Hbec2203 Bi

Faculty of Education and Languages
HBEC2203
Early Childhood Education Curriculum
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HBEC2203
EARLY CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION
CURRICULUM
Mahani Abdul Malik
Nik Noraini Nik Abu Bakar
Arlina Ahmad Zaki

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Mahani Abdul Malik

Nik Noraini Nik Abu Bakar

Arlina Ahmad Zaki
Moderator: Dr Nurul Aliah Mustafa

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, August 2016

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), August 2016, HBEC2203
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xi-xvi
Topic 1 Overview of Child Curriculum 1

1.1 Child Curriculum 2
1.1.1 Purpose of Curriculum 3
1.1.2 Influences of Curriculum 4
1.1.3 Process of Curriculum Development 5
1.2 Development and Learning Theories 7
1.2.1 Maturational Theory 7
1.2.2 Psychodynamic Theory 7
1.2.3 Cognitive Development Theory 9
1.2.4 Ecological Theory 11
1.2.5 Multiple Intelligences Theory 13
1.2.6 Social Cultural Theory 14
Summary 15
Key Terms 15
References 15
Topic 2 Overview of Curriculum Models 17

2.1 Head start 18
2.1.1 History of Head Start 18
2.1.2 Programme Goals 19
2.2 High Scope 20
2.3 Bank Street 22
2.3.1 History of Bank Street 22
2.3.2 Basic Principles 23
2.3.3 Curriculum 23
2.4 Montessori 24
2.4.1 Basic Principles 24
2.4.2 The Absorbent Mind 26
2.4.3 The Prepared Environment 27
2.4.4 The Montessori Teacher 28

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.5 Reggio Emilia 29

2.5.1 Principles and Practices of Reggio Emilia 30
2.5.2 Curriculum as a Collaborative Exploration 30
2.5.3 Parent Engagement 32
Summary 32
Key Terms 33
References 34
Topic 3 Early Curriculum Basics (Play, Discovery and Creativity) 35

3.1 Play 36
3.2 Integrating Play into the Curriculum 37
3.2.1 Pedagogical Framing and Strategies 38
3.2.2 Common Elements of Play-based Curriculum Models 39
3.3 Variation in Play-based Curriculum Model 44
Summary 45
Key Terms 46
References 46
Topic 4 Structure of Early Childhood Curriculum: Planning, Designing, 48

Implementing and Assessing
4.1 Planning 50
4.1.1 Indicators of Effective Curriculum 51
4.1.2 Vital Components of Planning 52
4.1.3 Planning a Curriculum 53
4.1.4 Rigid Planning versus Flexible Planning 54
4.2 Designing 55
4.2.1 Unit Plan 55
4.2.2 Webbing or Clustering 56
4.2.3 Activity Plan 59
4.2.4 Daily Schedule of Activities 60
4.3 Implementing 66
4.3.1 Objectives 67
4.3.2 Procedures 68
4.3.3 Resources and Materials 68
4.3.4 Assessment 69
4.4 Assessment 71
4.4.1 Assessing Children Learning and Involvement 72
4.4.2 Assessing a ChildÊs Development 73
4.4.3 Evaluating the Teacher 74
Summary 75
Key Terms 76
References 76

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 5 Classroom Design and Organisation 78

5.1 Principles in Designing and Organising Classrooms for 79
Early Childhood Education
5.1.1 Appropriate Equipment and Materials 80
5.1.2 Organised and Uncluttered Classroom 80
5.1.3 Culturally Accepted 80
5.1.4 Consider Traffic Flow 81
5.1.5 Differentiating Classroom Areas 81
5.1.6 Classroom Must be Neat, Clean and Cheerful 81
5.1.7 Encourage Children to Keep the Room Orderly 82
5.1.8 Supervise All Areas of the Room 82
5.1.9 Storage Equipment 82
5.1.10 Rotating Areas and Materials 82
5.1.11 Purpose and Meaning 83
5.1.12 Focal Points to Attract Attention 83
5.2 Arranging the Environment with Areas to Meet 84
Developmental Needs
5.3 Classroom Layout 89
5.4 Importance of Indoor and Outdoor Learning 92
Summary 93
Key Terms 94
References 95
Topic 6 Curriculum for Developing Emotional and Social Development 96

6.1 What is Social-emotional Learning (SEL)? 98
6.2 How to Bring SEL into the Early Childhood Classroom 101
6.2.1 Creating a Safe and Supportive Environment 102
6.2.2 Focusing on ChildrenÊs Feelings 103
6.2.3 Help Children Develop Language 104
6.2.4 Discussing Topics of How Children Develop SEL 104
6.3 Social Emotional Development 105
6.3.1 The Psychosocial Theory 106
6.3.2 The Behaviourist Theory 107
6.4 Temperament and Dispositions 108
6.5 Social Emotional Development in a Group Setting 109
Summary 111
Key Terms 112
Self-Test 113
References 113

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 7 Connecting Curriculum for Language and Literacy Development 115

7.1 Development of Language Literacy in Early Childhood 116
7.2 Ways to Encourage Language Development 119
7.2.1 Listening and Speaking ă Aspects of Developing 122
Language
7.2.2 Activities for Listening and Speaking 123
7.3 Benefits of Language Experience during Early Childhood 124
7.4 Skills and Concept for Language Development 125
Summary 129
Key Terms 129
References 130
Topic 8 Connecting Curriculum for Early Mathematical Skills and 132

Science Experience
8.1 Incorporating Problem Solving and Mathematics 132
Competence in the Early Childhood Curriculum
8.1.1 Early Childhood Learning Experiences in Physical, 134
Earth and Life Sciences
8.1.2 Problem Solving through Mathematics and 135
Computers
8.2 Science Concepts through Exploration and Observation 137
8.2.1 New Ways to Encourage Children to Share Their 138
Thinking and New Learning Experiences
8.2.2 Why is it Important to Guide rather than Direct a 139
ChildÊs Explorations?
8.3 Teaching Mathematics for Early Childhood Learners 141
Summary 144
Key Terms 144
References 145
Topic 9 Overview of Curriculum for Physical Development 146

9.1 Building Gross and Fine Motor Skills 147
9.2 Physical Activities for Young Children 151
9.3 Perceptual-motor Development 152
9.3.1 Ways to Improve Motor Skills 155
9.4 Health and Nutrition in Children 157
9.4.1 Nutritious Food for Children 157
9.4.2 Childhood Obesity 159
Summary 162
Key Terms 162
References 162

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
Topic 10 Connecting Curriculum for Aesthetic and Creative 165

Development
10.1 Music and Movement Education for Young Children 165
10.1.1 Why Music in Early Childhood Programmes is Vital 166
10.1.2 A TeacherÊs Role in Music Education 167
10.2 ChildrenÊs Development Stages in Arts 168
10.3 Establishing an Environment for Creative Expression and 171
Experimentation
10.3.1 Establishing an Art Environment 172
10.3.2 Ways to Support a ChildÊs Creativity 172
10.4 Sand and Mud, Water, Blocks Woodworking, Cooking 174
and Creative Food Materials
10.4.1 Benefits of Sand Play for Children 174
10.4.2 Benefits of Mud Play for Children 176
10.4.3 Water Play Activity 178
10.4.4 Blocks and Woodworking Activities 178
10.4.5 Cooking and Creative Food Experiences 180
10.5 Role Play and Drama Play Activities in Pre-school 181
Summary 183
Key Terms 184
References 184

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please refer to the Course Guide as
you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important study
components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBEC2203 Early Childhood Learning Curriculum is one of the courses offered by
the Faculty of Education and Language at Open University Malaysia (OUM).
This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over eight to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to students undertaking the Bachelor of Early Childhood
Education.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material, and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Identify specific instructional areas within the curriculum;
2. Apply the different ways of conceptualising and implementing the

curriculum in early childhood settings;
3. Design appropriate learning activities and experiences for young children

in their respective areas of the curriculum;
4. Identify different teaching strategies used in helping the young students

acquiring and understanding skills and concepts of learning;
5. Differentiate between curriculum teacher driven planning and child

initiated activities; and
6. Plan for individualised, small group and whole group learning.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 9 topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed as
follows:
Topic 1 gives an overview of child curriculum focusing on the purposes of

curriculum, influences of curriculum and process of curriculum development. It
also discusses several major theories on the development and learning in young
children such as the Maturational Theory, Psychodynamic Theory, Cognitive
Development Theory, Ecological Theory, Multiple Intelligence Theory and
Sociocultural Theory.
Topic 2 introduces students to various types of curriculum models such as Head

Start, High Scope, Bank Street, Montessori and Reggio Emilia. This gives a chance
for the students to learn by comparing what has been learnt from other
developing countries.
Topic 3 discusses the importance of play, discovery and creativity; the three main
elements that underpin the basis of early in curriculum.
Topic 4 introduces factors to be considered in planning curriculum to promote

childrenÊs needs while its goals and objectives remain as the main reason of the
curriculum. Hence, the topic will also be discussing approaches of curriculum
planning.
Topic 5 emphasises on the importance of providing an exclusive educational

environment which is safe and healthy to meet the needs of the children and
enhance the process of learning
Topic 6 discusses the primary developmental tasks in achieving personal

awareness for young children, in developing emotional competence and in
grooming their social beings. Providing SEL skills for the lifelong development
and learning among the young learners.
Topic 7 focus on helping teachers to develop an appropriate environment to

strengthen and extend language and literacy development in young children
Topic 8 explores the concepts related to early childhood learning experiences in

physical, earth and life sciences hence helping teachers in using exploration and
observation to build a meaningful foundation of science concepts and reasoning
skills among young learners

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Topic 9 discusses physical movements and activities, perceptual motor

development and issues of health and nutrition which brings benefit to the
development of childÊs growth and support childÊs academic achievement.
Topic 10 discusses and examines the aspects of music and creative movement,
creative expression and art, role play and drama play activities among the young
children.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Arce, E. M. (2000). Curriculum for young children: An introduction. New York:
Thomson Delmar Learning.
Catron , C. F ., & Allen. J (2008) Early childhood curriculum: A creative-play

model (4th ed.) New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hill.
Eliason, C., & Jenkins. L. (2000). A practical guide to early childhood curriculum
(8th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hill.
Jackman. H.L (2001). Early education curriculum: A childÊs connection to the

world (2nd ed.).New York: Thomson Delmar Learning.

xvi  COURSE GUIDE
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

Topic  Overview
1 of Child
Curriculum
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe the different components in a curriculum document;
2. Explain the relevancy of a curriculum document;
3. Discuss what can influence the design of a curriculum; and
4. Analyse the different learning theories used in a curriculum
document.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic raises questions such as „What is child curriculum?‰ and „What
distinguishes a child curriculum from a curriculum per se?‰ This topic also
discusses the purpose of the curriculum and the process of its development.
A curriculum may not identify the developmental theory on which it is based,

but it probably reflects one of the many theories that explain a childÊs
development and learning. Several major theories which will be discussed in this
introductory topic are maturational theory, psychodynamic theory, cognitive
developmental theory, ecological theory, multiple intelligence theory and social
cultural theory.
ACTIVITY 1.1
What do you understand by the word „curriculum‰ and what

components should be in a curriculum document? Discuss.

2  TOPIC 1 OVERVIEW OF CHILD CURRICULUM
1.1 CHILD CURRICULUM

In general, the word „curriculum‰ suggests different concepts to different
audiences, be they teachers, administrators or parents. A curriculum can be:
(a) A set of specific activities;
(b) A framework for making decisions about the choices of materials and
activities; or
(c) A comprehensive approach to fostering the development of a child.
The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and the
National Association of Early Childhood Specialists (NAECS) in the State
Department of Education (SDE) define curriculum as „an organised framework
that delineates the content that children are to learn, the processes through which
children achieve the identified curricular goals, what teachers do to help children
achieve those goals and the context in which teaching and learning occurs‰
(Bredekamp & Rosegrant, 1992). In addition, for infants and toddlers, curriculum
is defined as ‰every experience, and every minute in the day is part of the infant
and toddler curriculum. Diapering, feeding, washing and comforting are
elements of the curriculum, including singing, playing, watching and moving‰
(Watson, Watson & Wilson, 2003).
A curriculum has many process levels or terms including what takes place in a
classroom, which in turn reflects the centre philosophy, goals and objectives
(refer to Table 1.1).
Table 1.1: Terms Used in Curriculum
Term Meaning
Philosophy Basic principle, attitude and belief of the centre
Goals Broad general overview of what the children are expected to gain
from the programme
Objectives Specific teaching techniques designed to meet the physical,

intellectual, cultural, social, emotional and creative development of
the children

TOPIC 1 OVERVIEW OF CHILD CURRICULUM  3
Regardless of the curriculumÊs specific focus, most early childhood educators

agree on the following set of assumptions about a childÊs curriculum:
(a) A curriculum is related to the overall programme quality;
(b) A curriculum must focus on „the whole child‰ programme as well as

integrate all areas of development;
(c) Playtime serves many functions for young children; among the most
important is that it is the primary mode for learning in early childhood
education;
(d) Teachers must agree with the philosophy and practices of the curriculum
and understand its content;
(e) Teachers also must understand a childÊs development and theories of

learning;
(f) Children are active learners;
(g) A curriculum should be developmentally appropriate; and
(h) A curriculum should be aware of the role of the social and cultural context
in a childÊs development and learning process.
1.1.1 Purpose of Curriculum

There has been a growing concern over the curriculum for early childhood
education and care. The reasons are as follows:
(a) Society is trying to make early childhood institutions more visible.
(b) With relevant research, society has come to realise the importance of a
childÊs early experiences.
(c) Early childhood education and care needs a national curriculum.
(d) It provides professionalism in early childhood education and a shared

framework.
(e) A guideline to measure quality in improvement and equity.
(f) It provides early childhood professionals a common framework to allow

efficient communication between teachers and parents.

Designing an early childhood curriculum is a dilemma as designers would need

to guide personnel with low certification, cover all learning areas, adopt common
pedagogy and reach a certain level of quality across various age groups.
Additionally, the curriculum would need to cover all developmental areas at the
childÊs own pace.
Early childhood curriculum plays an important role in achieving the goals for
social competence and school readiness in young children. An early childhood
programme would need a curriculum that could support every childÊs
development from patterns to learning styles. Goals and objectives are what
children would need to learn, and the roadmap to achieve this is the curriculum.
This is achieved through routines and experiences.
1.1.2 Influences of Curriculum

A curriculum for young children varies widely and some actually detail out
every activity and what to teach, yet others only act as guidelines.
Even definitions and how play is used can vary considerably. A single curriculum
might not address all different areas of learning. It may appear to be
comprehensive yet the focus of individual domain is superficial. Some might fit a
schoolÊs philosophy but are not relevant to the children or impossible for teachers
to implement, thus making it ineffective. Therefore to ensure the appropriateness
of a curriculum, the role of teachers and the learning process of children have to be
addressed. The curriculum should take into account the following areas:
(a) ChildrenÊs age;

(b) ChildrenÊs developmental stages;
(c) Behaviour or childrenÊs learning needs;
(d) Linguistic and cultural background;
(e) Economic status;
(f) TeachersÊ prior training; and
(g) TeachersÊ professional development.
A proper assessment system should be specifically designed to perform an

ongoing measurement of learning objectives and children engagement in
meaningful tasks. A childÊs curriculum should also include parental involvement
and partnership to establish meaningful ongoing communication. The
stakeholders involved should carry out constant research to collect evidence of a

modelÊs effectiveness and attempt to see the model in action in different settings.
With the availability of multiple curriculum models, there seems to be some
confusion regarding which ones are appropriate for young children or more
effective for specific demographics such as for four- and five-year olds. Although
the early childhood education professionals recommend the adoption of
developmentally appropriate practices in programmes, there is not yet any
research base to promote any single curriculum model as the „best‰.
1.1.3 Process of Curriculum Development

Curriculum development is an ongoing and lengthy process that needs to follow
certain steps (see Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1: The process of curriculum development
The above steps are important in any curriculum development process as the
curriculum must be appropriate and relevant to a childÊs needs and level of
interest.
Let us now discuss the process in detail.
(a) Design
The design stage involves all early preparation work to ensure the
curriculum has relevance, appropriateness and practicality. At this point,
the curriculum is conceptualised and focus is given to the philosophical
underpinnings, learning experiences and evaluation. The curriculum is

prepared through consultation with all stakeholders involved which will

benefit the education of young children.
(b) Develop
At the curriculum development stage, a step-by-step procedure is used to
produce the document which would include vision statements, goals,
standards, performance benchmark, learning activities, learning and
teaching materials, instructional strategies, interdisciplinary connections
and other integration activities which serve as a guide in the
implementation of the curriculum.
(c) Implement
This is the stage when all stakeholders participate in the process to
operationalise the curriculum and put it into practice. Teachers would need
to go to seminars and workshops to equip them with the relevant
knowledge, skills and attitude.
(d) Monitor
Monitoring is required in order to collect data and verify that classroom
practice is consistent and the desired goals and objectives have been met.
(e) Evaluate
Data collected are analysed to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum
design and its implementation as they relate to the child. The process also
involves finding deficiencies and root causes.
(f) Review
During the review stage, any information analysed will be used to improve
the curriculum. The various adjustments will incorporate any strengths and
address the weaknesses. Additional resources and useful teaching materials
can be added into the document.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Review your school curriculum and discuss with your coursemates if

the document is complete and has the appropriate components.

1.2 DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING THEORIES

There are several major theories that explain child development and learnings
which we will discuss in this subtopic. This subtopic covers maturational theory,
psychodynamic theory, cognitive development theory, ecological theory,
multiple intelligence theory and social cultural theory.
1.2.1 Maturational Theory

Arnold Gesell puts forward one of the oldest theories, the maturationist theory.
This theory explains that a childÊs maturity depends on his/her genetic makeup
and has little to do with environmental influences. In other words, this theory
maintains that as children mature and grow older, the surrounding environment
has little influence on their personality and temperament. Gesell identified
developmental milestones or events that will occur at specific age levels – these
have been used as helpful guidelines for parents to track their childÊs
development. From a maturationistÊs point of view, the childÊs environment
should be adapted to their needs and characteristics that have been genetically
determined.
1.2.2 Psychodynamic Theory

Sigmund Freud established his early psychoanalytic theory (1886 to 1914) which
focused on instincts and the role of pathology. The theory describes how a childÊs
personality develops during his or her childhood. FreudÊs theory proposed that
the mind can be divided into three main parts: The id, ego and superego (see
Figure 1.2).
Freud believed that thoughts, ideas and wishes that are in a personÊs brain
actually show how we behave. However, this is not easily accessible by the
conscious part of our mind. In other words, our brain knows things that our
mind doesnÊt. This aspect that we are not aware of is called the unconscious part
of our mind. Psychodynamic theory proposes that personality characteristics are
mostly a reflection of what is in our unconscious mind.

Figure 1.2: Three main parts of the mind
Let us now discuss the three main parts of the mind in greater detail.
(a) Id
During infancy, before personality begins to form, children are ruled
entirely by their unconscious or what is called the id. Id is largely based on
the pleasure principle, which demands immediate gratification of needs.
For example, when we are hungry, our pleasure directs us to eat. This
aspect of a personÊs personality is entirely unconscious.
(b) Ego
Ego refers to the Greek and Latin word for „I‰, a personality structure
which begins developing in early childhood and can be interpreted as the
„self‰. This is partly conscious and partly unconscious. The ego operates
based on reality; that is, it attempts to help the id get what it wants by
judging the difference between real and imaginary. If a person is hungry,
the id might begin to imagine food and even dream about food. The id may
be regarded as irrational in nature. The ego, however, will try to determine
how to get some real food. The ego helps a person satisfy its need through
reality.

(c) Superego
Superego means „above the ego‰, and includes the moral belief that a
person learns from his or her family and the society. The superego makes
people feel proud when they do something right (the ego belief) and feels
guilty when they do something they consider to be morally wrong (the
conscience). The superego, like the ego, is partly conscious and partly
unconscious. The superego is like an instrument that checks on our moral
conscience, and creates feelings of pride and guilt according to the beliefs
that have been learned within the family and the culture. This explains the
aspect of personality that holds all of our internalised moral standards and
beliefs of what we perceive to be right and wrong that we acquire from our
parents and society (see Figure 1.3). It provides guidelines for us to make
judgments. According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at the age of
five.
Figure 1.3: Existence of duality in an individual

Source: https://advancedhindsight.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/leggoego.png
1.2.3 Cognitive Development Theory

Jean Piaget (1896 to 1980) was an influential researcher in the 20th century in the
field of psychology. As a biologist, he was interested to see how humans adapt to
their environment which he described as intelligence. Behaviour or actions
shown by humans to adapt to the environment is controlled by mental schemata
or schema that is used to understand the world and designate action. This
adaptation is driven to obtain a balance between schema and the environment.
This balance is what we call „achieving equilibrium‰. Infants are born with
schema operating at birth called reflexes.

Piaget further explains these reflexes that control behaviour last a lifetime for
animals but in humans such as in infants, they use the reflexes to adapt to the
environment and then these will be replaced with constructed schemata.
According to Piaget, there are two processes used by individuals throughout
their lifetime to adapt to the environment in a more complex manner –
assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation is the process of using the environment so that it can be placed in

the pre-existing cognitive structures. Accommodation is the process of changing
cognitive structures in order to accept something from the environment. Both
processes are used simultaneously and alternately throughout life. An example
of assimilation would be when an infant uses a sucking schema that was
developed when he was sucking on a small bottle when attempting to suck on a
larger bottle. An example of accommodation would be when the child needs to
modify a sucking schema developed by sucking on a pacifier to one that would
be successful for sucking on a bottle.
Piaget identified four stages in cognitive development (see Table 1.2):
Table 1.2: Four Stages in Cognitive Development
Stages Description
Sensorimotor This period has six sub-stages. Intelligence is demonstrated

stage (infancy) through motor activity without the usage of symbols.
Knowledge of the world is limited but it is at the developing
stage because it is only based on physical interactions or
experiences. Children acquire object permanence or memory
at about seven months old. The childÊs mobility allows the
child to begin developing new intellectual abilities.
Pre-operational In this period, intelligence is demonstrated through the usage

stage (toddler and early of symbols, language begins to mature, and memories are
childhood) developed, but thinking is still in a non-logical and non-
reversible manner.
Concrete operational In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through logical and

stage (elementary systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete
school and early objects. Operational thinking develops mental actions that are
adolescence) reversible and egocentric thought diminishes.

Formal operational In this stage, individuals are able to relate to abstract concepts
stage (adolescence and through the logical use of symbols. Only 35 per cent of high
adulthood) school graduates in industrialised countries obtain formal
operations; many people do not think formally during
adulthood.
Many pre-schools are modelled on Piaget's theory, which

forms the foundation of constructivist learning. Discovery
learning is one of the best teaching methods as it involves
learning through exploration which is the natural way for
children to acquire knowledge.
1.2.4 Ecological Theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner first introduced the ecological theory in 1970. He believed
that the development of a child is affected by his or her surroundings.
Bronfenbrenner divided the environment into five different levels which are the
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem (refer
to Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4: The ecological theory

Source: http://www.jped.com.br/conteudo/04-80-S104/ing_print.htm

Now, we will look into the levels in detail:
(a) Microsystem
This is the closest system to an individual such as his or her home, school or
day-care. The microsystem would normally include people such as the
family, peers and teachers. The relationship in this system is a two-way
relationship and it is the most influential level in the ecological system.
(b) Mesosystem
The next level is the mesosystem. At this level, there are interactions
between the different parts of an individual microsystem. They are
interconnected and have influence over one another. These interactions
have an indirect impact on the individual. An example is the relationship
built between a parent and a teacher.
(c) Exosystem
The exosystem refers to a level that does not involve the child as an active
participant but any changes that occur will still have an effect on him or
her. For example, if a father is transferred to another state for a promotion,
there is a higher likelihood of a child being affected by his or her fatherÊs
absence.
(d) Macrosystem
The fourth level of the ecological systems theory is the macrosystem. This
system consists of the cultural environment in which a person lives. An
example is economy and cultural values.
(e) Chronosystem
This system involves the dimension of time as it relates to a childÊs
environment. The elements in this system could either be external or
internal factors. An example for external factors would be the death of a
mother whereas for internal factor, a childÊs growth could be a cause of
concern. These factors will cause a child to react differently to the
environment.
When designing a curriculum, based on this theory it is important to involve

parents, family and the community at large. As explained in the earlier
paragraph, each stakeholder has either a direct or indirect impact on the child.

1.2.5 Multiple Intelligences Theory

Multiple intelligences theory was developed by Howard Gardner in 1983. In his
book Frames of mind, Gardner suggested that everyone has a different mind and
that no two profiles of intelligence are the same. He further stressed that the
practice of measuring intelligence by using the IQ test is too restricted. Gardner
explained that there are eight primary intelligences, and an individual could
excel in one, two or three of these areas but no one is good at all (see Figure 1.5).
Hence, Gardner indicated that educators should take into account childrenÊs
strengths and weaknesses, and determine their learning styles. A more
productive way of learning could be achieved for all children if a broader range
of learning methods is applied.
Figure 1.5: The multiple intelligences theory

Source: http://questgarden.com/96/85/8/120318091157/

1.2.6 Social Cultural Theory

Vygotsky (1978) described learning as a social process where interaction between
peers and adults plays an important role in the development of cognition.
Vygotsky believed everything is learned in two levels. First, at a social level
where children interact in exchange for new information and later at a individual
level where understanding occurs inside the child, involving voluntary attention
to logical memory and to the formation of concept.
Another aspect of VygotskyÊs theory is the idea that the potential cognitive
development is limited to the zone of proximal development (refer to Figure 1.6).
A teacher or experienced peer could scaffold and give children the necessary
support to enhance their knowledge domain or complex skills. Collaborative
learning, modelling and scaffolding are strategies to support intellectual
knowledge and skills of learners and facilitate learning. The distance between the
actual development level and the potential achievable level could be determined
through problem solving under guidance.
Figure 1.6: Zone of proximal development

Source: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/constructivism.htm
ACTIVITY 1.3
If a curriculum is based on multiple intelligences, what concept or

approach should be used and inserted into the document? Discuss.

 A curriculum is an organised framework which delineates the content that

children are to learn, the processes through which children achieve the
identified curricular goals, what teachers do to help children achieve those
goals and the context in which teaching and learning occurs.
 Curriculum plays an important role in achieving the goals for social

competence and school readiness in young children.
 An early childhood programme would need a curriculum that could support

every development pattern and learning style.
 All stakeholders should be involved in the designing of any curriculum.
 Curriculum development is an ongoing and tedious process that involves the

following steps, which are design, develop, implement, monitor, evaluate
and review.
Curriculum design Objective

Curriculum development Philosophy
Framework School readiness
Goal Stakeholders
Bredekamp, S., & Rosegrant, T. (Eds). (1992). Reaching potentials: Appropriate

curriculum and assessment of young children (Vol 1).Washington DC:
NAEYC.
Frede, E., & J. Ackerman, D. (2007). Preschool curriculum decision-making:

Dimensions to consider. National Institute of Early Education Research,
(12).

Piaget, J. (1990). The childÊs conception of the world. New York: Littlefield
Adams.
Watson, L. D., Watson, M. A., & Wilson, L. C. (2003). Infants and toddlers:
Curriculum and teaching (5th ed.). Clifton Park, New York: Thomson
Delmar Learning.

Topic  Overview of
2 Curriculum
Models
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the different types of curriculum models used in developed
countries;
2. Compare and contrast the different types of curriculum models
discussed;
3. Suggest its relevance in the Malaysian scenario; and
4. Describe the different theories behind each model.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic introduces students to various types of curriculum models such as
Head Start, High Scope, Bank Street, Montessori and Reggio Emilia. This gives
you a chance to learn by comparing what has been learnt from other developing
countries. Although theories about early childhood development have existed for
several centuries, curriculum models in early childhood have a more recent
beginning. The curriculum models chosen in this section was chosen because
they continue to be identified by the early childhood profession, and have been
implemented in multiple early childhood settings globally.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Name some of the common curriculum models used in Malaysia.

Discuss why some of them are more popular in Malaysia.

18  TOPIC 2 OVERVIEW OF CURRICULUM MODELS
2.1 HEAD START

Head start is the largest federal early childhood programme in the United States
of America (USA). The programme has evolved from just a simple summer
programme to a comprehensive set of services for underprivileged children and
families.
2.1.1 History of Head Start

Head Start was launched in 1965 to eradicate poverty in the USA. It was launched
based on the social and political struggles that were happening during the civil
rights period. There was a renewed interest on how the environment influenced
the development of economically disadvantaged children. It is now the largest
publicly funded education programme for infants, toddlers and pre-school
children. The programme includes health and medical screening and treatment,
parent participation and other services to families. Since its establishment in 1965,
it has now progressed from classroom-based to home-based developmental
services catered to low income families. Based from experience, it was found that
a childÊs needs vary from community to community. The curriculum needs to be
individualised with consideration given to ethnic and cultural background in
order to meet the needs of the community it serves. The following are some of the
special features of the Head Start programme:
(a) Low child-staff ratio;
(b) Inclusion of special needs children (10 per cent in each state);
(c) Parental involvement as volunteers and taking part in administrative

decision; and
(d) Constant training of teachers and staff (Child Development Associate

Credentials).
The original vision for the Head Start programme was to act as a model to
eradicate poverty and encourage families to be physically and mentally healthy.
It was at this period of time scholars such as J. McVicker Hunt and Benjamin
Bloom played a significant role in the creation of the Head Start programme.
Hunt challenged the views that intelligent was hereditarily fixed and argued in
his book „Intelligence and Experience‰ (1961) that a childÊs intellectual
development was determined by the quality of the environment that they live in.
Bloom, on the other hand, wrote a book entitled „Stability and change in Human
characteristics‰ (1966), and pointed out that the first four to five years of life is the
period where children undergo the most rapid change in intellectual growth.

TOPIC 2 OVERVIEW OF CURRICULUM MODELS  19
Hence with this new development in intellectual and brain research and the lack
of proper infant and toddler care, Head Start was spearheaded in an effort to
strengthen developmentally appropriate and culturally sensitive services for
infants and toddlers.
2.1.2 Programme Goals

The Head Start programme has always had a broad set of goals meant for the
development of children from the lower income group. The main objective of the
Head Start programme has always been to get children ready for school. During
the 105th Congress, the purpose of the Head Start programme was revised to
enhance cognitive and social development of low income children in the areas of
health, education, nutrition, social and other services deemed necessary through
a family-need assessment. This was necessary to promote school readiness and
success. In the year 2000, a Child Outcome Framework of Building Blocks was
legislated. In the framework, eight domains were identified to guide programmes
in their ongoing assessment of progress and accomplishment of children. The
eight domains and their respective elements are shown in Table 2.1:
Table 2.1: Eight Domains to Guide Programmes
Domain Description
Language Listening, understanding, speaking and communicating.
development
Literacy Phonological awareness, book knowledge and appreciation,

print awareness and concept and early writing and alphabet
knowledge.
Mathematics Number and operations, geometry and spatial sense and

patterns and measurement.
Science This domain will look into scientific skills and methods and
scientific knowledge.
Creative Arts Elements involved are music, art, movement and dramatic play.
Social and emotional Self-concept, self-control, cooperation, social relationship

development andknowledge of families and communities.
Approaches to Initiative and curiosity, engagement and persistence and

learning reasoning and problem solving.
Physical health and Fine motor skills, health status and practices.
development

Right from the very beginning, the Head Start programme has viewed families
and parents as essential partners in achieving improved outcomes for children.
Head Start has also provided many opportunities for parents to take on an active
role and be involved actively in programmes with parents constituting more than
one-half of the local policy council under the programme. All Head Start
programmes are to provide children and families with high quality standards
which are governed by the Programme Performance Standard set by the Federal
Head Start Bureau. The standards are organised according to three major areas:
(a) Early childhood development and health services;
(b) Family and Community Partnership; and
(c) Programme design and management.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Compare and discuss the difference between the objectives of

Kurikulum Standard Prasekolah Kebangsaan (KSPK) and the Head
Start Programme.
2.2 HIGH SCOPE

David Weikart started the High Scope programme in Michigan in 1962. He was
interested to know why high risk children were performing poorly in schools.
The High Scope was mooted from Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky cognition and
social interaction theory which was built on the understanding that children learn
from self-experiences through interaction with people and objects around them.
This model assists children to construct their own knowledge gained through
meaningful experiences.
The following are some of the special features of this model:
(a) The programme gives children control over events by letting them to plan a
consistent routine.
(b) The plan-do-review sequence allows children to state their intention, plan
with help from teachers, carry out the activities and lastly, recall and reflect
on the results (refer to Figure 2.1).
(c) Children work with materials, interact, choose, create and share, resulting
in the ability to think and solve problems.

(d) Children review their work and use pictures and other modes to present
their work to others.
(e) The class teacher will organise large and small group activities.
(f) The teachers act as partners rather than facilitators; they share control with
children and support childrenÊs play and ideas.
(g) Teachers do not teach maths and reading, but provide experience and
materials to assist children in developing language and logical thinking
skills for future academic learning.
Figure 2.1: High scope wheel of learning

Source: http://ece205.wikispaces.com/David+Weikart

SELF-CHECK 2.1
Explain how teachers in High Scope support childrenÊs learning path.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Does learning in High Scope involve critical thinking and why do you
think so? Discuss.
2.3 BANK STREET

The Bank Street approach or developmental ă interaction approach focuses on the
concept of development referring to the ways in which children understand and
respond to the changes in their surroundings and how they develop and learn
from their long-term living experiences.
2.3.1 History of Bank Street

Bureau Education Experiment which later became Bank Street of Education
became the first independent education enterprise to expand with new teaching
methods and social arrangements. They were however strongly influenced by the
work of John Dewey who believed in the importance of education for the
development of a democratic society. Most of their work which was strongly
influenced by the work of John Dewey and is centred on making school learning
connected to childrenÊs lives in a meaningful way.
The founder of the bureau, Mrs Mitchell, was a strong believer that schools should
enhance and support childrenÊs growth by being aware of how children learn;
building on childrenÊs interest and introducing knowledge that makes sense to
them. Two concepts of broad scopes that have been central to the evolving
developmental-interaction approach are mental health and progressivism. The
schools need to promote opportunities based on the following:
(a) Creative and satisfying work;

(b) Cooperation rather than competitiveness;
(c) Meaningful and stimulating work rather than rote learning; and
(d) Nurturing individuality.

2.3.2 Basic Principles

Developmental-interaction approach is based on several basic principles such as
children development and how they interact and socialise with the people and
the environment around them. One distinctive feature of the approach (Shapiro &
Bilber, 1972, p.61) is „that the growth of cognitive function...... cannot be
separated from the growth of interpersonal processes‰.
Development is understood as a complex stage which does not only unfold

naturally but rather changes to how a child organises and responds to his or her
experiences. He or she can be seen as the active maker of meaning. The next basic
principle is the environment being the intrinsic motivator for the child. As a child
grows, he or she tends to have a complex view of understanding the way the
world works. The previous organised experiences becomes integrated into the
advanced systems. Another basic principle is the importance of development of
the childÊs sense of self and as a unique and important individual. Conflict is part
of a childÊs growing up phase that becomes unavoidable, sometimes with oneself
and at other times with others. The process of a childÊs development and how he
or she resolves conflict are both largely dependent on his or her experience when
he or she interacts with others and the demand of culture. With the above general
or basic principles of development and interaction in mind, the school is seen as a
place to promote development of competence in all areas of a childÊs life.
2.3.3 Curriculum
In any curriculum, the differences between each approach is the difference in the
degree of exactness or specificity required in the relationship between theory or
philosophy and practice. In developmental-interaction, the philosophy is based
on principles that serve as a guide rather than determine a practice. Teachers are
expected to develop curriculum content and practices within a stated framework
of valued aims and beliefs. This approach also does not expect teachers to teach
children new concepts but rather help them to have a further understanding of
their prior knowledge based on experiences to form the basis of this approach.
The teacherÊs role is to understand the childÊs development and to structure an
environment that best fulfils the childÊs needs and interest, thus encouraging the
child to reach her maximum potential.

The childÊs first experience in a Bank Street school is to understand and master in
their respective school environment by participating in activities and chores that
contribute to their function. Thereafter, their learning experiences will be
expanded beyond the traditional classroom boundaries to communities where
they will be able increase their understanding and learn meaningful elements
that will affect their future life decisions.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
What are the main differences between Bank Street and High Scope?
Explain.
2.4 MONTESSORI
Maria Montessori (1870 to 1952) was the founder of the Montessori method of
education. As the first female physician in Italy, she was an extraordinary leader
and known for her sharpness and ability to perform detailed observations. Most
of her work was inspired by accomplished visionaries such as Jean Itard and
Edouard Seguin work. In 1907, Maria Montessori launched her first school in
Italy, called Casa dei Bambini or also known as the Children House. Montessori
grew its presence in the United States of America and became a famous method
of education until the late 1950s. Many Montessori schools had also expanded its
reach to other countries in Europe and cities in India.
Kilpatrick in his 1914 book titled „The Montessori System Examined‰ criticised
the Montessori method of education and saw it as nothing new or interesting.
This slowed down the Montessori phenomenon at that time. Now with the broad
acceptance of developmentally appropriate practices, educators are beginning to
realise that it is actually part of the Montessori system which has been practiced
many decades ago.
2.4.1 Basic Principles

As there have been no restrictions among most schools on the usage of the
Montessori word, many parents would rely on affiliation to associations such as
Association Montessori International (AMI) or American Montessori Society
(AMS) to establish the authenticity of the programme employed by the schools.
The following are some of the characteristics of a Montessori classroom as
compared to a traditional early childhood education classroom.

(a) There are mixed ă age grouping of children in the classroom example 2 ó to
four years old, and five to eight year old. This mixed age group provides
children with the opportunity to build their leadership skills.
(b) The classroom is equipped with child-sized furnitureÊs that are low with
carefully arranged materials for the children to choose from.
(c) The tables are arranged in groups to facilitate individual or small grouped
work.
(d) The classrooms are separated by shelves to form bays or focus areas (refer
to Figure 2.2).
(e) The manipulative Montessori materials are designed for use by individual
student or small groups.
Figure 2.2: A Montessori classroom

Source: http://isthmusmontessoriacademy.org/index.php/programs/general-
information/
The single most important point to remember when judging a programme is to

ensure there are a good range of children activities. The school children should
spend three to four hours per day engaging in individual or small group work of
their own choice which is facilitated by the Montessori teacher. Most Montessori
schools encourage the practice of collaboration among children and do not use
competition as a way to get children to complete their work. Students work
independently in the classroom and the Montessori didactic materials provide
inbuilt control of error to assist children in finding their own mistakes. Children
from a Montessori classroom are encouraged to ask assistance from their own
peers rather than from a teacher or a directress. All learning materials are
designed to draw children to do work that are of interest to them over and over

again, thus increasing their concentration span. Children are bound to thrive in a
stimulating and organised environment and Montessori teachers are trained to be
observant and systematic in observing a childÊs work and collecting cumulative
knowledge of his or her childÊs progress. Lastly, a Montessori child is always
encouraged to be responsible. For example cleaning up after an activity and
keeping away all materials in its right place.
2.4.2 The Absorbent Mind

According to Maria Montessori, a child learns best when he or she by assimilates
from his or her environment. A child learns from direct contact with the
environment and this has a profound impact on how his or her mind will become
developed Maria Montessori calls it the „Absorbent Mind‰.
„Impressions do not merely enter his mind; they form it‰.

Maria Montessori
The absorbent mind occurs in a child between birth and the age of six years old.
This stage takes place under two phases which are of the following:
(a) The Unconscious Mind

The Unconscious Mind phase appears from birth till the age of three years
old. At this phase, the child explores his or her environment using the
senses and movements. Children at this stage also absorb language from
their surrounding culture and try to experiment with them. At this phase
memory is formed but at an unconscious level. This is not however an
inferior or not an intelligent stage as a child is able to absorb various
sounds, rhythm and language structures from their learning environment.
Without much effort, children are able to unconsciously absorb the
vocabulary, semantic and syntax of his or her mother tongue.
(b) The Conscious Mind

At the age of three years old, a child is able to shift her powerful absorbent
language to a conscious more purposeful type. The child becomes a
sensorial explorer and conscious learning begins, resulting in a child having
the ability to form a relationship between things and make comparative
analysis. A child is taught to then refine and classify their sensory
experiences and to make sense of many impressions that may have been
previously absorbed, hence building a childÊs constructive mind
progressively.

2.4.3 The Prepared Environment

According to the Montessori method of education, the Prepared Environment is
designed to facilitate independent learning by a child. The prepared environment
is a well-structured and composed environment that facilitates plenty of
movement and activities targeted at children. It is specifically designed to instil
freedom and self-discipline in children. There are six aspects or principles to the
prepared environment as shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: Six aspects of the prepared environment
Now, let us discuss the above aspects in greater detail:
(a) Freedom
Maria Montessori believed that a child learns from his environment and
must be free to explore and follow his natural instinct. Within the
environment the child must experience freedom of exploration, freedom of
movement, freedom to interact socially with his peers without any
interference from adults. This will lead to freedom of choice which should
be the ultimate freedom for children.
(b) Structure and Order

Although structure and order is the opposite of freedom but it reflects the
sense of structure existing in the universe. By being in a structured
environment, a child will internalise his or her learnings in order to make
sense of the world in which he or she lives in. According to Montessori,
children go through a sensitive period for order between ages one to three
years of old.

(c) Beauty
A Montessori environment should be beautifully located whether it is an
old house or living room. It should be in harmony, uncluttered and well-
maintained. The environment should reflect peace and tranquillity and be
welcoming for a learner to come in and work.
(d) Nature and Reality

A Montessori school has a deep respect for nature and always encourages
teachers to take the children out. Natural materials are always preferred in
the classroom and real-sized objects such as child-sized tables, chairs,
brooms and dustpan are inculcated within classrooms which will allow
children not to be dependent on adults. All the tools including rakes, hoes
and pitchers should all fit childrenÊs hands to allow easy manipulation and
completion of work without frustration.
(e) Social Environment

Social interaction occurs freely in the environment which allows every child
to develop empathy and compassion As children develop, they become
socially aware and are able to work as a team. The multi-aged group
supports children to interact as a society.
(f) Intellectual Development

The purpose of the prepared environment is to develop a childÊs as a whole,
not merely his or her intellectual development. Through the Montessori
didactic materials, which moves hierarchically from simple to complex and
concrete to abstract, children are given the choice to fully develop their
potential in the prepared environment.
2.4.4 The Montessori Teacher

A Montessori teacher has a special bond with the child and the environment. The
teacher prepares the environment with care using materials and activities that
entice children to learn. The teacher may guide the children but itÊs the child
interaction with the environment that enables learning to occur.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
1. Explain how the prepared environment helps children to learn.
2. What does mixed-age group mean?

2.5 REGGIO EMILIA

The Reggio Emilia educational approach was established and inspired by Loris
MalaguzziÊs philosophy of education which was made up of a collection of
schools. Each school takes the utmost care in cultivating and guiding the childÊs
intellectual, emotional, social and moral potential growth. One of the rare
practices that are visible in EmiliaÊs approach is the teachersÊ ability to listen to
the children and allowing them to take the initiative, yet guide them a productive
way. Although the standard child-teacher approach was not imposed onto a
child, the result of their work was of utmost quality and this was achievable
through the infinite care taken with respect to any decision taken whether itÊs
through working groups, or choosing the right colour of brush.
Believing that „the potential of children is stunted when the endpoint of their
learning is formulated in advance, teachers develop an Êemergent curriculumÂ
in collaboration with the learners‰.
Carlina Rinaldi, Director of Early Childhood Education, and Municipality of

Reggio Emilia, extracted from „The Hundred Languages of Children: The
Reggio Emilia‰.
Emilia educators believe that children use symbolic and graphics to present their
ideas (refer to Figure 2.4). They need to make sense of what they are curious
about by using visuals and language tools which should be cultivated. The
hundred languages described by Carolyn, Gandini and Forman (1998) highlight
the many ways in which children can learn and express themselves through
speech development, writing, drawing, movement, sculpting, shadow play and
music.
Figure 2.4: A display of graphics used by children to present their ideas

Source: https://nicolastreeten.wordpress.com/2011/05/16/riba-map-drawing-
workshop-at-the-nottinghamshire-county-show/

2.5.1 Principles and Practices of Reggio Emilia

Malaguzzi has always mentioned several key principles used by Emilia such as:
(a) A Reggio school consists of a special system where the well-being and
success of children is highly dependent on the equal well-being of all
teachers and parents;
(b) Children have many potentials such as creativity, intellectual and

communication that need to be respected and nurtured;
(c) Teachers need to learn from children and exercise a certain degree of
uncertainty to induce a collaborative learning space; and
(d) The environment should act as a place for idea exchange and relationship
building between children, teachers and families by serving the needs of all
who utilises them.
The above described principles are currently being practiced in all Reggio
schools. The elements have marked all Reggio schools as a distinctive and unique
learning experience which are unlike other schools. Some other common features
are:
(a) The usage of the environment to promote learning;
(b) Curriculum inquiry-based project to promote hundred languages to

children;
(c) Documentation as a means of observation, research and advocacy; and
(d) Partnership with parents.
2.5.2 Curriculum as a Collaborative Exploration

A Reggio environment is considered to be an invigorating and stimulating
experience which is filled with children activities (see examples in Figure 2.5 and
Figure 2.6). The most distinct aspect of Reggio curriculum is their long term
projects known as Progettazione many of which are exhibited in a global travel
exhibition organised under the guidance of Malaguzzi.

Figure 2.5: A Reggio classroom

Source: https://sunflowerpreschool.wordpress.com/
Figure 2.6: Investigating light

Source: https://reggioemiliaclassroom.wordpress.com/tag/reggio-blog/
Although the ideas presented are of excellent quality, it is only made possible by
the extensive nature to what appears to be constructive play. It should reflect the
result of purposeful and carefully designed early learning opportunities, in other
words an Early Childhood Curriculum. These aims will be further explored as it
has already captured the interest of the child. A typical Reggio teacher uses a
childÊs natural curiosity and ability to question, to promote exploration of
materials, to experiment and communicate in different ways, to test a hypothesis,
debate and lastly, negotiate multiple points of views. She creates opportunities
for children to participate in the world around them and make sense of it which
would result in children making their own interpretation. Problem-based

curriculum such as Reggio is not easy to identify the starting point as a teacher
would need to first understand the direction that the children wish to pursue
their own question. Then children will respond by trying to solve problems
which could lead to new ideas and possibilities.
2.5.3 Parent Engagement

Parent engagement is the most central philosophy to Reggio Emilia. Reggio
Emilia played a leading role in establishing guidelines and implementing
practices which support community involvement and parent engagement in early
childhood setting. The concept of gestione sociale is premised on the essential
right of parents to be directly involved in the running of a child-care. In most
cities of Italy with Municipal early childhood programme gestione sociale is
represented in many forms of parent, teacher and citizen advising council but in
Reggio it is further extended to promote the collaborative engagement of families
in early childhood services (New, Mallory & Mantovani, 2000).
SELF-CHECK 2.4
What are the two things that make Reggio Emilia a unique approach?
Explain.
 Head Start, Bank Street, High Scope, Montessori and Reggio Emilia are some
of the common curriculum models used in the world.
 Head Start was launched in the United States of America in 1965 to eradicate
poverty.
 All Head Start programmes are to provide children and families with an
expectation of high quality which is governed by the Programme
Performance Standard set by the Federal Head start Bureau.
 The High Scope was grounded from Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky cognition
and social interaction theory which was built on the understanding that
children learn from self-experiences through social interactions and the
environment that they are in.

 Developmental-interaction approach is based on several basic principles,

primarily on children development and how they interact and socialise with
one another and the environment around them.
 Bank Street teachers are expected to develop curriculum content and practice
within a fixed framework depicting valued aims and beliefs. This approach
does not expect teachers to educate children on a lot of new concepts but
rather focus on helping them to have a further understanding of the subject
matter for their own knowledge.
 Some of the main characteristics of the Montessori educational approach

involves mixed-aged grouping, child-size friendly environment, Montessori
materials and teachers who facilitate and observe children in a systematic
way.
 Reggio Emilia is seen as different from the other models as the teachersÊ
ability to listen to the children and allowing them to take initiative, while
guiding them to explore their own interests.
Bank Street Prepared environment

Conscious Mind Progettazione
Gestione Sociale Reggio Emilia
Head Start Sensitive period
High Scope Unconscious mind
Montessori

New, R., Mallory, B., & Mantovani, S. (2000). Cultural images of children, parents
and teachers: Italian interpretations of home-school relations. Early
Education Development, 11(5), 597-616.
Roopnarine, J. L., & Johnson, J. E. (2005). Approaches to early childhood

education. New Jersey: Merill Prentice Hall.
Shapiro, E., & Bilber, B. (1972). The education of young children: A developmental-
interaction point of view. Teachers College Record, 74, 55-79.

Topic  Early
3 Curriculum
Basics (Play,
Discovery and
Creativity)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the importance of play in children learning development;
2. Describe the integration of play into the Early Years Curriculum;
3. Demonstrate the ability to scaffold, support and spark curiosity in
children; and
4. Demonstrate the ability to include play, discovery and creativity in
daily classroom activities.
 INTRODUCTION
„A play-centred curriculum is not laissez ă faire curriculum in which anything

goes. It is a curriculum that uses the power of play to foster childrenÊs
development. It is an emergent curriculum in which teachers take an active
role in balancing spontaneous play, guided play and teacher-directed
activities‰.
(Van Hoon, Nourot, Scales & Alward, 2007)

36  TOPIC 3 EARLY CURRICULUM BASICS (PLAY, DISCOVERY AND CREATIVITY)
In this topic, you will be studying about play, discovery and creativity; the three
main elements which underpin the basis of early years curriculum. As you study
this topic you will understand the significance of play as a natural tendency for
children learning development. Play, discovery and creativity are some of the
key areas that needs to be integrated into every early yearÊs curriculum. You will
also understand how to support and promote play, discovery and creativity by
applying the three areas into daily actionable classroom activities followed by
identifying an active questioning method to spark childrenÊs curiosity and make
new discoveries.
3.1 PLAY
Play is one of the diverse range of behaviours that exists, which has multiple
purposes to children and adults. It can be purposeful and serious, trivial and
purposeful, purposeless and serious, trivial and purposeless and highly
motivating and creative. Meckley (2002) attempts to define the characteristic of
play by linking it to what it does to a child and how it can link a childÊs inner and
outer world. Here are some of the characteristics of play (Meckley, 2002):
(a) Play is Child-chosen

Children are given the liberty to decide the various activities or ideas they
want to participate in. When child begins to play, he or she will choose the
materials they want to play with. Although children are in control and are
able to decide everything about play, they need to cooperate and negotiate
with others to play together. Since the child chooses her own activity and
playmates, they are more likely to succeed and in turn it gives them an
immediate boost to their self- confidence. There is no right or wrong in a
childÊs play; he or she makes their own rules following a school or home
framework. Learning occurs mostly through play if a child can connect
with it.
(b) Play is Child-invented

Play is not only decided by children but also invented by them. Children
are always trying new ideas although it might not seem new to an adult but
to a child it is new because they tried and completed something new which
they never tried before. In play, children are the inventors and
experimenters; they are able to develop their creativity and thinking skills
as they try out new things.
Children learn a great deal in pretending with activities and ideas that like
real events but are not real. They learn about concepts and develop
perspectives about people, events, relationship and rules through playing.

TOPIC 3 EARLY CURRICULUM BASICS (PLAY, DISCOVERY AND CREATIVITY)  37
(c) Play is Like Work for Children

The process of play is where learning occurs. Communication is an
essential tool for play. Children use more complex language during play
than when conversing with adults. They also tend to do their first attempt
in reading and writing during play.
(d) Play is Done by the Players (Children) not the Adults (Teachers or Parents)
Children plan their own play and they often need time, material and space.
The adultÊs role is to help children plan and support childrenÂs own plan.
This can be done by providing them with a proper environment, support,
rules and safety so that they can obtain maximum learning.
(e) Play Requires Active Involvement

In any play activity, a childÊs mind and body are active and their learnings
are maximised when they interact with the environment, materials and
others.
(f) Play is Fun

Play is typically a fun activity for children as they are able to choose their
activity and playmates.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Discuss in groups, how you would determine whether an activity is

considered as play.
3.2 INTEGRATING PLAY INTO THE

CURRICULUM
All curriculum models are beliefs and values that are considered to be
educational and developmentally appropriate concerning a childÊs immediate
and future needs. The curriculum content is translated into adult and child-
initiated activities specifically for children. Teachers must also be aware how
children receive and interpret the curriculumÊs content. Although play is not the
main part of the curriculum, but remains an essential part of the curriculum as it
provides the way to strengthen a childÊs learning and development needs.

3.2.1 Pedagogical Framing and Strategies

Pedagogical framing and strategies helps practitioners to support child and
adult-initiated play. Pedagogical framing involves making informed decisions
about the structure and content of the curriculum (refer to Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Co-constructing early curriculum

Source: Wood and Attfield (2005)
Within the overall structure of the framework, teachers have used a variety of
techniques to support learning which includes playing along with children,
observing, introducing new ideas and demonstrating skills. However, this does
not mean teachers are in full control of the curriculum as they often need to
respond to childrenÊs intentions, needs and interest which is why unplanned
lessons serves as a better method to ensure a childÊs needs is taken care of. At the
organisation stage, teachers plan out activities, resources and the environment
but this is combined with childrenÊs choices and decisions based on a
combination of materials and activities. There is no other stage apart from the
implementation stage which allows teachers to decide when and where activities
will be done combined with the opportunities to follow a childÊs learning
journey. For example, Cook (2003) describes a science activity on electrical circuit
where the children learned how to make an electric circuit using batteries, bulbs

and crocodile clips. The teacher focused on scientific processes and developing
their understanding while the children proposed to role play using an
illuminated magic wand. The teacher responded to this idea by giving them the
opportunity and support to apply their new skills in a play-based situation using
problem-solving skills. This is actually a continuum between adult and a child-
initiated activity.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Explain what unplanned lessons are.
3.2.2 Common Elements of Play-based Curriculum

Models
Playăbased classrooms have some common elements such as the organised space
resources and time schedule.
Most play-based programmes have defined play-centres which are specially

designed to promote play. The eight designed features normally found in play-
centres are shown in Figure 3.2:
Figure 3.2: The eight features in play-centres

Let us now discuss the eight features one by one.
(a) Logical Arrangement of Space and Materials

Through appropriate and logical arrangement of space, an increase in
frequency and quality of play is likely to happen, which can promote
greater learning outcomes. The arrangement will focus on suitable
materials that are closely related and another, far away from unsuitable
materials. Managing noisy play materials such as blocks, dramatic play and
motor play will be arranged at a quiet area such as the reading or computer
room. Messy areas such as art or water area will be placed over washable
surfaces and near a water source. Curtis and Carter (2003) research and
anecdotal evidence show that classroom with logical and systematic
material arrangement will acquire greater cognitive skills. For example, in
the block area, most blocks are kept according to shape or size which is
easier for a child to keep the place tidy.
(b) Modified Open-plan Design

Play-centres can be divided effectively using visual partition such as
bookshelves and small dividers where the area is enclosed on all three sides
and leaving an opening for easy access (see example in Figure 3.3). This
type of play area is said to be superior in encouraging play persistence and
quality in play.
Figure 3.3: Open-plan design classroom

Source: http://vongirl.blogspot.com/2013/01/interior-design-schools.html

(c) Stimulus Shelters

Stimulus shelter (refer to Figure 3.4) is a private space for children to
convene when they are isolated and kept away from the busy life that most
of them experience in a classroom setting. This private place is said to assist
children in finding comfort and security (Evans, 2006).
Figure 3.4: Stimulus shelter

Source: http://www.two-daloo.com/preschool-classroom-design-cozy-corner/
(d) Balance of Play Materials

Most schools with play-based programmes have quite similar play
materials however there should be a good balance between complex and
simple materials and open-ended and closed-ended materials. Complex
materials are materials with multiple uses and simple materials are
materials with a few uses. Open-ended materials on the other hand give
children the ability to express themselves freely and creatively (for example
Lego and hardwood blocks) and closed-ended materials are those with a
single use (such as games with seriation according to size). According to
Prescott (2008) a good balance of play materials is critical to the quality of a
childÊs play. A good balance between open-ended, closed-ended, simple
and complex materials were associated to greater child play involvement
and a smoother day in a child at a care centre. According to Prescott (2008)

this could be achieved with a single play centre. Wang and Hoot (2006) said
that todayÊs teachers should consider a new kind of balance; a balance
between virtual and physical play objects. Research has found that physical
play objects and computer-based materials provide very distinct challenges
and play opportunities to children. For example, a physical building block
would give children social interaction, collaboration, physical and spatial
experience and electronic block building would give children the
opportunity to experience unique, complex operation in shapes involving
rotating, flipping, enlarging and shrinking shapes.
(e) Divergent Activities and Creative Expression

When we talk about play-based curriculum we are actually focusing on the
creative process and not the end-result. Divergent thinking are activities
with many possibilities such as imaginative expression of ideas or open-
ended experimentation.
In a typical play-based curriculum, mathematics problems are more likely

to have multiple solutions and answers ă for instance, finding the right
answer to solve a triangle. Research has found open-ended activities to be
closely related to ideational fluency, an ability to generate varied ideas in
the form of writing, language interaction and art (Lloyd & Howe, 2003).
Play is also known to help build effective problem solving skills because
when a child plays he or she is able to solve more complex problems (Wills,
John & Sandholtz, 2009).
(f) Schedule of the Day

Play-based programme normally follows a daily schedule that allows for
adequate playtime between quiet and active experiences. Bedekamp and
Copple (2009) and Johnson et al. (2005) recommends a minimum of 45
minutes of uninterrupted play. Several authors have commented that this is
still insufficient as children spend at least 45 minutes to plan their play ă
from designing play sets to negotiating roles (Enz & Christie, 1997).
In a High Scope programme, a child begins his or her day with a reflective
teacher-directed group time in which he or she are required to plan their
play activities followed by their active playing period. In the next step,
there will be another quiet time where children will review the activities
that they have accomplished.

(g) Observation and Assessment of Play

A play-based programme includes frequent observation and assessment of
a childÊs play. The teacherÊs role is to take a step back from interacting and
to instead observe and record a childÊs daily activity. Teachers from high
quality centres would spend 50 per cent of their time during childrenÊs free
play time to intentionally observe their interactions (Trawick-Smith, 2010).
Observation is an important aspect in identifying a childÊs behaviour when
he or she is playing in a functional manner or to learn about his or her
overall development.
There are many methods in observing and assessing play. The two most
common methods used in assessing play is anecdotal and observation
checklist. Anecdotal records are brief but contains detailed descriptions of
childrenÊs behaviour observed during the daily classroom activities.
Observation checklist, on the other hand, is a list of behaviour that teachers

can monitor when observing children at play. A marking is made on the
checklist to indicate how their behaviour was conducted.
(h) Adult Interaction in ChildrenÊs Play

Most play-oriented programmes encourage adult- child interaction during
play. In some programmes, the interaction could be brief such as providing
new materials, scaffolding a childÊs learning process with questions or
simply observing which other teachers might have certain learning goals to
meet. Teachers need to keep in mind that any interaction with a child is to
support what they are currently doing, to not take over, control or even to
take over the play. In relation to this, teachers should carefully observe a
childÂs play in order to learn what children are playing, the need for play
support and understand what learning intervention is needed. Once the
teacher has decided, she will provide enough support for the child to
continue playing independently ă nothing more or less.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
What are the features of play-based curriculum?

3.3 VARIATION IN PLAY-BASED CURRICULUM

MODEL
Within the literature of play and curriculum many have tried to relate early
childhood education goals with play. The three models that have been
implemented are discussed in Table 3.1:
Table 3.1: Three Models in Play and Curriculum
Model Description
Segregation To not use educational play but only use recreational play during
Model break time.
Juxtaposition Pairing playtime with instructional time. Thematic is often used here.
Model
Integration Uses teachable moments with child-initiated play to guide learning

Model and exploration; it represents a blend of play and learn.
There are two different types of play-based curriculum, which are important for
teachers to understand the difference between a play-generated curriculum and
curriculum-generated play curriculum.
In a curriculum-generated play curriculum, the teacher provides opportunities

for play in accordance with curriculum goals. The curriculum and its educational
goals will lead and suitable play activities will follow. For example, a teacher
may equip a classroom with numeracy enriched store centre to reinforce
mathematics concepts taught more formally to children while the same concepts
are formally taught at another time. In this type of model, play centres are
normally set up in the classrooms.
In play-generated curriculum model, play leads and the curriculum follows (Van
Hoorn et. al., 2011). While playing, children can learn academic content from
different subjects such as science by engaging in a series of events that are not set
up rigidly in advance but are, rather, allowed to flow out from their playing and
learning experience. Play-generated curriculum could be risky if the teacher is
held responsible to implement a particular curriculum. There is a stronger
likelihood that a significant part of the curriculum will be achieved in the
curriculum-generated play than in the play-generated curriculum.

There are three major variations in the play-based curriculum as explained in

Table 3.2:
Table 3.2: Three Variations in the Play-based Curriculum
Variations Description
The trust-in plays In this approach, play is the curriculum and the teacher grants
approach unrestricted, open-ended and self-directed play. The teacherÊs
rationale is trust where they believe that children in free play
will cope with anxiety and make progress in developmental
task.
The facilitate-play In this approach the teacher will deliberately intervene to

approach improve childrenÊs play or to point in new directions that can
assist learning.
The learn and teach This provides many opportunities for play in the curriculum.
through play Here the teacher considers play as an ideal context for
approach promoting various important non-play concepts and skills.
ACTIVITY 3.2
What are the different approaches in play and what are their strengths?
Discuss.
 Play can be purposeful, purposeless, serious or trivial depending on the

context play occurs.
 Although play has certain characteristics it can be integrated into the

curriculum as a way for children to learn.
 Teachers can use pedagogical frame to make an informed decision about the
structure and content of the curriculum.
 Although there is variation in the play-based curriculum, there is still some

common elements which form the basis of play-based curriculum.
 Teachers need to be aware of the difference between curriculum-generated-

play and play-generated-curriculum.

Curriculum-generated-play Play-generated-curriculum
Facilitate play approach Trust-in play approach
Learn and teach through play approach Unplanned lesson
Bredekamp. S., & Copple, C. (Eds). (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice

in early childhood programs serving children from birth through 8 (3rd ed.).
Washington, D.C.: NAEYC.
Curtis, D., & Carter, M. (2003). Designs for living and learning: Transforming
early childhood environments. St. Paul: Redleaf Press.
Cook, J. S. (2003). Progression and continuity in role play in the foundation stage,
unpublished M.Ed. thesis, University of Exeter.
Enz, B., & Christie, J. (1997). Teacher play interaction styles: Effects on play
behaviour & relationships with teacher training and experience.
International Journal of Early Childhood Education, 2, 55-69.
Evans, G. W. (2006). Child development and the physical environment. Annual

review of Psychology, 57, 423-451.
Johnson, J. (2005). Inclusion matters. In birth to three matters, (Eds.). Abbott, L.,
& Langston, A. 89-104. London: Open University Press.
Lloyd B., Howe, N. (2003). Solitary play and convergent and divergent thinking
skills in preschool children. Early Childhood Research Quaterly 03/200,
18(1), 22-41.
Meckley, A. (2002). Observing childrenÊs play: Mindful methods. Paper

presented to the international Toy research association, London.

Prescott. E. (2008). The physical environment: A powerful regulator of experience.

Retrieved from https://childcareexchange.com/library/ 5018034.pdf
Trawick-Smith, J. (2010). Early childhood development: A multicultural

perspective (5th ed.). Amazon.
Van Hoorn, J., Scales, B., Nourat, P., & Alward, K. (2007). Play at the centre of the
curriculum. Upper Saddle River.
Wang, X., & Hoot, J. (2006). Information & communication technology in early
childhood education. Early Education & Development 17, 317-2.
Wills, J. S., & Haymore-Sandhotz, J. (2009). Constrained professionalism:

Dilemmas of teaching in the face of test-based accountability. Teachers
College Record, 111(40), 1065-1114.
SELF CHECK 1.2

Topic  Structure
4 of Early
Childhood
Curriculum:
Planning,
Designing,
Implementing
and Assessing
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Plan a curriculum that promotes childrenÊs learning and
development;
2. Design goals and objectives that contribute to the reason for the
curriculum;
3. Implement activities and materials that is needed to carry out the
desired goals and objectives; and
4. Evaluate the assessment in early childhood curriculum.

TOPIC 4 STRUCTURE OF EARLY CHILDHOOD CURRICULUM: PLANNING,  49
DESIGNING, IMPLEMENTING AND ASSESSING
 INTRODUCTION
The curriculum is an academic or study plan that should include (Lattuca &
Stark, 2009):
(a) Purpose;
(b) Content;
(c) Sequence;
(d) Instructional methods;
(e) Instructional resources;
(f) Evaluation approaches; and
(g) Plan adjustments based on experience or data assessment.
Nowadays, the use of early childhood curriculum models is on the rise again and
it is due to these reasons (Goffin, 2000):
(a) One of the education goals is that children have to be ready to learn upon
entering schools;
(b) To increase the low academic achievement of children who come from low-
income families;
(c) Education policy makers are responding to the findings from neuroscience
on early brain development; and
(d) Many evidence shows the overall low quality of centre-based and family
child care.
This is true as curriculum plays an important role to achieve the goal of

enhancing social competence and school readiness among young children (Early
childhood development: Early childhood education, 2015).
However, early childhood curriculum is not just about increasing childrenÊs

academic achievement as it should also include experiences that can be
developed to help children improve their problem-solving, thinking, reasoning
and creating skills. Childhood educators need to employ a curriculum that is not
only thoughtfully planned, but one that is also challenging, engaging,
appropriate, culturally and linguistically responsive and able to promote positive
outcomes among young children (National Association for the Education of

50  TOPIC 4 STRUCTURE OF EARLY CHILDHOOD CURRICULUM: PLANNING,
Young Children (NAEYC) and the National Association of Early Childhood

Specialists in State Departments of Education (SDE), and, 2004).
There are different kinds of sources that should be included when developing a
curriculum, including knowledge of early childhood, childrenÊs individual
characteristics, the knowledge base of various disciplines, the values of our
culture, parentsÊ desires and the knowledge children need to function
proficiently in society (NAEYC and NAECS/SDE, 2004).
In this topic, it is important to know the aspects of planning, designing,

implementing and assessing the curriculum to ensure it promotes childrenÊs
learning and development when developing early childhood curriculum.
ACTIVITY 4.1
What kind of sources should be included when developing a

curriculum? Discuss.
4.1 PLANNING
Early childhood education is more meaningful for children when they are
connected to real-world experiences, including their culture (Patton & Kokoski,
1996). This means that the objectives of the planned curriculum must be linked
with the developmental tasks appropriate for children and be comprehensive in
scope. Although recent changes in early childhood curriculum puts more
emphasis on academic content, it is important to remember the other disciplines
like art, music, science, social studies and learning through playing. Thus, it is
essential to know the indicators of an effective curriculum and the vital
components of planning. Next, you will also need to know the difference
between rigid and flexible planning, and how to plan based on questions asked
to yourself.

4.1.1 Indicators of Effective Curriculum

According to the NAEYC and the NAECS/SDE (2004), to write an effective
curriculum, there are eight indicators as shown next:
(a) Children are Active and Engaged

Children are able to learn through play, thus it is important to always keep
them active and engaged when implementing a curriculum. They should be
kept busy in learning centres, groups and outdoor play to actively learn
content from various subjects that have been incorporated within
individual activities.
(b) Goals are Clear and Shared by All

In early childhood education, the curriculum includes learning goals and
skills based on the childrenÊs level. These goals are visually supported
through pictures, labels, bulletin boards and charts. The goals are also
shared with the parents through communication forms.
(c) Curriculum is Evidence Based

The ideal curriculum for early childhood is based on reliable research and
developmental theories which offers principal perspectives on how
children learn. Besides using classic theories from Vygotsky, Piaget,
Maslow and others, the curriculum must also be based on modern research.
This is to ensure that the curriculum is updated and relevant to current
interests and needs of young children.
(d) Valued Content is Learned through Investigation and Focused, Intentional

Teaching
Every planned activity and learning item serves a developmental purpose.
Children should be able to learn through exploring, which is why the
curriculum must include appropriate learning environment, daily routines,
planning daily or weekly activities, and assessing and evaluating a childÊs
progress.
(e) Curriculum Builds on Prior Learning and Experiences

The curriculumÊs learning environment, routines and activities have to be
socially-relevant, intellectually engaging and meaningful to young children.
Teachers need to know what is a childÊs learning preference and implement
the appropriate strategies that build on his or her prior learning and
experiences.

(f) Curriculum is Comprehensive

Teachers must assess and evaluate before planning activities that are
appropriate for children. This is why the curriculum has to include
emergent curricular process which promotes cognitive, physical, social-
emotional and language and literacy content through developmentally and
culturally appropriate practices.
(g) Professional Standards Validate the CurriculumÊs Subject-matter Content

The curriculum has to be aligned with the learning standards by well-
known early childhood agencies like Head Start, NAEYC and Bright from
the Start. In Malaysia, the curriculum is parallel with the learning standards
set by the Ministry of Education under the curriculum development.
(h) The Curriculum is Likely to Benefit Children

If teachers are able to execute the curriculum as intended, it will create a
continuous opportunity for appropriate learning; enabling a child to
continuously improve. In order to do so, the daily instruction must be
based on curiosity, interests, needs and developmental goals and skills of
the children.
4.1.2 Vital Components of Planning

The following are the six vital components when planning a curriculum under
early childhood by the Connecticut State Department of Education (2007):
(a) Objectives or performance standards for children to achieve by the end of

the curriculum.
(b) The teacher does an ongoing assessment of their studentsÊ skills,

development and abilities.
(c) The content is available in language and literacy, mathematical concepts

and scientific enquiry.
(d) The teacher plans a lesson that captures studentsÊ curiosity so that they are
able to gain processes and experiences in a learning context.
(e) The teacher interaction with young children is balanced between teacheră
directed and child-initiated behaviours and strategies.
(f) Organisation of the environment, schedule and materials.

4.1.3 Planning a Curriculum

Once a teacher understands the indicators and components of curriculum
planning, they need to know how to start planning a curriculum. It might seem
overwhelming at first, which is why Table 4.1 is meant to help new teachers on
how to get started when planning a curriculum. Table 4.1 also includes questions
to ask themselves while planning to ensure that the curriculum fulfils students
and teachers needs in the classroom.
Table 4.1: TeachersÊ Guide in Planning a Curriculum
How to Get Started What to Ask Yourself
 Identify studentsÊ developmental  What developmental stage is the child

characteristics based on their age. at?
 StudentsÊ individual abilities are  What is his ability?

regularly assessed.
 Define two performance standards for  Which performance standard is

each of the four domains on which to appropriate based on childrenÊs present
focus. development?
 How will the different learning styles

and abilities be accommodated?
 Select the best ways for students to be  Can children be involved in the
engaged based on an appropriate planning?
experience and determine the best
context for it to happen.  What are the content or concepts that
should be introduced?
 What context is best to enhance a childÊs

learning experience?
 Differentiate between teacher  How involved should a teacher be if he

behaviours and strategies. or she wants to direct, guide or model?
 Are the language and diversity issues

being considered?
 Organise the materials and environment  Which part of the curriculum need to be
in the classroom. changed?
 What kinds of materials are needed to

enhance childrenÊs enquiry?

 Observe studentsÊ learning experiences  What experiences are working?

and projects as a guide for future
planning and ongoing assessment.  What kind of questions do the children
have?
 Are the children gaining any kind of

knowledge or content?
 What is the next best step based on the

performance standard?
4.1.4 Rigid Planning versus Flexible Planning

Every teacher must plan their lessons, where they have the general idea of the
time and sequence of activities. However in early childhood education, lessons
cannot be planned to a rigid time schedule. Unfortunately, nowadays young
children are rushed from one activity to another because the teacher follows the
lesson plan rigidly. For example, children are learning how to use watercolours
during art. Even though the students are interested in the lesson, it may take time
to teach them how to use watercolours properly. Instead of prolonging the lesson
for a bit more, the teacher rushes the children to finish up because they have to
learn English at 2p.m.
If a teacher was more flexible, instead of following the rigid time of only 35
minutes for art, the period is extended to 45 minutes because of the childrenÊs
involvement and interest. This is because children need to move around freely in
the classroom to spark their curiosity and initiate learning experiences in
different ways. Thus teachers need to have the general idea of understanding the
needs of the children when learning to allow some flexibility in their lesson plan.
As said by Eliason and Jenkins (1981, p. 75), „there is great value in a well-
structured curriculum of sequential learning plans, but considerable flexibility
and skill must be used in following these through‰.
ACTIVITY 4.2
1. How can the goals of a curriculum be shared by all?
2. How should a teacher interact with young children in the

classroom?
3. What are the disadvantages of rigid planning?

4.2 DESIGNING
When designing a curriculum, a specific part of the lesson includes planned units
where the activities are coordinated to reinforce the desired idea and to meet
childrenÊs individual developmental needs ă this means that the children is
learning what you intended them to learn. There are several ways to design the
lessons which ensure that the programme is in harmony with the needs and
abilities of each individual child (Brown & Glasner, 1999). When designing the
curriculum, the teacher first needs to make a unit plan or webbing. Once that is
done, the unit plan or webbing is used to make a specific planning called activity
plan. If the teacher is inexperienced or wants something more detailed, they can
opt to do the daily schedule of activities.
4.2.1 Unit Plan

Unit plan is the first step when designing a curriculum and when the teacher has
several possible activities for coordinating and carrying out a particular theme of
the study. This can be done by selecting a theme and then brainstorming ideas on
how this theme can be included in other areas of the curriculum. Using a theme
or concept gives way to meaningful conceptual development. There are many
possible themes or projects appropriate for young children because they are at
different stages of development, thus any kind of theme is able to benefit
children. Here are some examples of possible lesson themes; animals, family,
colour, numbers, pollution, texture, emotions, body parts and many more.
Once a theme is selected, the teacher can proceed with the unit plan to make the
curriculum. This approach gives the teacher a broad overview of where the
lesson will go. Table 4.2 shows how a teacher uses Unit Plan to integrate the
theme about seeds into different activities across the curriculum.

Table 4.2: Unit Plan to Make the Curriculum
Theme: Seeds
Area of Curriculum Possible Activities
Art  Making seed collages
 Using seeds as part of finger painting
 Turning seeds into a bracelet
Field Trips  Children must look for seeds in the garden

 Students plant the seeds for their home garden
 Look for foods that are seeds at the grocery store (for
example: peas, beans and corns)
Food  Seed sprouts

 Green bean salad
 Popcorn
Science  The different types of seeds

 Study of how seeds travel
 Observe the growing stages of the seed planted
Music  Songs about seeds

 Make seed shakers
 Role play using seeds
Language and Literature  Stories about seeds

 How to describe different types of seeds
 Choral reading on seeds
4.2.2 Webbing or Clustering

In this approach, the teacher has to pick a theme, project or concept and then
brainstorm the activities and ideas for teaching them. Webbing or clustering is
similar to a unit plan but looks different as teachers organise their ideas in a web-
like figure and the chosen topic will be in the middle. Teachers may use the
webbing or clustering approach based on their own preferences, teaching styles
and background. The teachers may also seek input from children based on their
ideas, needs, interest and backgrounds. Young children may also try webbing or
clustering as their project, but with a teacherÊs guidance.

The web or clustering may be used in different concepts according to what the
teacher wants to achieve for the lesson they are planning. For example, in Figure
4.1 is about how to plan a study on seeds. Figure 4.2 is an example of a project
web for seeds study, while Figure 4.3 is a web that contains a child question web
for a study on seed.
Figure 4.1: Web study on seeds

Figure 4.2: A childÊs project web for seed study
Figure 4.3: A childÊs question web for seed study

4.2.3 Activity Plan

Once the web has been developed, a teacher can choose a specific idea to include
while teaching which matches the objectives that have to be met. This idea is
turned into an activity plan where the teacher outlines all of the activities
planned for each day throughout the duration of the unit. The activities need to
connect, strengthen and support the theme of the lesson as well as its desired
objectives. The activities in the activity plan must be balanced and go across the
curriculum (art, music, language and etc.). However, the teacher may choose to
not follow some activities in the theme as it can cause a lack of interest in
children. Next is an example of an activity plan that has been developed by the
unit plan and webbing (seed).
Example of Activity Plan
Day 1
Whole-Group Activity
 Science
ă Study of how lima bean seeds travel
ă Observe the growing stages of the lima bean seed
 Language
ă Describing different types of seeds
ă Choral reading about lima bean seeds
Individual Activity
 Art
ă Seed collages

4.2.4 Daily Schedule of Activities

Daily schedule of activities is like a process in between curriculum planning
where it is the elaboration of an activity plan but it is simpler than a lesson plan.
Once the objectives are already thought through, teachers who are at an
advanced level in planning can use the daily schedule to replace both the activity
and lesson plan.
The following is the list of items needed to specify in the daily schedule of
activities:
(a) Order of activities;

(b) Approximate length of time;
(c) Person responsible (if the teacher is working with someone else);
(d) Specific responsibilities of each individual; and
(e) Materials needed.
Besides including the activities, teachers can include additional routines like
lunch or rest time or reading workshops into their daily schedule for a full-day
programme. This is to make sure that teachers do not forget about the daily
routines as they are important for young children. Schedule and routines enable
children to predict what will happen next and this helps them feel secured and
prepared. Furthermore, children who are familiar with routines are more likely
to be attentive, engaged and learn new knowledge (Ostrosky, Jung, Hemmeter &
Thomas 2008). The teacher may also include which assignment and routine is
assigned to whom at what time to be more specific. Table 4.3 shows an example
of the daily schedule of activities.

Table 4.3: Daily Schedule of Activities





SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. Name the three steps on how to design a curriculum.
2. How does webbing differ from unit plan?
3. What is an activity plan?
4. What are the additional routines that can be included in the daily
schedule of activities?
4.3 IMPLEMENTING
Once all the planning has been completed, the teachers may implement them
through lesson plans. Lesson plan takes place once the unit plan is placed in
broad perspective through the activity plan, and the specifics are defined in daily
schedules of the activities. Lesson plan is the longer version of daily schedules as
it adds procedures to the activities and serves as a reminder on the t goals and
objectives that needs to be achieved. In order to make the lesson plan more child-
centred, the teacher can seek input from the children before planning specific
activities. Children will become more interested and engaged when they are able
to decide their own learning.
Even though lesson plans are already detailed plans on how to achieve a class
objective, teachers should not be so rigid and strictly adhere to them. Lesson
plans should be seen as a guiding principle for a more systematic instruction
when teaching. Teachers can also opt to make adaptations and add or remove
lesson items as needed to retain childrenÊs interest and motivation for them to
continue learning.
When teachers want to make a lesson plan, here are the specifications needed in
the format; objectives, focus, contents standard, learning standard, procedures,
resources, materials and lastly, assessment.

4.3.1 Objectives
An objective is a performance-based description that you want your students to
achieve at the end of the lesson. In other words, an objective describes an
intentional result from teaching the lesson. A well-written objective lets a student
know what they need to achieve by the end of the lesson and provides teachers
with guidelines for assessing student progress.
Objectives in lesson plans should be specific, measureable, short-term and able to

observe student behaviour. Next is an example of a good and bad objective for
early childhood lesson plan.
 Good objective : Students will label the four life stages of a frog.
 Bad objective : Students will learn the life stages of a frog.
(a) Focus, Content Standard and Learning Standard

Focus is directed to which skills teachersÊ want their students to achieve
(listening, speaking, reading and writing). Content and Learning standard
are broad objectives from the Kurikulum Standard Prasekolah Kebangsaan
(KSPK). A teacher will choose the content and learning standard based on
what can be achieved through the lessons or as guidelines to create a more
specific objective.
Before setting specific objectives for the lesson, teachers have to go through
the KSPK to ensure that their lessons cover all of the learning outcomes in
the KSPK.
(b) Lesson Objectives

Using the broad objectives taken for the focus and content standard,
teachersÊ need to create more specific objectives. A teacher needs to ensure
that the specific objective matches with each of the content standard set by
the KSPK. The following is an example of how to create specific objectives
from the focus and content standard.

Example on How to Create Specific Objectives
Example 1
Focus : Listening, speaking and reading skills
Content Standard : BI 1.6 Sing songs, recite rhymes and poems

: BI 3.1 Identify letters of the alphabet
Learning Standard : BI 1.5.3 Listen to, recite and act out nursery
rhymes, action songs and poems
: BI 3.1.3 Recognise small letters of the alphabet
: BI 3.1.4 Recognise big letters of the alphabet
: BI 3.1.5 Name letter of the alphabet with
guidance
Lesson Objective(s) : 1) Students are able to sing the song ÂA for

AppleÊ
: 2) Recognise small letters for ÂaÊ
: 3) Recognise big letters for ÂAÊ
: 4) Name the letter ÂAÊ with guidance
4.3.2 Procedures
Once all of the objectives are set, teachers can write the procedures on how to
perform the whole lesson. Teachers need to decide how to sequence their lesson
based on the approach they have opted for. The procedure is to provide direction
on how to achieve the selected objectives during the lesson.
4.3.3 Resources and Materials

Once the lesson is planned, list down all of the items needed to be used.
Resources and materials are meant to be used as a list for teachers to ensure that
they have everything they need before starting the lesson. This is to prevent
problems like a teacher forgetting to bring the essential items to the class for
teaching.

4.3.4 Assessment
Assessments are meant as feedbacks for teachers where they record all of the
lesson deficiencies and achievement. This is to ensure that teachersÊ can look back
and try to improve where they lack and decide if the lesson needs to be revised
or can be recycled for another time.
Next is an example of a full lesson plan and how teachers can implement it in the
classroom to teach four year old students to recognise the letter ÂgÊ.
Example of a Full Lesson Plan
Class : Bestari 4
Date : 20 December 2015
Time : 11.00 ă 11.45am
Number of students : 25
Subject : English
Theme : Fruits
Focus : Listening and speaking
Content Standard:
1. BI 1.2 Listen to and understand meaning of simple words.
2. BI 1.3 Acquire and use simple phrases.
3. BI 1.6 Sing songs, recite rhymes and poems.
4. BI 3.1 Identify letters of the alphabet.
Learning Standard:
1. BI 1.2.1 Listen to and repeat simple greetings.
2. BI 1.3.1 Talk about familiar things and experiences with guidance.
3. BI 1.5.3 Listen to, recite and act out nursery rhymes, action songs and
poems.
4. BI 3.1.3 Recognise small letters of the alphabet.
5. BI 3.1.4 Recognise big letters of the alphabet.
6. BI 3.1.5 Name letter of the alphabet with guidance.

By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

Lesson Objective(s):
1. Greet the teacher back appropriately.
2. Answer the teacher on what are their favourite fruits to eat.
3. Sing the song ÂG for GrapeÊ.
4. Recognise small letters for ÂgÊ.
5. Recognise big letters for ÂGÊ.
6. Name the letter ÂGÊ with guidance.
Materials and Resources: Pictures of fruits, ÂG for GrapeÊ song, sandpaper
flashcards for ÂGÊ and ÂgÊ and exercise sheet.
Procedures:
1. A teacher greets the studentsÊ Good Morning and asks how they are
feeling that morning.
2. A teacher asks each student what are their favourite fruit and show some
pictures of different kinds of fruits. Teacher discusses with students
about the different colours and shapes of the fruits.
3. A teacher sings the song ÂG for GrapeÊ with actions and students are to
follow and sing along.
4. A teacher asks if students know what fruit starts with the letter ÂGÊ and
studentsÊ should be able to answer after singing the song ÂG for AppleÊ.
5. A teacher writes down the small letter ÂgÊ and big letter ÂGÊ.
6. A teacher uses sand paper flashcards to let students trace out the letters
ÂgÊ and ÂGÊ.
7. Students are given an exercise to circle the entire letter ÂgÊ and ÂGÊ.
8. After the exercises are complete, a teacher sings the song ÂG for grapeÊ
again but with less guidance.
9. A teacher finishes the lesson by saying goodbye and the students will
reply.

Assessment:
1. Students know all of the basic fruits like apple, banana and orange.
Other fruits need guidance to name.
2. Students are able to sing the song ÂG for GrapeÊ together with the actions.
3. The sand paper flashcards took a bit longer time as each student traced
out the letter ÂgÊ and ÂGÊ.
ACTIVITY 4.3
In a group, create a full lesson plan as shown in Figure 4.1 to teach five
year olds one of the following subjects:
(a) New vocabulary that can be found at the farm;
(b) How to add numbers using the farm theme; and
(c) Make a collage to create a farm.
4.4 ASSESSMENT
Curriculum needs to undergo continuous assessment to ensure the curriculum is
constantly in harmony with childrenÊs abilities and needs. Continuous
assessment will allow necessary adjustments to be made in the unit or project so
that it can be beneficial to children. Since children are constantly developing, the
curriculum needs to be adjusted to suit childrenÊs constantly changing needs. An
assessment can be made using the following questions as a guideline:
(a) Goal
Did the unit meet the overall goal of the programme? What evidence is
there to validate this?
(b) Objective
Did the objective of the unit meet childrenÊs needs, abilities, interest and
knowledge?
(c) Preparation and Procedure

Were the necessary preparation for the unit prepared in advance? Was the
staff made known of their responsibilities?

(d) Activities
Did the activities support the objective of the unit? Were the children
interested in the activities? Did the activities promote learning, competence,
enjoyment and engagement in thinking and success?
(e) Culminating Activities to Bring Closure and Provide Feedback

Did the summary bring closure to the unit or activity?
When evaluating a programme, a childÊs achievement in performance-based

objective can also be observed and assessed based on their work, comments and
behaviour. Feedback from evaluation can provide useful information for parents
when they have questions about their children and the influence of the
curriculum on their learning and growth. An effective evaluation must include
both negative and positive aspects or failures and successes of activities. For
example, if an activity outcome turned out different from expected then the
activity could either be a failure or it was much better than originally planned.
Successful and positive evaluation help builds a teacherÊs confidence and ability
but failures and negative evaluation only shows inadequate planning and
insufficient follow through.
4.4.1 Assessing Children Learning and Involvement

Performance and children learning outcomes are also part of the assessment.
Each childÊs learning and achievement needs to be assessed and written down.
Assessment should answer questions such as:
(a) Did the children achieve the desired objective?
(b) Were there measurable behaviour changes?
(c) Were the children motivated and interested to participate?
(d) Did it provide adequate challenge to the children?
(e) Does the child have any particular problem that needs continuous
guidance?
Teachers should keep abreast the development of children so that objectives can
be designed to increase a childÊs progress.

4.4.2 Assessing a Child’s Development

It is important to assess a childÊs development as an understanding of how
children grow and develop can help teachers in planning what will be taught and
how it will be accomplished.
Effective assessment must take into consideration generalisation of growth and

development which should include the following:
(a) Each child is an individual and they grow in their own way.
(b) A childÊs self-concept will affect how he learns.
(c) A childÊs total development, not just cognitive functioning must be the
focus of his or her learning development.
(d) Children learn best through real experiences by experimenting and

discovering.
(e) The learning experience must take into account the cultural background,
needs, interest and developmental levels of each child in the classroom.
There are different techniques used to acquire and organise assessment

information as seen in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4: Different techniques of acquiring and organising assessment information

Through assessment, teachers can plan learning experience to match the needs of
children and challenge their abilities. It is a must to present assessment
information to parents during parent conference to validate a childÊs
achievement and as proof of a childÊs development level as well as learning and
progress.
4.4.3 Evaluating the Teacher

As teachers, it is important to be reflective as it continually makes the teacher
committed to making improvements. When changes are made in the programme
or activities, a teacher must make appropriate alterations. Teachers should
constantly ask themselves the following questions:
(a) Am I planning the curriculum to meet a childÊs abilities and needs?
(b) Are my desired objectives achieved?
(c) Am I providing adequate guidance, challenge and directions to the

children?
Teachers must continually work to build on strengths that already exist in the
curriculum and children.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
1. What are the different kinds of resources that should be included

when developing a curriculum?
2. Name three indicators of effective curriculum and explain briefly.
3. Create a unit plan under the theme „animal for food, music and
language‰.
4. What are the four factors needed to write a good objective?
5. Why do teachers need procedures, resources and materials and

assessment in their lesson plans?

 Curriculum is an academic plan which includes: purpose of the curriculum,

content, sequence, instructional methods, instructional resources, evaluation
approaches and plan adjustments based on experience or data assessment.
 Early childhood curriculum is not just about academic but also to develop
childrenÊs skills in problem-solving, thinking, reasoning and creating.
 In order to plan an effective curriculum, you will need eight of these guides:
children are active and engaged; goals are clear and shared by all; curriculum
is evidence based; valued content is learned through investigation and
focused; intentional teaching; curriculum builds on prior learning and
experiences; curriculum is comprehensive; professional standards validate
the curriculumÊs subject-matter content and the curriculum is likely to benefit
children.
 Even though it is important to plan out all of your lessons, teachers cannot be
too rigid in following them as it may decrease a childÊs learning experiences.
 After planning out the curriculum, here are the steps taken to design the
curriculum more thoroughly:
 Once you have designed all of the activities needed, it is implemented

through a lesson plan.

 Lesson plan is the longer version of daily schedules as it adds procedures to

the activities and serves as a reminder on the goals and objectives that need
to be achieved.
 Format of a lesson plan: focus, content standard, learning standard,

objectives, procedures, resources and materials and assessment.
Activity plan Lesson plan

Assessment Resources and materials
Content and learning standard Rigid planning
Curriculum Unit plan
Designing Webbing
Flexible planning
Arce, E. M. (2012). Curriculum for young children: An introduction. California,

United States: Wadsworth Publishing.
Brown, S., & Glasner, A. (Eds.). (1999). Assessment matters in higher education:
Choosing and using diverse approaches. Buckingham: Society for Research
into Higher Education & Open University Press.
Connecticut State Department of Education. (2007). Early childhood curriculum.

Retrieved from http://www.ct.gov/oec/site/default.asp
Early childhood development: Early childhood education. (2015). Retrieved from

http://www.nemcsa.org/headstart/ECDHS_B.aspx
Eliason, C. F., & Jenkins, L. T. (1981). Practical guide to early childhood

curriculum. New Jersey, United States: Pearson Education.

Goffin, S. G. (2000). The role of curriculum models in early childhood education.

ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education,
University of Illinois.
Hyson, M., & Biggar, H. (2006). NAEYCÊs standards for early childhood
professional preparation: Getting from here to there. Critical Issues in Early
Childhood Professional Development, 283-308.
Katz, L., & Chard, S. C. (2000). Engaging children's minds: The project approach.
Connecticut, United States: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Lattuca, L., & Stark, J. (2009). Shaping the college curriculum: Academic plans in
context. San Francisco, United States: Jossey-Bass.
NAEYC. (2004). Where we stand ă NAEYC & NAECS/SDE: On curriculum,

assessment, and program evaluation. A joint position statement of the
National Association for the Education of Young Children and the National
Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of
Education. Retrieved from http://www.naeyc.org/positionstatements/
cape
Ostrosky, M. M., Jung, E. Y., Hemmeter, M. L., & Thomas, D. (2008). Helping
children understand routines and classroom schedules (What Works Brief
Series, No. 3). Retrieved from the Child Care and Head Start Bureaus in the
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Patton, M. M., & Kokoski, T. M. (1996). How good is your early childhood
science, mathematics, and technology program? Strategies for Extending
Your Curriculum. Young children, 51(5), 38-44.

Topic  Classroom
5 Design and
Organisation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Elaborate what a well-planned environment means for young
children;
2. Identify the conditions that create quality early childhood education
programme; and
3. Discuss the process of adaptation in order to appreciate the
importance of indoor and outdoor arrangements.
 INTRODUCTION
Many young children spend most of their waking hours in a classroom. Thus, it
is important for teachers to get involved in classroom design and organisation to
be able to create a space which fulfils the learning developmental needs of
todayÊs young children. In other words, a well-managed classroom provides an
environment in which teaching and learning of both children and teachers can
flourish. Colbert (1996) also mentioned that the organisation of classroom
materials can:
(a) Influence the way early childhood teachers guide their studentÊs
development; and
(b) Set the benchmark for student engagement.

TOPIC 5 CLASSROOM DESIGN AND ORGANISATION  79
Typically, early childhood classrooms are filled with charts, colours, pictures and
many other visual representations to support and extend a childÊs learning
progress. However, teachers must also ensure that the classroom can function
effectively. According to Stronge, Tucker and Hindman (2004), one of the best
ways to organise a classroom is by complementing beliefs about how children
learn and the classroom environment in which they work.
The best way to organise a classroom is by designing it in such a way where the
classroom allows for experiences like reading, writing, listening, numeracy,
science and technology, dramatic play, art, block and group discussions. All of
these learning ÂareasÊ need to be balanced when planning the physical space in an
early childhood classroom. The physical layout of the classroom should also
reflect your teaching style. As teachers, you can also add some personal touches
to the classroom by adding some plants, small pillows for reading, carpet, or an
art piece to reflect your teaching style.
ACTIVITY 5.1
In your opinion, what is the best way to organise a classroom?
5.1 PRINCIPLES IN DESIGNING AND

ORGANISING CLASSROOMS FOR EARLY
CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
As mentioned before, classroom design in early childhood education should
have different areas for students to learn and experience different kinds of skills.
Teachers must accommodate these learning areas for children to move
independently and use them in the area for effective learning (Kaplan Early
Learning Company, 2010). These learning areas do not have to be elaborate or
too complicated for a teacher to understand when designing the classroom. As
long as a classroom environment allows for children participation, observation,
touching, questioning, thinking and reasoning, within the childÊs level, this
means that the classroom is conducive enough. In order to make the classroom
more effective for childrenÊs learning and playing, here are the core principles in
designing and organising a classroom for early childhood education by Kaplan
Early Learning Company (2010) and Colbert (1996):

80  TOPIC 5 CLASSROOM DESIGN AND ORGANISATION
5.1.1 Appropriate Equipment and Materials

Besides having everything you need to teach a lesson, you also need to ensure
that the different areas in the classroom have the appropriate equipment and
materials. All of the art supplies should be in the art room, while everything that
is needed to teach numerals, is in the numeral room. This is to increase
effectiveness during teaching and learning where teachers can be flexible with
the items used in the classroom. For example, when teaching letters to four year-
olds, teachers can opt to use sand paper for finger tracing or even the white
board for students to write and erase on. All of these items are present in the
language room, thus the teacher does not have to search for the items which may
take time and cause the children to disrupt. This also means that a watercolour
and a paint brush should not be present in a different area other than the art
room, unless it is being used specifically to teach something.
5.1.2 Organised and Uncluttered Classroom

Classrooms for early childhood education have to be neat and organised so that
both teachers and students can optimise the usage of these items. When a
classroom is organised and uncluttered, items can be found easily, the classroom
looks presentable, and everyone is comfortable. When a classroom is
disorganised and cluttered, children may get distracted with things that are not
in place, teachers may take time to search for an item and the classroom may
seem dirty and uncomfortable to be in. Materials should also be arranged so that
children can easily access them.
5.1.3 Culturally Accepted

The classroom may reflect studentsÊ own culture so that they become more
interested and engaged since it is something that they would be familiar with.
Children can also bring materials from home to share their culture and family
experiences. This broadens childrenÊs diversity. However make sure that it is
culturally accepted and does not involve any kind of sensitive issues like religion
or politics. For example, since the community in Malaysia is diverse, teachers can
hang pictures of the different races that are present in our country. Teachers can
even have an object which represents culture such as the congkak for the kids to
play with or a small weave mat as decoration.

5.1.4 Consider Traffic Flow

Teachers need to consider the number of students and how to fit them within a
classroom area. Additionally, a teacher would need to understand how to guide
the students to enter and exit from the classroom in an orderly fashion to prevent
traffic flow. This can be done by planning in advance and teaching children how
to arrange the classroom furniture and how to queue up before entering another
class. Teachers can also plan among themselves to see which area they want to
use at certain times to avoid clashes. The amount of space for an area also
depends on the number of students, thus teachers can discuss at the beginning of
the school year regarding the ideal number of students that can be presented in a
learning area at one time.
5.1.5 Differentiating Classroom Areas

Children love to learn and play in different types of environment, thus it is
important for a child to know how to distinguish the right classroom area. This
can be done by using furniture to identify the different areas in a classroom such
as music, science, language, art, block, numerals and others. For example, in
reading spaces, there should be furnishings such as pillows, rugs and
bookshelves to create the right mood for reading comfortably. In language areas,
there should be posters of alphabets, sight words, tables, chairs, poems and song
lyrics. Teachers can also use partitions to differentiate the classroom areas.
Moreover, furniture can also create boundaries for specific areas. For example, a
carpet defines space and reduces noise.
5.1.6 Classroom Must be Neat, Clean and Cheerful

Classrooms should be conducive for learning, playing and doing all sorts of
activities. Besides having the proper materials and furnishings, the classroom
should also be neat, clean and cheerful. All of the items on display, especially the
stationary, should be put in storage materials. The classroom should also be
cleaned every other day. In order to make the classroom cheerful, the proper use
of colour can define a space, create a certain mood and stimulate a childÊs mind.
A neutral background for the classroom is a well-chosen accent colour. Teachers
could add more colours into the classroom by hanging posters, charts, and art
pictures as well as adding colourful objects like boxes, pillows and tables.
Children are attracted to vibrant colours, thus darker colours are not
recommended to be used inside the classroom unless it is meant for something
specific.

5.1.7 Encourage Children to Keep the Room Orderly

The classroom is meant for everyone, thus the responsibility to keep it clean and
organised should not be by the teacher alone. Students should be encouraged to
keep the room orderly as well. Not only does this promote positive outcomes
among children, but also helps them to learn about discipline, values and the
need to function proficiently in our community. Students can keep the room
orderly by always keeping the things they take back at its place. Teachers can
also give them responsibilities like setting the table or cleaning up the dishes
after meal time.
5.1.8 Supervise All Areas of the Room

Children are known to be active and playful, which is why teachers should be
able to supervise all areas of the room to prevent any kinds of accident from
happening. Besides supervising, teachers can also observe their studentsÊ
behaviour easily to see how they have improved in their social skills, oral skills
and others.
5.1.9 Storage Equipment

As mentioned before, classrooms need to be clean, neat and orderly. Thus storage
equipments like baskets, bins and drawers should be used to keep it that way.
These storages can also be labelled at childrenÊs eye-level. Small items which
could cause choking hazard should be kept away out from a childÊs reach. Daily
equipments like stationary and exercise books should be kept in display storage
for easy access. Other things which are not used daily can be kept somewhere
concealed so that the classroom does not look cluttered.
5.1.10 Rotating Areas and Materials

Children learn more effectively from different kinds of experiences and this can
be done by rotating the used areas and materials.. Teachers should not use only
one kind of material to teach although, it seems very interesting at first but over
time children can lose interest easily. Switching teaching materials not only
excites children, but also helps with their different motor skills and learning
styles. For example, instead of always counting in the numeral area using
stackable toys, teacher can bring students out to the garden to count flowers,
rocks and other things. Instead of always using the computer to sing along,
teachers can bring in musical equipment like a guitar to teach children a song.

5.1.11 Purpose and Meaning

From lesson planning to organising a classroom, every teacher requires a goal so
that they find purpose and meaning. The classroom may look fancy but if it does
not serve a purpose, it may hinder students from learning effectively and
teachers may find themselves lost. A classroom will have purpose and meaning
when a teacher knows specifically what the area is going to be used for, and all of
the items in the classroom either directly or indirectly help students to achieve
their lesson goals. Even the positioning of a furniture should have purpose and
meaning. For example, the right positioning of art easels gives children the
opportunity to interact with each other while doing a similar activity.
5.1.12 Focal Points to Attract Attention

When children enter the classroom, there should be a distinct focal point which
allows them to actively engage and participate in the relevant activities. These
are some of the things which teachers can use as a focal point:
(a) Interactive learning centres;

(b) ChildrenÊs work;
(c) Architectural element; or
(d) Items to be used in the lesson.
For example, during art, teachers can make the paint brushes as the focal point
by laying them out on the table to get a childÊs attention as soon as they enter the
classroom.
ACTIVITY 5.2
1. How can you use furniture to differentiate a classroom area?
2. Should the teacher clean up the classroom alone? Explain.

5.2 ARRANGING THE ENVIRONMENT WITH

AREAS TO MEET DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS
Arranging the environment with areas may be difficult for a beginner teacher
therefore a description for each area and list of suggested materials is included in
this topic. This may help a beginner teacher with the initial classroom setup and
trigger ideas for new items to be included in the classrooms.
There are several learning areas in a kindergarten where some of them remain the
same throughout the year, while other areas may change according to a childÊs and
teacherÊs needs (Hyson & Biggar, 2006). The amount of space for each area must be
varied depending on the materials used. For example, the block area needs to have
a larger area for children to move around and build structures. Materials in the
class can also be added gradually as needed, rather than to add on everything at
once. Table 5.1 explains the description for each learning area and the various
materials that are included.
Table 5.1: Learning Area and Suggested Materials
Learning
Description Suggested Materials
Area
Large A large group meeting area is where students Big book stand, small
group gather with their teacher. This area creates an whiteboard stand, carpet
meeting opportunity for them to communicate with mats, audio player and
area one another and take charge of their own story board.
learning journey. Children can share and
listen to each otherÊs ideas, accomplishments
and challenges. Teachers can also provide
direct guidance to the entire group, facilitate
their shared learning experiences and provide
encouragement. This area can be used to
establish routines and set expectations for
daily activities.
Reading The reading area is for children to explore Carpet mats, cushions,
area their personal reading choices and experience book display case, wide
printed materials for learning and enjoyment. selection of childrenÊs
Students should have access to familiar and literature books, word
favourite reading materials like picture books, wall, flannel story
nursery rhymes, informational text, child- board, puppets, reading
authored books, concept books, big books, wands to point words,
magazines and newspapers. Children may word wall, bean bags,
experience their literacy experiences with a and a hard paper with a
partner or independently. hole cut in the centre to
highlight words.

Listening This area is meant for children to develop Audio player with
area their oral language. Activities in this area coloured stickers to
provides opportunities for students to listen mark the play button
attentively, develop phonological awareness green and the stop
and to make sense from the language they button red, headphones,
hear spoken. This area can be used to listen to tables and chairs,
stories, music, poems and chants. Recordings selection of audio
of students reciting poetry, chants, rhymes or stories, variety of CDs
songs should also be included. Do not include with different types of
all of the resources in the area at once but music, songs, sounds
limit to three or four selections only. As and rhymes, container
children become more independent in this for storage like folders,
area, teachers should create a listening library plastic bags, or
catalogue. This area is most effective when envelopes for the books
children can work by themselves and make and audio selections.
choices for their listening selections with an
established routine.
Writing Children need a designated area and plenty of Different types and sizes
area time to explore writing. Exposure to writing of paper; writing
tools and materials will allow students to utensils such as pens,
experiment with different kinds of prints and pencils, markers,
develop their own writing skills. Items in this crayons, etc.; mailboxes;
area provide purpose for children to write. thick paper with a hole
For example a grocery flyer will make cut in the centre to
students want to make a grocery list while a highlight words; charts;
recycled envelope will inspire students to posters; index cards
write a letter. All children should be with familiar words;
encouraged to read their own writing and white boards; sentence
reassure that their written material is strips; sticky notes;
meaningful. greeting cards; booklets
of paper; envelopes;
alphabet and number
charts; magnetic letters;
stamps and stamp pad;
picture dictionaries; bills
and receipts; tables and
chairs; word wall;
clipboard and stencils.

Numeracy This area provides children with a variety of Plastic trays to hold
area math manipulative, games and materials counting objects,
which supports the learning outcomes for overhead counters,
mathematics. Children may engage in sorting beads with
activities like counting objects, dramatising strings, cards with
number charts, pouring liquids into patterning blocks, index
containers or have students balance items on box with words form the
a balancing scale to learn the concept of more word wall, muffin pans,
and less. All materials should be arranged in a ice cube trays, plastic
way to allow students to have easy and open- fruits, sorting objects
access to support their learning in like buttons or beans,
mathematics. math word wall,
baskets, snap cubes,
blocks, building
materials, 3D geometric
solids, magnetic
numbers, foam number
cubes and dice,
matching games, sorting
games, sequencing
games, jumbo dominoes,
pan balance, chain links
and puzzles.
Science Children should learn to explore, experiment, A water table, sand

area manipulate, inquire, discover and observe table, rocks and shells,
things in their environment in the Science magnets, magnifying
area. Students are encouraged to use their glasses, natural
senses to experience the materials. Teachers materials, balancing
can keep students excited by changing scale, thermometers,
materials regularly and this increases their plants, seeds, funnel,
opportunity to learn though discovery. safety goggles,
Teachers need to plan activities for this area measuring cups, jars,
and the preparation time may vary. science books, nature
magazines, containers
for collecting and
classifying materials,
pulleys, weights,
wheels, screws, nuts,
screwdrivers, pliers,
tweezers, chopsticks,
weighing scale and
measuring tape.

Technology This area depends on the availability of Computer, printer, table,

area equipment but it gives students the age-appropriate
opportunities to use technology. The selection software, accessible
software and websites should integrate with storage, multi-coloured
the curriculum outcomes and let the students and white paper, digital
engage actively with technology. The camera, tape recorder
technology used must also be and computer
developmentally appropriate to encourage microphone.
creativity and independence. Technology can
be used for numeracy and literacy experiences
for kindergarten students. Digital camera or
tape recorders allow students to document
and extend their learning experiences.
Art area It is important for students to express Different types of paper

themselves using a variety of art materials. (wallpaper, newspaper,
This is because the completion of an original plain paper, etc.),
art creation enables children to use their laminating film,
problem solve skills and to think creatively. aluminium foil, different
Teachers should try to avoid using identical brushes (falt, round,
crafts made from templates as it hinders a long handled, etc.),
childÊs imagination. An art area lets students sponges, roller, pom-
to explore, experiment and represent their poms, fabric scraps,
feelings and ideas through their own feathers, ribbon, basic
creations. stationary, no-spill
plastic paint cups, a
table covered with
plastic tablecloth, paint,
clothes line to display
artwork, play dough,
drying rack and glue.

Dramatic Dramatising adult-roles in the family and Mops and brooms

play area community can be used by children to shortened to a childÊs
develop their social skills required through height, message board,
imaginary play. This area encourages children writing pads, stationary,
to interact, experience and recreate real or empty food boxes and
imaginary situations. ChildrenÊs literacy and baking ingredient
numeracy experiences can be used in role- containers, recipe books
play such as taking orders in restaurants, with visuals, aprons,
asking about an item at the grocery store and tablecloths, oven mitts,
many more. This learning area can be telephone book,
transformed into many different locations telephone, dress-up
through the use of props and furniture. Props clothing and accessories,
need to be updated regularly to keep laundry basket, small
studentsÊ interests. It may be transformed to towels, kitchen
reflect certain locations or homes at different furniture, dishes, pots
times. Teachers may get support from parents and pans, cutlery etc.,
to collect different types of props for small household
dramatising a particular area. appliances and dishes,
puppets, prop boxes for
specific themes
(construction, baby care,
post office, hair salon,
medical centre, school,
restaurant and garage).
Block area Building with blocks helps children to Use a carpet to add
develop mathematical concepts such as size, comfort and absorb
shape, number and quantity. It develops an sound, shelves to store
awareness of scientific principles and engages the blocks, a classroom
children with a problem solving and social set of wooden blocks,
learning as they engage with each other to wooden people figures,
build structures. Teachers are not cars, traffic signs, tape
recommended to use storage bins for the measure, ruler,
blocks as it is visible for children to reach for hammers, index card,
specific sizes and shapes. The blocks should pencils, tape, paint
be kept on shelves as it more user-friendly for brushes, rollers, straws,
children. It is also easier for children to sort connectors and Legos.
the blocks according to shape and size.
Teachers should also consider limiting the
number of students in the block area to allow
enough space for the students to move
around and build creative structures.

ACTIVITY 5.3
1. Why is the reading area important in an early childhood

classroom?
2. In your opinion, what are the two most important furniture that
needs to be present in the block area? Elaborate.
3. Organise a role-play activity for young children to work in a

restaurant. Prepare the necessary props and teach them a dialogue
which can be applied in restaurants or daily situations.
5.3 CLASSROOM LAYOUT

One of the best ways to ensure a classroom is effectively managed is by drawing
the classroom layout. When a teacher organises the classroom layout, they can
decide on the displays, the designated area for a certain activity, and how to
prepare materials for lessons so that the teacher can move smoothly from one
activity to the next (Eliason & Jenkins, 1981).
Drawing the classroom layout also helps the teacher to visualise which learning
area requires improvisation and how it can be updated to be more effective.
Teachers may change the classroom layout to fit a certain lesson or to control the
traffic flow of students. The changes do not have to be drastic; teachers can also
make small changes like adding furniture or changing the display to keep
studentsÊ interest. The following are the steps that can be taken to make your
classroom layout:
(a) You first need to make a list of movable furniture or items in your own
classroom. Make sure you leave some space for additional items which you
may have missed.
(i) TeacherÊs desk and chair
(ii) StudentsÊ desks and chairs
(iii) Computer
(iv) Bookshelf
(v) Cabinet

(vi) Projector
(vii) Small whiteboard
(viii) ________________
(ix) ________________
(x) ________________
(xi) ________________
(b) Make a rough sketch of your classroom. Make sure to shade off areas which
fits according to the classroom space if it is not rectangular. Once the
classroom space is drawn, you can include items which are not removable.
Next is an example of how your sketch might look like (see Figure 5.1).
Please take note that each sketch is unique based on the space of your own
classroom.
Figure 5.1: Complete sketch of the classroom

Source: Adopted from Stronge, Tucker and Hindman (2004)
(c) You need to determine how each space in the classroom will be used. For
example, you can use the space to make group discussions, reading place,
or even to use the computer.
(d) Make sure you leave spaces for walkway or open areas for students to
move around.
(e) Place studentsÊ tables and chairs according to how you want to interact
with your students. For example, if you want students to be able to discuss
with each other in groups, the tables should be placed in a U-shape.
Teachers should ensure that the tables and chairs do not take up too much
space in the classroom until there is no room for other learning areas.
(f) Once the tables and chairs are sketched, you can add on other furniture
needed in the classroom. Figure 5.2 is an example of a finished classroom
sketch.
Figure 5.2: An example of a complete classroom sketch

Source: Adopted from Stronge, Tucker and Hindman (2004)
(g) While making the classroom plan, keep in mind the principles in designing
and organising a classroom as well as the different learning areas.
ACTIVITY 5.4
Draw a plan of the classroom you are using now and determine how
many learning areas can be accommodated in it. Arrange desks and
chairs for 18 students. Explain to your friends why you chose to plan
your classroom according to your sketch and then discuss if any
improvisations are needed.

5.4 IMPORTANCE OF INDOOR AND OUTDOOR

LEARNING
Children thrive through discovery, relationships and experiments within a given
environment. Curtis and Carter (2003) states that a childÊs development as a
whole person happens in an early active learning environment. This is achieved
through a holistic environment where a high quality indoor and outdoor area
integrates the social-emotional, physical, intellectual and spiritual aspects of
learning (Olds, 2000). Due to this reason, it is important for teachers to be able to
adapt between indoor and outdoor learning environments so that a child can
learn holistically.
Children learn through everything they experience allowing them to use their
body movements in many different ways for large muscle experiences (Rivken,
1995). This can be achieved when the physical environment is safe with clear
limits where children can have access to both indoor and outdoor areas. In an
outdoor environment, you can bring students to initiate large muscle building
activities such as digging, climbing, jumping, dancing, running and dramatic
play. On the other hand, small muscle development activities can be activated by
letting children participate in activities such as beading, building blocks, playing
musical instruments, puzzles and many others. Using stationary and art supplies
such as scissors, markers, pencils, paintbrushes also helps to strengthen the
development of small muscles. A childÊs muscle movement can also be
developed through housekeeping objects like using teapots for pouring,
telephones for dialling, shoes to tie, spoons for mixing and many more.
Based on the listed activities, teachers need to learn to be flexible with their
indoor and outdoor environments to help enhance a childÊs learning and social
interaction. TeacherÊs flexibility also helps in sustaining studentsÊ attention and
interest when they are put to test. For example, instead of using a computer or
flashcard to teach children about the natural ecosystem, teachers could bring
students outdoors to a garden area and observe the growth of plants in real life
and let them be involved in watering the plants or planting the seeds. If children
spent all of their time learning indoors, they will not be able to explore spaces,
test their abilities or make decisions beyond their boundaries (Olds, 2000).

ACTIVITY 5.5
1. Give three examples of children activities for both large and small
muscle development.
2. In your own opinion, which learning areas are best for large
muscle development? Explain why.
3. Why is it important for a classroom to be culturally sensitive to all

children?
4. How can the writing area be used to teach early childhood?
5. If you have a small classroom, which learning area would you like
to incorporate and why?
6. Why is it important for teachers to be able to adapt to an indoor

and outdoor learning environment?
SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. Explain three different principles in designing and organising a

classroom built for early childhood.
2. List seven items that is needed in the numeracy area.
 Classroom design and organisation is about planning the physical elements

in the classroom so that it appears more productive for both students and
teachers.
 An effective classroom environment should allow participation, observation,

touching, questioning, thinking and reasoning within the childÊs learning
capacity.

 There are 12 principles when designing and organising classroom for early
childhood: appropriate equipment and materials; organised and uncluttered
classroom; culturally accepted; consider traffic flow; differentiating classroom
areas; classroom must be neat, clean and cheerful; encourage children to keep
the room orderly; supervise all areas of the room; storage equipment; rotate
areas and materials; purpose and meaning and focal points to attract
attention.
 In the initial setup of the classroom, it is important for the teacher to know
what the learning area is being used for and what are the materials needed in
that learning area.
 There are several learning areas in the kindergarten environment where some
remain the same, while others may change accordingly.
 Here are the learning areas which can be included in the classroom; large
group meeting, reading, listening, writing, numeracy, science, technology,
art, dramatic and block.
 Once the teacher is familiar with the different learning areas, they can plan
out the classroom layout and arrange everything according to the principles
of designing and organising classroom.
 It is important for teachers to be able to adapt between indoor and outdoor

learning environments because it integrates the social-emotional, physical,
intellectual and spiritual aspects of learning to help with a childÊs holistic
growth.
 Both indoor and outdoor learning is important for large muscle development
and small muscle development.
Classroom design and organisation Small muscle development

Classroom layout Storage equipment
Indoor learning Traffic flow
Large muscle development

Colbert, J. (1996). Classroom design and how it influences behavior. Retrieved

from http://www.earlychildhoodnews.com/earlychildhood/article_view.
aspx?ArticleID=413
Curtis, D., & Carter, M. (2003). Designs for living and learning: Transforming
early childhood environments. St Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
Eliason, C. F., & Jenkins, L. T. (1981). Practical guide to early childhood

curriculum. CV Mosby.
Hyson, M., & Biggar, H. (2006). NAEYCÊs standards for early childhood
professional preparation: Getting from here to there. Critical issues in early
childhood professional development, 283-308.
Kaplan Early Learning Company (2010). Seven principles of early childhood

classroom design. Retrieved from https://www.kaplanco.com/blog/post/
2010/08/26/seven-principles-of-classroom-design.aspx
Olds, A. (2000). Child care design guide. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Rivken, M. (1995). The great outdoors: Restoring childrenÊs right to play outside.
Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young
Children.
Stronge, J. H., Tucker, P. D., & Hindman, J. L., (2004). Handbook for qualities of
effective teachers. Virginia: Association for Supervision & Curriculum
Deve.

Topic  Curriculum
6 for
Developing
Emotional and
Social
Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe what social and emotional learning are;
2. Identify why social and emotional learning are important in early
childhood education;
3. Explain the variety of ways to facilitate the development of emotional
competence through play activities, peer and adult interaction and
growth-promoting teaching techniques; and
4. Analyse childrenÊs developmental milestones in the domain of well-
being.

TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM FOR DEVELOPING EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL  97
DEVELOPMENT
 INTRODUCTION
Four-year olds Laila and Shafiq are playing and pretending to cook a variety of
dishes in the kitchen. They have plastic plates, plastic kitchen utensils, a variety
of plastic food and also a small play microwave. Laila was getting ready to put
her toy banana and grapes into the microwave while Shafiq was using the toy
knife to cut up a toy steak. But then, just like how interaction often changes
among children, Shafiq suddenly decides that he wants to use the microwave too
and tries to push Laila away so that he gets it first. At the same time, Esther, who
had been nearby, comes over while whining that she wants to play „kitchen‰ too.
Laila does not want Esther to join because she is scared that Esther will want to
use her banana and grapes (they are her favourite fruits). In the end, Laila
pushed Shafiq back and both of them cry while Esther starts to use the toys that
they were both playing with.
This could be a typical playtime activity among young children; however, there
are a lot more going on. In order to negotiate these interactions positively, they
need social-emotional learning (SEL) skills. For example, Laila needs to know
how to solve the conflict of using the microwave and not push Shafiq away,
while reacting to EstherÊs invitation without hurting her feelings. Shafiq, on the
other hand, needs to learn how to communicate better with others instead of just
pushing them away to get what he wants. He could have interacted positively
with Laila and build a relationship so that they can share or take turns using the
play microwave. All of these abilities are important so that the children in this
scene are able to get along, understand and feel good about themselves and other
people. Thus, as pre-schoolers, there are certain aspects of SEL needed to develop
themselves better. If they are successful in dealing with these problems, Shafiq,
Laila and Esther show the indicators of developmentally SEL (Chesebrough,
King, Bloom & Gullotta, 2004, p. 14):
(a) Self-awareness;
(b) Self-management;
(c) Social-awareness;
(d) Responsible decision making; and
(e) Relationship management.

98  TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM FOR DEVELOPING EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
Early childhood education can play an important role in providing children with
the opportunity to experience social and emotional awareness, as well as to
practice interpersonal skills as they get older. SEL provides a critical basis for a
lifelong development and learning. Which is why in this topic, a teacher needs to
know what SEL is, how she or he can bring SEL into the classroom and the
indicators of SEL.
ACTIVITY 6.1
In your opinion, what are the indicators of the development of SEL?

Discuss.
6.1 WHAT IS SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL LEARNING

(SEL)?
Social-emotional learning (SEL) is a skill set which comprises of emotional
processes, social skills, interpersonal skills and cognitive regulation. SEL is a
learning process for both children and adult. However, this is how SEL can help
children (De Meulenaere, 2015; Administration for Children and Families, 2015):
(a) Develop attitudes and skills to manage and recognise their own emotions;
(b) Show and feel empathy;
(c) Create and maintain positive relationships;
(d) Promote respectful relationships;
(e) Foster secure attachments with adults;
(f) Make responsible decisions;
(g) Handle challenges and situations effectively; and
(h) Develop understanding, strategies and skills that support a positive sense
to themselves.
Children without SEL will have difficulty in building relationships with both
teachers and peers as they develop internal behaviour problems or use physical
aggression to get what they want. SEL is also important due to its relationship to
learning. This is true because according to Goleman (2008), when children are
taught about social and emotional skills like how to empathise and collaborate,
they have fewer social problems, like attend school more and are able to pay
DEVELOPMENT
more attention in class ă which results on better academic achievement test

scores. Children who are not exposed to SEL may be at risk to become ineffective
learners because they are aggressive, disruptive, disliked by others and are
unable to build relationships with other children or adults (Goleman, 2008). This
is supported by Early Childhood Australia (2011) which states that children
without SEL cannot make the most out of their learning because they are afraid
in the classroom. However, children who have good relationships with others
and feel good about themselves will be more effective learners. Children without
SEL also cannot make effective negotiations in the real world as they have not
learned to consider others (Early Childhood Australia, 2011). Due to these
reasons, it is important for early childhood educators to teach social and
emotional skills.
DeMeulenaere (2015) emphasised saying that early childhood teachers have a

strong impact on helping children to develop their social and emotional skills by
focusing on a childÊs feeling, helping them to develop language and creating a
safe and supportive environment. An effective SEL programme does not stop in
pre-school and continues all the way through high school. In fact, according to
Marion (2011), effective SEL programmes must include these four key elements:
(a) Plan a series of activities that are connected to skills;
(b) Offer active forms of learning;
(c) Able to develop one or more social skills; and
(d) Teach explicitly for specific skills.
Research suggests that when teachers are able to integrate SEL programmes into
their teaching, students will show a more positive outcome. Overall, SEL
programmes are beneficial when they are intense, integrated in everyday
interactions, students are monitored intentionally outside of the classroom and
parents are involved in the childÊs SEL.
According to Brackett and Rivers (2011) there are five competencies or indicators
of SEL which is based on the Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional
Learning (CASEL). These indicators are interrelated sets of cognitive, affective
and behavioural competencies. Figure 6.1 illustrates and explains about the five
competencies of SEL.

DEVELOPMENT
Figure 6.1: Five competencies or indicators of SEL
Now, let us discuss the competencies one by one.
(a) Self-awareness
When children are able to accurately recognise and assess other peopleÊs
emotions, thoughts, interests, values and their influences on their
behaviour. This includes assessing someoneÊs strengths and weaknesses.
Children with self-awareness have a well-grounded self-confidence and
optimism.
(b) Responsible Decision-making

When children are able to decide, respect and construct choices based on
consideration of ethical standards, safety concerns, social norms, respect for
others and possible consequences of various actions. Responsible decision-
making also includes academic situations and contribution to the well-
being of the school and community.

DEVELOPMENT
(c) Relationship Skills

Children are able to establish and maintain a healthy and cooperative
relationship with different individuals and groups of people. This includes
good communication skills, able to resist inappropriate social pressure,
managing and resolving interpersonal conflict and asking for help when
needed.
(d) Social Awareness

This is the ability to empathise and see from other peopleÊs perspective
even though they are from a different background or culture. Children with
social awareness are also able to understand social and ethical norms of
behaviour; recognise and appreciate individual and group similarities and
differences and are able to identify with family, schools and the community
resources and support.
(e) Self-management
Children with self-management are able to control their emotions, thoughts
and behaviours well even in different situations. They are also able to
handle stress, persevere when facing problems and be motivated towards
achieving their personal and academic goals.
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. List five ways how SEL can help children.
2. How can teachers help students to develop SEL? Discuss.
6.2 HOW TO BRING SEL INTO THE EARLY

CHILDHOOD CLASSROOM
Emotions can affect a childÊs learning acquisition positively or negatively, which
is why SEL is important in childrenÊs development. Positive emotions will cause
children to associate learning as pleasurable, successful and retainable. Negative
emotions, on the other hand, can interfere with learning acquisition. Therefore,
teachers have to find ways on how to bring SEL into the early childhood
classroom.

DEVELOPMENT
According to Victoria State Government (2014), SEL can be taught explicitly on a

regular basis for 10 to 15 minutes. In order to do so, there needs to be teacher
capacity to promote the teaching of SEL explicitly by:
(a) Attending SEL courses;
(b) Exploring literature on SEL; and
(c) Team teaching with an experienced staff member on SEL.
However, since there are not many SEL programmes for Malaysian teachers, you
can still help with a childÊs social and emotional development using
DeMeulenaereÊs (2015) guide. According to her, there are four ways in which
teachers can help with the development of SEL:
(a) Creating a safe and supportive environment;
(b) Focusing on a childÊs feelings;
(c) Helping children develop language; and
(d) Discussing topics of how children develop SEL.
Using these four guides, further explanations are given on how to help with
childrenÊs developmental of SEL.
6.2.1 Creating a Safe and Supportive Environment

Children use their surrounding environment to learn and explore, thus it is
important for teachers to be able to create a safe and supportive environment for
children to learn about SEL. This also means that children are protected from
outside elements and can be easily supervised. This is how you can create a safe
and supportive environment:
(a) Include a daily schedule;
(b) Have an orderly classroom management;
(c) Show respect between teachers and students; and
(d) Have a clear and open communication between teachers, students and
parents.

DEVELOPMENT
Besides that, teachers also need to take note of the physical aspect of the
classroom to allow active learning (DeMeulenaere, 2015). This can be done by
ensuring the classroom is clean and provides child-sized equipment for comfort
and safety, adequate lighting, the classroom is arranged with clear paths and
labelled centres and provide areas for both quiet and active play. The physical
aspect of the classroom is important to help with the development of SEL to
materialise in order for children to not be distracted by a disorganised classroom
and can communicate with their peers comfortably.
Since the classroom environment is important for learning and exploring,

teachers should come up with appropriate hands-on activities which support
SEL. This can be done through a suitable daily schedule which has: balance
between active and quiet activity and balance between teacher-initiated and
children-initiated activity. From these balanced activities, children are able to
associate them with the concept of continuity, time and clear expectations of the
teacher. All of these may help with the developmental of childrenÊs SEL.
6.2.2 Focusing on Children’s Feelings

In order for SEL to develop, the strength of a teacher-student relationship plays a
role as it directly influences SEL. This is because a teacher-student relationship
promotes a sense of security in children making them feel safe and worthy;
making them more open to discuss about their feelings with the teacher. A strong
relationship with the teacher also helps children to learn to regulate their
emotions better as children observe other adults on how they manage their
emotions. This is supported by Hyson (2004), who says that children learn
positive social behaviours like empathy, generosity and helping others during
their early childhood period. This is why teachers and adults have to model these
behaviours in the classroom or at home.
During early childhood, children are still learning on how to regulate their
feelings and how to distinguish between positive and negative feelings. In order
to do so, children need repeated experiences and exposure on SEL to learn how
to manage their emotions and how to get along well with other children. Thus,
teachers need to focus on children by helping them to learn by distinguishing
their emotions and assisting them on how to solve their social problems
(McQuillan & Coleman, 2007). When a child does something that is accepted
socially, teachers can praise them quietly or individually. This is to avoid
manipulating a childÊs behaviour by complimenting them in front of a group.

DEVELOPMENT
One of the best ways to focus on childrenÊs feelings is by listening to what they
have to say. Therefore, it is important to expand their language vocabulary so
that children are able to express themselves well and tell you how they really
feel.
6.2.3 Help Children Develop Language

As mentioned before, besides concentrating on SEL activities, teachers also need
to help children develop their language so that they are able to express
themselves better. This is to avoid negative behaviours like screaming, crying or
showing temper tantrums as they are not able to tell you how they really feel.
Moreover, children will have an easier time learning to talk about their emotions
when they have a good language development.
Teachers can build a childÊs vocabulary and knowledge by focusing on the

language and skills related to emotions, by demonstrating to children the
knowledge and the words behind the emotion (Marion, 2011). Teachers can do so
by:
(a) Providing language models when children try to express their concerns and
how to solve problems.
(b) Teach them vocabulary of the different kinds of emotions and try to give
examples within a childÊs context.
(c) Encourage children to communicate verbally with their peers and assist
them when they are unable to express themselves fluently.
(d) Explain childrenÊs actions which help to develop SEL and ask them to give
other examples that are related with the action.
6.2.4 Discussing Topics of How Children Develop SEL

Brain development, memory and language are developmental factors
contributing to a childÊs inability to understand and control their emotions
(Marion, 2011). Once children develop a better language control, teachers can
focus on the brain development activities to expose children to SEL.
This can be done by encouraging students to participate in classroom activities or

let children take part in hands-on learning experiences. Teachers can also discuss
topics of how children develop SEL by creating lesson plans that have purpose
and challenge the children. Teachers also need to remember to respect children

DEVELOPMENT
who do not want to participate in an activity. These children can be given a

different alternative that is acceptable within the learning environment.
Teachers can also discuss about SEL with children through literature or puppets
(Victoria State Government, 2014). This is not only to make things more
interesting for children, but gives a platform for teachers to ask students if they
have evoked the emotions or faced with a social problem which is related to the
literature told.
Another way to discuss SEL with children is by teachers modelling positive

behaviours like empathy, generosity and helping others. Children then must
repeat these positive behaviours with other children and teachers can discuss
with them about how they feel. For example, a teacher teaches her children about
helping others and models that behaviour to them. She also asks children to help
others in the classroom by either cleaning up, or helping them get up when they
fall down. The teacher then can discuss with them on how they feel about
helping others.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. What are the four ways to bring SEL into the early childhood
classroom according to DeMeulenaere (2015)?
2. How can a teacher create a safe and supporting environment for

children? Explain.
3. Why is a teacher-student relationship important to help develop

SEL?
6.3 SOCIAL EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

It is important for teachers to know the social emotional development of children
so that she or he can identify when a child is ready to develop certain emotions
and not get upset when they are unable to understand how to regulate their
emotions at certain situations.
A childÊs emotional development comes in an orderly process where complex

emotions come from simpler emotions. Developmental psychologists and
educatorsÊ believe that children begin to react to emotions during infancy where
it is shown through signals like crying, smiling and laughing (McQuillan &
Coleman, 2007).

DEVELOPMENT
The primary emotions are shown during the first six months of life where
emotions like joy, interest, surprise, distress, sadness, anger and fear can be shown
by infants. Self-conscious emotions come later in where children are about two
years old as they have more self-awareness and knowledge about society rules.
There are many theories on the social-emotional development where in this topic,
The Psychosocial Theory and The Behaviourist Theory will be covered.
6.3.1 The Psychosocial Theory

One of the most popular theories is the Psychosocial Theory which was
developed by Erik Erikson in 1963 where the social development is explained
based on conflicts which children have to solve problems for personal growth.
Table 6.1 provides explanation about the Psychosocial Theory.
Table 6.1: Explanation on the Psychosocial Theory
Social-emotional
Age Explanation
Development
Trust vs Mistrust Birth to Trust is the basic social need of an infant and it is
18 met when adults nurture them, give food, warmth
months and let them sleep. Trust can be seen when the
infant feels joy, contentment and wants to explore
more.
Autonomy vs 18 to 36 Toddlers are trying to be more independent since

Shame and Doubt months their motor skills, language skills and cognitive
abilities are growing. However, they are still
dependent on adults. Autonomy can be seen in
behaviours such as eating by themselves or choosing
their own clothes to wear.
Initiative vs Guilt 3 to 5 During pre-school years, children want to try out

years old their new motor and mental skills, causing them to
be curious and wanting to try new activities with
other children or alone. This is also the time where
their physical and social world is expanding.
Children also like to imitate adults. When children
are not allowed to explore and satisfy their curiosity,
they will develop the feelings of guilt and failure.
This is why we must allow children to imitate or
gain new experiences as they can learn about rules
and expectations. Initiative can be seen when they
act on positive behaviours like showing affection or
helping others.

DEVELOPMENT
Industry vs Age 6 to By the end of pre-school, children will develop more

Inferiority puberty on their competence. They complete tasks instead of
just engaging into exploratory activities. When
children go to school, they need the support,
material, time and space to develop their
competence and industry. Industry can be seen
when the child shows signs of desire to produce
something and demonstrate their accomplishments.
Source: Adapted by McQuillan and Coleman (2007)
6.3.2 The Behaviourist Theory

This theory assumes that children develop their social-emotional behaviours
when their actions are either being reinforced or not by adults and people around
them. Children first learn their social behaviour through observations, where
they take note and imitate the behaviour of adults and other children around
them. Children also have the tendency to imitate the behaviours of adults or
peers whom they like as they want to be like them. Children also imitate
behaviours when it is being rewarded.
For example, when a child imitates their motherÊs behaviour of showing

empathy and is rewarded with praises, the child will imitate this behaviour again
in the future. However, if a child imitates a negative behaviour like screaming
when she or he wants something and is rewarded with being ignored or get
scolded, she or he will likely not imitate this behaviour again.
As mentioned before, it is important for teachers to understand the various

stages of the development of SEL because it determines the classroom
expectations during individual or group behaviours (Brackett & Rivers, 2011).
These stages include:
(a) Development and regulating of emotions;
(b) Relying on adults;
(c) Learning social rules or norms;
(d) Development of character and personality; and
(e) Development of self.

DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITY 6.3
Split the classroom into three groups. The first group needs to do
research and present on the Psychosocial Theory while the second
group on the Behaviourist Theory. The third group has to do research
and present on other existing theories on SEL beside the two theories
mentioned.
6.4 TEMPERAMENT AND DISPOSITIONS

Every one of us has our temperament and this goes the same to children. Their
temperament is influenced by other peopleÊs reaction, including the environment.
The characteristics may include (McQuillan & Coleman, 2007):
(a) Activity level ă the usual pace when doing an activity.
(b) Irritability ă how fast a person can become upset.
(c) Soothe-ability ă how easily a person can be calmed once they are upset.
(d) Fearfulness ă how aware someone is with something that is unusual in the
environment.
(e) Sociability ă how receptive someone is when they are put in social
situations.
These traits provide a framework for teachers to understand childrenÊs SEL.

Understanding childrenÊs temperament is important for teachers to come up with
expectations, plan curriculum and choose teaching strategies. For example, when
a teacher knows that a childÊs soothe-ability is low, she or he cannot immediately
scold or punish the child for not being able to calm down fast after being upset.
This is because children need more time and experiences to regulate their
emotions.
Children will understand more about themselves, their personalities and

temperaments through various experiences and relationships with other people.
Children who have multiple experiences have better levels of confidence, able to
enhance their self-image and have better success in regulating their emotions.

DEVELOPMENT
In order to be socially and emotionally ready to learn in pre-school, children

must develop characteristics of confidence, able to solve problems and be
persistent. They must also have a strong language development, able to listen to
instructions and be aware of their environments.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
1. What are the characteristics of temperament?
2. What is irritability and sociability?
6.5 SOCIAL EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN A

GROUP SETTING
When children attend kindergarten, they spend most of their time in group
situations as compared to getting individual attention by the teacher. Being in
groups is somewhat like a miniature community which requires social skills to
get through. In order to require social skills, children need direction, support and
experiences led by the teacher as children do not automatically know how to use
their social skills.
Social competence, which is the ability to initiate and maintain a relationship

with people around you, is important in early childhood development. The
teacherÊs role is to both guide and lead children to model behaviours like
compassion, responsibility, trust and concern for their peers. Teachers need to
know about child development as it provides a framework when teachers have
to make a decision about behaviour, routine and activities in the classroom
setting.
Following is a list of behaviours that need to be encouraged when in a group or

by peer setting in the classroom (McQuillan & Coleman, 2007, p. 136):
(a) Sharing;
(b) Taking turns;
(c) Being patient;
(d) Being respectful;
(e) Negotiating;
(f) Cooperating;

DEVELOPMENT
(g) Telling or explaining about their preferences;

(h) Explaining actions;
(i) Accepting compromises;
(j) Empathising with others;
(k) Handling impulses; and
(l) Being responsible for actions.
When developing a childÊs social-emotional skills, teachers need to be patient

because children might regress, make mistakes and need time to practice their
skills and abilities, especially when it involves social-emotional domains.
The following is a list of practices that are recommended to be implemented by

teachers when in a group setting (McQuillan & Coleman, 2007, p. 136):
(a) Ensure consistency and predictability in your expectations and classroom

guidelines.
(b) Engage children in building classroom climates. Promote discussions of

class rules and expectations.
(c) Model support and understanding feelings. Encourage children to support

each other.
(d) Offer guidance on negotiating as children try to compromise and

collaborate.
(e) Provide opportunities for children to be responsible, make choices,

cooperate and share.
(f) Use techniques to encourage turn-taking.
(g) Evaluate the daily schedule to determine how often and for how long
children are in large group situations. Minimise this practice in favour of
opportunities for children to meet in small groups or pairs. Children age
three and four years old do not profit from group times of over 15 to 20
minutes.

DEVELOPMENT
(h) Provide children with a consistent daily schedule and alert them when
changes are made in the routine. Children benefit from the security of
knowing what is expected and what is next.
(i) Plan a daily routine that provides for varied groupings, noisy and quiet
times, active and slower-paced experiences.
SELF-CHECK 6.3
1. Why social emotional development in group setting is important?
2. Name three behaviours that need to be encouraged when in a

group setting.
 Social emotional learning is important for children to build relationships and

function in a social setting.
 SEL is a skill set which comprises of emotional processes, social skills,

interpersonal skills and cognitive regulation.
 Early childhood teachers have a strong impact on helping children to develop

their social and emotional skills by focusing on their feelings, helping them to
develop language, and creating a safe and supportive environment.
 Effective SEL programmes must include these four key elements:

– Plan a series of activities that are connected to skills;
– Offer active forms of learning;
– Able to develop one or more social skills; and
– Teach explicitly for specific skills.
 There are five competencies or indicators of SEL: self-awareness, self-

management, social awareness, relationship skills and responsible decision-
making.

DEVELOPMENT
 There are four ways in which teachers can help with the development of SEL:
– Creating a safe and supportive environment;
– Focusing on the childÊs feelings;
– Helping children develop language; and
– Discussing the topic of how children develop SEL.
 ChildrenÊs emotional development comes in an orderly process where

complex emotions come from simpler emotions.
 The psychosocial theory is where the social development is explained based

on conflicts which children have to solve for personal growth.
 The behaviourist theory assumes that children develop their social-emotional

behaviours when their actions are either being reinforced or not by adults
and people around them.
 The characteristics of temperaments are activity level, irritability, soothe-

ability, fearfulness and sociability.
 Social competence, which is the ability to initiate and maintain a relationship

with people around you is important in early childhood development.
 The teacherÊs role is to both guide and lead children to model behaviours like
compassion, responsibility, trust and concern for their peers.
Activity level Relationship skills

Behaviourist theory Responsible decision making
Fearfulness Self-awareness
Irritability Self-management
Language development Sociability
Negative emotion Social awareness
Positive emotion Social emotional learning
Psychosocial theory Soothe-ability

DEVELOPMENT
1. What is social-emotional learning (SEL)?
2. Why is SEL important for children?
3. Why is developing a childrenÊs language important in SEL?
4. Why is it important for teachers to know the social emotional development

of children?
5. Explain briefly about the behaviourist theory in SEL.
6. What are the five characteristics of temperament and disposition?
7. Why is social emotional development in group setting important?
8. Name three practices that teachers can implement when in a group setting
with children.
Brackett, M. A., & Rivers, S. E. (2011). Transforming studentsÊ lives with social and
emotional learning. International handbook of emotions in education, 368.
Chesebrough, E., King, P., Bloom, M., & Gullotta, T. P. (Eds.). (2004). A Blueprint
for the Promotion of Pro-social Behavior in Early Childhood (Vol. 4).
Springer Science & Business Media.
DeMeulenaere, M. (2015). Promoting social and emotional learning in

preschool. Creating a Nature-Inspired Outdoor Learning Environment for
Urban Spaces.
Early Childhood Australia. (2011). Social and emotional learning as a basis for
curriculum. Retrieved from http://www.earlychildhoodaustralia.org.au/
our-publications/every-child-magazine/every-child-index/every-child-
vol-17-1-2011/social-emotional-learning-basis-curriculum-free-article/
Goleman, D. (2008). Success: The rest of the story. Retrieved from http://www.
danielgoleman.info/success-the-rest-of-the-story/

DEVELOPMENT
Head Start. (2015). Social and emotional development. Retrieved from http://
eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/hs/sr/approach/elof/se_dev.html
Hyson, M. (2004). The emotional development of young children (2nd ed.). New
York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Marion, M. (2011). Guidance of young children (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Education.
McQuillan, M. K., & Coleman, G. A. (2007). A guide to early childhood program

development. State of Connecticut, 129.
Victoria State Government. (2014). Social and emotional learning. Retrieved from
http://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/principals/health/Pages/social
emotion.aspx

Topic  Connecting
7 Curriculum
for Language
and Literacy
Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how language and literacy are developed in young children;
2. Plan appropriate environment to strengthen and enhance the
language development;
3. List the benefits of language in early childhood; and
4. Identify skills and concepts used in activities for the development of
communication and literacy.
 INTRODUCTION
Language is a tool for communicating thoughts, ideas and feelings. Since
language is an instrument of thought for children, it can function in various
ways. A child uses his or her communication skills to enhance their problem
solving, understanding of concepts, classifying, categorising and organising
skills. By introducing appropriate measures and techniques used in language
development, teachers can help children to optimise language and literacy
learning and communication fluency.

116  TOPIC 7 CONNECTING CURRICULUM FOR LANGUAGE AND LITERACY
DEVELOPMENT
Language and literacy development in early childhood begins as early as two

years old. Children begin to verbalise their experience and articulate their
feelings and ideas. Young children can achieve language fluency through an
adultÊs guidance. Experience gained during the early years helps the early
childhood learners to master language proficiency.
ACTIVITY 7.1
1. Collect 10 activity books and determine the age group suitable for
each book.
2. Determine a range of books which focuses on language

development and another on literacy development.
7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE LITERACY

IN EARLY CHILDHOOD
The foundation for literacy is language development. Good and profound
language proficiency is the core factor in determining the ability of a childÊs
communication with his or her peers and friends. A childÊs language
development begins as early at the age of one year old and as he or she reaches
the age of seven, he should have mastered the language of communication.
Development of language varies from year to year, and improves as the child
grows older.
Table 7.1 shows language development of a child and the activities that the child
is capable of doing according to their age group.

TOPIC 7 CONNECTING CURRICULUM FOR LANGUAGE AND LITERACY  117
DEVELOPMENT
Table 7.1: Language Development and Activities According to a Specific Age Group
Age Language Development and Capabilities

Year 1  Able to focus on a book or toy for about two minutes
 Able to follow simple instructions accompanied by gestures
 Answers simple non-verbal questions
 Points to objects, pictures and family members
 Says two to three words to label a person or object (pronunciation may
not be clear)
 Tries to imitate simple words
Year 2  Knows about 50 words in 24 months

 Understands spatial concepts such as „in‰, „on‰
 Uses pronouns such as „you‰, „me‰, „her‰
 Uses descriptive words such as „big‰, „happy‰
 Vocabulary around 40 words at 24 months
 Speech is becoming more accurate but may still leave off ending sounds
 Strangers may not be able to understand much of what is said
Year 3  Rapid increase in vocabulary-may average to 50-60 words per month

(subjective to the childÊs own ability and surroundings)
 Able to use nouns and verbs in speech to express needs. Example:
„want toy cat‰ (although the phrase is not a perfect phrase)
Year 4  More talkative

 Loves to recite songs, stories and enjoys rhyming
 Sentences grow longer verbalising experience and hands ă on daily
activities
 Coding colours, numbers and letters verbally
 Likes to reinvent new words
Year 5  Recites poems (two to three lines, the most four line phrase)
 Talks freely and likes to interrupt conversation of others
 Sentences are becoming longer and he or she is able to express feeling
verbally. Example: „No, I donÊt want to go!‰
 Enjoys silly language. Example: „that is itchibitchibichi...‰
 Able to differentiate single words and plural words
 Describes artwork verbally, whether it is beautiful, ugly or scary

DEVELOPMENT
Figure 7.1 shows the stages of language development as the child grows from
birth until he is five years old.
Figure 7.1: Stages in a childÊs language development

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=language+development+pictures&espv
Literacy Development
Literacy is the ability to read, write and think. However, before a child learns to
read and write, he or she needs to develop the proper building blocks for literacy
development that is the ability to speak, listen, understand, observe and draw.
Children should be given the opportunities to use language in both spoken and
written form. Communication, reading and rhyming also play an important role
in literacy development.
(a) Bonding and interacting with a child through communication helps create a
sense of security in him, and a desire for him or her to interact with the
teacher in return. Singing teaches children about sound intonation. Singing
also introduces children to music, stories and the local culture. This
prepares children for speaking and socialising at any situation.
(b) Reading can be introduced from birth onwards. Children who have had
experiences with language and print from an early age are more likely to
develop a solid literacy foundation.

DEVELOPMENT
(c) Rhyming teaches children the connection between the sound of a word and
how itÊs written which is often loved and enjoyed by the kids.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Discuss how cooking, painting and Lego building can assist in

developing a childÊs language and literacy.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. Give three reasons why some children are not able to communicate
properly and fluently.
2. Analyse the difference in language development between a one

year old and a four year old child.
7.2 WAYS TO ENCOURAGE LANGUAGE

DEVELOPMENT
Language has to be nurtured, practiced and encouraged. The development of
language in early childhood education should be of top priority to enable
children to grow and communicate fluently. The following are ways to
encourage language development among early childhood learners:
(a) Teacher as a Instructor

Teachers play an important role in guiding children either one-to-one or in
small groups to teach literacy concepts and skills. It is the responsibility of a
teacher to encourage children to talk and listen to each other at play and
work.
(b) Create and Provide Opportunities for Children to Talk and Listen
Act as a role-model to children. Listen to what he or she says. Do not
expect children to listen to others if you do not listen to them.

DEVELOPMENT
(c) Inquire and Stimulate

Teachers must encourage conversation among children by urging them to
ask each other questions and engage in meaningful conversations. Teachers
must also ask open-ended questions so that children are involved in
discussion which will give them opportunities to practice.
(d) Acknowledge, Accept and Celebrate Language Diversity in Children

Educators must accept the legitimacy of a childÊs first language, respect and
value home culture, promote and encourage the active involvement and
support of all families, including extended and non-traditional family units
(Soto, 1991).
(e) Provide Activities and Experience

Teachers should also provide developmentally appropriate activities and
experience involving language and literacy (see Figure 7.2).
(f) Use Complete Sentences

Teachers must encourage children to speak and use complete sentences
when speaking.
(g) Establish a Conducive Atmosphere

A relaxed and comfortable atmosphere stimulates children to talk freely
with others without having the fear and uneasiness of speaking.
(h) Use of Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness such as songs, finger play, poem, rhymes and
alliteration are powerful variables of achieving success in learning to read.
(i) Grammatical Errors in Language Development

In early childhood, grammatical errors, particularly verbs and pronouns are
very typical. Do not put too much emphasis on grammatical errors but
rather the content used in a speech.
(j) Use Specific Words When Giving Instructions or Talking

Specific words used when talking such as „Please keep your blue shirt in
the second drawer‰ rather than „Please keep the shirt in the drawer‰. The
usage of specific words can help children to expand their vocabulary as
well as understand the meaning of each word.
(k) Verbalise ChildrenÊs Action

Teachers can verbalise childrenÊs activities such as verbalising a drawing of
a boy playing a kite by saying, „Jimmy is flying a kite in the paddy field‰.

DEVELOPMENT
(l) Help Children Understand What is Spoken

Language and literacy development does not only encourage children to
listen, speak, read and write but also to understand the meaning of words
or phrases that have been spoken, written or read.
(m) Create a Print-rich Environment

Learning a language is not limited within the classroom. Billboards, canned
food, labels, doorways, charts, calendars or any other printed materials can
be tools for children to start their language learning journey. For example,
even before a child can read, parents should read instructions aloud from a
recipe book while pointing to the ingredients for cooking.
(n) Family Involvement

Family members should give support, exposure and encouragement by
providing a literate environment for their children to take part in language
building activities and experience sharing.
Figure 7.2: Language and literacy development activity

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=phonemic+awareness+activities

DEVELOPMENT
7.2.1 Listening and Speaking – Aspects of Developing

Language
Language development can be strengthened and extended through the process of
listening and speaking. Skills provided by these two tools help to empower
language proficiency in early childhood.
(a) Listening
Listening skills have to be developed and taught in the early childhood
years. Listening is active, not passive (Jalongo, 1995). Children must be
taught to learn better than to learn more. Some of the listening skills
include:
(i) Auditory perception ă ability to receive and understand what is

heard;
(ii) Auditory discrimination ă ability to make sense of discriminations on

what they hear;
(iii) Auditory memory ă ability to store the memory of sequence of sounds

and words that are heard in sentences;
(iv) Auditory association ă ability to associate words or sounds with

objects, experience during play, ideas or feelings; and
(v) Rhyming skills ă ability to recognise and reproduce words in a rhyme.
(b) Speaking or Oral language

Strong literacy is built through oral language including reading and
writing. Writing helps enhance reading while oral language or speaking
polishes both. Children learn to speak by interaction with the environment
and the people around them who love to communicate and talk with them.
Teachers are encouraged to be good listeners and inspire children to speak
and communicate frequently.

DEVELOPMENT
7.2.2 Activities for Listening and Speaking

Activities for listening and speaking help children to improvise growth in
listening and speaking skills. Here are the several listed activities:
(a) Plan for a brainstorming activity. Take note that all questions and answers
given by the children are correct and acceptable.
(b) Create a simple question and answer game in which the children sit in a
circle and pass around a ball until the music stops. The person who has the
ball will have to answer a question in complete sentences.
(c) Place a few toys and objects in a sack. Allow the child to pick any object
from the sack without looking at it. Whatever toy or object picked by the
child, he has to describe it in proper and complete sentences. For example:
„I found a blue ball with a picture of Thomas and his friend‰.
(d) Choose a sequence of three words which starts with the same consonant
and a word of different consonant (for example ă run, rotate, rain and
plate). Say the words aloud and request a child to choose one word which
sounds different from others.
(e) Listening to sounds of animals is one such activity that children love.
Without having to say much, they will try to imitate the sound they have
heard. As a teacher, join the fun imitating the sounds while asking to
identify the animal and construct a sentence. You will be amased to hear
the sentences that children can construct about animals.
(f) Teach the children to make scrapbooks. Cut pictures from any magazines,
old books or newspapers. Paste and glue those pictures in a book leaving
some space for children to write something about the pictures as shown in
Figure 7.3.

DEVELOPMENT
Figure 7.3: Creating a scrapbook to promote language development

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=pictures+of+scrapbook+
in+language+development+activity&espv
ACTIVITY 7.2
1. Design an activity which demonstrates the ability for children to

develop their listening and speaking skills.
2. As an educator, how would you influence your early childhood

learners to communicate with their peers and you?
7.3 BENEFITS OF LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE

DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD
The most efficient way to initiate reading and writing is through experiential
learning. When a child learns to read, his or her learning stems from their own
experiences. They begin to pick up words that they already know and will start
to use it. In this approach, reading and writing are seen as reciprocal processes. It
links between what the children is trying to say and write. More notably, Slyvia
Ashton Warner (1963), whose book ÂTeacherÊ had outlined a method that draws
on childrenÊs first-hand experience (LEA-Language Experience Approach). This
approach is suitable for children between age four to seven years old also for
children who have difficulties with reading and writing or who have delayed
language development.

DEVELOPMENT
Language Experience Approach has given benefits to children to enhance their

communication and language skills and literacy. Among the benefits are:
(a) Confident as language users: Children become more confident trying out
new forms of language such as reciting poems, rhyme and even writing
their own lyrics.
(b) Growing vocabulary: The increase in number of words in a sentence shows

that a childÊs vocabulary is expanding.
(c) Growing awareness and knowledge of print concept: Pictures and printed
materials are likely to attract attention of the children once they have
started to read and communicate.
(d) Literacy awareness carry meaning that can be easily understood and shared
among children. A child becomed more alert about his or her surrounding
and tend to communicate and include phrases he or she encounters on a
daily basis.
(e) An increase in growing awareness of text genres (example the difference

between narrative and recount).
(f) Develop a growing understanding that words and picture together can
communicate meaning, and add more colour and meaning to their lives.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
Identify the advantages and disadvantages of Language Experience

Approach (LEA).
7.4 SKILLS AND CONCEPT FOR LANGUAGE

DEVELOPMENT
As a childÊs first teacher, you are given the responsibility to give the best
education or rather the most appropriate language skills development to a three
to four year old child. Thus it is helpful to know what basic listening and
speaking skills the child should be learning and mastering the language at the
age of three or four. The following are language development skills that should
be acquired by a child for him or her to grow up as an individual with excellent
and profound skills in language and communication.

DEVELOPMENT
(a) Listening Skills

The child should be able to:
(i) Understand most of what is said and follow directions with at least
two steps.
(ii) Understand directive words like „top‰, „bottom‰, „big‰ and „little‰.
(iii) Recognise when words rhyme.
(iv) Hear (and respond to) someone calling to him from another room.
(v) Hear the television or radio at normal volumes.
(vi) Notice and respond to sounds in the environment (such as a car horn,
clock alarm or the beeping of a kitchen appliance).
(b) Speaking Skills

The child should be able to:
(i) Speak in complete sentences of four or more words at a time.
(ii) Talk easily and fluently without stuttering or repeating words or

syllables.
(iii) Recite or sing familiar songs or nursery rhymes.
(iv) Correctly name colours, people, objects and categories of objects.
(v) Speak clearly enough for the strangers to understand.
(vi) Use most speech sounds such as l, r, s, sh, h, y, v, z, and th, may not be
fully mastered until age seven or eight).
(vii) Use appropriate verb tenses.
(viii) Use the pronouns „I‰, „you‰, and „me‰ correctly.
Activities for the Development of Communication and Literacy

The foundation for building a childÊs skills towards literacy involves learning to
speak, listen, read, comprehend, observe, draw and write. Activities such as
talking, singing, playing sound and word games helps in establishing a good
foundation for early childhood learners. Talking and singing with children could
also teach them about sounds and how this comes together to form a language.
By teaching language games and songs, you will be helping a child to develop
strong listening and speaking skills.

DEVELOPMENT
Reading helps to develop a childÊs vocabulary, his or her ability to listen and
comprehend, and understand the purpose of print. It also helps to culture a
positive attitude towards reading.
From an early age, children love to try to ÂwriteÊ like their older siblings or
parents. Writing (scribbling) and drawing helps the child develop the fine motor
skills she needs for writing with pencils and pens later. It also helps her to begin
to recognise and remember letter shapes.
Table 7.2 shows the activities of two main age groups before school age and
school age for various kinds of activities.
Table 7.2: Activities of Communication and Literacy Development
Age Group Activities

Talking and Singing Literacy Activities
Before school  Using rhymes whenever there is a chance in doing so. For
age example: „washing shoe with powder‰. This will help the child to
learn new words and eventually understands the meaning of the
word.
 Children love to sing, and nursery rhymes teach your child

language, rhyme, repetition and rhythm. Try rhymes like ÂBaa Baa
Black SheepÊ, „Mary had a Little Lamb‰ or „Twinkle...Twinkle
Little Star‰.
 Repeat sounds your child makes encourage him or her to imitate

you or vice versa.
 Talk about how the sounds animals make like: „mooo...mooo‰ for
cow, „meow⁄meow‰ for cat. The child will find this activity
interesting and will continue to imitate and learn the sound of
animals.
At school age  Create word games that can encourage children to learn sounds of
phonics. For example, b-b-b⁄ball, big...
 Let the child search and think of a word similar to for example
„car‰.
 Talk about the past, the future and ask the child to tell you about
their past experiences and what they expect in the future. You will
be amased to hear them talk as if there is no end to their story.
 Television programmes help parents and educators in providing

educational activities to the children. Watch any appropriate
programme with them and get them involved to narrate what they
have recently seen.

DEVELOPMENT
Reading and Making Book Literacy Activities

Before school  Younger children love rhyme, rhythm and repetition as well as
age patterned and alphabet books which have bright coloured words
and pictures. Point your finger at the words while reading and
make sure that the child follows it.
 Children love reading the same book over and over again. Take
this opportunity to ask the child what he or she has read.
 Make a field excursion to the public library and help the child
choose a book he or she hopes read.
At school age  In the classroom, take turns to read a story book with a child. It
will be more interesting than reading the whole book alone. This
will help nurture his or her interest to read at an early age.
 During outings or outdoor class activities, point out to sign boards

and street signs such as „Stop‰, „Bus Stop‰.
 Encourage children to read the names of items at the supermarket

or a bookstore, as there are many big and colourful posters which
can easily attract their attention.
Drawing and Writing Literacy Activities
Before school  At the age of four years old, children are required to master
age holding a pen, pencil or crayon. Encourage them to write or
scribble on a birthday card and always appreciate their art work.
 Use play dough to make letters or alphabets.
At school age  Encourage children to make a scrap book using pictures cut out
from magazines and ask them to label the objects clearly and
beautifully.
 Shuffle four cards. On each card is written an alphabet A, R, D and

C. Ask the child to rearrange the cards to form a meaningful
phrase.
ACTIVITY 7.4
Compose a rhyme that suits a three to four year old child and a five to
six year old child.

DEVELOPMENT
SELF-CHECK 7.3
What are the appropriate approaches to determine that the child has
skills in language development?
 Language development in a child begins as early as the age of one until seven
years old. Language development needs proper and professional guidance
from an early childhood educator.
 Children must be knowledgeable to understand how to listen and speak

effectively with proper usage of words and grammar.
 Language literacy development involves learning to speak, listen, read,

understand, watch and draw at an early age, however it has to be nurtured
and developed as the child grows older.
 Learning Experience Approach (LEA) is a module created to help early

childhood learners to be proficient in their language and communication
skills which helps in effective learning and provides value to early childhood
education.
 Language development through experiential learning provides benefits to a

child and allows him or her to master his skills in listening and speaking. A
child will eventually improvise his or her thinking and intellectual
capabilities.
Auditory association Language development

Auditory discrimination Language Experience Approach (LEA)
Auditory memory Literacy development
Auditory perception Print-rich environment

DEVELOPMENT
Aston-Warner, S. (1963). The testament of an inspired teacher. Retrieved from

www.arvindguptatoys.com/arvindgupta/Teacher.pdf
Cummins, J. (1981). Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical

framework. California: Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center
California State University.
Jalongo, M. R., & Isenberg, J. P. (1995). TeachersÊ stories: From personal narrative
to professional insight. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Literacy, families and learning: The language experience approach (LEA). (2008).
Retrieved from http://trevorcairney.blogspot.my/2008/05/language-
experience-approach-lea.html
Stanberry, K. (n.d.). Understanding language development in Preschool.

Retrieved from http://www.getreadytoread.org/early-learning-childhood-
basics/early-childhood/understanding-language-development-in-
preschoolers
Raising Children Network. (2014). Developing literacy. Retrieved from

raisingchildren.net.au/articles/developing_literacy.html
Soto, L. D. (1995). Responding to linguistic and cultural diversity

recommendations for effective early childhood education: A position
statement of the National Association for the Education of Young Children
(NAEYC). Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/
positions/PSDIV98.PDF

8 Curriculum
for Early
Mathematical
Skills and
Science
Experience
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the concepts related to early childhood learning experiences
in physical, earth and life sciences;
2. Identify process skills necessary for teaching and learning of science
in early childhood education;
3. Describe problem solving through mathematics and computers;
4. Discuss ways to build a meaningful foundation of science concepts
and reasoning skills by using the technique of exploration and
observation; and
5. Describe new methods in teaching Mathematics for young children in
the classroom.

132  TOPIC 8 CONNECTING CURRICULUM FOR EARLY MATHEMATICAL SKILLS
AND SCIENCE EXPERIENCE
 INTRODUCTION
This section focuses on how children understand science and mathematics. In
sciences, it is normally divided into three domains which are the key areas
explored in class and they are physical, earth and life sciences. Teachers in early
childhood education should also be aware of a childÊs development in
mathematical reasoning and implementation as part of his or her literacy
development.
Math concepts are taught through games and exploration of materials which
benefits the childrenÊs literacy and numeric skills. Most mathematical ideas are
also implemented through stories.
Young children are applying mathematical concepts when they measure the
daily growth of seedlings on a plotting graph, or even while studying the
changing patterns of a shadow and recording its length. Children are applying
mathematical methods while working on science investigation. In investigating
science, children are required to forecast, measure, count, record and
communicate while demonstrating their problem-solving methods through
mathematical formulas.
ACTIVITY 8.1
List two activities that are suitable for early childhood learners which
draws a strong correlation between scientific investigation and
mathematics.
8.1 INCORPORATING PROBLEM SOLVING AND

MATHEMATICS COMPETENCE IN THE
EARLY CHILDHOOD CURRICULUM
A fundamental part of problem solving is to focus on understanding, analysing
and thinking to produce a correct answer, instead of relying solely on facts. In
order for effective problem solving solutions, one needs to look at several areas
such as:
(a) Recognising and identifying a problem;
(b) Implementing a way to solve problems by organising an unplanned group

discussion;

TOPIC 8 CONNECTING CURRICULUM FOR EARLY MATHEMATICAL SKILLS  133
(c) Choosing a solution and testing it; and
(d) Analysing what happens.
Problem solving and mathematical thinking arise when an educator prompts

thought-provoking questions to children. This requires them to understand,
analyse, identify, observe, compute, measure and predict. Through this process,
children will be able to solve problems with ease. Problem solving may take
some time but in time it will refine a childÊs ability to learn effective problem
solving skills.
Teaching mathematics is normally done through questioning, clarifying and

mathematical conversions through the usage of books and other mathematical
tools and materials. Early mathematics lessons plan are based on shapes,
recognising numbers and problem solving skills.
Several guidelines are necessary when incorporating problem solving

approaches and mathematics competencies in the early childhood curriculum
such as:
(a) Teachers should not be gender bias when teaching maths. Every child
should be given equal opportunity to problem solving and reasoning
activities.
(b) Math concepts have been known to be applied in early childhood years
through experiential learning using objects, food, play, materials, nature,
outdoors, space and time. Teachers should take the opportunity from a
childÊs experience to enhance his or her knowledge and understanding in
maths.
(c) Children should be allowed the freedom to explore their five senses (touch,
sight, sound, taste and smell). This will allow them to learn better in an
environment which includes literature and story-telling, blocks and
construction, art, science, water and sand, music, language, food and
nutrition. Children learn best when there are social interactions with peers
and adults or other activities which will interest them.
(d) Start with simple concepts before moving on to abstract concepts. Begin
with identifying and understanding of numbers, counting and simple
additions before going further to complexed abstract concepts such as time,
money and space.
(e) Problem solving skills should not be applied just in the field of maths and
science, but also in all areas of learning. Children learn better through
experience, therefore a childrenÊs field trip is a good hands-on activity to

deepen their learning process. Children will be exposed to real life

situations such as learning to count money to pay for the groceries or
remembering a bus number before they board a school bus. Students build
meaningful ideas through materials or objects-oriented mental activities in
the same way as visual learning through computer programming.
(f) Young children develop reasoning through experience with concrete

objects, not by the use of work book pages. They might lose interest in
learning maths if asked to sit and write. Maths should be a subject that is
both interesting and fun to learn with the manipulation of objects, toys or
materials.
8.1.1 Early Childhood Learning Experiences in

Physical, Earth and Life Sciences
Science in early childhood education consists of three domains which are
physical, earth and life sciences. Teachers must be sensitive towards a childÊs
learning journey and be able to carry out interesting activities to cultivate the
love for science in children. Table 8.1 shows the suggested activities that could be
performed for children based on the three above mentioned domains.
Table 8.1: Activities based on Three Domains ă Physical, Earth and Life Sciences
Domain Description Suggested Activities

Physical The learning and study of  Activity 1: Identifying objects and
science matter, energy, materials that are attracted to magnets.
movement and change.
 Activity 2: Investigating the strength of
different kinds of magnets using paper
clips.
Earth The study of air and  Activity 1: Investigating about day and
science water, sand and soil, day night.
and night and season.
 Activity 2: Investigating properties of
sand and garden soil, which will allow
more water to pass through.
Life science The exploration of the  Activity 1: Recognition and classification

features, characteristics of seeds according to size, colour and
and classification of shape and matching them with the fruits.
living and non-living
things, plants, animals  Activity 2: Recognise and identify the life
and also human. cycle of a butterfly through its different
stages of form and structure.

ACTIVITY 8.2
Describe in detail how you would set up an experiment to investigate

the properties of sand and garden soil.
8.1.2 Problem Solving through Mathematics and

Computers
In the era of technology, the use of computers in learning math skills and
enhancing problem solving competency has become a trend in schools especially
in early childhood education centre. Various types of softwares are available that
are math-based computer games.
The use of computers in problem solving and mathematics in young children will
lead to:
(a) Enhanced counting skills, number recognition, one-to-one correspondence,

relationship between symbols and quantities.
(b) Enhanced mathematical reasoning and problem solving manipulatives.
(c) Increased activities and motivation.
(d) More time and focus on understanding concepts to solve challenging

problems that will result in realistic outcomes.
Despite the benefits of learning through computers in the area of problem

solving and mathematics, there are a few challenges in computerised education
which need to be tackled by the teachers (see Table 8.2).

Table 8.2: Benefits and Challenges of Computerised Education
Benefits Challenges
 Computers act as an extension of oneÊs  Computers need humans to control the
mind which stores massive memory at programme or otherwise itÊs useless.
blinding speed.
 During a computer breakdown,
 Computers are flexible and will students will be left doing nothing.
evaluate a studentÊs progress by
 Computers which are affected by bugs
allowing a learner to progress faster
and viruses will affect a studentÊs
once he or she has mastered the lesson
productivity level.
or slowed down the pace for better
understanding.  Rough handling of computers by
students will result in malfunction of
 Computers aid enhances a teacherÊs
the computer.
learning curve. Memories stored in the
system are easily updated through a  Some students who are too smart and
stable network connection. creative as may alter the system and
programmes in the system that may
 Different teachers use different
cause internal damaged in a computer.
software to educate a diverse group of
students which are programmed to  Students will be wasting their time if
help them develop effective learning there is no teacher monitoring them.
skills.
 Computers only teach certain facts but
 Programmers do not have to reinvent not the higher order thinking.
effective routines but will be able to
copy and use the skilful teaching  A human mind can make judgements
techniques that have been developed but not a computer.
for over many years.  Computers cannot teach values and
 Human brilliance will be extended develop interactions among students.
through the use of computers.  A teacher is able to give personal
attention to the student but not a
computer.
 A school system with computers to
replace teachers will create an
environment where students appear
robotic devoid of any feelings and
human interactions.
 Students who are exposed to long
working hours fixated on a computer
screen may strain their eye sight.
 To provide each student in a classroom
with a computer can be costly.
Source: http://www.cimt.plymouth.ac.uk/journal/egcomp.pdf

ACTIVITY 8.3
Create a science activity for a six year old student using a computer.
8.2 SCIENCE CONCEPTS THROUGH

EXPLORATION AND OBSERVATION
Children begin to master science concepts through observation and exploration
of their learning environment. As such, we should provide children with the
opportunities to connect new knowledge with what they have experienced or
learnt. As an educator teaching early childhood learners, you should help
children to form connections in various ways for diverse curriculums such as:
(a) Allow children to express their predictions, observation and ideas in

multiple ways by having a conversation with them.
(b) Provide materials for them to write or draw or make charts for their
observations and ideas.
(c) At the end of the day, help children understand what they observed and
experience.
(d) Help connect a childÊs previous learning experiences onto new ones.
(e) Incorporate science concepts into daily activities such as reading a relevant
book to a child before proposing a hands-on exploration idea to extend
their learning experiences. Incorporate science talk into childrenÊs routines.
For example, if a child is learning about seeds, invite him or her to be aware
of the food that contain seeds during snack time or ask if they have
experienced eating fruits with seeds before.

Figure 8.1: Children busy at a water play activity

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=water+
play+on+sink+and+float+concept+in+preschool
Figure 8.1 shows a group of children doing experiment during a water play in
early childhood class to determine what objects float and sinks. The teacher must
help make connections to science concepts and ideas. This will encourage
children to make observations and think.
8.2.1 New Ways to Encourage Children to Share Their

Thinking and New Learning Experiences
In learning science concepts, children must be able to share their thoughts and
their new learning experiences through several ways such as:
(a) Encourage children to record their observations by drawing and/or writing

them on classroom charts during and/or after science explorations.
Referring to an experiment on water play in Figure 8.1 previously, children
can draw or make a chart to list down objects that sink and float (see Table
8.3).

Table 8.3: List of Objects that Sink and Float
Sink Float
 Nail  Sponge
 Stones  Paper
 Spoon  Small toys
 Cups  Pencil
(b) Encourage children to create drawings, labels or diagrams to show what

they have observed or learned.
(c) Provide opportunities for children to talk about what they have observed
and what they are wondering. Find initiatives to always communicate with
the children and encourage peer-to-peer conversations.
8.2.2 Why is it Important to Guide rather than Direct

a Child’s Explorations?
It is important to support every childÊs science learning experiences:
(a) By giving encouragement, facilitating and interacting with children we are

stimulating a child to think rather than let them focus merely on reciting the
facts. You may question: What do you think? The question and comment
can inspire children to make predictions, try things out, look closely, collect
data and draw thoughtful conclusions based on evidence from their own
explorations.
(b) By facilitating exploration rather than directing it promotes conversation

that can deepen a childÊs understanding of what they observe and
experience. It enhances their ability to describe, explain and share
observations and ideas related to key science concepts.
A childÊs knowledge and understanding of their observation and

experience will be enhanced through facilitation of exploration during his
or her science activities rather than directing them to do things that they are
not aware and keen to do. Seed germinating experiment which relates to an
important science concept (plant life cycle) allows children to observe and
explore the growth of a plant (see Figure 8.2) and gradually they will
develop a deeper understanding in science concepts through further
exploration and guidance.

Figure 8.2: Seed germination

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=picture+of+stages+in+seed+germinating
It is the responsibility of the educator to observe closely a childÊs activity

while he or she is performing and closely observing a project to determine
their understanding, ideas and help to solve any problems that might arise.
(c) Always be prepared with open-ended questions to ask a child to draw

attention on what they are doing, experimenting and observing. The
questions must be related to the science concept and if possible that will
provoke a childÊs problem-solving capabilities.
(d) Encourage children to interact among their peers and provide opportunities
for them to voice out their thoughts to their friends. For example; letÊs put
more sand in the water, do you think the water level will rise? Inspire them
to compare observation and ideas among their peers.
(e) Communicate using science language by observing, predicting and

encouraging a child to use it too. For example; letÊs observe which object
will sink. Can you predict which object will sink?
ACTIVITY 8.4
List four outdoor activities that could enhance early childhood learners
in their study of science exploration and observation.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
What strategies would you use to help children make connections

between science concepts and everyday life?

8.3 TEACHING MATHEMATICS FOR EARLY

CHILDHOOD LEARNERS
Teachers play an important role in the development of their studentsÊ education
during their pre-school years. The teacher must be able to teach from the
perspective of a learner who is able to bring diverse experiences to the classroom.
Techniques of teaching mathematics to the early childhood learners vary from
one centre to another but a standard guide to teaching maths in pre-school had
been underlined by the ministry.
According to Clements, Sarama and DiBiase (2004), young learners future

understanding of mathematics requires an early foundation based on a high-
quality, challenging and accessible mathematics education.
Mathematical experience must include contents such as numerical operations,

geometry, algebraic reasoning and measurement. Math curriculum and teaching
practices must be part of the development of an early childhood learner.
Learning and solving problems in mathematics is a life time learning process as

early as when a child is two years old. As a child grows older, he or she will need
to follow a standard math process that will help each child to master the subject
and be able to enhance his or her mathematical skills.
Figure 8.3: Process standards for mathematics

Source: https://mathequality.wordpress.com/2012/06/26/nctm-process-standards-for-
mathematics/

Figure 8.3 is a layout of five process standards suggested by the National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) that highlight the mathematical processes
students rely on to acquire and use the knowledge of mathematical content. The
five process standards of problem solving, reasoning and proof, communications,
connections and representation are explained in Table 8.4.
Table 8.4: Process Standards in Mathematics
Process
Description Strategies
Standards
Problem An integral part of mathematics Students should:

solving that requires students to
 Construct new mathematical
formulate, grapple with and
knowledge through problem
solve complex problems. By
solving
solving mathematical problems,
students acquire new ways of  Try solving any mathematical
thinking, habits of persistence difficulties in various context
and curiosity, and confidence in
the unfamiliar that might arise  Accommodate and implement
outside of the classroom. various problem solving
strategies
 Observe and apply
mathematical problem
solving skills
Reasoning and The making and the investigation Students should:

proof of mathematical conjectures,
 Identify reasoning and proof
developing arguments and proof.
as elemental aspects of
Students who reason and think
mathematics
analytically tend to note patterns,
structure and regularities in both  Formulate and explore
real-world and mathematical mathematical assumptions
situations.
 Reinforce and analyse
mathematical arguments and
proof points
 Choose and use different
types of reasoning and
proofing techniques

Communication A means of sharing ideas and Students should:

forming an understanding in
 Assemble and integrate
mathematics which includes
mathematical thinking
mathematical arguments and
through communication
rationale. This will help the
students to sharpen their  Communicate their
thinking skills and make new mathematical thinking
connections. rationally, orderly and clearly
to peers, teachers and others
 Examine and evaluate others
for their mathematical
thinking and strategies
 Use mathematical language to
express and convey
mathematical ideas correctly
Connections Mathematics is an integrated Students should:

field of study that connects ideas
 Identify and use connections
of physical science, engineering,
among mathematical ideas
social sciences and business for
deeper understanding and better  Understand how
view of mathematics. mathematical ideas are
interconnected with one
another
 Identify and relate
mathematics to contexts
which are not mathematical
Representations Using pictures, concrete Students should:

materials, tables, graphs and
 Generate and use
symbols and so on as a
representations to assemble,
representation to express
record and communicate
mathematical concepts.
mathematical ideas
 Choose, apply and translate
mathematical representations
to solve problems
 Use representations to
replicate and explain physical,
social and mathematical facts

ACTIVITY 8.5
Design an activity related to a childÊs experience in mathematics based

on numbers, symbols and quantities.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
Describe how mathematics play an important role in problem solving in

the early childhood curriculum.
 Science experience and mathematical skills are interrelated to each other and
is best learned through exploration and observation.
 Problem solving process focuses on understanding, analysing and thinking in

recognising, producing and choosing the correct answer to find a solution.
 Guidelines are needed when incorporating problem solving and

mathematical competencies in an early childhood curriculum.
 Early childhood learning experiences include the physical, earth and life
sciences.
 With the help of computers, children in the early childhood education learn
their mathematical skills and science experience better and faster.
 Process standard for math highlights the strategies in learning and solving
problems related to maths.
Computerised education Life science

Earth science Physical science

Allen, M. (1998). Dr. MaggieÊs play and discover science. Creative Teaching
Press.
Allen, M. (1998). Look, think, discover: Adding the wonder of science to the early
childhood classroom. Retrieved from http://www.earlychildhoodnews.
com/earlychildhood/article_print.aspx?ArticleId=192
Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., & DiBiase, A. M. (Eds.). (2004). Engaging young
children in mathematics: Standards for early childhood mathematics.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Journal for Research in Mathematics
Education.
GyÖngyÖsi, E. (n.d.). Continuing education for mathematics teachers of

secondary education to use computers more effectively and to improve
education. Retrieved from http://www.cimt.plymouth.ac.uk/journal/
egcomp.pdf
Leading children in hands-on exploration. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.

resourcesforearlylearning.org/educators/module/20/15/75/
NCTM process standards for mathematics. (2012). Retrieved from https://

mathequality.wordpress.com/2012/06/26/nctm-process-standards-for-
mathematics/
Principles for school mathematics. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.nctm.org
Science concepts and exploration. (2000). Retrieved from http://illinoisearly

learning.org/guidelines/domains/domain4/science-concepts.htm

Topic  Overview of
9 Curriculum
for Physical
Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify activities that are able to enhance physical development,
gross and fine motor skills;
2. Organise activities to facilitate movement experiences for young
children;
3. Describe ways on how to promote perceptual motor development;
and
4. Discuss how to promote health and nutrition in children particularly
on the issue of obesity.
 INTRODUCTION
Physical development curriculum is as important and crucial as any other area of
development. It includes a childÊs gross (large muscle) and fine (small muscle)
motor skills. Physical development, in many ways, also promotes social or
emotional development. Children will learn what their bodies can do and when
they gain self-confidence they will be more willing to try new and challenging
tasks. Physical education also supports a childÊs academic achievement by
moving the body and it literally „wakes up‰ the brain.

TOPIC 9 OVERVIEW OF CURRICULUM FOR PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT  147
Benefits of regular physical activity across the lifespan include:
(a) Healthy growth and physical development;

(b) Building healthy hearts and strong muscles and bones;
(c) Acquisition of basic motor skills;
(d) Improved movement, balance, coordination and reaction time;
(e) Increased mental awareness;
(f) Improved social skills, self-esteem and confidence;
(g) Healthy weight management (anti-obesity);
(h) Prevention of any forms of heart disease;
(i) Prevention of Type II diabetes; and
(j) Prevention of some forms of cancer.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Design an outdoor activity for children aged between four to six years
old that is self-directed and a teacher directed activity.
9.1 BUILDING GROSS AND FINE MOTOR

SKILLS
There are two types of skills in physical development.
 Gross motor skill: Control balance and stability in running, jumping,

hopping, galloping and skipping and physical control such as throwing,
kicking and catching.
 Fine motor skill: Control of small muscles in the hand and wrist which
enables children to conduct self-help skill and operate objects such as scissors
and writing tools.

148  TOPIC 9 OVERVIEW OF CURRICULUM FOR PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
(a) Gross Motor (Physical) Skill

To perform our everyday activities such as walking, skipping, running,
standing and sitting upright requires full body movement which refers to
as gross motor skill. It also includes eye-hand coordination skills to throw,
catch and kick a ball.
A child having problems with her gross motor effectiveness can be detected
if the child is:
(i) Late in reaching developmental milestone such as sitting, walking,

running or hopping around.
(ii) Looking awkward in his way of walking and appears a little clumsy.
(iii) Avoiding physical activities.
(iv) Unwilling to participate in physical activities for a long duration of

time.
(v) Not able to maintain an upright posture when seated.
(vi) Unable to carry out the same skills such as catching, kicking, hopping
and jumping as her peers.
(vii) Less skilful than her friends in sports.
(viii) Not able to follow and complete a multistep instruction.
(ix) Not able to follow steps in a process example when asked to step one
foot forward before throwing.
(x) Not capable of climbing.
(xi) Easily tired doing a physical activity.
(xii) Easily losing his or her skill once they stop practicing.
(xiii) Not able to continuously upskill forward, for example change using a
heavy/big ball to a lighter/small ball.

(b) Fine Motor Skill

Fine motor skills can be practised through art, sensory play and simple
manipulative games, and there are so many to choose from. You can help
children develop their fine motor skills by setting up activities in the
classroom or outdoors. For a three or four year old child, holding any object
is not as easy as holding a pencil to write or using a scissors to cut paper.
They have yet to develop their fine motor skills and train their fingers to
hold a pencil in an appropriate way so that they can write or exert strength
in their fingers in order to use a pair of scissors effectively.
Children can be trained to utilise, strengthen their muscles, practise

co-ordination and develop hand-eye co-ordination by using simple
everyday materials to create some fun in it too! Refer to Figure 9.1.
A lot of variations can be created using these materials. Two examples of

activities carried out that will improve the childÊs fine motor skill are shown
in Figure 9.2 and Figure 9.3.
Figure 9.1: Tools for fine motor activities

Source: http://theimaginationtree.com/2013/09/40-fine-motor-skills-activities-for-
kids.html

Figure 9.2: Threading beads

Source: http://theimaginationtree.com/2013/09/40-fine-motor-skills-activities-for-
kids.html
Figure 9.3: Fine motor activity

Source: http://theimaginationtree.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Pine-cone-and-
elastic-band-fine-motor-activity1.jpg

ACTIVITY 9.2
Plan two activities that will help a child practice and master her gross
and fine motor skills.
9.2 PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES FOR YOUNG

CHILDREN
Physical activity is good for young children and can be part of a childÊs everyday
play. When choosing physical activities for early childhood learners, educators
must ensure that the proposed activities are fun and keeps children engaged
which will motivate them to keep participating. Daily physical activities will
increase their ability to move as well.
Children will experience different body movements while participating in

different activities. The following are examples of suggested activities which will
enhance the body movements in a child between the ages of two to five years old:
(a) Use a large, soft ball to practice catching, hitting, bouncing and kicking.
(b) A throwing activity can start with something small like a bean bag, tennis
ball or an old pair of socks which is good enough if space is limited.
(c) Bring out children into the open and allow them to play soap bubbles while
they try to catch the bubbles with their friends.
(d) Put on some music and encourage dancing to let them follow a sense of
rhythm.
(e) Invent some silly walks and runs with the child, such as running like a
monkey, hopping like a bunny and flapping like a bird.
(f) Make up games that involve rolling, skipping, hopping and chasing.

Activities for children can be categorised into light or energetic activities. Light
activities are:
(a) Walking;
(b) Standing up;
(c) Moving around; and
(d) Less energetic play.
Energetic activities include:
(a) Jumping around;

(b) Swimming;
(c) Dancing;
(d) Climbing;
(e) Riding a bike;
(f) Rope skipping;
(g) Gymnastics; and
(h) Active play such as hide and seek.
ACTIVITY 9.3
Create a game for early childhood learners between the ages of four to
six years using a skipping rope, a spoon and a ping pong ball.
9.3 PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Perceptual-motor development refers to a childÊs developing ability to
communicate with the environment, when combining the use of his or her senses
and motor skills. The use of perceptual or sensory skills and motor skills in the
developmental process is regarded as a combined process. Perceptual-motor
development results from the interaction between sensory perception and motor
actions in (Jambor, 1990; Mullen, 1984; Puckett & Black, 2005). To be more
precise, visual, auditory and tactile sensory abilities are combined with emerging
motor skills to develop perceptual-motor abilities.

Perceptual-motor skills include body, spatial, directional and temporal

awareness. A child who has a well-developed perceptual and motor skill can
easily accept and perform instructions given by the teacher. There are some
children who listen well but are not capable of using their motor skills. Actions
such as running and kicking a ball, require body awareness.
(a) Body Awareness

Body awareness refers to a childÊs developing capacity to understand body
parts, capability of each body parts, and how to make the body more
efficient and productive. It is also the ability to perceive and interpret input
from the senses.
Put a few objects of different shape, texture or size in a closed box. Then ask
each child to pick an object with their fingers and identify the object
without looking at it. With the song ÂHead, Shoulder, Knees and ToesÊ
encourage children to be aware of their body parts as well as to observe
their own body movements as they sing along.
(b) Spatial Awareness

Spatial awareness refers to knowledge of how much space your body
occupies and how to manoeuvre oneÊs body in that space.
Activities such as the „obstacle game challenge‰ will test the ability of a
child to plan different kinds of movements from how to fit his or her body
through a narrow gap to manoeuvring objects that will let him or her to
progress to the next course. When planning the obstacle course, put a rope
or curtain that will create a boundary between their bodies in order to pass
through. Another obstacle challenge that can be played by an early
childhood educator is to create awareness by honing their motor skills
through hula hoops. Either put the hula hoop to stand upright or place
them flat on the ground for children to hop into each of it (see Figure 9.4).
There are so many ways to play with hula hoops; itÊs all based on the
creativity of the teacher.

Figure 9.4: Gross motor activity (hula hoops)

Source: http://www.learnplayimagine.com/2013/06/
gross-motor-activity-hula-hoop-games.html
(c) Directional Awareness

Directional awareness includes understanding of location, direction of the
body in empty spaces, differentiating between up and down, top and
bottom, front and back, or left and right. Play a game called „Simon Says‰
using directional skills by giving a beanbag to each child. For example,
Simon may say, „Put the beanbag on top of your head, under your arm,
behind your feet, or on your left hand‰. Some of the classic dancing like the
„Hokey-Pokey‰ and „Looby-Loo‰ stimulate students to practice left and
right and control the position of their bodies.
(d) Temporal Awareness

Temporal awareness refers to the development of awareness between
movement and time which involves rhythm and sequence in a series of
events (Frost, 1992; Gallahue, 1989; Jambor, 1990).
A child must possess a well-developed temporal awareness to be able to

determine the passage of time, sequence of events and predictions of the
arrival of a moving object.

Games that can be played by a child include popping bubbles, hitting a

hanging ball with a stick, chasing a rolling hula hoop or using a jumping
rope. These games will help strengthen temporal awareness. Let the
children play some rhythmic instruments such as the drums, shakers or
even a guitar. Initiate them to dance and march to the rhythm. Set a time
limit for children to play so that they will be aware of the passage of time.
ACTIVITY 9.4
List three activities that would encourage a group of five year old
children to practice their throwing and catching skills.
9.3.1 Ways to Improve Motor Skills

The physical development of fine motor skills requires the coordination of a
childÊs small movements using his or her hands These skills are needed by
children to carry out tasks such as holding their pencil properly and writing and
cutting with scissors. Fine motor skills are essential for success in school ă a
teacher should take serious action if a six year old child lacks the physical ability
to appropriately write, draw, colour or cut. Fortunately, you can improve your
studentÊs fine motor skills with a number of enjoyable activities such as:
(a) Art Projects

By working on art projects such as sketching, colouring or painting,
children will be boosting their fine motor skills. Ideas and activities for art
projects are limitless. Try giving a child a blank piece of paper and water-
colour to paint his or her palm or fingers and he or she will create a
masterpiece. Finger-painting enhances a childÊs fine motor skills since it
requires the child to build hand strength while controlling his or her
movements to create a masterpiece. Figure 9.5 shows a child with his hand-
painting activity.

Figure 9.5: A childÊs hand-painting activity

Source: http://www.learnplayimagine.com/2013/06/
gross-motor-activity-hula-hoop-games.html
(b) Play with Clay

Set out pieces of clay or plasticine and allow children to create sculptures of
animals or whatever object they wish to. Squeezing and shaping the clay
into different shapes will strengthen their hand muscles, fingers and their
wrist. Demonstrate to them how to mould the clay into balls, long strips or
shapes. These are examples of effective activities to improve fine motor
skills. Teachers may also integrate the clay play during cooking lessons
with the children by making homemade dough, which will also serve a
similar purpose.
(c) Write, Draw and Cut

Motivate the children to write. However, before they can write teach them
to hold a pencil properly and grip it well enough to form letters. The
children must be able to build strength in their hands, fingers and wrist.
Children aged between five to six years old are able to write, hence they can
be asked to practice writing their spelling to enhance their fine motor skills.
Drawing pictures with pencils, crayons or markers might be more
interesting and entertaining for a child and will accomplish the same goal.
Using scissors to cut papers is another way to improve hand, finger and
wrist strength. Let the child cut pictures out of old magazines and paste
them onto paper. This is one way to practice cutting skills.

SELF-CHECK 9.1
1. What physical skills can a child develop through his or her

activities while exercising their body movements? Explain.
2. State the evidence to prove that physical movement promotes

cognitive development and learning.
9.4 HEALTH AND NUTRITION IN CHILDREN

Physical development alone is not sufficient to categorise a child as an active and
diligent learner, but a healthy lifestyle plays an important role in the wellbeing of
a child. Children who have been taught about health and nutrition and its
importance, especially obesity, will learn to be more independent and are able to
carry a greater responsibility for their own health, safety and wellbeing. A childÊs
healthy eating habits should be adopted at an early age because it can have a
lasting effect.
Physical and mental health and proper nutrition should be cultivated in every
early childhood to build a physically safe environment for children to grow.
Good health, proper nutritional practices and safety provides a strong
foundation for development of young children. Meals and snacks taken at
appropriate time will encourage good health and nutrition as well as good eating
habits among all children. Moreover, a safe environment prevents a child from
any injuries.
9.4.1 Nutritious Food for Children

A growing child during his or her early childhood needs to be given proper food
which is nutritious for their growth and development. Children at this stage
should be eating healthy food for all meals of the day, breakfast, lunch and
dinner with food that will aid in their learning development.
The introduction of healthy eating habits in an early childhood classroom will be

an effective way to teach pre-schoolers how to choose nutritious foods for their
entire lives. Educating pre-schoolers on what to eat can be done during each
meal time provided by the pre-school, while the child is eating her meal or snack.
Table 9.1 provides a list of healthy food and size of proportion that should be
taken according to a childÊs appropriate age. The information in Table 9.1 helps
an early childhood educator to understand more on nutrition and development
of a child that could aid in a childÊs mental and physical development. However,

the educator in an early childhood pre-school needs to bear in mind that those
types of food varies from one country to another, from one culture and one
religion to another. What is written here is only a suggestion.
Table 9.1: Sources of Food
Source of Food Proportion Needed Per Child

Fruits and A healthy lunch for a pre-schooler child should include 1 to 1.5 cups
vegetables of fruit and one to two cups of vegetables each day. This fresh
produce supplies healthy amounts of fibre, potassium, vitamin C
and vitamin A. Quartered strawberries, blueberries, apple slices, a
banana, baby carrots, bell pepper slices, green beans and chopped
tomatoes are healthy options. Let the child choose what fruits and
vegetables to eat. Give him or her some choice and he or she will be
more likely to eat them.
Bread and grains Pre-schoolers need between three and five ounces of bread and
grains. An ounce is equal to one slice of bread, one cup of breakfast
cereal or a 1/2 cup of cooked rice or pasta. At least half of a childÊs
bread should be whole grains. Whole grains supply plenty of fibre,
which supports a childÊs healthy digestive system and helps fill him
or her up for the afternoon ahead.
Protein Pre-school children need between two and five ounces of protein
each day to help them grow. Lean chicken and turkey are healthy
sources of protein and they also supply a small amount of iron.
Make a chicken or turkey sandwich on whole grain bread with
shredded carrots and sliced cucumbers. Nuts and nut butter are
healthy sources of protein as well. Spread peanut or almond butter
on whole grain bread and add apple slices for a tasty sandwich that
supplies protein and vitamin C. Beans, peas, canned tuna and hard
boiled eggs are additional sources of protein that pack well in a
childÊs lunchbox.
Dairy A serving of dairy during lunchtime supplies a child with a healthy

amount of calcium, which is a nutrient essential for his or her bones.
Toddlers and pre-schoolers need two cups of milk or the equivalent
each day. One cup of milk supplies the child with about one-third
of the calcium he needs each day. Pack an individual serving of
milk in a thermos or airtight cup. In addition to calcium, milk also
contains vitamin D, a nutrient that enables a child's body to absorb
calcium. Prepare an ounce of cheddar cheese with crackers or put a
slice of cheese on a childÊs sandwich. A serving of cottage cheese
with fruit is another healthy way to add dairy to his or her
lunchbox. A carton of yogurt is a nutritious source of calcium and
supplies a small amount of protein as well.
Source: Ipatenco and Demand Media (2007)

ACTIVITY 9.5
Plan a dietary menu which includes a meal for breakfast, lunch and
snack time for a five year old child.
9.4.2 Childhood Obesity

Every child has different eating habits. Some children love to eat and will eat any
type of food given to them as long as it is edible. Some will only consume bread
or certain kind of food, as their menu for meals is often limited. Nevertheless
there are some children who will eat while playing or doing activities. As such it
is not surprising to find children who have become obese due to the abnormal
eating habits and lack of supervision by adults.
Childhood obesity is a medical condition that has started to surface in many

well-developed countries but not in countries where children are malnourished.
Obesity is the result of excessive body fat stored in the body. Childhood obesity
has been regarded as a complex health issue and it happens when a childÊs
weight is above his normal healthy weight. The causes for childhood obesity are
quite similar to adults. Dietary patterns, physical activity and use of medication
besides other factors such as food, physical activities, environment, education,
skills, food marketing and promotion could lead to overweight and obesity
issues. Genetics too can be a factor.
Obesity has a great impact on a childÊs physical development. Children who are
obese will experience difficulty in moving around and will use their gross motor
skills to conduct activities like other normal children. But, who is to be blamed?
Could it be the fault of the parents, the early childhood teacher, the community
and the environment?
It is rather unfair to put the blame on children if and when they grow obese.
Children might find it difficult to make choices to eat healthy food and
participate in sufficient physical activities when they are most of the time
exposed to environments in their home, child care centre or their preschool or
community which are influenced by several factors such as:
(a) Advertisements of non-healthy food which have high total calories in

sugar, salt and less nutritious ingredients are openly advertised and
marketed through the media which specifically target children and
adolescents.

(b) Pre-school regulations vary from one school to another depending on the
location it is built. Some pre-schools have ample space for physical
activities and some have just enough space to put-up a small swing or slide.
(c) Limited access to healthy and affordable food. Choosing healthy food can
sometimes be difficult in a lower-income neighbourhood and there are
limited numbers of supermarkets or cold storages selling fresh and healthy
food.
(d) High energy food and sweetened beverages results in a higher risk for
excess body fat during childhood.
(e) Increasing portion size of less healthy food served at fast food restaurants
and grocery stores encourages children to binge-eat and this gradually
becomes a habit even when they are at pre-schools.
(f) Lack of breastfeeding while a child is an infant. Breastfeeding protects

against childhood overweight and obesity.
Overweight and obese children are at a greater risk of developing serious health
problems such as:
(a) Type II diabetes;

(b) High blood pressure;
(c) High cholesterol;
(d) Bone and joint problems;
(e) Asthma;
(f) Restless or disordered sleep patterns;
(g) Liver and gall bladder disease; and
(h) Depression and low self-esteem.
Children who are overweight and obese have the tendency to remain lazy and
inactive. This will result in lack of physical activity and hence will worsen a
childÊs growth development and academic capability (see Figure 9.6).

Figure 9.6: Obesity in children

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=PIcture+of+obesity+in+children&oq
ACTIVITY 9.6
Prepare two baskets. Display on the table varieties of food and fruits
such as bread, pasta, cheese, oranges, grapes, sweets and other daily
food items normally consumed by children on a day-to-day basis. Ask
the children to pick the healthy food and put in one basket and the non-
healthy food in another basket. Provide guidance with proper
explanation.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
1. How can you better educate children to eat healthy food?
2. How can a childÊs weight and obesity hinder his or her physical
development and mental progress?

 Physical movements involves the use of gross motor and fine motor skills. It
brings a lot of benefits to the development of a childÊs growth and helps to
support a childÊs academic achievement.
 Physical activities include light and simple activities such as walking,

standing up and moving around while the vigorous and energetic activities
include running, jumping, swimming, playing hide and seek and others.
 Perceptual motor development refers to a childÊs ability to communicate with

the environment using his or her senses and motor skills.
 Issues of health and nutrition are inter-related to each other. Good nutrition
leads to good health and likewise will lead to malnutrition, weight gained or
obesity during their early childhood.
Auditory Gross motor skills

Developmental milestone Obesity
Fine motor skills Perceptual motor development
Bornstein, M. H., & Lamb, M. E. (Eds.). (2005). Developmental science: An

advanced textbook (5th ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Frost, J. L. (1992). Play and playscapes. New York: Delmar Publishers.
Frost, J. L., Wortham, S. C., & Reifel, S. (2010). Characteristics of motor

development. Retrieved from http://www.education.com/reference/
article/characteristics-motor-development/
Gallahue, D. L. (1989). Understanding motor development: Infants, children,

adolescents (2nd ed.). Dubuque, IA: Brown and Benchmark Publishers.

Gross motor skill. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.childdevelopment.

com.au/areas-of-concern/gross-motor-physical-skills/95
Ipatenco, S., & Demand Media. (2007). Healthy food for early childhood
classroom lunches. Retrieved from http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/
healthy-food-early-childhood-classroom-lunches-2323.html
Jambor, T. (1990). Promoting perceptual motor development in young children's

play. Playgrounds for Young Children: National Survey and Perspectives,
147-166.
Puckett, M. B., & Black, J. K. (2005). The young child: Development from pre-
birth through age eight. Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall.
Raising Children Network. (n.d.). Physical activity for younger children. Retrieved
from http://raisingchildren.net.au/articles/activities_for_younger_kids.html
Smith, M., & Robinson, L. (2016). Weight problems and obesity in children.
Retrieved from http://www.helpguide.org/articles/diet-weight-loss/
weight-problems-and-obesity-in-children.htm

10 Curriculum
for Aesthetic
and Creative
Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the aspects of music, creative movement, creative expression,
art, role play and drama activities;
2. Analyse the value of music, development and activities in early
childhood education;
3. Explain how children express themselves through creative
movements;
4. Describe suitable environment for creative expression in facilitating
creative thinking development among young children; and
5. Identify play activities and role play that can be embedded during a
childÊs development stage.

TOPIC 10 CONNECTING CURRICULUM FOR AESTHETIC AND CREATIVE  165
DEVELOPMENT
 INTRODUCTION
This topic addresses the aesthetic development of young children highlighting
the sensitivity of a child towards music and art. Arts allows the opportunity for
children to think creatively while enjoying and experimenting with words, paint
and music. Music and creative arts activities provide opportunities for problem
solving and creative thinking and helps to reduce stress, enhance development,
facilitate learning and bring balance in a childÊs life.
A teacherÊs technique, approach and activity needs to be open-ended giving

children the opportunity to stimulate their creative imagination. Children can be
taught to use their creativity and imagination expression through aesthetic
awareness to attain educational competencies.
ACTIVITY 10.1
1. List and discuss at least three songs that suits an early childhood
learner aged between four to six years old that would spark a
childÊs creative movement.
2. Plan an art activity for young children using crayons.
10.1 MUSIC AND MOVEMENT EDUCATION

FOR YOUNG CHILDREN
According to Judi Bosco, Board Certified Music Therapist (2014), music brings
people together. Through music, children share their creative expressions while
in a group, music releases energy which can be channelled creatively. Playing
and listening to music with one another helps children to learn more about
themselves. Susan Hallam from Institute of Education, University of London says
that „Speech and music have a number of shared processing systems. Musical
experiences which enhance processing can therefore impact the perception of
language which in turn impacts on a childÊs reading ability‰. Evidently, it is
important for us to know the reasons for implementing music in early childhood
education.

166  TOPIC 10 CONNECTING CURRICULUM FOR AESTHETIC AND CREATIVE
DEVELOPMENT
10.1.1 Why Music in Early Childhood Programmes is

Vital
Music comes naturally to children. From hand clapping, humming to singing, it
seems that music is so well ingrained in a childÊs life. There are reasons as to why
music is vital to early childhood learners and should be included into their
curriculum for the reasons listed below:
(a) Music helps in the development of a childÊs language learning capabilities.

Through singing, children will be able to help children acquire new
vocabulary and the correct use of language.
(b) Music evokes physical movement and soothes the body and mind.
(c) Music can trigger the brain while stimulating neural pathways associated
with higher forms of intelligence to increase a childÊs productivity in
abstract thinking, empathy and mathematics.
(d) Most of us learned our ABCÊs by singing the ABC song. MusicÊs melodic
and rhythmic patterns helps to develop memory and make it easier for
children to remember factual information.
(e) Music is an art of listening and young children are good aural learners.
Infants begin learning from the sounds of their environment before birth.
Listening to songs that tell a story provide an excellent opportunity for a
child to strengthen his or her concentration and attention. Music is even
perfectly designed for training children's listening skills.
(f) Music activities involve the coordination of the whole body system. The
bodyÊs urge to move, the brainÊs attention to patterns, the earÊs initiating
communication, the voiceÊs response to sounds, as well as the eye-hand
coordination associated with playing musical instruments.
(g) Music is a creative experience which involves expression of feelings, moods

and emotions. Children often do not have the words to express themselves
and need positive ways to release their emotions. Music is able to facilitate
the development of desirable emotions while dissolving the undesirable
emotions.
(h) Music can foster appreciation of culture and is an avenue by which songs,
rhymes, and dances can be passed down from one generation to another.
Every culture is unique and children love to participate in the various
cultural songs and dancing across the nation.

DEVELOPMENT
(i) Music is a social activity which involves family and community

participation. Through music, children experience joy, pleasure, creative
expression and various emotional responses.
(j) Music has therapeutic value that can enhance a childÊs feelings of self-
worth. Children should be allowed to interpret music in their own way, by
learning new words, melodies, gestures and movements.
10.1.2 A Teacher’s Role in Music Education

As mentioned earlier, teachers play an important role in stimulating creativity,
imagination and aesthetic development in young children. The teacher must be
aware of a childÊs musical skill and interest. The following is a list of roles that
can guide a teacher to develop a music and creative movement curriculum:
(a) Show interest in whatever that a child is doing or creating.
(b) Do not only listen to music but participate in music.
(c) As a musicianship, be confident in guiding children.
(d) Use music to support other parts of curriculum to create variety and so
provide transitions to activities.
(e) Allow freedom of expression and movement for children to express their
feelings, moods and interpretations.
(f) Do not critic and expect perfection in performing skills from the children.
(g) Plan activities that will encourage music participation and expression as
well as providing materials that will help stimulate creative thinking and
actions.
(h) Plan for field trips to see various musical performances.
(i) The teacher should further motivate the children by praising their musical
performances.

DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITY 10.2
1. Select a song for an early childhood learner that can be sung using
hand gestures and expressions.
2. Plan an activity that allows children to participate in music

curriculum, either indoor or outdoor activity.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. Why is music so important in the early life of children?
2. How can music and movement be integrated in a pre-school

curriculum?
10.2 CHILDREN’S DEVELOPMENT STAGES IN

ARTS
There are five stages for a childÊs development in art. Each of these stages are a
combination of visual characteristics seen in a childÊs art work but little attempt
has been made to relate age with the growth stages of art. It is normal for a
childÊs creativity and mental growth to develop differently. The five stages of art
are:
(a) The Scribble Stage

The first stage occurs when a child manipulates the drawing tool by making
random dots, marks and lines on any drawing surface. The child will
scribble using the drawing tool with little or no concern for the appearance
of the marks he makes. The three types of scribblings are random
scribbling, controlled scribbling and naming of scribbling.
Children aged two to four years old like to scribble because it gives them a
chance to move their arms around freely. Figure 10.1 and Figure 10.2 shows
random scribbling and controlled scribbling.

DEVELOPMENT
Figure 10.1: Random scribbling

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=pictures+of+The+Scribble+Stage+in+art
Figure 10.2: Controlled scribbling

(b) The Pre-Schematic Stage

The pre-schematic stage begins when a child learns to form symbols such
as circles, squares and lines. The symbols change frequently and the paper
may be turned several times while drawing. The pre-schematic stage
generally refers to drawings from three to seven years of age where a
„schema‰ has not yet been developed in a child. Figure 10.3 shows a pre-
schematic stage where a child has drawn a person with few features using
his or her favourite colour. At this stage, the objects drawn are floating in
space and not anchored.

DEVELOPMENT
Figure 10.3: Pre-schematic stage

(c) The Schematic Stage

At five to eight years old, most children would have arrived at the
„schema‰ stage demonstrating a specific type of drawing such as the
lollipop tree, the stiff scarecrow-type drawings of people or a series of
homes all identical to one another. The „schema‰ represents a childÊs
current knowledge of the subject that he draws. A child will start using
realistic colours. Sometimes the drawings are a reflection of what that can
create. Figure 10.4 shows a childÊs „schema‰ stage drawing of his or her
self-expression using their active form of imagination.
Figure 10.4: Schematic stage


DEVELOPMENT
(d) The Transitional Stage

At this stage, a maturing child usually nine years old or older puts an
attempt to produce art work that meets adult standards yet still contains
characteristics of the schematic stage. Much attention is given to details,
gender roles and clothing differences.
(e) The Realism Stage

In general, when the child reaches the age of 12 or older, he or she enters a
stage of realism where his or her paintings and drawings are in the manner
of adult artists. The figures become natural in appearance. The child now
becomes most critical and self-conscious about their ability to produce a
more realistic artwork.
ACTIVITY 10.3
Collect samples of art paintings from early childhood learners aged

between two to six years old. Identify and categorise the paintings
according to Scribble Stage, Pre-Schematic Stage, Schematic Stage,
Transitional Stage and the Realism Stage and explain its characteristics.
10.3 ESTABLISHING AN ENVIRONMENT FOR

CREATIVE EXPRESSION AND
EXPERIMENTATION
Creativity is a phenomenon whereby something new and valuable is formed.
The created item may be intangible (such as an idea, a scientific theory, a musical
composition or a joke) or a physical object (such as an invention, a literary work
or a painting). Children are encouraged to explore their creative expression in the
form of art or in other similar fields of study as it provides an avenue for
learning. Teachers and educators might undermine a childÊs creativity if they are
not appreciative of the creative efforts put together by a child whose only form of
expression is through art.
An environment created for learning should welcome exploration and

experimentation of art by eliminating elements that may cause distress and time
restrictions. There is a need to provide value to a childÊs creative work by
providing the relevant art centre for all children.

DEVELOPMENT
10.3.1 Establishing an Art Environment

A conducive environment suitable for enhancing a childÊs creativity should be
equipped with all the basic necessary essentials such as papers, crayons, paints
and brushes. Besides that, here are some of the additional points to consider
when establishing an art environment:
(a) The process of creative thinking is a complex process; therefore all

educators must be prepared and aware of the consequences.
(b) There is no right or wrong way of doing things ă everything is based on

oneÊs creativity.
(c) Not all children are creative and some children are more creative than
another.
(d) There should be some leeway in a classroom for a childÊs unfinished work
to be continued the next day.
(e) Children should be encouraged to engage their creative process while

playing and experimenting with objects but teachers should continue to
assure them that any work might not result in a finished product.
(f) Help parents to appreciate their childÊs creativity even though it is not a
finished work.
(g) Be ready to accept certain level of messiness, noise and freedom during
class.
(h) Continue experimenting and testing for alternatives in determining the best
for children and their classroom atmosphere.
(i) Remember that creative experiment should flow through the entire
curriculum.
10.3.2 Ways to Support a Child’s Creativity

Children are born to be creative. It is the duty of each teacher and parent to
nurture a childÊs creativity while allowing it to flourish. Educators need to be
creative thinkers who innovate, value originality and use their imagination in
establishing an environment for creative expression and experimentation among
the young learners.

DEVELOPMENT
In a physical environment, there are various ways which can help children in
their creativity such as:
(a) Providing a surplus of open-ended, natural and „found‰ materials.
(b) Preparing materials that encourage creative expression such as paint,

blocks, paper, glue, texts, pencils and crayons.
(c) Including objects such as stones, shells, flowers, art prints, fabric and
baskets.
(d) Improvising materials and equipment.
(e) Advising children to be responsible for the materials and equipment by

letting them choose and help them learn to care for things.
Some of the learning opportunities that could be offered to a child are:
(a) Teaching techniques such as wiping a brush on the side of the paint pot to
prevent dripping or using the right amount of glue.
(b) Giving opportunities to babies and toddlers to explore and experiment with
materials.
(c) Introducing children to a variety of creative expressions in the form of art,

architecture, inventions, music and dancing.
(d) Using books, stories and other media as a powerful text.
(e) Allowing ample time for children to learn and grow over days or weeks by
encouraging their effort.
(f) Integrating multiple types of music into the curriculum.
(g) Collaborating with children to adopt a creative approach in their routine.
(h) Encouraging children to collaborate with each other and to be open to

othersÊ perspectives.
ACTIVITY 10.4
Prepare materials such as paint, blocks, paper, glue, pencils, crayons,

match sticks and round rubber bands. Create four activities using any
two items for each activity. Describe the activity chosen.

DEVELOPMENT
10.4 SAND AND MUD, WATER, BLOCKS

WOODWORKING, COOKING AND
CREATIVE FOOD MATERIALS
Children will play and create activities either individually or in groups as long as
there are objects that interest them to play with. Sand, mud and water play is an
activity that can be conducted either indoors or outdoors. There are many
different ways that the children can play and create activities with these items.
Children love the idea of play when it involves splashing, pouring, squishing
and mixing water.
10.4.1 Benefits of Sand Play for Children

Figure 10.5 shows children who are engrossed in playing with sand, building
castles and fulfilling their imagination in an outdoor setting.
Figure 10.5: Sand play activities

Source:
(a) http://www.kimscounselingcorner.com/2014/05/05/using-sand-encourage-childs-
wellness-development/
(b) http://www.kimscounselingcorner.com/2014/05/05/using-sand-encourage-childs-
wellness-development/

DEVELOPMENT
Playing with sand either by the seaside, in the backyard or in the classroom (sand
placed in a large tray) allows children to:
(a) Feel the texture of different types of sand using their bare hands and
fingers.
(b) Imagine building structures or building castles as commonly known by the

children when playing with sand. With the use of scoops, shovels, baskets
and rake, little stones and seashells, children will be able to express their
creative expression.
(c) Socialise with their peers and friends while playing sand. Sand play activity
also allows children to communicate with one another while they try to
complete their project.
(d) Learn through sand play by giving them freedom to create and foster
learning through reflection, tracking and questioning. For example, finding
and counting the marbles in the sand.
(e) Use sand as a therapeutic tool. This is a popular form of therapy. Some
therapists seek certification in sand tray therapy. Figure 10.6 is a sand
therapy tray which is used by a child to express his or her feelings.
Figure 10.6: Sand tray therapy

Source: http://www.kimscounselingcorner.com/2014/05/
05/using-sand-encourage-childs-wellness-development/

DEVELOPMENT
10.4.2 Benefits of Mud Play for Children

Do you have happy memories of playing outside in the mud and the dirt during
your childhood days? Making mud pies is one of the fondest childhood
memories of every person (see Figure 10.7(a)). Let us be creative and allow
children to do so. Give children the freedom to be creative and imaginative
during their playtime because creativity enhances their learning experience.
Playing in the mud can be beneficial to children because of the following reasons:
(a) Playing in the Mud Can Make a Child Happier

Studies reveal that dirt contains microscopic bacteria which help our mind
to relax, soothe and be calm, thus controlling our mood. Therefore, children
who play in mud will be in a happier mood.
(b) Playing in the Mud Connects Children with Nature

Most children these days are not exposed to a life beyond their school
playground or their own backyards, if they even have one. Getting children
outside to play creates happy memories with the one most primal element
in our world which is „nature‰.
(c) Playing in the Mud Can Make Children Healthier

According to Ruebush (2009), „Let your child be a child. Dirt is good. If
your child isnÊt coming in dirty every day, theyÊre not doing their job.
TheyÊre not building their immunological army. So itÊs terribly important‰.
(d) Playing in the Mud Can Make Children Smarter

Once in a while put aside the flash cards and let a child get messy in the
mud. This will help improve his or her cognitive function.
(e) Playing in the Mud Helps Children to Learn and Develop

Playing with mud involves the use of hands, feet and eyes. Children learn
to enhance their creativity and experiences while playing in the mud.
(f) Playing in the Mud Helps Develop Positive Dispositions

Having mud patch or a mud pie to play with (Figure 10.7(a)) provides
space for children to retreat to for some time alone in a soothing sensorial
experience or to play with peers while learning to cooperate, communicate,
negotiate and share.

DEVELOPMENT
(g) Mud is a Wonderful Art Medium

Mud can be moulded into shapes just as sand and play-dough (refer Figure
10.7(b)).
(h) Mud Play Welcomes All Newcomers

Every child might find different ideas and creativity when playing with
mud. With mud play, there is always something to learn for everyone. See
Figure 10.7(c).
(i) Playing in the Mud Encourages Creative Thinking

Playing with mud stimulate creativity and imagination and an endless
ideas of games to play with.
(j) Childhood Memories

Mud play activities are normally played by children aged between three to
nine years old. As they grow older, they will cherish the memories they
made during their experience in learning how to play with mud.
Figure 10.7: The various mud play activities

Source:
(a) https://www.google.com/search?q=images+mud+play+activities&espv=2&biw=
1280&bih=699&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwin_
(b) https://www.google.com/search?q=images+mud+play+activities&espv=2&biw=
(c) https://www.google.com/search?q=images+mud+play+activities&espv=2&biw=

DEVELOPMENT
10.4.3 Water Play Activity

Playing with water does not only allow children to have the pleasure of
splashing water but with proper guidance from the teacher, a child can be taught
the concept of floating and sinking (buoyancy). Figure 10.8 shows indoor water
play.
Figure 10.8: Indoor water play activity

Source: https://www.google.com/webhp?sourceid=chrome-
instant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-8#q=images%20of%20water%20play%20activities
10.4.4 Blocks and Woodworking Activities

During blocks and woodworking activities, children should be free to choose
using plastic blocks or Lego or wooden blocks that comes in various shapes and
sizes such as a triangle, square, rectangle, round, thick and thin, and long and
short. Children will creatively build their imagination from these blocks (see
Figure 10.9).

DEVELOPMENT
Figure 10.09: Blocks and woodworking activities

Source:
(a) https://www.google.com/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=
UTF-8#q=images+of+BLOCKS+WOODWORKING
(b) https://www.google.com/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=
UTF-8#q=images+of+BLOCKS+WOODWORKING
Block and woodworking activities offer many experiences to a child to facilitate

his or her growth and enhance skills in all areas of development such as:
(a) Physical Skills

Helps to develop large muscles as a child lifts heavy blocks from one place
to another, refine small motor skills, eye-hand coordination, restore sense of
balance as they stack and place blocks together.
(b) Social/Emotional Skills

Promotes cooperation among peers, encourages sharing, creates acceptance
of othersÊ ideas, builds self-esteem and confidence.
(c) Language Skills

Helps in increasing vocabulary and communication skills such as
conversation, questioning, labelling, crafting stories and using comparative
language such as larger, taller or small.
(d) Intellectual Skills

Helps to develop concepts of number, size, shape, length, height, weight,
area, cause-effect relationships, fractions, adding, subtractions, testing
ideas, estimating and measuring.

DEVELOPMENT
10.4.5 Cooking and Creative Food Experiences

Many children are involved in cooking activities all the time! A child can make
mud pies to bubble cakes in the bath tub. Leave a child in the kitchen and he or
she will be creating their own dish with their own recipe. Figure 10.10 shows
how engrossed a child can be with his or her friends during a cooking lesson.
Figure 10.10: Children participating in a variety of cooking activities

Source:
(a) https://www.google.com/webhp?sourceid=chromeinstant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-
8#q=images+Cooking+and+Creative+Food+Experience+for+young
(b) https://www.google.com/webhp?sourceid=chromeinstant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-
8#q=images+Cooking+and+Creative+Food+Experience+for+young
Food can be used to help children learn about shapes, colours or how fruit is
grown. It will also help develop a childÊs skills in other areas like literacy, gross
and fine motor and teach good hygiene and social skills. Cooking too needs
creativity. It raises a childÊs self-esteem, encourage team work and improve their
numeracy skills.
ACTIVITY 10.5
Plan, implement and evaluate at least one creative activity based on

mud and sand play, water play, blocks and woodworking play and a
cooking experience.

DEVELOPMENT
SELF-CHECK 10.2
Children learn through different kinds of play; mud and sand play,
water play, blocks and woodworking play and cooking experiences.
What are the advantages that could be instilled in an early childhood
learner through these activities?
10.5 ROLE PLAY AND DRAMA PLAY

ACTIVITIES IN PRE-SCHOOL
Learning skills and creative child development are some of the activities which
can be acquired by children who actively engage in role play and drama play
activities in school. Where else can you find pilots, police officers, veterinarians,
teachers, doctors, princesses, karate instructors to chefs all happily working side-
by-side? In a dramatic play area of a classroom, of course. Figure 10.11 is an
image of a girl role playing as a hairstylist in a hair salon washing a customerÊs
hair. How and where did she pick up this idea? She may have followed her mum
to the hair salon or picked it up through watching television.
Pretend play or role play is much more than simple play activities but it requires
advanced thinking strategies, communication and social skills. Role play activity
teaches a child how to use language in real life and how to communicate.
Children learn to do things like negotiate, consider peopleÊs perspectives,
transfer knowledge from one situation to another, delay gratification, balance
their own ideas with others, develop a plan and act on it, explore symbolism,
express and listen to thoughts and ideas, assign tasks and roles, and synthesise a
variety of information and ideas during their role play.

DEVELOPMENT
Figure 10.11: Role play activities

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=role+play+and+
drama+play+activities+in+preschool
Role play and dramatic play is a type of activity where children accept and
assign roles, and then act them out. They will pretend to be another person, and
dramatise situations and actions to go along with the roles they have chosen to
play. Drama play can enhance learning during the early years of a child. In order
to have full benefit from drama play, a suitable space or stage could be set up in
the classroom to represent several props with proper and suitable materials that
can be used by the children. Examples of creative drama play are pantomime,
story drama, readerÊs theatre or puppets.
In performing creative drama play in pre-schools, children should acquire skills

such as:
(a) Problem solving skills;

(b) Ability to read, speak, write and listen;
(c) Communication skills;
(d) Ability to socialise;
(e) Analysing skills and
(f) Planning skills.

DEVELOPMENT
Besides that, the children, should also possess the following qualities:
(a) Self-confidence;
(b) Courage;
(c) Creativity and
(d) Empathy.
ACTIVITY 10.6
You wanted to set up a grocery stall as one of the prop for the early
childhood learners. What are the materials necessary to set up the prop?
Sketch the lay out of the prop.
SELF-CHECK 10.3
List three activities of role play and three activities of creative drama
which are suitable for young children between the ages of two and six
years old. Elaborate how the activities are to be conducted.
 Children share their creative experience through music which helps to

enhance a childÊs development.
 The creativity and mental growth of a child grows at different rate. The
progress of art in a child can be defined according to five stages namely: the
scribble stage, the pre-schematic stage, the schematic stage, transition stage
and realism stage.
 Besides support from the teachers and parents in childrenÊs art creativity and
expressions, establishing a proper and conducive environment for them to
experience and experiment their creative art is also very important.

DEVELOPMENT
 Water, mud and sand play, blocks and woodworking, and cooking and
creative food experiences are activities that not only bring joy to the children
but teach them to be creative, imaginative, promote cooperation among
peers, sharing, acceptance of peopleÊs ideas, self-esteem, confidence and
enhance their learning experiences.
 Role play and drama play can build-up a childÊs self-esteem and help them
experience real life through a prop set up in his or her classroom. This
activity helps a child to communicate and speak as well as improve his or her
vocabulary.
Aesthetic Schematic stage

Aural learner Scribble stage
Pre-schematic stage Therapeutic value
Realism stage Transition stage
Rhythmic pattern
Angie Dorrell, M. A. (n.d.). Water play: Wet and wonderful. Retrieved from
http://www.earlychildhoodnews.com/earlychildhood/article_view.aspx?
ArticleID=374
Bosco, J. (2014). Benefits of music and movement for children ă musikgarten.

Retrieved from www.musikgarten.org/music_movement.cfm
Cecchini, M. E. (n.d.). Ms, how dramatic play can enhance learning. Retrieved
from http://www.earlychildhoodnews.com/earlychildhood/article_view.
aspx?ArticleID=751
Jackman, H. (2011). Early education curriculum: A childÊs connection to the

world (5th ed.). California: Wadsworth Publishing.

DEVELOPMENT
Let the children play in the mud. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.
letthechildrenplay.net/2011/08/10-reasons-why-we-should-let-children.
html
Roland, C. (1990). The early childhood learning environment. Retrieved from

http://sde.ok.gov/sde/sites/ok.gov.sde/files/EarlyChildLearnEnv.pdf
Ruebush, M. (2009). Why dirt is good: 5 ways to make germs your friends (1st
ed.). United Kingdom: Kaplan Publishing.
Salome, R. A., & Moore, B. E. (n.d.). The 5 stages of development in childrenÊs art,
Retrieved from http://my.ilstu.edu/~eostewa/ART309/Five_Stages.htm

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702


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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Mahani Abdul Malik

Nik Noraini Nik Abu Bakar

Moderator: Dr Nurul Aliah Mustafa

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, August 2016

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Overview of Child Curriculum 1

Topic 2 Overview of Curriculum Models 17

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

2.5 Reggio Emilia 29

Topic 3 Early Curriculum Basics (Play, Discovery and Creativity) 35

Topic 4 Structure of Early Childhood Curriculum: Planning, Designing, 48

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 5 Classroom Design and Organisation 78

Topic 6 Curriculum for Developing Emotional and Social Development 96

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 7 Connecting Curriculum for Language and Literacy Development 115

Topic 8 Connecting Curriculum for Early Mathematical Skills and 132

Topic 9 Overview of Curriculum for Physical Development 146

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 10 Connecting Curriculum for Aesthetic and Creative 165

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

1. Identify specific instructional areas within the curriculum;

2. Apply the different ways of conceptualising and implementing the

3. Design appropriate learning activities and experiences for young children

4. Identify different teaching strategies used in helping the young students

5. Differentiate between curriculum teacher driven planning and child

6. Plan for individualised, small group and whole group learning.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 gives an overview of child curriculum focusing on the purposes of

Topic 2 introduces students to various types of curriculum models such as Head

Topic 4 introduces factors to be considered in planning curriculum to promote

Topic 5 emphasises on the importance of providing an exclusive educational

Topic 6 discusses the primary developmental tasks in achieving personal

Topic 7 focus on helping teachers to develop an appropriate environment to

Topic 8 explores the concepts related to early childhood learning experiences in

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Topic 9 discusses physical movements and activities, perceptual motor

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

Catron , C. F ., & Allen. J (2008) Early childhood curriculum: A creative-play

Jackman. H.L (2001). Early education curriculum: A childÊs connection to the

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

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A curriculum may not identify the developmental theory on which it is based,

What do you understand by the word „curriculum‰ and what

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1.1 CHILD CURRICULUM

(a) A set of specific activities;

(c) A comprehensive approach to fostering the development of a child.

Table 1.1: Terms Used in Curriculum