ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 46 (2009) 514–520

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of
Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrmms

Dynamic behavior of a Mediterranean natural stone under tensile loading

Domenico Asprone a,, Ezio Cadoni b, Andrea Prota a, Gaetano Manfredi a
a
Department of Structural Engineering, University of Naples ‘‘Federico II’’, Naples, Italy
b
University of Applied Sciences of Southern Switzerland, Lugano, Switzerland

a r t i c l e in f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Historical buildings are important structures commonly occurring in Mediterranean cities. The behavior
Received 4 April 2008 of their constituent materials under high dynamic loads is fundamental to investigate the vulnerability
Received in revised form of such structures under extreme dynamic events. The main aim of our investigation was to study the
5 August 2008
effect of high dynamic loading conditions on a classical porous natural stone from the Naples area,
Accepted 21 September 2008
namely yellow tuff, used in hundreds of historical buildings and monuments in Naples and other
Available online 12 November 2008
Mediterranean cities. Hence, dynamic characterization was performed through high strain-rate failure
Keywords: tensile tests. A wide range of strain-rates was investigated, from 105 s1 to 50 s1. The obtained data
Porous natural stone were processed to obtain stress–strain relationships at different strain-rate levels. The results reveal
Yellow tuff
that Neapolitan yellow tuff presents a significantly strain-rate sensitive behavior, exhibiting dynamic
Strain-rate
tensile strength increasing with strain-rate, up to about three times that from quasi-static conditions in
Dynamic behavior
Dynamic increase factor the case of very high strain-rates. Dynamic increase factors (DIFs) vs. strain-rate curves for tensile
Tensile strength failure stress were also evaluated and discussed.
& 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction different loading conditions, such as uniaxial compression [8,9],

Investigating the dynamic properties of construction materials
is a crucial matter for structural engineering. It is widely
recognized that structural design and/or assessment of critical
infrastructures or buildings need to allow for particularly severe
dynamic scenarios which could occur on structures during their
lifetime (i.e. strong earthquakes and man-made blast events).
Since the dynamic mechanical properties of materials can differ
greatly from those exhibited in quasi-static conditions, specific
investigations in such dynamic ranges appear necessary in order
to fully understand the behavior of structures subjected to high
dynamic loading conditions.
To date, research has focused on experimental investigation of
the dynamic mechanical properties of common construction
materials, especially concrete and steel which are widely used in
civil infrastructures [1–7]. However, especially in assessing
existing structures, such as historical buildings or monuments,
specific knowledge of the dynamic properties of materials used
less recently, like masonry, becomes necessary.
On the other hand, within rock mechanics literature, a number
of studies are available investigating the influence of strain-rate
on the mechanical properties of different types of rocks.
Dependence on the strain-rate of natural stones was tested in
 Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 0817683672; fax: +39 0817683491.
E-mail address: d.asprone@unina.it (D. Asprone).
uniaxial tension [10] and triaxial compression [11]. Regarding
tensile loading conditions, it is recognized that natural stones
exhibit higher strength values as the strain-rate increases; this
behavior is mainly due to microscopic inhomogeneity, affecting
principally sensitiveness to medium strain-rates, and microcrack
formations, interfering failure surface development, which pri-
marily influence the high strain-rate regime [12].
The present paper discusses the results of an experimental
campaign conducted to investigate the dynamic properties at
different strain-rates of a classic Mediterranean natural stone,
namely Neapolitan yellow tuff (NYT). NYT is a zeolitized tuff, the
product of a huge eruption dated about 15,000 years ago in the
Campi Flegrei volcanic area west of Naples, which generated
about 50 km3 of material [13]. The mechanical behavior of NYT is
similar to that exhibited by several natural stones of the
Mediterranean area that, generated by volcanic eruptions, present
common characteristics and composition properties. Such stones
were once widely used in Mediterranean cities as construction
material, and are thus found in numerous buildings forming part
of the architectural heritage of historical cities, but also in
strategic structures. Focusing on one of such stones is unavoid-
able, due to their wide variability, but the results from the present
study can provide interesting data about their dynamic behavior.
Due to its extensive use, the quasi-static mechanical properties
of NYT are well known [14], but no data are available on its
behavior under controlled dynamic conditions. Hence, the
objective of our research was to assess the dynamic behavior of

1365-1609/$ - see front matter & 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijrmms.2008.09.010
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
D. Asprone et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 46 (2009) 514–520
NYT, at different strain-rates, in order to verify its behavior under
dynamic loading conditions, such as those induced by seismic or
blast actions. NYT is a brittle material with good mechanical
properties and sufficient workability that make it highly-prized
construction material. As might be expected from a natural stone,
NYT is affected by the great variability in its mechanical
characteristics, which may depend on the extraction location or
depth of extraction. NYT is composed by volcanic glass particles
and lava fragments, giving rise to irregularly shaped grains, whose
size is that of a sandy silt. In this matrix pumix and silica
fragments are present, whose diameter can vary from less than
3–50 mm [14]. Compression strength of NYT is characterized by
high variability within its different varieties, ranging between 1.62
and 10.60 MPa, as reported in [15]; however, most commonly used
NYT presents an average compression strength of 3–4 MPa [15]. It
can be observed that a medium strength stone is characterized by
a compression failure stress fc of about 4 MPa. By contrast, tensile
failure stress ft is characterized by values of one order smaller
than fc [16]. Porosity and saturation represent two important
parameters that can influence the mechanical properties of
natural stones, as widely investigated in the available literature
[17–20]. As both increase mechanical properties generally
degrade; in particular in the case of NYT, compression strength
can be affected by reductions of as high as 36% [15]. Young’s
modulus E of NYT can vary between 800 and 3000 MPa, with 80%
of values over 1000 MPa [15]. Furthermore, the specific weight g is
also affected by high variability, ranging between 14.6 and
17.5 kN/m3 [14].
Here, a dynamic tensile characterization conducted on an NYT
variety is described. In particular, failure tensile tests at different
strain-rates were carried out, ranging between 105 s1, con-
ducted in quasi-static loading conditions and 50 s1. Static tensile
and compression tests were first performed to assess the
mechanical properties of the investigated NYT variety. The results
obtained are given below.
2. Static characterization of NYT
A preliminary static characterization was conducted on the
investigated NYT. Five compression failure tests were performed
on 60 mm-high cylindrical specimens with a diameter of 60 mm
and the same number of tests were conducted on cylindrical
specimens 20 mm in diameter and height. Moreover, three
Fig. 1. Specimen before (a) and after (b) a static tensile failure test.
515
measurements of Young’s modulus E were conducted on 3
specimens 60 mm in diameter and 110 mm high. In the case of
60 mm diameter specimens an average compression failure stress
of 3.57 MPa and a standard deviation of 1.15 MPa were obtained
revealing, according to characterization defined in [15], a medium
compression strength tuff. Moreover, results from smaller specimen
tests (20 mm in diameter) revealed a higher average compression
failure stress, equal to 5.15 MPa, with a standard deviation of
0.83 MPa. This was probably caused by a size effect influencing the
behavior of NYT, which is due to its inhomogeneity at a
microscopic scale. Indeed, it is widely accepted that a reduction
in specimen size, in the case of non-homogeneous materials, can
lead to an increase in strength values experienced [17]. The elastic
modulus was also measured, following the Swiss standard SIA
162/1, obtaining an average value of 2407 MPa, with a standard
deviation of 271 MPa.
Tensile failure tests were also performed on cylindrical speci-
mens 20 mm in diameter and 20 mm high by means of a universal
servo-controlled machine with a constant strain-rate of 105. Six
tests were conducted, obtaining an average tensile strength of
0.68 MPa, with a standard deviation of 0.15 MPa. Fig. 1 shows a
specimen before and after the test. An average tensile failure
stress of 0.68 MPa was obtained, corresponding to 13% of the
average compression failure stress, obtained for the same-size
specimens. This value is actually close to values indicated in the
literature which, as reported above, suggests a ratio of about 9%.
Tests were conducted on specimens under ordinary conditions of
temperature and humidity. However, to control such aspects, total
porosity and saturation degree were also determined, obtaining
values of 0.607 and 2%, respectively. A brief consideration about
the choice of specimen sizes is here provided. As described in the
sections below, dynamic tests were conducted on 20 mm diameter
specimens. Hence, in order to compare dynamic and quasi-static
regime directly, purging the results of any size effect influence,
tensile static tests were also conducted on 20 mm diameter
specimens. Furthermore, in order to appreciate the influence of
size effect, compression static tests were conducted on both 60
and 20 mm diameter specimens.
3. Dynamic tests on NYT
Tensile failure tests were conducted, in the DynaMat labora-
tory of the University of Applied Sciences of Southern Switzerland,
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

516 D. Asprone et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 46 (2009) 514–520

Fig. 2. HPM functioning scheme.

on NYT specimens, investigating medium strain-rate and high Table 1

strain-rate. The former, commonly considered as ranging between Results of medium strain-rate tensile failure tests
101 and 10 s1, can be induced by severe seismic actions, while
Strain-rate Specimen ft (MPa) ft average ft standard
the latter, varying between 10 and 102 s1, can be due to impact or (s1) value (MPa) deviation (MPa)
blast loading. Two different experimental setups were used. For
medium strain-rate tests a hydro-pneumatic machine (HPM) was 101 1 0.97 0.86 0.22
employed, whereas a modified Hopkinson bar (MHB) [21,22] 2 1.10
3 1.04
apparatus was used to conduct high strain-rate tests. In both cases 4 0.53
the specimens were cylindrical, with a diameter of 20 mm and a 5 0.71
height of 20 mm. 6 0.82

5 7 0.79 1.19 0.32

3.1. Medium strain-rate tests
In the medium strain-rate range, six tests were conducted at a
strain-rate level of 101 s1 and seven at a strain-rate level of 5 s1.
The HPM functioning scheme is presented in Fig. 2. At the
beginning of the test, a sealed piston divides a cylindrical tank
into two chambers, one being filled with gas at high pressure
(e.g. 150 bars), the other with water. At first, equal pressure is
established in the water and gas chambers so that forces acting on
the two piston faces are in equilibrium. The test starts when the
second chamber discharges the water through a calibrated orifice,
activated by a fast electro-valve. Then the piston starts moving,
expelling the gas through a sealed opening; the end of the piston
shaft is connected to the steel specimen. The specimen is linked to
the piston shaft and to one end of an elastic bar, whose other end
is rigidly fixed to a supporting structure. When the piston shaft
moves, the specimen is pulled at a fixed strain-rate level,
depending on the velocity of the gas expelled from the chamber.
The elastic bar is instrumented with a strain-gauge that provides,
through the elastic properties of the bar, the force acting on the
specimen during the test. Two targets are attached on both ends
of the specimen and their movements are measured by two
contact-less displacement transducers.
It can be shown that movement of the piston at a constant
speed guarantees the constancy of the strain-rate during the test;
this depends mainly on the constancy of the force exerted by the
gas pressure on the piston face. A good result in this sense was
obtained with a small change in gas volume during the test in
order to have a small gas pressure decrease and hence a small
piston force decrease. Furthermore, load P resisted by the
specimen is measured by the dynamometric elastic bar, whereas
specimen elongation DL is measured by the displacement
8 1.09
9 1.42
10 1.34
11 0.75
12 1.34
13 1.60
transducers, sensing the displacement of the plate target fixed
to both specimen ends. Such acquisitions allow the stress vs.
strain relationship to be obtained at the strain-rate level reached
during the test. Results of the conducted tests are presented in
Table 1. It can be observed that average tensile failure stresses of
0.86 and 1.19 MPa were obtained for strain-rates of 101 and 5 s1,
respectively. These values are slightly higher than quasi-static
tensile failure stress, revealing the strain-rate sensitivity of NYT,
even at medium strain-rate conditions.
3.2. High strain-rate tests
In the high strain-rate range three tests were conducted at
both the 20 s1 and 50 s1 strain-rate level. To conduct these tests
the MHB apparatus in Fig. 3 was employed. The machine consists
of two longitudinally aligned aluminum bars 20 mm in diameter,
the namely input bar (3 m long) and output bar (6 m long). The
specimen with the same diameter as the input and output bar is
located between them, glued using a high-strength epoxy resin. A
high-strength steel pretension bar 6 m long and 12 mm in
diameter is directly connected to the input bar and used to store
elastic energy, which is provided by a hydraulic actuator at one
end of the bar and is resisted by a blocking device at the other. The
diameter of the pretension bar was chosen to have the same
acoustical impedance of the aluminum input bar so that
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

D. Asprone et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 46 (2009) 514–520 517

Fig. 3. Modified Hopkinson bar apparatus.

undesired wave reflections were avoided [5]. Then the stored Table 2
energy is instantaneously released to the input bar, causing a Results of high strain-rate tensile failure tests
tensile wave to travel in it; this wave hits the specimen and is then
Strain-rate Specimen ft (MPa) ft average ft standard
divided into a reflected part, coming back in the input bar, and a (s1) value (MPa) deviation (MPa)
transmitted part, passing into the output bar. This phenomenon
leads the specimen to failure. The strain-gauge station, located on 20 14 1.77 1.71 0.44
the input bar and on the output bar (symmetrically placed at 15 1.25
16 2.12
900 mm from the specimen) allows the strain histories to be
acquired with which, according to one-dimensional elastic wave 50 17 2.03 1.97 0.32
propagation theory [5], the stress vs. strain curves may be 18 1.63
19 2.26
obtained for the strain-rate level reached. The stress, strain and
strain-rate are obtained by the following equations:

A0
sðtÞ ¼ E0 T ðtÞ (1)
A 3
Z t
2C 0 50 s-1
ðtÞ ¼  R ðtÞ dt (2)
L 0
2.5 20 s-1

2C 0
0 ðtÞ ¼  R ðtÞ (3)
L
2
where E0 is the elastic modulus of the bars, equal to 69 GPa; A0 is
stress [MPa]

their cross-section area, equal to 314 mm2; A is the specimen

cross-section area, equal to 314 mm2; eT is the transmitted strain
measured in the output bar; L is the specimen, 20 mm long; C0 is 1.5
the sound velocity of the bar material, 5064 m/s; and eR is the
reflected strain measured in the input bar.
Further details about the test setup and data processing are 1
available in [23]. Results of the conducted tests are reported in
Table 2, revealing an average tensile failure stress of 1.71 and
1.97 MPa for a strain-rate level of 20 and 50 s1, respectively. In 0.5
Fig. 4, two stress vs. time curves at 20 and 50 s1 are depicted. It
can be observed that, as the strain-rate increased, the specimens
were able to withstand higher forces before reaching failure, 0
but time to fracture reduced at higher strain-rates. Accordingly, 0 1 10-5 2 10-5 3 10-5 4 10-5 5 10-5
Table 3 reports time to fracture both for medium and high strain-
time [s]
rates, revealing a marked reduction varying from lower strain
rates to higher ones. Fig. 4. Stress vs. time curve for the two high strain-rates.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

518 D. Asprone et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 46 (2009) 514–520

Table 3
Time to fracture, DIF for tensile failure stresses and energy characteristics

Strain-rate (s1) Time of fracture (s) Experimental DIF,ft CEB formulation DIF,ft Fracture energy GF (J/m2) Characteristic length lc (mm)

105 – – – 18.30 151.0

101 7  103 1.26 2.4 – –
5 9  104 1.75 3.3 – –
20 28  106 2.51 3.7 21.88 24.5
50 20  106 2.90 4.6 29.66 18.0

4. Assessment of experimental results 2.5

Experimental data were processed to obtain stress vs. crack 50 s-1

opening displacement curves at different strain-rates. Fig. 5 shows 20 s-1
2 5 s-1
some of the curves obtained for each of the investigated strain- 10-1 s-1
rates, compared with those obtained from quasi-static loading 10-5 s-1
conditions, indicated with a strain-rate of 105 s1. It can be
observed that as the strain-rate increases, so does ultimate failure
stress. By contrast, the corresponding crack opening displacement 1.5

stress [MPa]
does not change its value significantly, except for 50 s1, where
fracture occurs at a lower strain value. In particular, crack opening
displacements were obtained by direct measurement of the
displacement transducers in the case of medium strain-rate tests, 1
conducted via HPM, and from Eq. (2) multiplying strain by the
specimen length, in the case of high strain-rates, conducted via
MHB. The increase in the ultimate stress and the decrease in the
strain at failure indicate that as the strain-rate increases, the 0.5
material assumes a more brittle behavior. Moreover, Fig. 6 depicts
the strain histories measured by the input strain-gauge during high
strain-rate tests, distinguished into two curves (20 s1 and at 50 s1
of strain-rate). The figure shows how different pre-loads, used to 0
obtain different strain-rates, generate different velocities of the 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
tests; this is observable in the slopes of the initial and final parts, COD [mm]
representing the transmission and the reflection of the strain wave,
Fig. 5. Stress vs. COD curves at different strain-rates.
respectively, which are higher as the strain-rate increases.
In order to appreciate the improved strength under dynamic
loading conditions the results of the average tensile failure stresses
were processed in terms of dynamic increase factor, DIF,ft, defined 0.0006
as the ratio of the dynamic values of the tensile failure stress to the input strain (20 s-1) NYT
static one. The results in Table 3 were thus obtained, revealing a input strain (50 s-1)
maximum DIF,ft equal to 2.90, in the case of a strain-rate of 50 s1. 0.0005
These data were then processed depending on the strain-rate in
logarithmic scale, obtaining the curve depicted in Fig. 7. As
expected, this figure reveals a behavior similar to that experienced 0.0004
in the case of brittle ceramic materials, like concrete. In the case of ε (50 s-1)
input strain

R
concrete, in fact, DIF,ft dependence on the strain-rate level in
ε (50 s-1)

logarithmic scale presents two different slopes for medium strain- 0.0003
rate and high strain-rate and the variation of the gradient is located
I

at about 1 s1 [2,3]. In the first case, the increase in strength is due
to moisture content, involving viscosity mechanisms, whereas for 0.0002
high strain-rates inertia effects in cracking propagation become ε (20 s-1)
R
ε (20 s-1)

sizeable, providing further resistance [2,3,24]. In the present case, a

two-segment trend-line was also drawn, revealing a knee located at 0.0001
about 2.2 s1 of strain-rate.
I

Unfortunately, no specific formulations were found in the

literature on natural stones. However, given the similarities 0
described above with the behavior of concrete and given that 0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005
both concrete and NYT are brittle ceramic materials presenting a time [s]
certain level of porosity and water content, formulation provided
in [2] was employed. This relationship, namely CEB formulation, Fig. 6. Input strain history at different strain-rates.

actually elaborated for concrete, allows the dynamic tensile

 1=3
strength to be evaluated at a given strain-rate level, starting from _
static mechanical properties. It allows prediction of DIFft as:
DIF; f t ¼ Z for _ 430 s1 (5)
_ 0
 1:016d
_ where _ is the strain-rate; _ 0 is a constant equal to 3  106 s1
DIF; f t ¼ for _ p30 s1 (4)
_ 0 and has the meaning of the static strain-rate; and

D. Asprone et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 46 (2009) 514–520
5.00
Average values
4.50
Experimental data
4.00 Trend line
CEB formulation
3.50
3.00
DIF, ft
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
-1
Strain rate [s ]
Fig. 7. DIF,ft vs. strain-rate experimental data.
log Z ¼ 7:11d  2:33, where d ¼ 1=½10 þ 6ðf c =f 0 Þ, fc is the static
compression strength; and f0 is a constant equal to 10 MPa
(1450 psi).
This relationship was then used in an attempt to predict the
experimental values of DIF,ft via numerical elaboration. To do so,
the static compression strength was assumed equal to 3.57 MPa,
as obtained from the preliminary static tests. Results in Table 3
were found, whereas Fig. 7 depicts the obtained curve on the
experimental data. It can be observed that CEB formulation
overestimates the experimental results, providing higher values of
DIF,ft. This was actually expected since CEB formulation was
calibrated for concrete, presenting higher static compression
strength.
Furthermore, in order to quantify energy dissipation involved
in the failure mechanisms of the investigated material under
uniaxial tensile loading, fracture energy GF dissipated during both
static and dynamic tests was computed; Table 3 reports the
average values for high strain-rate and quasi-static regimes.
Fracture energy is represented by the area under the stress-crack
opening displacement curve and, as it might be expected, it
revealed an increasing trend with strain-rate. However, this
increase in fracture energy cannot be attributed to a correspond-
ing increase in ductility, since fracture energy does not distinguish
ductility from brittleness. In order to appreciate ductility and
brittleness contributions, data were elaborated to obtain the
characteristic length lc [25], defined as
EGF
lc ¼ 2
ft
This parameter increases as ductility grows and, at the
same time, as brittleness decreases. The values of lc are reported
in Table 3 for high strain-rates and quasi-static regimes; it can be
observed that lower values of lc correspond to higher strain-rates,
revealing a more fragile behavior of the investigated material in
the case of more intense dynamic conditions.
In the cases presented the strain-rate was calculated by Eq. (3)
at the maximum stress [26]. Indeed, contrary to ductile materials,
where plasticity makes the strain-rate constant, in a brittle
material, such as NYT, the strain-rate varies over time. Impor-
tantly, both in the case of medium and high strain-rates, standard
deviation of tensile failure stress is higher than that associated to
quasi-static tests. This was actually expected, since both different
failure mechanisms and more complicated testing procedures
ARTICLE IN PRESS
519
lead to higher spread of results in medium and high strain-rate
tests compared to quasi-static tests.
Finally, in order to compare the results usefully with those of
other experimental campaigns considering loading-rate instead of
strain-rate, conversion values from strain-rates to loading-rates
need to be provided. In particular, strain-rates of 101, 5, 20 and 50
correspond to loading-rates of 0.1, 1.2, 80 and 180 GPa/s,
respectively.
5. Conclusions
In this work, a dynamic characterization of NYT under tensile
loading was presented. NYT is a natural stone, widely used in the
2.2 Naples area as construction material and found in many
important historical buildings and monuments in the city.
Preliminary analyses were conducted, revealing static mechanical
100
properties and porosity and saturation degrees of the investigated
material. Then dynamic tensile failure tests were conducted on
NYT samples, at given strain-rate levels, ranging between 101
and 50 s1. The tests were conducted using a Hydro-pneumatic
machine for medium strain-rates and a modified Hopkinson bar
apparatus for high strain-rates. Experimental analyses revealed
that the investigated NYT, under high strain-rate conditions, is
able to withstand tensile forces about three times those resisted in
static conditions. Such results indicate that NYT under tensile
loading conditions is strain-rate sensitive. We then sought to
reproduce our results in terms of DIF,ft, via the CEB relationship for
tensile strain-rate sensitivity of concrete, given the similarities
that NYT presents with concrete. However, the CEB formulation
applied to the investigated NYT strongly overestimates the
experimental data.
Hence, it appears necessary that further mechanical dynamic
characterization under tensile loading conditions needs to be
conducted, also accounting for size effect, in order to obtain
further data and calibrate a specific relationship for NYT.
Furthermore, the influence of water content on the dynamic
behavior of NYT requires investigation, given its importance in
determining static mechanical properties of NYT. Hence, further
tests are being carried out to replicate the conducted experi-
mental campaign on completely dry and completely wet NYT
samples.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Matteo Dotta, Daniele Forni and
Samuel Antonietti of the University of Applied Sciences of
Southern Switzerland for their collaboration in carrying out
laboratory tests.
(6)
References
[1] Mainstone RJ. Properties of materials at high rates of straining or loading.
Mater Constr 1975;8:102–16.
[2] Comité Euro-International du Béton. CEB-FIP Model Code 1990. Trowbridge,
Wiltshire, UK: Redwood Books; 1993.
[3] Malvar LJ, Ross CA. Review of strain-rate effects for concrete in tension. ACI
Mater J 1998;95:735–9.
[4] Banthia N, Mindess S, Bentur A, Pigeon M. Impact testing of concrete using a
drop-weight impact machine. Exp Mech 1989;29:63–9.
[5] Lindholm US. High strain-rate tests, in measurement of mechanical proper-
ties. Tech Met Res 1971;5:199–271.
[6] van Doormal JCAM, Weerheijn J, Sluys LJ. Experimental and numerical
determination of the dynamic fracture energy of concrete. J Phys 1994;4:
501–6.
[7] Malvar LJ. Review of static and dynamic properties of steel reinforcing bars’’.
ACI Mater J 1998;95:609–16.
[8] Ray SK, Sarkar M, Singh TN. Effect of cyclic loading and strain rate on the
mechanical behaviour of sandstone. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 1999;36:543–9.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
520 D. Asprone et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 46 (2009) 514–520
[9] Ma LM, Daemen JJK. Strain rate dependence of mechanical properties of
welded Tonopah Spring tuff. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 2004;41:395.
[10] Kubota S, Ogata Y, Wada Y, Simangunsong G, Shimada H, Matsui K. Estimation
of dynamic tensile strength of sandstone. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 2008;45:
397–406.
[11] Lia HB, Zhaoa J, Lib TJ. Triaxial compression tests on a granite at different
strain rates and confining pressures. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 1999;36:
1057–63.
[12] Cho SH, Ogata Y, Kaneko K. Strain-rate dependency of the dynamic tensile
strength of rock. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 2003;40:763–77.
[13] Scarpati C, Cole P, Perrotta A. The Neapolitan yellow tuff. A large volume
multiphase eruption from Campi Flegrei. Southern Italy. Bull Volcanol 1993;
55:343–56.
[14] Rippa F, Vinale F. Structures and mechanical behavior of a volcanic tuff. In:
Proceedings of the fifth congress of the international society of rock
mechanics. Melbourne: 1983.
[15] Dell’Erba L. Il tufo giallo napoletano. Naples: Raffaele Pironti; 1923.
[16] Lade PV. Three parameter failure criterion for concrete. J Eng Mech ASCE
1982;108:850–63.
[17] Bazant ZP. Size effect in blunt fracture: concrete, rock, metal. J Eng Mech ASCE
1984;110:518–35.
[18] Palchik V. Application of Mohr–Coulomb failure theory to very porous sandy
shales. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 2006;43:1153–62.
[19] Avar BB, Hudyma N, Karakouzian M. Porosity dependence of the elastic
modulus of lithophysae-rich tuff: numerical and experimental investigations.
Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 2003;40:919–28.
[20] Talesnick M, Shehadeh S. The effect of water content on the mechanical
response of a high-porosity chalk. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 2007;44:584–600.
[21] Cadoni E, Albertini C, Solomos G. Analysis of the concrete behaviour in
tension at high strain-rate by a modified Hopkinson bar in support of impact
resistant structural design. J Phys IV 2006;3(9):647–52.
[22] Albertini C, Cadoni E, Labibes K. Mechanical characterization and fracture
process of concrete at high strain-rates. In: Gjørv, Sakai, Banthia, editors.
Concrete under severe conditions, vol. 2. London: E&FN Spon; 1998.
p. 735–44.
[23] Cadoni E, Asprone D, Prota A. Experimental analysis on the tensile dynamic
behavior of existing concrete under high strain-rates. ACI Struct J, in press.
[24] Rossi P, van Mier JGM, Toutlemonde F. Is the dynamic behavior of concrete
influenced by the presence of free water?’’. In: Bazant ZP, editor. Fracture
mechanics of concrete structures. London: Elsevier Applied Science; 1992.
p. 639–44.
[25] Hordijk DA, van Mier JGM, Reinhardt HW. Material properties. In: Fracture
mechanics of concrete structures: from theory to applications. New York:
Chapman & Hall; 1989. p. 67–127.
[26] Cadoni E, Labibes K, Berra M, Giangrasso M, Albertini C. High strain-rate
tensile concrete behaviour. Mag Concr Res 2000;52(5):365–70.