and CP symmetry must be violated; otherwise

nB →C,CP nB̄

So even if B is violated, one can never establish baryon-antibaryon asymme-

try unless C and CP are violated.
(iii) Departure from thermal equilibrium of X-particles mediating ∆B 6= 0
processes is necessary. This is because if all processes, including those which
violate baryon number, are in thermal equilibrium, the baryon asymmetry
vanishes. This is a direct consquence of the CP T invariance.
Proof:
The density matrix at time t is

ρ (t) = e−β(t)H(t) , (58)

14
 1
where β = kB T
. Equilibrium average of B is
 
hBiT = T r e−βH B̂
 
= T r θ−1 θe−βH B̂
 
= T r θe−βH B̂θ−1
 
= T r θe−βH θ−1 θB̂θ−1
  
= T r e−βH −B̂
 
= −T r e−βH B̂
= − hBiT (59)
where we have used the fact that H commutes with CP T ≡ θ. Thus hBiT =
0.
Finally to establish asymmetry dynamically, B violating processes must
be out of equilibrium in the Universe. This can be seen as follows:
"    #
d∆nB − m−µ
kB T
− m̄−µ̄
kB T
= − γ6B e − γ6B e (60)
dt
where γ6B denotes the rate for 6 B and µ is the chemical potential: µ̄ = −µ.
− m
Since m = m̄ by CP T theorem, e kB T is not relevent and we omit it. Then
for kB T ≫ µ,
d∆nB −2µ
= γ6B (61)
dt kB T
On the other hand
2ζ (3) ′ µ
 −µ

3
∆nB = g (k B T ) e kB T
− e kB T
π2
2 ′ 2µ
≃ 2
g (kB T )3 . (62)
π kB T
2µ
Thus eliminating kB T

d∆nB π2 γ6B
= − ∆nB
dt 2 g (kB T )3
′

π2
= − Γ6B ∆nB (63)
2

15
 γ γ6B
where Γ6B = g′ (k 6BT )3 = nB
gives the rate for 6 B. The solution of above
B
equation gives
π2
Γ6B t
∆nB = (∆nB )initial e− 2 . (64)
What we learn from this result is that if B-violating processes are ever in
equilibrium, then these processes actully washes out any initial condition for
Γ6B t ≥ 1.
After establishing the above preliminaries we shall consider baryogensis at
three levels: (i) Grand Unification (GUT) (ii) Electroweak (iii) Baryogensis
induced by Leptogensis.

5.2 Baryogensis at GUT Level

In a typical GUT, quarks and leptons are assigned in one representation so
that the Sakharov condition (i) is naturally satisfied. Taking the example
of the simplest GUT, SU (5), the fermions are assigned to the irreducible
representations 5̄f and 10f
5̄f = [dcL, lL ] , 10f = {dL, ucL , ecL }
Coupling with gauge bosons is
g h i
√ 24V (5̄f )† (5̄f ) + (10f )† (10f )
2
There are 24 gauge bosons [W ± , Z, γ, 8 gluons and 12 lepto-quarks X, X̄
belonging to the adjoint representation 24V ].
The condition (iii) of Sakharov is supplied by the expansion of the Uni-
verse. As already mentioned the condition (i) is naturally satisfied in a GUT,
e.g. by lepto-quarks X, X̄ predicted by GUTs.
At T = TD (the decoupling temperature i.e. the temperature at which
X−particles go out of equilibrium), the number density of X−particles is
given by [cf. Eq. (13)]:
2.4 gX
nXD = (kB TD )3 , (65)
π2 2
where gX is the total number of X (and X̄) spin states. Now the entropy
density at TD is given by [cf. Eq. (17)]
S 4 π2 4
 
s= = ρ (T ) = k B (kB TD )3 g∗ /2, (66)
R3 3 15 3

16
where g∗ is the effective number of degrees of freedom. The number of baryons
at TD are given by
nB = nXD ∆B. (67)
where ∆B denotes baryon asymmetry in X-decays. Thus from Eqs. (65)
and (66)
!
nB 45 gX
 
kB = (2.4) 4 ∆B
s D 4π g∗
!
gX
= 0.28 ∆B. (68)
g∗

Now g∗ is over 100 in a typical GUT. [ In SU(5): γ, W ± , Z 0 ,8G’s, 34 Higgs, 6

quarks, 3 leptons, 3 neutrinos, 12 X’s. Thus g∗ = (24 × 2) + 34 + 78 (18 × 4 +
3 × 4 + 3 × 2) = 160.8]. We, therefore, expect gX /g∗ ≈ 10−2 to 10−1 . Thus
we have
nB
     
kB ≈ 0.28 × 10−2 − 10−1 ∆BX ≈ 3 × 10−3 − 10−2 ∆B. (69)
s D

But (nB /s)D = (nB /s)0 , where 0 denotes the present time. Thus
nB
   
kB ≈ 3 × 10−3 − 10−2 ∆B. (70)
s 0

s s s
     
= +
kB 0 kB γ0 kB ν0
4
" #
2π 1 1 4 X
= gγ nγ0 + × gνi nν0
45 × 1.2 2 2 3 i
21 1 4
 
= 3.6 1 + nγ0 ≈ 7 nγ0 . (71)
4 2 11
Now [cf. Eqs. (17) and (5)] where we have used that nν0 = (3/11) nγ0 and
i gνi = 3(7/8).1.2. Hence from Eq. (70), we get
P

!
nB    
≈ 21 × 10−3 to 10−2 ∆B ≈ 2 × 10−2 to 10−1 ∆B.
nγ 0
≃ A (∆B) , (72)

17
where A ∼ 10−1 − 10−2 . Now we can write

Γ (X → f ) − Γ̄ X̄ → f¯
h  i
X
∆B = Bf , (73)
f Γtot (X)
1 2
f ≡ {ql, q̄ q̄} , Bf = , −
3 3
∆B vanishes if CP and C are conserved. The X−particles can generate ∆B,
by the processes of the following type [r is the branching ratio]

X → ql : r B1 = 1/3
X → q̄q̄ : 1 − r B̄2 = −2/3
X̄ → q̄¯l : r̄ B̄1 = −1/3
X̄ → qq : 1 − r̄ B2 = 2/3.

The mean baryon number per decay

BX = r B1 + (1 − r) B̄2
BX̄ = r̄ B̄1 + (1 − r̄) B2 . (74)

Thus
1h i
∆B = r B1 + (1 − r) B̄2 + r̄ B̄1 + (1 − r̄) B2
2
1h      i
= r B1 − B̄2 + r̄ B̄1 − B2 + B̄2 + B2
2
1
= (r − r̄) . (75)
2
¿From Eqs. (75) and (72), we see that we can explain the baryon number
generation if r 6= r̄ i.e. X−interactions violate C and CP. Also we require
∆B ∼ 10−8 in order to explain the present baryon number η = nB /nγ ≈
10−10 .
Let us now obtain an estimate for TD . If kB TD > mX , the thermal
equilibrium can be maintained by inverse decays. Thus the condition for
departure from equilibrium is [cf. Eqs. (24) and (26) kB TD ≃ mX ]:
2
1 1/2 (kB TD )
αX gd (kB TD ) ≈ 1.66 g∗ . (76)
3 Mpl

18
The factor 1/3 is due to spin average [X is a vector particle]. Now using
gd ≈ 12 × 2 = 24 and g∗ ≈ 160, we get

kB TD ≈ αX (4.0) 1018 GeV. (77)

Using αX ≈ 1/40 [SU(5) value], we get

kB TD ≈ 1017 GeV. (78)

Thus if X−bosons are vector bosons, kB TD > mass of vector bosons of

SU(5) [≃ 1015 − 1016 GeV]and therefore vector bosons of SU(5) cannot give
rise to baryon asymmetry.

5.3 Can Higgs particles give rise to the baryon asym-

metry?
Whereas the gauge sector of the SU(5) structure is uniquely determined by
the gauge group, in the Higgs sector the results depend on the choice of
representation. Now the Higgs fields that couple to fermions belong to

5H , 10H , 15H , 45H and 50H .

Let us first consider the minimal 5H which contains Higgs doublet of the SM:
Color singlet
(1, 2, 1/2) ,
the latter two quantum numbers refer to

SU(2) × U(1).

B violating color triplet

H3 (3, 1, −1/3) .
At tree level, the Higgs coupling with fermions are shown in Fig. 2. In any
vertex of SU(5), B − L is preserved.
hU , hD are complex Yukawa coupling matrices. CP–violation arises from
complex phases of the Yukawa couplings, which can not be absorbed by field
redefinations. At tree level, these
h phases
i do not give any contribution to
baryon asymmetry since Im T r h†D hD = 0. One has to go to loop level,

19
where denoting by χ, a member of H3 , where φ is some exchanged state,
another Higgs or a gauge boson. Thus r is given by Fig. 3.
  2
r ∼ γ0 + γ1 I Mχ2 − iε  (79)
 

where γ0 and γ1 are complex and I has an analytical structure. Then

1 1 
  2   2 
(r − r̄) ∼ γ0 + γ1 I Mχ2 − iε  − γ0∗ + γ1∗ I Mχ2 − iε 
  
2 2   
∼ 2 Im (γ0 γ1∗ ) Im I Mχ2 − iε (80)

where the first part is the CP violating and the second part is determined
by the rescattering dynamics. Thus
1
η = A∆Bχ = A (r − r̄) ≈ A Im (γ0 γ1∗ ) Im I (81)
2
where A comes from out of the equilibrium condition as seen previously;
Im (γ0 γ1∗ ) gives CP and C violation while Im I comes from GUT’s dynamics.
There is no firm pediction for η.
In particular, take φ in the above figure as 5H as shown in Fig.4. We
can choose f to be real and h has 3 phases. Even so we can not generate
in the lowest non-trival order CP violation. This is because γ0 ∼ f real and
γ1 ∼ f hh̄, which has no CP phase. Also gauge exchange [φ ≡ Gµ ] give no
phase. One can eventually generate η to higher order loop graphs. But then
η ∼ 10−16 , which is too small .
It is possible to obtain η ∼ 10−10 by either (i) adding Higgs in the 45 repre-
sentation or (ii) by using more elaborate GUT’s e.g. SO(10). In SO(10) there
exists a fermion that is singlet under SM, carries L = −1 and is identified
with νR . CP violation may be provided by the complex Yukawa couplings
between the right-handed and the left-handed neutrinos and scalar Higgs.
The right-handed neutrinos acquire a Majorana mass MN = O (B − L) i.e.
at the scale where U(1)B−L is broken, and its out of equilibrium decays may
generate a non-vanishing (B − L) asymmetry. We shall come back to the
role of right-handed neutrino in generating η when we consider Leptogenesis.

20
6 Electroweak Baryogenesis
In the SM, both baryon number ,B, and lepton number ,L, symmetries hold
at the classical level
LSM →B,L LSM .
However, because of the chiral nature of electroweak theory, at quantum level
both JBµ and JLµ are not conserved, so called electroweak anamoly:

∂µ JBµ = ∂µ JLµ
α′
!
α2 µν
= Ng Wa W̃aµν − Fµν F̃µν (82)
π 8π
g2 ′2
where Ng is the number of generations, α2 = 4π2 , α′ = g4π are couplings
corresponding to SUL (2) × U(1); W̃µν = 12 εµναβ Wαβ . Then
µ
∂µ (JBµ − JLµ ) = ∂µ JB−L =0
µ µ
∂µ (JB + JL ) 6= 0 (83)

Further

∆B = B (+∞) − B (−∞)
Z ∞ Z
= dt∂0 d3 xJB0 (~x, t)
−∞
Z ∞ Z
= dt d3 x∂µ JBµ (~x, t) (84)
−∞

since by Gauss’s theorm we can convert d3 x∂i JBi (~x, t) into a surface integral
R

which we can put equal to zero. Similarly for ∆L. Note that ∆ (B − L) = 0;
the electroweak anamoly preserves B − L. But

∆ (B + L) 6= 0
= 2Ng ν (85)

where
α2 Z 4
ν= d xWaµν W̃aµν
8π
Now in some theories, one can find classical solutions of the Euclidean field
equations. These solutions, called instantons, are localized in Euclidean time

21
as well as in space. Let us consider a pure Yang-Mills field: Time t in
Minkowsky space must be replaced by it in Euclidean space. Then the Eu-
clidean Action
Z
SE = d4 xE LE (xE ) = −iS
1 a a
LE (xE ) = F F (86)
g 2 µν µν
There is no distinction between covariant and contravariant indices in Eu-
clidean space. Here
i a
Aaµ → A
g µ
a i a
Fµν → F
g µν
h i
a
Fµν = ∂µ Aaν − ∂ν Aaµ + Aaµ , Aaν
T a Aaµ
X
Aµ =
a

T a Fµν
a
X
Fµν =
a

It can be shown that

1
Z
SE [A] ≥ d4 xT r[Fµν F̃µν ]
2
π2
= 8 |ν [A]| , (87)
g
the lower bound is obtained when

F̃µν = ±Fµν .

It is necessary to find an interpretation for instanton solution in Euclidean

four-space (imaginary t) within Minkowsky 3 + 1 space-time (time real) in
order to understand their physical significance. It has been shown that in-
stantons become ‘tunneling events’ between two different Minkowski events.
The gauge vacuum is given by

e−inθ |ni .
X
|θi = (88)
i

22
It has been shown by t’Hooft that the transition probility between two closet
vacuua is given by
2 2
∼ e−8π /g for ν = 1. (89)
This is the zero temperature solution:

8π 2
SE ∼ (90)
g2
g2
For our problem 4π
= α2 . Thus (B + L) violating amplitude is

A ∼ e(−2π/α2 )ν (91)

which is extremely small∼ 10−90 . Thus the probability of B–violating pro-

cesses is highly supressed at zero temperature.
The situation is different at high temperature which is relevent at early
Universe. Here one goes from one vacuum to another by thermal flucatua-
tions rather than tunneling [see Fig. 5].
The transition probability (per unit time per unit volume) is given by

P ∼ e−V0 (T )/T (92)

where V0 (T ) is the height of the barrier. If the system is able to perform a

transition from one vacuum to the closest one, then ∆ (B + L) = 2Ng = 6.
Each transition creats nine left-handed quarks as only these are coupled
to W bosons (3 color states for each generation) and left-handed leptons (one
per generation). However, adjacent vacuua of the EW theory are separated
by a ridge of configrations with energies larger than that of the vacuua. The
lowest energy point on this ridge is a saddle point solution to the equations
of motion, and is refered to as the Sphaleron.
The thermal rate of B–violation in the broken phase is proportional to
[in units kB = 1]
exp(−S3 /T )
where S3 is the three dimentional action computed along the sphaleron con-
figration:
mH πmW (T )
 
S3 ≡ Esp (T ) ≡ C (93)
mW α2

23
 m2H
 
mH
where C mW
is a function of λ, m2W
∼ λ:

Esp ≃ 7 − 14 TeV as λ increases from 0 to ∞.

Then, the transition probability per unit time per unit volume is
3 " #
mW −Esp (T )

Psp (T ) = µ m4W exp (94)
α2 T T
where µ is a dimensionless constant and the Boltzmann suppression appears
large.
However, it is to be expected that, when EW symmetry becomes restored
at temperature of around 100 GeV [mW (T ) → 0, Electroweak phase tran-
sition] there will no longer be an exponential suppression. Now the only
important scale in the symmetric phase is α2 T so that dimensional ground,
we expect
Psp (T ) = K (α2 T )4 (95)
where numerical estimates yielded K ∼0.1 − 1.
Lattice simulation indicates

Psp ∼ 30α25 T 4 (96)

1
not very different from above as α2 ∼ 30 .
Now 6 B and 6 L processes are in thermal equilibrium for
2
Psp ∗ 1/2 T
Γsp = > H ≃ 1.66g (97)
T3 Mpl
2
T
Kα24 T > 1.66g ∗ 1/2
Mpl
αe 4
α2 = 2 = ≃ 0.029
sin θW 137
α24 ≃ 10−6 (98)
!
K
T < α24 Mpl ≈ 1012 GeV (99)
1.66g ∗ 1/2
Thus 6 B and 6 L processes are in thermal equilibrium for the temperature in
the range
TEW ≃ 100 GeV < T < Tsp ≃ 1012 GeV (100)

24
This implies any ∆nB+L established above
 
Tmax ∼ α24 Mpl

e.g., GUT, will get washed out down to TEW .

Given the above result, to generate η at the EW phase transition: First
the baryon number is violated. as we have seen above. Second CP is violated,
in the standard model. The third condition of Sakharov can be satisfied
if the EW transition is of first order since then the coexistance of broken
and unbroken phases at the phase transition is a departure from equilibrium.
However one can not get the first order transition unless Higgs is light, mH <
60 GeV, which is ruled out by LEP, mH ≥ 114 GeV. Another problem is the
size of CP–violation:
η ≃ α24 ǫC6P ≃ 10−6 ǫC6P (101)
where
ǫC6P ∼ λ6 sin δ (102)
due to several GIM suppression factors in CKM, λ ≃ 0.22 so that

λ6 ≃ 5.5 × 10−6 . (103)

This gives
η ∼ 5.5 × 10−12 δ ∼ 10−18
The other possibility is the leptogensis, where one tries to generate L 6= 0
but no B from neutrino physics well before the electroweak transition, and L
gets partially converted into B due to electroweak anamoly. This is discussed
in the next section.

7 Baryogenesis via Leptogenesis

As already seen sphaleron transitions lead to

∆ (B − L) = 0
∆ (B + L) = 2Ng = 6

the baryon asymmetry can be generated by the lepton asymmetry.

25
 Further B + L asymmetry generated before EW transition i.e. at T >
TEW , will be washed out. However, since only left handed fields couple to
sphalerons, a non zero value of B + L can persist in the high temperature
symmetric phase if there exist a non vanishing B − L asymmetry [see below].
As already seen
2 ′ 3 2µi
 
ni − n̄i = 2 g T
π T
This also implies
4 ′ 2
 
nB = B gT
π2
4 ′ 2
 
nL = L 2g T (104)
π
where B and L are baryon and lepton asymmetry respectively.
Note that in SM
!
uLi 1
qLi = B= ,L=0
dLi 3
uRi , dRi
!
νLi
ℓLi = B = 0, L = 1
eLi
νRi , eRi
Thus in Eq. (104)
1X
B = 3× (2µqi + 2µui + 2µdi )
3 i
X
L = (2µli + 2µei) (105)
i

In high temperature plasma quarks, leptons and Higgs interact via Yukawa
and gauge couplings and in addition, via the non perturbative sphaleron pro-
cesses. In thermal equilibrium all these processes yield constraints between
various chemical potentials. The effective interaction
OB+L = Πi (qLi qLi qLi ℓLi )
yields X
(3µqi + µli) = 0 (106)
i

26
Another constraint is provided by vanishing of total charge of plasma
3 31 2µqi + 3 34 µui
" #
X
  =0
i
+3 − 23 µdi + (−1) 2µli + (−2) µei + 1
N
(1) µφ

where we have used

1 4 2
Yq = , Yu = , Yd = − , Yl = −1, Ye− = −2, Yφ = 1
3 3 3
The above equation can be written as
X 2

µqi + 2µui − µdi − µli − µei + µφ = 0 (107)
i N
Further invariance of Yukawa couplings q̄Li φdRi , etc give
µqi − µφ − µdj = 0
µqi − µφ − µuj = 0
µli − µφ − µej = 0 (108)
When all Yukawa interactions are in equilibrium, these interactions establish
equilibrium in different generations
µli = µl , µqi = µq etc.
Thus we obtain from Eqs (106) and (107)
1
µq = − µl
3
2
µq + 2µu − µd − µl − µe + µφ = 0
N
giving
4 2
− µl + 2µu − µd − µe + µφ = 0 (109)
3 N
Further Eqs. (108) imply
1
− µl − µφ − µd = 0
3
1
− µl − µφ − µu = 0
3
µl − µφ − µe = 0 (110)

27
Using the above equations, we can write (109) as
4 1 1 2
   
− µl + 2 − µl + µφ − − µl − µφ − (−µl − µφ ) + µφ = 0
3 3 3 N
Thus finally we can express µq , µu , µd , µe , and µφ interms of µl .
8 1 4N
µφ = N µl = µl
3 4N + 2 6N + 3
1
µd = − µl − µφ
3
1 4N
= − µl − µl
3 6N + 3
6N + 1
= − µl
6N + 3
1
µu = − µl + µφ
3
1 4N
= − µl + µl
3 6N + 3
2N − 1
= µl
6N + 3
µe = µl − µφ
4N
= µl − µl
6N + 3
2N + 3
= µl (111)
6N + 3
Hence from Eqs. (105)
2 2N − 1 6N + 1
 
B = N − µl + µl − µl
3 6N + 3 6N + 3
µl
= [−4N − 2 + 2N − 1 − 6N − 1]
6N + 3
(8N + 4)
= −N µl
3 (2N + 1)
4N
= − µl (112)
3
2N + 3
 
L = N 2µl + µl
6N + 3

28
 14N 2 + 9N
= µl (113)
6N + 3
8N 2 + 4N + 14N 2 + 9N
B−L = − µl
6N + 3
22N 2 + 13N
= − µl (114)
6N + 3
B 8N 2 + 4N
=
B−L 22N 2 + 13N
8N + 4
=
22N + 13
8Ng + 4nH
= ≡a (115)
22Ng + 13nH
These relations hold for T ≫ v. In general B/B − L is a function of v/T .
For SM, Ng = 3, nH = 1 so that a = 28/79.
Thus finally we obtain
nB − nB̄
YB ( ≡ )
s
a
= aYB−L = YL (116)
a−1
Note that by using Eq. (71),
ηγ 1
 
YB = η ≃ η
s 7
1
(6 ± 3) × 10−10
7
In SM as well as in SU(5), B −L is conserved and no asymmetry in B −L
can be generated. However, adding a right handed Majorana neutrino to the
SM breaks B −L, and the primordial lepton asymmetry may be generated by
the out of equilibrium decay of heavy right handed Majorana neutrino NR .
The simple extension of SM can be embedded in GUTs with gauge group
containing SO(10). Majorana neutrinos can also lead to See-saw mechanism,
explaining the smallness of light neutrino ν masses.
The relevent couplings are
1
L = ℓ̄L φhν NR + N̄Rc MNR + h.c. (117)
2

29
where φ is the usual Higgs doublet under SU(2)L while the second term gives
Majorana mass for the right handed neutrino N. The vacuum expection value
of the Higgs field hφi generates neutrino Dirac masses

mD = hν hφi (118)

The Lagrangian (117) also generate an effective ∆L = 2 Lagrangian

L∆L=2
G  T   
= ℓL iσ2 φ C −1 φT iσ2 ℓL (119)
M
This generates a Majorana mass for light neutrinos
G
mν = hφi20 (120)
M
Further
mN ≡ M ≫ mD (121)
If the ∆L = 2 interactions are in equilibrium, but the right handed elec-
trons are not, then µl − µφ − µe = 0 is replaced by [c.f. Eq. (117)]

µl + µφ = 0 ⇒ µl = −µφ (122)

Thus using all the other previous equations

1
µq = µl
3
2
µd = µl
3
4
µu = − µl
3
µφ = −µl

2
µq + 2µu − µd − µl + µφ = 0 (123)
N

30
The equations give
3N
µl = − µe
14N + 6
2N
µd = − µl
14N + 6
4N
µu =
14N + 6
N
µq = , (124)
14N + 6
so that from Eq. (105)

2N 4N 2N
 
B = N + − µe
14N + 6 14N + 6 14N + 6
4N 2
= µe
14N + 6
6N
 
L = N − + 1 µe
14N + 6
8N 2 + 6N
= µe
14N + 6
−4N 2 − 6N
B−L =
14N + 6
B 4N 2 −2N −4N − 3
= 2
= = a; a − 1 =
B−L −4N − 6N 2N + 3 2N + 3
B 2N a
= = (125)
L 4N + 3 a−1
The above relations hold if the corresponding interactions are in thermal
equilibrium i.e. in the range

Tew ∼ 100 GeV < Tsph ∼ 1012 GeV

which is of interest for baryongenesis; this is the case for all gauge inter-
actions. This is not always true for Yukawa interactions. The rate of a
scattering process between left and right handed fermions, Higgs bosons and
W -bosons
ψL φ −→ ψR W

31
is [c.f. Eq. (27), kB = 1]
5
2 (kB T )
γ ∼ α2 h 4 = α2 h2 T (126)
(kB T )
The equilibrium condition is satisfied for
T2
γ > H = 1.66g∗1/2
MPl
1 3
T < α2 h2 MPl 1/2
∼ h2 1/2
1017
1.66g∗ 1.66g∗
T < h2 1016 GeV (127)

where we have used

7
g∗ = 4 × 2 + 1 + (9 × 4 + 2 × 4 + 3 × 2) ≃ 50
8
√
Now [hφi = v/ 2 = 175 GeV]
me 5 × 10−1 MeV
he = =
hφi (250) × 103 MeV
= 3 × 10−6
Te ∼ 10−11 × 1016 GeV ≃ 105 GeV
Tu ∼ 107 GeV
..
.
2
7 ms

Ts = 10 ∼ (0.9) 1010 ≃ 1010 GeV (128)
mu
At temperature T ≃ 1010 GeV, which is characterestics of leptogenesis, eR ,
µR , dR , sR and uR are out of equilibrium. When the Majorana right-handed
ν’s (these existed in early universe) decay into leptons and Higgs scalar,

NR −→ φ̄ + ℓ
NR −→ φ + ℓ̄

they violate lepton number. The interference between the tree-level ampli-
tude and the absorption part of the one-loop vertex leads to lepton asym-
a
metry (and baryon asymmetry ηB = a−1 ηL ) of the right order of magnitude

32
to explain the observed ηB . It has been observed that CP violation may be
considerably enhanced if two heavy right handed ν’s are nearly degenerate
in mass.
As already seen ∆L = 2 interaction of the form
G mν
(ℓL ℓL φφ) = ℓL ℓL φφ (129)
M hφi2
is generated through the exchange of NR [Fig. 7].
These processes will take place with the rate
1 T3 X
γ∆L=2 (T ) = 3 4 m2νi
π hφi i=e,µ,τ

The requirement for the harmless lepton number violation

γL < H
give
1 T3 X 2 ∗1/2 T
2
m < 1.66g
π 3 hφi4 i=e,µ,τ νi MPl
4
∗1/2 3 hφi 1
m2νi
X
< 1.66g π
i=e,µ,τ MPl T
109 GeV4 1
= 1.66g ∗1/2 π 3
1019 GeV T
108 GeV
!
m2νi ∗1/2
eV2
X
= < 1.66g × 31
i=e,µ,τ T
1010 GeV
!
= g 0.56∗1/2
eV2
T
1010 GeV
!
= 4 eV2
T
" −1/2 #2
TX

m2νi
X
≤ 2 eV 10
(130)
i=e,µ,τ 10 GeV

where  
TX ≡ Min TB−L , 1012 GeV (131)

33
TB−L is the temperature at which B − L number production takes place.
Now 1012 is the temperature at which sphaleron transitions enter in equi-
librium. Thus #2
TX −1/2
"  
2
X
mνi ≤ 0.4 eV (132)
i=e,µ,τ TSPH
We can reverse the argument and for TB−L ≃ 1016 GeV as in SO(10), Eq.
(130) implies
 −1/2
mν ≤ 2 eV 106 = 2 × 10−3 eV (133)
which is of interest in neutrino oscillations.

8 Thermal Leptogenesis
One starts from a thermal distribution of heavy Majorana neutrinos which
have CP violating decay modes into standard leptons: Natural candidates are
νRi , i = 1, 2, 3; one in each of the three lepton families, while the Lagrangian
of electroweak interactions keep invariance under the SU(2)L × U(1)Y gauge
transformations.
In this case Yukawa interactions are described by
1
LY = −ℓ̄Li φhLij eRj + ℓ̄Li φ̃h∗Lij νRj − ν̄Rc MνR + h.c. (134)
2
the lepton number violation is induced by the third term. M is a Majorana
mass matrix while hL are the Yukawa couplings. After spontaneous symme-
try breaking the vacuum expectation value of the Higgs field hφi = v ≃ 175
GeV generates the Dirac mass term (mD )ij = hij v, assumed to be small com-
pared to M. Light neutrino mass matrix Mν arises from the diagonalizating
the 6 × 6 neutrino mass matrix
!
0 mTD
Mν = (135)
mD M

and takes the seesaw form

mν = −mTD M −1 mD (136)

34
This also yields light and heavy neutrino mass eigenstates
ν ≃ VνT νL + νLc Vν∗
N ≃ νR + νRc
mNi = Mi (137)
where Vν is the neutrino mixing matrix. We shall restrict our discussion to
the case of hierarchical Majorana neutrino masses, M1 ≪ M2 , M3 so that if
the interactions of N1 = N are in thermal equilibrium when N2 and N3 decay,
the asymmetry produced by N2 and N3 can be erased before N1 decays. The
asymmetry is then generated by the out of equilibrium CP violating decays
of N → ℓH versus N → ℓ̄H at a temperature T ∼ M ≡ M1 ≪ M2 , M3 .
The crcuial ingredients in leptogenesis scenario is CP asymmetry gen-
erated through the interference between tree level and one-loop Majorana
neutrino decay diagrams. In the simplest extension of SM, these are shown
below in Fig. 8.
Then the CP asymmetry is caused by interference between the above
diagrams:
 
Γ (N1 → ℓi H) − Γ N1 → ℓ̄i H ∗
ǫ1 =  
Γ (N1 → ℓi H) + Γ N1 → ℓ̄i H ∗
Mℓ2 Mℓ2
" ! !#
1 1 X
= Im [h1i h1k h∗ℓi h∗ℓk ] f +g (138)
8π |h1i |2 ℓ=2,3 M12 M12

√  
1+x

f (x) = x 1 − (1 + x) ln
√   x
x 1 1
→ − , as → 0 (139)
x
√ 2 √ x
x x
g (x) = →−
1−x x
and
1
I1lik = Im [h1i h1k h∗ℓi h∗2k ] (140)
|h1i |2
Thus
3 ik M1 ik M1
 
ǫ1 = − I12 + I13 (141)
16π M2 M3

35
 ik 1 ∗ ∗
I12 = 2 Im [h1i h1k h2i h2k ] (142)
|h1i |

The lepton asymmetry YL is related to the CP asymmetry through the re-

lation
nL − n̄L ǫ1
YL = =K ∗ (143)
s g
where g ∗ is the effective number of relativistic degrees of freedom contributing
to the entropy and K is the so called dilution factor which accounts for the
wash out processes [inverse decay and lepton number violating scattering;
such processes can create a thermal population of heavy neutrinos of high
temperature T > M] and it can be obtained through solving the Boltzmann
equations. In the SM, g ∗ = 12 × 2 + 87 (18 × 4 + 3 × 4 + 3 × 2) = 103.75.
The produced lepton asymmetry through YL is converted into a baryon
asymmetry as already seen [a = − 23 ]
a
YB = YL
a−1
≃ 0.4YL (144)

Now

(mD )ij = hij v

   
mD m†D = (mD )1i m†D
11 i1
= (h1i h∗1i ) v 2 = |h1i |2 v 2 (145)
   
mD m†D = (mD )1i m†D
12 i2
= (h1i h∗2i ) v ≡ (h1k h∗2k ) v 2
2

Thus from Eq. (142)

1 M1  2  M
  2  
1
ik
I12 =   Im mD m†D + Im †
mD mD
v 2 mD m†D 12 M2 13 M3
11

For illustrative purposes we consider two right handed neutrinos N1,2 and
take !
a a′ 0
mD = (146)
0 b b′

36
Then the seesaw form (136) becomes
 
a 0 1
! !
0 a a′ 0
mν =  a′ b  M1
 
1
0 0 b b′
0 b′ M2

a2 aa′
 
M1 M1
0
aa′ a′2 b2 bb′
 
= 
 M1 M1
+ M2 M2

 (147)
bb′ b′2
0 M2 M1

We have to diagonalize it in order to go to mass basis:

a2 aa′
 

 M1
− λ M1
0 

aa′ a′2 2 bb′
+ Mb 2
 

 M1 M1
−λ M2

 =0 (148)
bb′ b′2
0 −λ
 
 
M2 M2

b ′2 2 a2
Under the assumption, M , b ≪
2 M2 M1
, this give the mass eigenvalues 0,
b′2 a2 +a′2
M2
, M1 . We may identify
!2
a2 + a′2
∆m2atm = m23 − m21 = (149)
M1
!2
b′2
∆m2s = m22 − m21 = (150)
M2
so that
a2 + a′2  1/2  1/2
≃ ∆m2atm ≃ 3 × 10−3 eV2
M1
≃ 5 × 10−2 eV (151)
′2
b  1/2  1/2
≃ ∆m2s = 5 × 10−2 eV2 (152)
M2
≃ 7 × 10−3 eV

Now
2
 
mD m†D = |a|2 + |a′ |
11
 
mD m†D = a′ b∗ (153)
12

37
 Therefore [c.f. Eq. (141)]

3 1 ′ ∗ 2 M1
 h i 
ǫ1 = − 2 2 Im (a b ) (154)
16πv 2 |a| + |a′ | M2

Take now a′ = Y aeiδ and b′ = b as real. Then

3 Y 2 b2
ǫ1 = − sin 2δ
16πv 2 1 + Y 2 M2
3 M1 Y 2
≃ − 7 × 10−3 eV sin 2δ
16π v 2 1 + Y 2
M1 Y 2
≃ −1.36 × 10−17 sin 2δ (155)
GeV 1 + Y 2
Taking Y ≃ 1, sin 2δ ≃ −1, M1 ≃ 1010 GeV

ǫ1 = 0.68 × 10−7 = 6.8 × 10−8 (156)

Thus from equations (143) and (144)

YB = K (2.7) × 10−10 (157)

This gives the right order magnitude as typical numbers one expects for
K ≃10−1 to 10−2 .
Acknowledgements: The author would like to acknowledge the support
of King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals for this work.

9 Figure Captions
Figure 1: Cosmic density pyramid

Figure 2: Tree level Higgs couplings with fermions in SU(5)

Figure 3: Loop level Higgs and gauge particles contribution to baryon asymmetry

Figure 4: Loop level contribution of 5 H Higgs boson to baryon asymmetry

Figure 5: Transition from one vacuum to another by thermal fluctuations

38
Figure 6: Feynmann diagram for scattering process between left and right handed
fermions, Higgs bosons and W boson

Figure 7: See–saw mechenism for Majorana light neutrino masses

Figure 8: Tree and one–loop level Majorana (heavy) neutrino decay diagrams

39
References
[ ] The lectures are based on the following refrences:

[1] For general background, Fayyazuddin and Riazuddin, A Modern Intro-

duction to Particle Physics IInd Edition, Chap. 18, World Scientific, Sin-
gapore 2000.

[2] R.D. Peccei, Lectures delivered at 20th International Natiagali Summer

College on Physics and Contemporary Needs, held at Islamabad, 26 July–
07 August, 1997

[3] For derivation of Eq. (33), see S. Weinberg, Gravitation and Cosmology
(Wiley and Sons, N.Y. 1972) Sec. 15.7

[4] Figure 1 is taken from: J. R. Primack and N.E. Abrams, Cosmic Ques-
tions: An Introduction, in Cosmic Questions, Editor J.B. Miller, The New
York Academy of Sciences, New York 2001, page 11

[5] For Dark Energy and Dark Matter, see for example, M.S.Turner, The New
Cosmology, in Proceedings of XX International Symposium on Lepton
and Photon Interactions and High Energies, Editors: Juliet Lee–Franzini,
Paulo Franzini and Falio Bossu, World Scientific 2002, p.540 and refrences
there in

[6] For Sec. 4.1, see J.V. Narlikar, An Introduction to Cosmology, Cambridge
University Press, 1995, Sec. 6.2

[ ] For Sections 5 onwards

[7] Ref. 2

[8] A. Riotto and Mark Trodden, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci., 1999, 49:35

[9] W. Buchmiiller, hep-ph/0101102; hep-ph/0107153; Particularly for sec. 7

and 8, which rely heavily on these refrences.

40
[10] see also W. Rodejohann, hep-ph/0207053; Zhi-Zhong Xing, hep-
ph/0209066; G.C. Branco, R.G. Felipe, F.R. Joaqium, M.N. Rebelo, hep-
ph/0202030; H. Murayama, hep-ph/0208005

[11] The illustrative example in sec. 8 is taken from P.H. Frampton, S.L.
Glashow and T. Yanagida, hep-ph/0208157 V2

41