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LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
This chapter does a review on relevant literature from articles, journals, books and
publications on financial literacy among senior high students. This chapter also forms
the theoretical and empirical basis upon which the study is conducted. The chapter
therefore considers the academic theories and the various views expressed by scholars
on the topic.
Language
Language definition varies across the world. According to scholars, it is the method of
community or country.
identity, play, imaginative expression, and emotional release. (Crystal and Robins,
2013)
There are many languages spoken in the world. According to Bright Hub Education, the
first language learned by a baby is his or her mother tongue. It is the language, which
he or she listens to from his or her birth. Any other language learned or acquired is
The definition of second language acquisition and learning is learning and acquisition of
a second language once the mother tongue or first language acquisition is established.
addition to the native language. For instance, a child who speaks Hindi as the mother
tongue starts learning English when he starts going to school. English is learned by the
process of second language acquisition. In fact, a young child can learn a second
interchangeably, actually these terms differ. Base from the same source, language
learning refers to the formal learning of a language in the classroom. On the other hand,
language acquisition means acquiring the language with little or no formal training or
learning.
If you go to a foreign land where people speak a different language from your native
language, you need to acquire that foreign language. It can be done with little formal
learning of the language through your every day interaction with the native peoples in
the market place, work place, parks or anywhere else. This is true for learning spoken
Linguistic Competence
The term linguistic competence refers to the unconscious knowledge of grammar that
competence is not an evaluative term. Rather, it refers to the innate linguistic knowledge
that allows a person to match sounds and meanings. In Aspects of the Theory of Syntax
(1965), Chomsky wrote, "We thus make a fundamental distinction between competence
(the speaker-hearer's knowledge of his language) and performance (the actual use of
implicit. This means that people do not have conscious access to the principles and rules
that govern the combination of sounds, words, and sentences; however, they do
recognize when those rules and principles have been violated. . . . For example, when a
person judges that the sentence John said that Jane helped himself is ungrammatical, it
is because the person has tacit knowledge of the grammatical principle that reflexive
pronouns must refer to an NP in the same clause." (Eva M. Fernandez and Helen Smith
the tongue, such as 'noble tons of soil' for 'noble sons of toil.' Uttering such a slip doesn't
mean that we don't know English but rather that we've simply made a mistake because
we were tired, distracted, or whatever. Such 'errors' also aren't evidence that you are
(assuming you are a native speaker) a poor English speaker or that you don't know
English as well as someone else does. It means that linguistic performance is different
from linguistic competence. When we say that someone is a better speaker than
someone else (Martin Luther King, Jr., for example, was a terrific orator, much better
than you might be), these judgements tell us about performance, not competence.
Native speakers of a language, whether they are famous public speakers or not, don't
know the language any better than any other speaker in terms of linguistic competence.
(Kristin Denham and Anne Lobeck, Linguistics for Everyone. Wadsworth, 2010)
Two language users may have the same 'program' for carrying out specific tasks of
production and recognition, but differ in their ability to apply it because of exogenous
differences (such as short-term memory capacity). The two are accordingly equally
competence.
The linguistic competence of a human being should accordingly be identified with that
individual's internalized 'program' for production and recognition. While many linguists
would identify the study of this program with the study of performance rather than
deliberately abstracted away from any consideration of what happens when a language
user actually attempts to put the program to use. A major goal of the psychology of
mentally and manifested by their understanding of acceptable usage in a given linguistic idiom.
Grammatical competence thus defines an innate knowledge of rules rather than knowledge of
items or relations. It is said to be innate because one apparently does not have to be trained to
acquire it and it can be applied to an unlimited number of previously unheard examples. The
two phrases I speak acceptable Chinese and I speak Chinese acceptably would be regarded as
acceptable by any native English speaker, but I speak acceptably Chinese would probably not.
Despite this, the more complex form, I speak quite acceptably Cantonese and some other
Chinese dialects as well as Japanese, might be regarded as alright. Examples like these are
mechanical grammar drills. This focus is influenced by the idea that grammar and
traditional model.
For most teachers and researchers, there is no question about the importance of
grammar instruction. The question is whether this should be taught explicitly, or whether
learners will absorb grammatical rules as they meet them in their exposure to English.
Bilingualism
Ideally, the child will have equal, quality experiences with both
languages.
U.S. schools.
Vocabulary
According to Colorin Colorado (2012) a vocabulary is a set of familiar words within a
person's language. A vocabulary, usually developed with age, serves as a useful and
new lesson and other settings? What kinds of practice can educators offer
so that students master the meanings of new words rather than simply
classroom.
For many children, third grade marks a growth spurt—physically, emotionally, and mentally.
Most 8-year-olds show great gains in their cognitive development and tend to be able to ask
questions until they have enough information to draw conclusions about what they’re learning.
They’re also slowly budding into more mature children, making it an interesting year for both
them and their parents.round third grade, children can read fluently, apply
word they read makes sense), and expand their abilities to a wider
array of texts (e.g., mystery, fantasy, historical fiction, poetry, etc.).
check out Into the Book or Blue Ribbon Interactives. Children more
helps children deduce what they do not yet know. They can draw on
Children this age also use their developing inference abilities across
parent says, “Boy, I sure have a lot of packages to unload,” their child
can intuit the indirect request for help. Parents can support their
about information their child has heard or read. For some online
your child questions about the topic or setting of a book before she
reads, by asking ‘why’ questions along the way, and by having open-
comes across in the book. For online fun, try this game.
skills, children this age are often quite chatty. They can form exciting
order events sequentially — all skills that help form the basis of
in this age group, and parents can support their child’s ability to
turns, use appropriate eye contact, and build off the topics of interest
Development, 2011)
Universal Grammar
which all human languages are constructed on the same, abstract template, and that
this explains why all normal speakers acquire their native language quickly and
accurately.
Chomsky developed the notion of Universal Grammar (UG) as a blueprint for the LAD.
Generative linguists seek to refine and test these abstract linguistic descriptions,
languages and considered to be innate. Since the 1980s, the term has often been
properties, conditions, or whatever that constitute the 'initial state' of the language
learner, hence the basis on which knowledge of a language develops. ("Rules and
The concept is connected to the ability of children to be able to learn their native
genetically universal grammar common to all peoples and that the variability in modern
2008)
and principles shared by all human languages and considered to be innate. Since the
1980s, the term has often been capitalized. The term is also known as Universal
Grammar
biological grammatical categories, such as a noun category and a verb category that
facilitate the entire language development in children and overall language processing in
adults.
combine these categories, e.g. noun and verb, into phrases. The child’s task is just to
learn the words of her language (Ambridge & Lieven). For example, according to the
Universal Grammar account, children instinctively know how to combine a noun (e.g. a
boy) and a verb (to eat) into a meaningful, correct phrase (A boy eats).
scholars to investigate the nature of these assumed grammatical categories and the
vocalizations (e.g. bonobos), or even with partially learned systems (e.g. bird songs),
there is no other species known to date that can express infinite ideas (sentences) with a
This ability is remarkable in itself. What makes it even more remarkable is that
researchers are finding evidence for mastery of this complex skill in increasingly
younger children. Infants as young as 12 months are reported to have sensitivity to the
grammar needed to understand causative sentences (who did what to whom; e.g. the
After more than 60 years of research into child language development, the mechanism
that enables children to segment syllables and words out of the strings of sounds they
hear, and to acquire grammar to understand and produce language is still quite an
enigma.
reinforced when the child realizes the communicative value of words and phrases.
Cognitivism
solve problems, and direct their attention to one stimulus rather than
If a language learner is asked what they think the goal of a language course is, they
would probably answer that it is to teach the grammar and vocabulary of that language.
However, if they are asked what their goal is as language learners, they would most
n other words, a language user needs to use the language not only correctly (based on
Of course, this approach does not diminish the importance of learning the grammatical
Linguistic competence is the knowledge of the language code, i.e. its grammar and
vocabulary, and also of the conventions of its written representation (script and
orthography). The grammar component includes the knowledge of the sounds and their
pronunciation (i.e. phonetics), the rules that govern sound interactions and patterns (i.e.
phonology), the formation of words by means of e.g. inflection and derivation (i.e.
morphology), the rules that govern the combination of words and phrases to structure
sentences (i.e. syntax), and the way that meaning is conveyed through language (i.e.
semantics).
the setting of the communication, the topic, and the relationships among the people
communicating. Moreover, being appropriate depends on knowing what the taboos of
the other culture are, what politeness indices are used in each case, what the politically
correct term would be for something, how a specific attitude (authority, friendliness,
knowing how to combine language structures into a cohesive and coherent oral or
written text of different types. Thus, discourse competence deals with organising words,
before, during, or after they occur. For instance, the speaker may not know a certain
word, thus will plan to either paraphrase, or ask what that word is in the target language.
During the conversation, background noise or other factors may hinder communication;
thus the speaker must know how to keep the communication channel open. If the
to the message being misunderstood, the speaker must know how to restore
a foreign language —and they usually are by modern teaching methods employed in
second language teaching. Usually most of the above are best learned if the language
learner immerses into the culture of a country that speaks the target language. (Ross,
2010)
Verbal Aptitude is the ability to use the written language and to understand concepts
Verbal aptitude tests can be many different things: They can assess a person's ability to
spell words correctly, use correct grammar, understand word meanings, understand
Motivation, attitude, age, intelligence, aptitude, cognitive style, and personality are considered
as factors that greatly influence someone in the process of his or her second language
acquisition. Experts state that those factors give a more dominant contribution in SLA to
learners variedly, depend on who the learners are, their age, how they behave toward the
language, their cognitive ability, and also the way they learn. (Barsky, 2018)