UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FCE 532
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL DESIGN

DESIGN PROJECT

GROUP 4

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF A 20 STOREY

BUILDING

SUBMISSION DATE
5TH JUNE 2017
Group 4 Members:
Reg. No. Name
F16/53425/2012 Njoroge Oliver Mwaura
F16/1532/2012 Njoroge Esther B Muthoni
F16/36579/2010 Njue Josiah Munyi Kathero
F16/1492/2012 Njuguna Stephen Ngaruiya
F16/53725/2012 Nyakundi Samuel Oyabi
F16/53595/2012 Nyambane Kelvin Omae
F16/1501/2012 Nyole Adeline Cheptoo
F16/1523/2012 Odede Ezekiel Oduor
F16/1481/2012 Odhiambo Linda Atieno
F16/36173/2010 Oduor Judy Adhiambo
F16/52948/2012 Oduor Raymond Onyango
F16/1483/2012 Ogada Fredrick Clinton
F16/1485/2012 Okuku Omondi Macmillan
F16/39421/2011 Omolo Peter Friis Owino
F16/1521/2012 Omondi Stephen Oula
F16/40430/2011 Onyancha Neville Ondari
F16/1534/2012 Orinda Collins Ochieng
F16/1502/2012 Orwa Wayne Onyango
F16/1620/2012 Osotsi Marience
F16/1472/2012 Otieno Kennedy Rajula
F16/1386/2011 Ouma James Ayacko
F16/54184/2012 Rapemo Merkle Awuor
F16/1489/2012 Rotich Kevin Kipkemboi
F16/53405/2012 Rugut Collins
F16/2871/2012 Selein Sharon
F16/36437/2010 Sheikh Idris Farid
F16/53988/2012 Simiyu Faith Zawadi
F16/55573/2012 Theuri Alvin Nderitu
F16/1208/2012 Thirima John Gachinu
F16/40362/2011 Titiya Neraisa Khasoha
F16/1516/2012 Tonui Kiplangat Kevin
F16/54862/2012 Wageche Richard Wakori
F16/1480/2012 Wahome Eunice Wangari
F16/53586/2012 Wainaina John Gichuru
F16/53720/2012 Wambui Dennis Nganga
F16/52655/2012 Wambulwa William Majani
F16/1535/2012 Zembi Jerop Anita

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Abstract
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molestie, et sus

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Table of Contents
Group 4 Members:.................................................................................................................................... i
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................................... iv
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... v
List of Symbols/Acronyms ..................................................................................................................... vi
Chapter One ............................................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Project Brief............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Project Definition .................................................................................................................... 1
1.3. Objectives ................................................................................................................................ 1
1.4. Structure of the Design Report ................................................................................................ 2
Chapter Two ............................................................................................................................................ 3
LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.1. Introduction to Tall Structures................................................................................................. 3
2.2. Structural Forms ...................................................................................................................... 7
2.3. Design and Planning Principles ............................................................................................. 15
Chapter Three ........................................................................................................................................ 34
DETAILED DESIGN ............................................................................................................................ 34
3.1. Design Codes/Procedure ....................................................................................................... 34
3.2. PRELIMINARY MODELLING AND MEMBER SIZING ................................................. 36
3.3. LOADING ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................ 37
3.4. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ................................................................................................ 38
3.5. DRAWINGS AND BENDING SCHEDULES ..................................................................... 39
3.6. BILL OF QUANTITIES ....................................................................................................... 40
Chapter Four .......................................................................................................................................... 41
CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................................... 41
Appendices ............................................................................................................................................ 42
Appendix 1: … .................................................................................................................................. 43
References ............................................................................................................................................. 44

iii
List of Tables

iv
List of Figures

v
List of Symbols/Acronyms

vi
 Chapter One

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Project Brief

A 20 story commercial building is planned to be constructed in Upper Hill Area. The planning
requirements demands that you provide specific number of basement parking for a given
commercial space.

Plan and Design the building for 1 acre (0.404 Ha) plot. The road serving the property is 30
meters bus route. Discuss the issue of Ground Bearing Pressure for the structure.

1.2. Project Definition

A 1 acre plot has been designated for the construction of a proposed multi-purpose 20 story
building. Different designs have to be developed and the optimal design selected. The optimal
design must meet the planning requirements of the regulatory body in charge, meet the client’s
needs, structurally adequate to resist imposed loads and economical in design.

It is assumed that the proposed structure is multi-purpose and will include both space for
commercial use and office space. Therefore careful planning will be required in order to cater
for both users. Access and movement within the building has to be considered. The access road
has to be designed to cater for the heavy traffic that will be experienced entering and exiting the
building during peak hours.

Extensive geotechnical investigations have to be done to ensure that the ground designated for
this construction will be able to support the structure. An optimal foundation system has to be
selected for the structure during the planning and design stage.

The structure has to be designed considering any changes that will occur during its lifetime so
that it continues serving the users sufficiently.

1.3. Objectives
The following objectives will need to be met:
 Design a building to meet the needs of the client.
 Design a structurally adequate building to resist loads imposed on it.
 Design a foundation system sufficient to support the building.
 Plan and Design the Entry and Exit Access to the building.
 Economic design of the structure.

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1.4. Structure of the Design Report
The report will be divided in the following parts:

1. Literature Review.
 Introduction to Tall Structures.
 Structural Systems in High Rise Buildings. (Materials and Forms).
 Foundation Consideration for High Rise Buildings.
 Design Principles of Reinforced Concrete Buildings.
2. Detailed Design.
 Preliminary Design and Sizing of Members.
 Loading Analysis. (Dead, Imposed, Wind and Earthquake Load)
 Structural Analysis
i. Design and Detailing of Slabs.
ii. Design and Detailing of Beams.
iii. Design and Detailing of Columns.
iv. Design and Detailing of Foundations.
3. Drawings and Bending Schedules.
4. Bill of Quantities.
5. Conclusion.

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 Chapter Two

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction to Tall Structures

Basic to the engineering process is the objective to develop, design and construct a system to
fulfil a given set of performance requirements. Some of the objectives criteria in this multi-level
process are entirely rational and quantitative, but others must remain non-quantifiable because
of either their enormous analytical complexity or because they involve elements of taste or
aesthetics.

The fundamental aim in dealing with rational objective criteria is to find the best or optimal
solution to the problem at hand. In a building optimization problem the best solutions are those
that satisfy the requirements of function and integrity for the minimum capital and operating
costs and the maximum revenue income while remaining within the aesthetic bounds imposed
by the architect.

High rise buildings are an integral part of modern urban environments, and there are two
fundamental differences between designing them and engineering projects of a smaller scale:

1) The consequences of design decisions are more costly.

2) The environmental technology of a tall building is more complex.

High rise buildings represent enormous private and public investment and, most importantly,
they are large consumers of resource in the form of labor and construction materials. (Forwood
1975). Because of this enormous investment, research effort has been devoted over the years to
developing optimization techniques that reduce the consumption of resources for building
projects (Newark and Rosenblueth 1971, Cohn et al 1972. McDermott et al 1972, Iyengar 1973,
Cohn 1995).

In the modern era, tall building structures are in great demands because of the following reasons:

1. Scarceness of land in urban areas;

2. Greater demand for business and residential space;
3. Economical emergence;
4. Technical advancements;
5. Innovations in Structural Systems;
6. Desire for aesthetics in urban areas;
7. Cultural significance and prestige;
8. Human ambitions to build higher.

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 Figure: Function of High-Rise Buildings

There has been major moves away from the predominantly office buildings which have
dominated the tallest lists for many decades. We are now seeing residential and mixed-use
functions influence the list, up to 38% from 12% in just the last decade.

The rapid urbanization of developing countries partially explains why many of these buildings
are now residential in nature rather than commercial—to accommodate the growing populace
in the city. There are other reasons for this shift however, especially towards mixed-use, not
least the commercial incentive to “edge bets” on fluctuating demand for office–residential–hotel
functions by including them all in the building program. It also makes sense that, if great height
is the main objective of the project, then it is easier to achieve this with a residential rather than
an office function. Residential floor plates tend to be much smaller than office ones—an
advantage when subjecting materials to wind and other pressures almost a kilometer in the
sky—and also require less floor-area-consuming elevators and other vertical services to support
the function.

Like all designs, the design of a high-rise building involves the development of the physical
description of an artifact subject to a set of given constraints and specifications. There are three
phases in the design of a high-rise building;
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 1) Conceptual.
2) Preliminary, and
3) Detailed design.

Conceptual design deals with the identification of different concepts and the selection of overall
best subsystems and their configurations. The preliminary design stage involves the initial
development of one or a few conceptual models. Finally, the detailed design stage defines a
complete solution for all subsystems, and results in final drawings for architectural, structural,
electrical and mechanical systems.

Increasing numbers of high-rise buildings are produced each year for commercial use. However,
most design procedures are indirect, in that a design concept is proposed and then successively
analyzed, evaluated, corrected and reanalyzed until the final results fulfill the designers'
demands. The success of such a design process depends very much on the initial design concept
proposed and on the opinions, judgements and experience of the designers. As such, the
corresponding design process is often relatively ineffective since the structural type and
arrangement, architectural layout and electrical/mechanical equipment are often simply devised
and copied from previous designs. Because great numbers of such edifices will be required to
fulfil the accelerating demands of urban commerce, it is vital to establish comprehensive
method for the design of high-rise buildings. This investigation, will focus in particular upon
identifying "best concept" designs. Equally significant will be its focus on the development of
a general approach by which such designs may be achieved.

Factors that affect decisions in the design of high-rise buildings are primarily initiated by the
interests of the different parties involved as follows:

1. Owner
 Market Feasibility.
 Financial Feasibility.
2. Architect
 Spatial Requirements of Building Envelope and Services.
 Quality and Cost of Internal Environment.
3. Structural Engineer
 Gravity and Lateral Load Systems.
 Foundations.
4. Mechanical/Electrical Engineer
 Hydraulics/Piping.
 Electrical/Lighting.
 Elevators/Lifts.
 HVAC.
 Energy consumed by service systems.
5. Construction Engineer
 Labor/Equipment.
 Time/Climate.

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Globalization of building optimality is yet difficult to achieve because of the lack of agreement
across the industry for standard global models. Often, the optimization interests of the parties
involved in the design are in conflict. For example, an architect wants maximum flexibility of
floor space usage and high comfort level while a structural engineer desires the most economical
and safe structure. It is apparent that optimum floor flexibility may conflict with having the
lightest structure as column and girder layouts that achieve a least-weight structure may have
an adverse impact on floor space usage.

As another example, by increasing the height of a building for constant required area, the
building footprint and, hence, the land cost will decrease but the structural, vertical
transportation and facade costs will increase. Moreover, even the type of structural system and
material may change with height of a building. For constant floor area, a taller building means
a smaller footprint, which then implies the use of mat foundations or piles in lieu of less
expensive spread footings.

Furthermore, for a fixed required floor area, the more slender a building is in one direction the
greater is its surface area on the perimeter, which causes increased capital and operating costs
for heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. At the same time, a greater
perimeter means more access to daylight which decreases the lighting expenses and the heat
generated by the lighting system and increases the quality of the space and the comfort level of
occupants. This results in decreased HVAC cost during seasons of high temperature and
increased HVAC costs during cold seasons.

Conversely, the increased absorbed energy from the sun causes more spending on HVAC
systems during summertime and less spending during wintertime. It is also known that the
occupants of a high-rise building are generally negligent in turning off lights, even if there is
enough light from outside, and, therefore, to benefit from daylight it is necessary to install an
automated system which dims the lights in the presence of enough daylight, which will itself
increase the lighting capital costs.

Considering the interactions noted in the forgoing for but a few examples, one can see that the
prediction of optimal conceptual design scenarios for a high-rise building is a very complicated
task indeed. Fortunately, relatively recent advances in distributed computing paradigms have
been shown to be well suited for the complex task of modelling the global conceptual design
optimization problem.

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2.2. Structural Systems in High-Rise Buildings
The first step towards optimizing a building is to identify its major systems. While an optimized
high-rise building does not necessarily result from individually optimized systems, the
identification of optimum individual major systems must be the first step prior to integrating
these systems into the whole building. Structural, mechanical and electrical systems are the
major systems for a high-rise building that are of primary concern to engineers.

In general, the structural system of a building is a complex three-dimensional assemblage of

various combinations of interconnected structural elements. The primary function of a structural
system is to carry effectively and safety all the loads acting on the building, and eventually to
transmit them to the foundations. A structural system is therefore expected to carry:

1. Dynamic and static vertical loads;

2. Horizontal loads due to wind and seismic effects;
3. Resist stresses caused by temperature and shrinkage effects;
4. Resist external or internal blast and impact loads; and
5. Resist vibration and fatigue effects.

At the same time the structural system is subject to the following requirements:

1. It should conform with architectural requirements and those of the building's users and
owner;
2. It must interact with and facilitate service systems, such as heating, ventilating, air
conditioning, horizontal and vertical transport, and other electrical and mechanical
systems;
3. It should facilitate simple and fast erection of the building;
4. It must be resistant to fire;
5. It must enable the building, foundations, and the ground to interact properly; and
6. It should be economical.

A variety of factors have to be considered in the process of selecting the most suitable structural
system for a high-rise building. The selection is a complicated process, and no simple clear-cut
design procedures are available. The design team must use every available means, such as
imagination, previous experience, and relevant literature to arrive at the best possible solution
in each particular case. There are several sub-systems common to all types of structural systems
(Steel, Concrete, and Composite) namely:

1. Vertical load resisting systems; (Floor Systems and Columns)

2. Horizontal load resisting systems;
3. Structural joints;
4. Energy dissipation systems (dampers).

The commonly used structural forms can be classified into different categories, depending on
the type of stresses that may arise in the structural members due to the application of loads.
Sometimes two or more of the basic structural forms may be combined in a single structural
form system to form a hybrid system in order to meet the structures operational requirements.
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2.2.1. Structural Material in High Rise Buildings
Two major materials are used in the construction of high-rise buildings in the world: Concrete
and Steel. They both have their advantages and disadvantages. A trend diagram of the
commonly used materials in high-rise buildings since the 1930s is shown below:

Figure: Materials in High-Rise Buildings

The changes in structural material has been very significant over the past few decades. All-steel
buildings have dropped from 90% as recently as 1970, to 23% now (September 2011) in favor
of concrete or composite structure.

The reasons for the trend towards concrete/composite structure in the world’s tallest buildings
are multi-layered. It is partly a product of the developing countries where these projects are
located—which are much more likely to have sufficient concrete technological expertise, over
steel. Cost is also a significant factor, with concrete believed to be cheaper than steel. The
aforementioned change towards residential and mixed-use functions is also influential, since
the fire, acoustic and cellular requirements of “living” lend themselves better to concrete
construction rather than open-plan-enabling steel.

8
There are also many who believe that the increased performance required of the structure at
great height—through the required damping of movement (especially in residential towers) as
well as the transfer of vertical loads—can be more adequately handled by steel and concrete
acting together compositely, rather than one material alone.

Both concrete and steel framed structures have environmental issues associated with their use,
including a high embodied energy in their manufacture.

Concrete has some advantages; waste materials can be included within the mix such as GGBS
(Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag) and PFA (Pulverized Fuel Ash). In addition, moves
are being made to assess the potential of using recycled concrete, however, issues such as
moisture content and material variability dictate that it is economically unviable.

Steel, while having a high lead time, is known for its fast erection on site. However, steel needs
fire protection whereas within concrete this is inherent. Prefabrication of steel can allow thin
film intumescent coatings to be applied offsite.

Efficiency within concrete construction is being improved by the adoption of hybrid solutions
and innovations in formwork such as self-climbing forms. The use of precast concrete
construction can also help to significantly reduce build time particularly where vertical elements
are considered to be the main limitation.

Sacrificial probes can be integrated within concrete to provide strength determination at an early
age and this is likely to help further improve construction methodologies.

Steel, being fast to erect, can allow the building to be occupied sooner. In addition, reduced
labour costs are possible through dryness of form in comparison with concrete.

The construction of a steel framework is comparatively lightweight, as much as sixty percent

lighter than a comparable reinforced concrete frame solution which might allow for a less
expensive foundation system. In addition, modification to the building can sometimes be
facilitated by simple removal of a structural steel member.

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2.2.2. Structural Forms
The primary structural skeleton of a tall building can be visualized as a vertical cantilever beam
with its base fixed in the ground. The structure has to carry the vertical gravity loads and the
lateral wind and earthquake loads.

Gravity loads are caused by dead and live loads. Lateral loads tend to snap the building or topple
it. The building must therefore have adequate shear and bending resistance and must not lose
its vertical load carrying capability.

But when lateral forces are applied, the

The tall structure pushes down into the columns on the side being applied stretch
ground due to gravity loads apart and the columns on the other side
squeeze together
Figure: Tall Buildings Response to Loads

Tall building structures can be classified based on the structural material used such as concede
of steel but they can also be divided into two broad categories:

1) Interior Structures
By clustering columns and beams in the core, a stiff backbone that can resist
tremendous wind forces is created. The inner core is used as an elevator shaft, and the
design allows a lot of open space on each floor.

2) Exterior Structures.
The columns and beams are placed on the perimeter of the structure, creating a hollow,
rigid tube as strong as the core design, but weighing less.

This classification is based on the distribution of the components of the primary lateral load
resisting system over the building. A system is categorized as an interior structure when the
major part of the lateral load resisting system is located within the interior of the building.

Likewise, if the major part of the lateral load-resisting system is located at the building
perimeter, a system is categorized as an exterior structure. It should be noted, however, that any
interior structure is likely to have some minor components of the lateral load-resisting system
at the building perimeter, and any exterior structure may have some minor components within
the interior of the building.

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Some forms of Interior Structures include:
a) Rigid Frame
 A rigid frame is the load resisting skeleton constructed with straight or curved members
interconnected by mostly rigid connections which resist movements induced at the joints
of members. Its members can take bending moment, shear, and axial loads.
 Consists of columns and beams joined by moment resistant connections.
 Can build up to 20 to 25 floors.
b) Shear Wall Structure
 Concrete or masonry continuous vertical walls may serve both architecturally partitions
and structurally to carry gravity and lateral loading. Very high in plane stiffness and
strength make them ideally suited for bracing tall buildings.
 Usually built as the core of the building.
 Can build up to 35 floors.
c) Outrigger Structures
 The core may be centrally located with outriggers extending on both sides or in some
cases it may be located on one side of the building with outriggers extending to the
building columns on the other side.
 The outriggers are generally in the form of trusses (1 or 2 story deep) in steel structures,
or walls in concrete structures, that effectively act as stiff headers inducing a tension-
compression couple in the outer columns.
 Belt trusses are often provided to distribute these tensile and compressive forces to a
large number of exterior frame columns.
 Can build up to 150 floors.

The figure below shows the different structural forms systems for interior structures.

Figure: Structural Forms of Tall Buildings

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Some forms of Exterior Structures include:
a) Tube Systems
 The tube system concept is based on the idea that a building can be designed to resisit
lateral loads by designing it as a hollow cantilever perpendicular to the ground. In the
simplest incarnation of the tube, the perimeter of the exterior consists of closely spaced
columns that are tied together with deep spandrel beams through moment connections.
This assembly of columns and beams forms a rigid frame that amounts to a dense and
strong structural wall along the exterior of the building.
 The different tubular systems are: Framed Tube; Braced Tube; Bundled Tube and Tube
in Tube.

Figure: Types of Tube Structures

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b) Super Frame Structures
 Super-frame structures can create ultra-high rise buildings up to 160 floors.
 Super frames assume the form of a portal which is provided on the exterior of a building.
The frames resist all wind forces as an exterior tubular structure. The portal frame if the
super frame is composed of vertical legs in each corner of the building which are linked
by horizontal elements at about every 12 to 14 floors.
 Since the vertical elements are concentrated in the corner areas of the building,
maximum efficiency is obtained for resisting wind forces.

Figure: Super Frame Structures

Other forms of exterior structures include: Space Truss, Exo-Skeleton Structure and Diagrid
Systems.

The diagram below shows a general classification of both interior and exterior systems and their
groups.

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Figure: Structural Forms of Tall Buildings

14
2.3. Foundation Consideration for High-Rise Buildings
The Ground Bearing Pressure of the selected area where the structure is being constructed
largely determines the foundation type that will be used. A low ground bearing pressure will
require a more complex foundation system compared to an area with a high bearing pressure.

There are also a number of characteristics of tall buildings that can have a significant influence
on foundation design, including the following:

1. The building weight, and thus the vertical load to be supported by the foundation,
can be substantial. Moreover, the building weight increases non-linearly with height,
and so both ultimate bearing capacity and settlement need to be considered carefully.

2. High-rise buildings are often surrounded by low-rise podium structures which are
subjected to much smaller loadings. Thus, differential settlements between the high
and low rise portions need to be controlled.

3. The lateral forces imposed by wind loading, and the consequent moments on the
foundation system, can be very high. These moments can impose increased vertical
loads on the foundation, especially on the outer piles within the foundation system. The
structural design of the piles needs to take account of these increased loads that act in
conjunction with the lateral forces and moments.

4. The wind-induced lateral loads and moments are cyclic in nature. Thus,
consideration needs to be given to the influence of cyclic vertical and lateral loading on
the foundation system, as cyclic loading has the potential to degrade foundation capacity
and cause increased settlements.
5. Seismic action will induce additional lateral forces in the structure and also induce
lateral motions in the ground supporting the structure.
6. The wind-induced and seismically induced loads are dynamic in nature, and as
such, their potential to give rise to resonance within the structure needs to be assessed.
The risk of dynamic resonance depends on a number of factors, including the
predominant period of the dynamic loading, the natural period of the structure and the
stiffness and damping of the foundation system.

7. The dynamic response of tall buildings poses some interesting structural and
foundation design challenges. In particular, the fundamental period of vibration of a
very tall structure can be very high (10 s or more), and conventional dynamic loading
sources such as wind and earthquakes have a much lower predominant period and will
generally not excite the structure via the fundamental mode of vibration. However, some
of the higher modes of vibration will have significantly lower natural periods and may
well be excited by wind or seismic action. These higher periods will depend primarily
on the structural characteristics but may also be influenced by the foundation response
characteristics.

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The factors that may influence the type of foundation selected to support a tall building include
the following:

1. Location and type of structure.

2. Magnitude and distribution of loadings.
3. Ground conditions.
4. Access for construction equipment.
5. Durability requirements.
6. Effects of installation on adjacent foundations, structures, people.
7. Relative costs.
8. Local construction practices.

The common foundation options for a tall structure are:

1. Raft or Mat Foundations.

This is one of the most common foundation types. It’s known for its load distributing
capability. With the usage of this type of foundation the enormous load of the building gets
distributed and helps the building stay upright and sturdy. Loads are transferred by raft into
the ground.

If high-rise developments contain a multi-level basement, the base of the development may
be founded close to, or even embedded into, competent rock. A raft (mat) foundation to
support the entire structure may be feasible for buildings of moderate height. However, for
very tall buildings, such a shallow foundation may not be able to develop adequate
resistance to horizontal and moment loadings.

Raft/mat foundations are relatively large in size; hence the foundation vertical bearing
capacity is generally not the controlling factor in the design. The effects of lateral and
moment loading should be incorporated into the assessment of ultimate bearing pressure.
Soil stiffness is important in the raft/mat design to understand load distribution in the mat
and for evaluating bending moments and shears in the raft. It is often good practice to look
at an upper and lower bound set of soil stiffness values to evaluate raft performance.

The soil and rock parameters adopted for design should be carefully chosen considering the
variation in the ground conditions (both vertical and horizontal) across the relatively wide
foundation area. The possible effect of future construction activity should also be considered
in the estimation of bearing capacity.

For rafts founded on rock, the bearing capacity is highly dependent on factors such as the
intensity and orientation of joints, degree of weathering and other local or general defects.
For a weak rock mass having very closely spaced discontinuities or heavily weathered rock
materials, it is common practice to consider the conventional bearing capacity equations for
soil mechanics for the foundation design. For more accurate evaluation of the bearing
capacity, the geotechnical strength parameters can be obtained from large-scale field tests
in conjunction with an in situ test program, which will also provide the deformation
characteristics of the ground.
16
 Figure: Raft Foundation

2. Piled Foundations
This type of foundation is used for high rise construction. Load of the building is distributed
to the ground with the help of piles. Transfer of the loads to the ground is done with an
adequate factor of safety (FOS)

Often the ground conditions at a site are not suitable for a shallow raft/mat foundation
system, especially for high-rise buildings where the vertical and lateral loadings imposed
on the foundation are significant. In these circumstances, it is necessary to support the
building loads on piles, either single piles or pile groups, generally located beneath columns
and load bearing walls.

A piled foundation for high-rise structures often comprises a large numbers of piles and,
therefore, the challenge in the design is capturing the effects of the group interaction. It is
well recognized that the settlement of a pile group can differ significantly from that of a
single pile at the same average load level due to group effects. Also, the ultimate load that
can be supported by a group of piles may not be equal to the sum of the ultimate load which
can be carried by each pile within the group, and so consideration must be given to the pile
group efficiency.

17
 Figure: Pile Foundation

3. Piled Raft Foundations

This is a hybrid of 2 foundations. It consists of both the pile and raft foundation. It is useful
in marshy sandy soil that has low bearing capacity. Many high-rise buildings are constructed
with thick basement slabs. When piles are used in the foundation it is generally assumed
that the basement slab does not carry any of the foundation loads. In some cases, it is
possible to utilize the basement slab, in conjunction with the piles, to obtain a foundation
that satisfies both bearing capacity and settlement criteria.

A piled raft foundation is a composite system in which both the piles and the raft share the
applied structural loadings. Within a conventional piled foundation, it may be possible for
the number of piles to be reduced significantly by considering the contribution of the raft to
the overall foundation capacity. In such cases, the piles provide the majority of the
foundation stiffness while the raft provides a reserve of load capacity. In situations where a
raft foundation alone might be used, but does not satisfy the design requirements (in
particular the total and differential settlement requirements), it may be possible to enhance
the performance of the raft by the addition of piles.

In such cases, the use of a limited number of piles, strategically located, may improve both
the ultimate load capacity and the settlement and differential settlement performance of the
raft and allows the design requirements to be met.

18
 Figure: Pile Raft Foundation

The main advantage of adopting a piled raft foundation are as follows:

 As piles need not be designed to carry all the load, there is the potential for substantial
savings in the cost of the foundations.
 Piles may be located strategically beneath the raft so that differential settlements can be
controlled.
 Piles of different length and/or diameter can be used at different locations to optimize
the foundation design.
 Varying raft thicknesses can be used at different locations to optimize the foundation
design.
 Piles can be designed to carry a load approaching (or equal to) their ultimate
geotechnical load, provided that the raft can develop an adequate proportion of the
required ultimate load capacity.

2.4. Design Principles

2.4.1. Loads
One of the critical variables affecting the true factor of safety in the design of structures is the
accuracy of the magnitude and method of application of loads. Given that much of the analytical
work which is carried out in practice now uses computer programmes with a high degree of
precision it should be apparent that the ‘accuracy’ of the results depends greatly upon the
accuracy of the loading – if the loading is either over or underestimated then the precision of
the analysis does nothing to improve the overall ‘accuracy’ of the analysis.

Given the wide variability in load effects on structures there are a number of different ways in
which these loads can be grouped for the purposes of understanding their similarities and
differences. Some groupings are as follows:

19
 a) Permanent mass related loads: Self-weight of the structure; superimposed dead loads
(finishes); static mass of fixed equipment; Weight of soil supported.

b) Movable (time-dependent) service loads: Distributed floor loads; concentrated live

loads (traffic or movable equipment); Loads from stored materials (grain silo for
example); Loads from stored liquids.

c) Environmental forces: Wind loads; Flowing or ponding water loads; Snow loads;

d) Self-straining forces: Temperature; Concrete shrinkage; Differential movements of

supports

e) Inertial forces: Dynamic wind loads; Seismic loads; Blast loading

Some key forces are highlighted below:

a) Permanent (dead) loads

These include the self-weight of the structure, superimposed dead loads (finishes), static
mass of fixed equipment and weight of soil supported. The self-weight of a structure is
design-dependent and tends to vary over the course of the design process (generally in
a reducing trend). This is estimated using typical material densities.

b) Imposed (live) loads

Live, imposed or service loads are variable loads which occur due to the intended
purpose or use of the structure being designed. By their nature they are less definable
than gravity loads determined based upon what is built. They are also subject to being
changed as the building use changes. It is generally accepted though that new-build
structures will be designed for the use currently intended and that the design load will
be recorded so that any future change in use can be considered based upon the loads of
the new use and the actual capacity of the structure. For typical building uses there are
code tables which provide values to be used for design of the structures.

These include service loads, plant and equipment loads, crane loads and vehicle loads.

c) Wind Loads
Wind loads are one of the most significant lateral loads considered in the design of
structures, since they are generally considered in the design of building structures,
compared to say seismic loads, impact of blast, etc. which are considered in some cases
depending upon location and ‘risk’.

The magnitude of the loads is dependent upon the geographical location, the statistical
frequency of storms (climatic analysis), and the roughness of surrounding ground, the
geometrical features of the building and its parts and the dynamic properties of the
structure.

20
 Additionally, the magnitude of loading considered to larger building volumes is less
than that to smaller areas, such as individual cladding panels, as the gusts are larger,
with less speed and correlation of wind over larger volumes is less probable than over
smaller areas.

d) Seismic Loads
Seismic ‘loads’ are those forces generated by the accelerations related to earthquakes.
It is an important part of structural engineering design globally, in particular in those
countries where earthquakes of significant magnitude to cause damage to property and
injuries and/or death of people occur regularly. The basic approach is:

 Structures to survive minor, regularly occurring earthquakes without permanent

damage and associated non-structural elements to have no, or minor, damage.
 Structures to behave as predicted for larger magnitude, infrequent earthquakes –
extensive damage to the non-structural elements is acceptable.
 Under very high magnitude and very infrequent earthquakes for the structures to
not collapse (i.e. failure modes which are not ‘brittle’ and which allow the
evacuation of the structure).

2.4.2. Loads Combinations

Building design codes follow an approach of using factored load effects for the Ultimate Limit
State (ULS) and un-factored loads at the Serviceability Limit State (SLS). All combinations are
related to the likelihood of combinations occurring; it should be self-evident that applying
simultaneously wind, live, temperature and seismic loads effects, whilst logically sustainable to
variable relative levels, is not a practical approach. Engineering practice is therefore to define a
number of typical combinations, such as:

a) Dead + Live
b) Dead + Live + Wind
c) Dead + Live + Earthquake

2.4.3. Concrete Floor Systems

The most important aspect of a buildable concrete framed building is the choice of floor
system. Various options of concrete floor systems are shown below:

21
Figure: Floor Types

22
2.4.4. Preliminary Sizing
To enable some initial sizes to be put to concrete members some rules-of-thumb are used.
This is obtained from the ICE Manual of Structural Design.

Figure: Floor Elements Preliminary Span to Depth Ratios

Figure: Columns Preliminary Sizing

23
2.4.5. Design Process
Before commencing the final design, the structural engineer should ensure that all the design
data are place, including:

 Fixed geometry for the elements;

 Finalized actions on the structure, especially the finishes;
 Position of any openings;
 Fire resistance periods;
 Any particular requirements for serviceability, for example, vibration limits;
 Material classes.

The overall design process for an element will include determination of the following:

1. Cover Determination
The cover to reinforcement is an important aspect to concrete bond and durability and fire
resistance. The nominal cover to each element i.e. Slabs, Beams, Columns and the
Foundation are given in the standards.

2. Flexural
The flexural design of reinforced concrete members is well established and is based on
assuming that concrete has no tensile capacity. The tension in the section is resisted by the
reinforcing steel and the compression by the concrete. Both the concrete and the
reinforcement are assumed to act plastically at the ultimate limit state (ULS). The following
approach will be used for flexural design:

Figure: Flexural Design

24
3. Axial
Concrete columns are relatively stiff compared to columns in other materials and often the
compressive capacity is not limited by the buckling capacity. However, tall columns,
columns with small cross-section dimensions or pinned supports can fail due to buckling
rather than crushing. Therefore, codes of practice often provide a limit above which
second-order moments should be considered. This limit is obtained by taking into account
member geometry, creep, support stiffness, how the moments are applied and the
contribution of the reinforcement. The design procedure is as follows:

Figure: Axial Design

25
4. Shear
Unlike flexural design, there are several theories for determining the shear strength of
concrete. One widely used approach is to assumed that the shear strength of concrete
comprises a truss (see Figure 17.4 ), with a concrete strut at an angle to the vertical, shear
reinforcement acting in tension and the longitudinal reinforcement acting in tension. This
basic theory has to be empirically modified to agree with the results obtained from
experiments.

Where there is no shear reinforcement, the shear strength relies on aggregate interlock and
dowel action of the longitudinal reinforcement. For this reason it is recommended that
shear reinforcement is always provided, except in members of minor importance. Shear
reinforcement may also be omitted in slabs, provided the applied shear force is less than
the shear strength of the section without reinforcement.

5. Deflection
Deflection of reinforced concrete is a complex subject; it varies with a whole range of
parameters. In essence, the more sophisticated the analysis, the closer to the actual
deflection the predication is likely to be. The allowable deflection is compared to the actual
deflection for the section, to see if it passes the deflection check. The factors that affect
deflection are:

 Elastic modulus
 Tensile strength
 Creep
 Loading sequence
 Cracking
 Shrinkage curvature

6. Cracking
All reinforced concrete will crack; however, the extent of the cracking should be
controlled. Limits are usually placed on the size of the crack width, and then reinforcement
is designed to limit the cracking. Cracking is generally reduced by providing bars at a closer
pacing. There are two approaches to the control of cracking: either direct calculation can
be undertaken, or simple rules can be applied.

7. Detailing
Having determined all the element sizes and the reinforcement requirements, the
reinforcement needs to be drawn and scheduled, ready for fixing on site. The minimum
areas of steel should have been calculated to resist bending and shear. Checks should
have been carried out to ensure that deflection is within acceptable limits, but
reinforcement is provided for a number of other reasons:
 To control cracking, which occurs due to flexure, shrinkage and thermal effects;
 To support the top layer of reinforcement in slabs and beams;
 To distribute forces into the designed reinforcement, i.e. secondary reinforcement
in slabs and walls;
 To prevent buckling of bars in compression, i.e. links in columns.
26
27
 Chapter Three

BUILDING PRELIMINARY DESIGN

3.1. Planning Requirements

The Planning and Building Regulations (2009) prepared by the National Planning and Building
Authority in Kenya will be used for planning the design of the building.

Descriptions:
Maximum Gross Area of Construction: Total floor area contained within a building exclusive
of parking.

Building Plot Coverage: Area of the Plot covered by the building

Table A1: Occupancy/Building Classification

Class B1: High Risk Commercial Service
Occupancy where a non-industrial process is carried out and where either the material
handled or the process carried out is liable, in the event of fire, to cause combustion
with extreme rapidity or give rise to poisonous fumes, or cause explosions.

Table A2: Design Population

Class B1: 1 person per 15m2

Building Area
Plot Area = 1 Acre = 4046 m2
1) Relation to Plot Coverage:
Infrastructure Development Level (IDL): Assume Plot of Land has Moderate
Infrastructure Features.
IDL = 6.0

∴ 𝐵𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 6.0 × 10 = 𝟔𝟎 %

60
∴ 𝐵𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = × 4046 = 𝟐, 𝟒𝟐𝟕 𝒎𝟐
100
2) Relation to Plot Ratio:
Development Index (DI) = 1.2

∴ 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 6.0 × 1.2 = 𝟕. 𝟐

∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 7.2 × 4046 = 𝟐𝟗, 𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝒎𝟐

Various building designs were suggested, and the following building design was selected to be
the best fit the client’s requirements.
28
 Fig. : Building Elevations

29
Fig. Ground Floor and 1st Floor Layout

Fig. 2nd Floor to 20th Floor Layout

30
 Fig. Typical Basement Floor Layout

The buildings has two floors of commercial space (Ground and 1st Floor) and the other floors
(2nd to 20th Floor) are for office space.

The total usable floor area is calculated as follows:

Level Floor Area (m2) Total Floor Area (m2)

Ground Floor & 1st Floor 960 1,920
2nd Floor to 20th Floor 740 14,060
TOTAL 15, 980

Provision for parking was done using a rate of 2.5 parking spaces per 100 m2 of Floor Area

15980
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 = × 2.5 = 399.5 ≈ 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑺𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
100

One basement level using the following standards accommodates 80 parking spaces.

31
90 degree parking, with Curb Distance of 2.5 m, Distance from Curb of 5.0 m, and Back
Out Distance of 6 m. The minimum standards were used in order to obtain a high capacity for
the parking area.

Fig. : Parking Dimensions

400
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑠 = = 𝟓 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑳𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒔
80

An iterative process was used to come up with the design, to balance between the provision of
adequate services of the building and adequate floor area of the building, giving the results
above.

3.2. Structural Building Detail

3.2.1. General Building Layout
 The building is divided into two sections. The Ground Floor and 1st Floor have
commercial spaces, while the upper floors are dedicated office spaces.
 The access for the Commercial Area is separate from the Office Area entry.
 There is provision for a drop-off point adjacent to the access road for building users.
 There is a service entrance and exit at the rear of the building.

3.2.2. Structural System

 The structural system incorporated in the building is a Reinforced Concrete Frame
with a Core Wall.
 The Core Wall is 400mm thick and it starts from the foundation level to the 20th
Level. The lift core serving the Office Block is within the Core Wall.
 The structure’s two lower floors and the basement levels are wider in length and in
width compared to the upper floors; to provide sufficient base support for the whole
structure.
 The floor system that will be incorporated is a One-Way Spanning Slabs Supported
on Beams.
32
  There will be two types of beams, secondary beams and primary beams. The
secondary beams will take the load from the one way slabs and transfer it to the
primary beams.
 The primary beams will transfer the load to the columns both interior and exterior
columns and also to the core wall in some cases.
 The columns supporting the upper floors are twice the size of the other outer columns
ending on the structures 2nd level.
 The columns will then take the loads down to the foundation.
 Lateral loads will be resisted by both the frame and the core wall.

3.2.3. Foundation System

 The foundation system that will be incorporated is a combined raft and pile
foundation due to the varying soil conditions in Upperhill, Nairobi.
 The soil conditions from three different building sites in Uppehill are shown below,
this will be used to determine the foundation requirement to support the structure.

33
 Chapter Four

DETAILED DESIGN

4.1. Design Codes/Procedure

The following procedure will be used for the design of the structure:

1. Preliminary Sizing of Members.

2. Gravity Load Calculations.
3. Concrete Slab Design.
4. Lateral Loads Calculations.
5. Load Combinations Analysis.
6. Beam Design.
7. Column Design.
8. Shear Wall Design.
9. Foundation Design.

The codes and software packages that will be used are as follows:

Design Step Codes Software Packages

Preliminary Sizing
ICE Manual of Structural Design of Autodesk Robot
of Members and
Buildings Structural Analysis
Modelling
BS 6399 (Loadings for buildings)
Gravity Load
Part 1: Code of practice for dead and
Calculation
imposed loads
BS 8110 (Structural Use of Concrete)
Concrete Slab
Part 1: Code of practice for design and Microsoft Excel
Design
construction
Lateral Load
Calculations
BS 6399 (Loadings for buildings) Autodesk Robot
Wind Loading
Part 2: Code of practice for wind loads Structural Analysis
Codes of Practice for the Design &
Autodesk Robot
Seismic Loading Construction of Buildings and other
Structural Analysis
Structures in relation to Earthquakes, 1973
Load Combinations Autodesk Robot
Analysis Structural Analysis
Beam Design BS 8110 (Structural Use of Concrete)
Part 1: Code of practice for design and Tekla Tedds
Column Design construction
Shear Wall Design Prokon Structural
Foundation Design Analysis

34
4.2. General Structural Layout
The structural layout of the building is as follows:

35
3.3. PRELIMINARY MODELLING AND MEMBER
SIZING

36
3.4. LOADING ANALYSIS

37
3.5. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

38
3.6. DRAWINGS AND BENDING SCHEDULES

39
3.7. BILL OF QUANTITIES

40
 Chapter Four

CONCLUSION

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molestie, et sus

41
Appendices
List of appendices:

Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3

42
Appendix 1: …

43
References
Newmark, N. M., Rosenblueth, E. (1971), Fundamentals of Earthquake Engineering,
Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Cohn, M. Z., MeDermott, J. F., Abrams, J. 1. (1972). Some Results in the Optimization of
Ta11 Building Systems, International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering,
Ninth Congress, Amsterdam, May 8-13, p. 855-86 1.

Cohn, M. 2. (1 993, Optimizing Structural Systems, Proceeding of Structures Congress

XIII, Restructuring: America and Beyond, ASCE, Apr. 2-5, Boston, MA, USA, p. 141-
152.

McDermott, J. F., Abrams, J. I., Cohn, M. 2. (1972), Computer Program for Selecting
Structural Systems, ASCE Annual and National Environmental Engineering Meeting, Oct
16-22, p. 1-17.

Iyengar, H. (1973), Preliminary Design and Optimization of Steel Building Systems,

Planning and Design of Tall Buildings, Proceedings of ASCE-IABSE International
Conference, ASCE, New York.

Er. Nishant Rana, SiddhantRana (2014). Structural Forms Systems for Tall Building Structures.
SSRG International Journal of Civil Engineering (SSRG-IJCE) – Volume 1 Issue 4.

Recent Global Trends in Tall Buildings: Location, Function & Structural Material. Retrieved
from http://www.ctbuh.org/Home/FactsData/TrendsinTallBuildings/tabid/2776/language/en-
US/Default.aspx

Concrete vs. steel. Retrieved from

https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Concrete_vs._steel

Common dimensions for straight and angled parking. Retrieved from

http://www.parkinglotplanet.com/helpful-hints/195-common.html

National Planning and Building Authority. Planning and Building Regulations (2009). Kenya.

Structural Systems in High Rise Buildings. Retrieved from

https://www.slideshare.net/reachkarthiksuresh/structural-systems-in-high-rise-buildings

High-rise structural systems. Retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/aks254447/highrise-

structural-systems?next_slideshow=1

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