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Reduction of Cost and Losses of Transformers

by Using Composite Magnetic Cores


Themistoklis D. Kefalas, Member, IEEE, and Antonios G. Kladas, Senior Member, IEEE

Φ
Abstract -- Even though, the transformer is the most connected single–phase power converters, and in [11]–[13]
efficient of electrical machines, with efficiencies typically in the methods for the detection and removal of the DC current
high 90s, it is possible to reduce transformer costs and losses component are investigated.
by using composite magnetic cores. This paper presents a new
The present paper takes into consideration the
composite magnetic core that can be used effectively for
manufacturing single–phase and three–phase wound core aforementioned recent trends of eliminating the transformer
distribution transformers. The new composite wound core from the power grid and proposes a novel technique in
concept is based on experimental evidence concerning the flux order to reduce the cost and losses of conventional wound
density non–uniformity of conventional single–phase and core distribution transformers [14]–[16]. The afore–
three–phase magnetic wound cores and the losses and mentioned technique is called multiple grade lamination
magnetization properties of conventional and high
wound core and it is based on experimental evidence
permeability Si–Fe grain–oriented steels. A systematic
experimental losses and flux distribution analysis of single– concerning the non–uniformity of the flux density
phase and three–phase magnetic wound cores is undertaken as distribution of the wound core [17]–[19]. By using
well as finite element (FE) analysis considering the bulk composite wound cores constructed with a combination of
anisotropic characteristics of laminated wound cores. different grades of grain–oriented magnetic steel the total
owning cost ( TOC ) of the transformer can be reduced
Index Terms–– Finite element methods, magnetic effectively. The multiple grade lamination wound core
anisotropy, magnetic cores, magnetic field measurement,
magnetic losses, power transformers, soft magnetic materials. technique introduces only two design variables, it can be
applied after the design optimization of the transformer, or
I. INTRODUCTION it can be integrated directly in the design optimization
scheme, resulting in this way in the generalization of the
I N order to transmit and distribute electrical energy over
large distances economically, it is necessary to
minimize Joule losses in the transmission lines by using
transformer optimization procedure. If applied after the
transformer design optimization a significant reduction of
the sum of magnetic steel cost and present value (PV) of
a high voltage. The required increase and decrease of the
future no load loss is achieved. This is very important
voltage is carried out by the electrical transformer which in
considering that the PV of future no load loss constitutes
its simplest form consists of two coils of conductive wire
more than 60% of the PV of total future losses and of the
wound around a magnetic core of soft iron. In practice two
various materials required to manufacture a wound core
types of magnetic cores are used, the stack core and the
transformer the magnetic steel comprises the largest
wound core. The wound core in particular is comprised
investment [14]. In the case where the multiple grade
from long continuous strips of sheet steel wound around the
lamination technique is integrated in the design
coils. The main advantages include reduction of joints and
optimization scheme the resultant optimum transformer
the use of the grain direction of the steel for the flux path.
designs tend to possess a reduced TOC in comparison with
Even though, the transformer remains the most efficient
the optimum designs of conventional wound core
and robust electric machine, a large number of researchers
transformers [16].
propose transformerless solutions for the electric grid. More
In order to evaluate the optimum design variables of a
specifically, transformerless offshore wind farm appli–
multiple grade lamination wound core, the accurate
cations are studied in [1]–[3] whereas, in [4]–[6] solutions
computation of the peak flux density distribution and no
are proposed for photovoltaic plants based on power
load loss is needed. The specific problem was tackled by
electronic transformers which include dc–links and
developing finite element (FE) models of reduced
multilevel converters. Multilevel applications for grid–
computational cost.
connected converters are examined in [7] and converters for
renewable energy applications are developed in [8]. Also,
II. WOUND CORES AND RELATED PATENTS
researchers study the disadvantages of transformerless
solutions in the power grid. In [9], [10] techniques are There have been several patents on wound core
proposed for magnetic core saturation compensation of grid topologies and manufacturing. One of the most practical
topologies, shown in Fig. 1, was disclosed in 1960 by
This work is part of the 03ED45 research project, implemented within
Treanor [20]. This wound core design is of simple structure
the framework of the “Reinforcement Program of Human Research and it is constructed by cutting and spirally winding a flat
Manpower” (PENED) and cofinanced by National and Community Funds strip of grain–oriented steel into hundreds concentric turn
(25% from the Greek Ministry for Development—General Secretariat of
laminations [20]. Cutting of the electrical steel is carried out
Research and Technology and 75% from EU—European Social Fund).
T. D. Kefalas is with the School of Electrical and Computer so that joints are formed in which overlap is gradual, flux
Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 15780 Athens, transfer is eased, and flux normal to the sheet is minimized.
Greece (e–mail: thkefala@central.ntua.gr). This joint type is known as step–lap joint and its efficiency
A. G. Kladas is with the School of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 15780 Athens, is determined by the overlap and gap lengths [19].
Greece (e–mail: kladasel@central.ntua.gr).
Fig. 3. Conventional wound core transformer (a) 1–phase core type, (b) 1–
phase shell type, (c) 3–phase five–legged.

Fig. 1. Treanor’s wound core, extracted from patent U.S. 2 960 756, 1960.

Fig. 2. Composite wound core, extracted from patent U.S. 4 205 288, 1980.

Despite the fact that the transformer is the most efficient


of all electrical machines, present energy costs are forcing
transformer manufacturers and utilities to reduce
Fig. 4. Composite wound cores comprising (a) 1–phase core type, (b) 1–
transformer life–cycle costs while maintaining the phase shell type, and (c) 3–phase five–legged transformers.
manufacturing cost within acceptable limits. A number of
new transformer cores [21], core joint types [22], and
IV. WOUND CORE DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
improved amorphous and grain–oriented magnetic steels
[23], have been developed recently in order to reduce the Typical oil–immersed, distribution transformers are
manufacturing and operational cost of transformers. constructed of one or more conventional wound cores
Nevertheless, there exists an alternative technique with assembled about preformed windings as shown in Fig. 3.
which it is possible to improve transformer characteristics Ratings range from a few kVA to a few MVA.
without the need to revolutionize transformer design or Topologies of distribution transformers assembled of
magnetic materials. By using composite magnetic cores composite magnetic cores remain the same, as in Fig. 3, and
constructed with a combination of different grades of grain– the conventional wound cores are replaced by composite
oriented magnetic steels the transformer designer can cores. Fig. 4 shows the parts of single–phase and three–
effectively reduce cost and losses. phase transformers assembled of composite cores. The inner
and outer part of the composite core is made of
III. COMPOSITE WOUND CORES AND RELATED PATENTS conventional grain–oriented steel and the middle part is
made of high magnetization grain–oriented steel.
The concept of composite magnetic cores was disclosed
in 1929 by Johannesen [24]. In 1980 Lin, Ellis, and
V. DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Burkhardt disclosed a composite wound core having two
parallel magnetic circuits of unequal mean lengths as shown In this Section a systematic experimental analysis is
in Fig. 2 [25]. The inner part of the core, is constructed of carried out in order to determine the flux density
high permeability grain–oriented steel, having low loss but distribution of conventional single–phase and three–phase
high cost unit, and the outer part of the core, is constructed wound magnetic cores and also the flux distribution of
of conventional grain–oriented steel, having higher loss but mixed three–phase wound magnetic cores. The
low cost unit [25]. Since then, a number of researchers have experimental findings presented herein are important in
investigated different topologies of composite cores for understanding the concept of the novel composite wound
various applications [26]–[29]. core proposed in Section VI.
Fig. 5. Block diagram of experimental setup for single–phase transformer
core measurements.

Fig. 8. Block diagram of the experimental setup for three–phase transformer


core measurements.

Fig. 6. Experimental setup for single–phase transformer cores.

Fig. 9. Experimental setup for three–phase transformers cores.

The voltage across the excitation coil terminals was


captured using active differential voltage probes. Current
probes based on the Hall Effect were used for capturing the
magnetizing currents. The output of the probes and the SCs
was connected to a noise rejecting BNC connector block via
Fig. 7. DAQ setup, current, and active differential voltage probes. passive probes. A noise rejecting cable connects the data
acquisition (DAQ) device directly to the BNC connector
The experimental setup for single–phase wound core block. Four virtual instruments (VI) were created with the
measurements is shown in Figs. 5–7. The single–phase use of LabVIEW software. The first two were used for
wound cores were magnetized from 1.0 T to 1.74 T by a capturing the voltage and magnetizing current waveforms.
twenty turn excitation coil supplied with a sinusoidal The last two were used for manipulating the acquired
voltage waveform, 50 Hz, from a programmable ac and dc voltage and current data in order to compute, losses, flux
power supply (California Instruments MX30) [30]. waveforms, and their harmonic content [31], [32].
In the three–phase experimental setup shown in Figs 8, A. Single–phase magnetic core losses and flux
9, three twenty turns excitation coils in delta connection distribution
were supplied with a balanced three–phase, 50 Hz, Fig. 10 shows the specific iron losses of six conventional
sinusoidal voltage waveform, from the programmable wound cores as a function of the induction level. For 1.5 T
power supply MX30 in order to magnetize the three–phase the mean loss of the high magnetization (HiB) and
transformer cores to the same induction levels. Four one– conventional magnetization (M4) cores is 0.715 W / Kg and
turn search coils (SCs), were wound around the total width 0.81 W / Kg. For 1.7 T the respective mean loss is 0.97 W /
of the upper yoke of each core as shown in Fig. 8. Kg and 1.235 W / Kg.
Fig. 10. Single–phase transformer cores specific iron losses. Fig. 12. Comparison of typical three–phase, mixed three–phase, and the
respective single–phase, transformer cores specific iron losses.
.

Fig. 13. Three–phase and single–phase specific iron loss increase


percentage.
Fig. 11. Peak flux density distribution across the limb of a wound core.

Fig. 11 shows the peak flux density distribution across


the limb of a conventional wound core, for different magne-
tization levels. The flux density distribution non–uniformity
is due to the step–lap joint, the difference in magnetic path
length of the steel sheets, harmful stresses induced in the
inner steel sheets during manufacturing processes, and flux
leakage in the inner and outer steel sheets.
B. Three–phase magnetic core losses and flux (a)
distribution
1) Three–phase magnetic core losses: Fig. 12 shows the
specific iron losses of the typical and the mixed three–phase
transformer cores as a function of the induction level. Also,
it shows for comparison the sum of the single–phase losses
of the HiB and mixed wound cores. For 1.5 T and 1.7 T the
loss of the typical and the mixed three–phase transformer
cores is 1.02 W / Kg, 1.05 W / Kg and 1.43 W / Kg, 1.56 W
/ Kg respectively. The building factor at 1.5 T for the
typical and mixed three–phase transformer cores is 1.45,
(b)
[30]. For 1.7 T the building factor is 1.49 and 1.51
respectively. Fig. 13 shows the specific iron loss increase Fig. 14. Peak flux density harmonics contents of typical and mixed three–
percentage of the three–phase and single–phase transformer phase transformer cores (a) 1.2 T and (b) 1.6 T.
cores, as a function of the induction level. In both cases the
increase in losses is exponential. The increase in losses of peak flux density of the two inner cores of the typical three–
the mixed three–phase transformer core is limited to less phase transformer core is lower than the two inner cores of
than 5.4% up to 1.6 T. For 1.7 T the respective increase the mixed three–phase transformer core. This is because the
percentage is 9.4%. This suggests that a critical induction inner cores of the mixed transformer core conduct more flux
level exists, where after that the increase in loss is due to the low permeability of the outer cores. For 1.6 T
unacceptable. and in both cases, the peak flux density of the outer cores
2) Peak flux density harmonics content: Fig. 14 shows reaches that of the internal cores due to the saturation of the
the peak flux density harmonics contents of the typical and HiB grain–oriented steel of the internal cores. The mixed
mixed three–phase transformer cores for 1.2 T and 1.6 T. transformer core has larger 3rd and 5th harmonic
The peak amplitude of the 1st harmonic component is larger components. The outer M4 cores have larger 3rd and 5th
than the induction level due to the phase angle of the higher harmonic components than HiB cores. This explains the
harmonic components relative to the fundamental. Also, the increased losses of the mixed three–phase transformer core.
its future losses, given by (2). CHM , CSM , and C Cu are
the high magnetization steel, conventional steel, and
winding material unit cost ($/Kg), M Cu is the mass of the
winding material (Kg), SM is the sales margin, and PNLL ,
PLL are the no–load loss and load loss (W). The A factor
and B factor ($/W) are the PV of 1 W of no–load loss and
load loss respectively, over the life of the transformer. In
the case of the 3–phase five–legged transformer, the mass of
the high magnetization and conventional steels M HM and
M SM , are calculated by (3) and (4), where d ms is the steel
density (Kg/m3), and c sf is the wound core stacking factor.
The minimization of (2) is subject to the three inequality
constraints of (5) according to IEC 60076–1, where U k is
spec spec
the short circuit impedance (%), PNLL , PLL , and U kspec

Fig. 15. Concept and design variables of a two–grade composite wound


are the specified, by international technical standards, no–
core. load loss, load loss, and short circuit impedance. TOC is
also subject to the apparent power constraint, the induced
VI. MULTIPLE GRADE LAMINATION WOUND CORE voltage constraint, the temperature rise constraint and the
TECHNIQUE magnetizing current constraint. The thermal calculation of
the transformer is realized through the number of the
The operating principle of the proposed composite windings cooling ducts, and the calculation of the cross–
wound core is based on experimental findings presented on sectional area of the conductors is implemented from the
Section V concerning the local flux density distribution current density. The independent variables chosen for the
non–uniformity of conventional wound cores. According to solution of the specific optimization problem are the design
Fig. 11, the flux density is low in the inner steel sheets, then
variables x1 , x2 , x5 , x6 , the magnetization level B p , the
it increases linearly up to a value higher than the core
magnetization level, and finally it decreases until the outer number of turns of the low voltage winding N p , and the
sheets. As a result, by using conventional grain–oriented cross–sectional area of the low and high voltage windings,
steel for the inner and outer part of the wound core, and
csLV and csHV respectively.
high magnetization grain–oriented steel for the rest part of
the core, transformer manufacturers may reach an optimum
arrangement between the manufacturing cost and the cost of TOC = (CHM M HM + CSM M SM + CCu M Cu ) / SM
(2)
no load losses. + A factor PNLL + B factor PLL
The specific composite wound core exhibits comparable

{ }
core losses with a core constructed of the high cost, high
permeability grain–oriented steel even when the high M HM = 4d ms csf πx22 x6 + x2 x6 (2πx1 + 3 x4 + 2 x5 ) (3)
permeability material represents only a fraction of the total
weight of the wound core with the rest part of the core being
low cost conventional grain–oriented steel [25]. This is M SM = 4d ms csf ⎨ 6 3
(
⎧⎪πx x 2 − x22 − 2 x1x2 ) ⎫⎪
⎬ (4)
attributed to the flux density non–uniformity of the wound ⎪⎩+ x6 ( x3 − x2 )(3x4 + 2 x5 )⎪⎭
core and the fact that the core loss is a function of the flux
density. The concept of the proposed composite wound core spec spec
is shown in Fig. 15. PNLL < 1.15 PNLL , PLL < 1.15 PLL , U k < 1.1U kspec (5)
The generalized design procedure of wound core
distribution transformers is obtained by considering the VII. DEVELOPMENT OF FE WOUND CORE MODEL
composite wound core design variables x1 , x2 , Fig. 15. A 2D FE model considering the laminated wound core
They represent respectively, the position and amount of the was developed for the flux density distribution and no–load
high magnetization grain–oriented steel, and are subject to loss evaluation. In 2D FEM analysis the Poisson’s equation
the constraints of (1). The design of a transformer is solved which is a function of the magnetic vector
constructed of the conventional (high magnetization) steel is potential and the reluctivity
a special case of the generalized design process and it is
obtained by setting x 2 = 0 ( x1 = 0), and x1 = x3 ( x 2 = x3 ). ∇ ⋅ v∇Az = − J z (6)

0 ≤ x1 ≤ x3 , 0 ≤ x2 ≤ x3 , 0 ≤ x1 + x2 ≤ x3 (1) where v is the reluctivity tensor and it is represented as a


function of the flux density, Az is the z –th component of
The transformer design procedure consists in the the magnetic vector potential, and J z is the z –th
minimization of the total owning cost of the transformer [33] component of the current density. The representation of the
i.e., the sum of the first cost and the present value (PV) of
Fig. 18. Peak flux density distribution along line AB for B = 1.4 T and x1
= 5 mm, x2 = 10 mm.

Fig. 16. Regions comprising the FE model of a composite wound core.

Fig. 19. Peak flux density distribution along line AB for B = 1.5 T and x1
= 5 mm, x2 = 10 mm.

Fig. 17. Peak flux density nodal plot of a multiple grade lamination wound with the FE calculated peak flux density distribution. Fig.
core ( B = 1.5 T, x1 = 5 mm, x2 = 10 mm). 17 shows the peak flux density nodal plot of a two grade
lamination wound core for x1 = 5 mm, x2 = 10 mm. The
nonlinear characteristics of the core materials is achieved by
computed peak flux density distribution across the limb of
cubic splines interpolation of the v(B ) characteristic and a
the core for the aforementioned configuration and for two
Newton–Raphson iterative scheme is used for the solution different magnetization levels is shown in Figs. 18, 19.
of the particular nonlinear problem. The elliptic anisotropy
model, for the 2D FE analysis, is based on the assumption VIII. CONCLUSION
that the flux density B has an elliptic trajectory for the
Conventional transformers will continue to be the
modulus of magnetic field intensity constant. Therefore, if
dominant component for transmitting and distributing
v p is the reluctivity tangential to the lamination rolling
electrical energy for a long time despite the advent of
direction, vq is the reluctivity normal to the lamination transformerless solutions. This is due to the robustness,
rolling direction, and r is the ratio of the ellipse semi–axes reliability, and efficiency of the conventional transformer.
then Nevertheless, present energy and material costs are driving
utilities and manufacturers to improve transformer
characteristics. A simple and effective way to achieve this is
vq = rv p , r > 1. (7)
the composite magnetic core technique with which the
manufacturer can achieve an optimum arrangement between
The areas comprising the 2D FE model of a conventional manufacturing and operating cost. Even though patents
wound core are depicted in Fig. 16. One half of the related to composite magnetic cores can be traced back to at
geometry is modeled due to symmetry and a Dirichlet least 1929, the specific technique remains a challenging and
boundary condition ( Az = 0 ) is imposed on the outer innovative design approach and it has not been used
boundaries of the 2D model. Wound core transformer no– extensively due to inherent difficulties in determining the
load loss is evaluated by a post–processing algorithm that optimum configuration of the composite magnetic core
combines the experimentally determined specific iron losses design variables.
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distribution power transformers,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. Themistoklis D. Kefalas (M’09) was born in Greece in 1977. He received
60, no. 8, pp. 3539–3549, Aug. 2013. the Electrical Engineering Educator degree from the School of
[13] G. Buticchi, L. Consolini, and E. Lorenzani, “Active filter for the Pedagogical and Technological Education, Athens, Greece, in 1999 and
removal of the DC current component for single–phase power lines,” the Diploma and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 60, no. 10, pp. 4403–4414, Oct. National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece, in 2005 and
2013. 2008, respectively.
[14] T. D. Kefalas, P. S. Georgilakis, A. G. Kladas, A. T. Souflaris, and Since 2010, he has been an Adjunct Assistant Professor with the
D. G. Paparigas, “Multiple grade lamination wound core: A novel laboratory of electric machines, School of Pedagogical and Technological
technique for transformer iron loss minimization using simulated Education. Since 2008, he has been an Adjunct Lecturer and Research
annealing with restarts and an anisotropy model,” IEEE Trans. Associate with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Magn., vol. 44, no 6, pp. 1082–1085, Jun. 2008. National Technical University of Athens. His research interests include
[15] T. D. Kefalas, “Transformers made of composite magnetic cores: An electric machine and transformer design, modeling, and optimization.
innovative design approach,” Journal of Recent Patents on Dr. Kefalas is a member of the Technical Chamber of Greece.
Electrical Engineering, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1–12, 2009.
[16] T. D. Kefalas and A. G. Kladas, “Development of distribution
Antonios G. Kladas (S’80–A’99–M’02–SM’10) was born in Greece in
transformers assembled of composite wound cores,” IEEE Trans.
1959. He received the Diploma in electrical engineering from the Aristotle
Magn., vol. 48, no 2, pp. 775–778, Feb. 2012.
University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece, in 1982 and the D.E.A.
[17] G. Loizos, T. D. Kefalas, A. G. Kladas, A. Souflaris, and D.
and Ph.D. degrees from Pierre and Marie Curie University (Paris 6), Paris,
Paparigas, “Flux distribution in single phase Si–Fe wound
France, in 1983 and 1987, respectively.
transformer cores,” J.Magn. Magn. Mater., vol. 320, pp. 874–877,
From 1984 to 1989, he was an Associate Assistant with Pierre and
2008.
Marie Curie University. From 1991 to 1996, he was with Public Power
[18] G. Loizos, T. D. Kefalas, A. G. Kladas, A. T. Souflaris, “Flux
Corporation S.A., Athens, Greece, where he was engaged in the System
distribution analysis in three–phase Si–Fe wound transformer cores,”
Studies Department. Since 1996, he has been with the School of Electrical
IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 594–597, Feb. 2010.
and Computer Engineering, National Technical University of Athens,
[19] T. D. Kefalas, G. Loizos, and A. G. Kladas, “Transformer joints FE
Athens, Greece, where he is currently a Professor. His research interests
analysis using pseudo–source technique,” IEEE Trans. Magn., vol.
include transformer and electric machine modeling and design, as well as
47, no. 5, pp. 1058–1061, May 2011.
the analysis of generating units by renewable energy sources and industrial
[20] E. D. Treanor, “Method of making magnetic cores, U.S. Patent 2 960
drives.
756, Nov. 22, 1960.
Dr. Kladas is a member of the Technical Chamber of Greece.

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