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a. Data storage
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b. Data updating Note: each data store in DFD is represented as an entity
c. Currency of information in corresponding ER diagram (different aspects of
system, but related)
Task-data dependency – user’s inability to obtain
additional information as his or her needs change 3. System flowcharts – graphical representation of
physical relationships among key elements of
- User’s information set is constrained by
system
data that he or she possesses and controls
- Also describe physical computer media
THREE OPTIONS
being employed in system
a. Do not use accounting data to support
decision FOUR DISTINCT AREAS OF ACTIVITY
b. Manipulate and massage the existing data
a. sales department
structure to suit their unique needs
b. credit department
c. Obtain additional private sets of data and
c. warehouse
incur the cost and operational problems
d. shipping department
associated with data redundancy
Entity – applies to anything about which the - Demand fewer organization resources
organization captures data - Use computer capacity only when program
is being run
Cardinality – degree of relationship
Note: length of lag depends on frequency of batch
- Numeric mapping between entities
processing
Data model – blueprint for what ultimately will become
Real-time systems – process transactions individually at
the physical database
the moment the event occurs; no time lag exist
between occurrence and processing
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- Large portion of programming cost are Disadvantages: information content is not readily
incurred in designing user interface apparent
- Must be user friendly, forgiving, easy to
Group codes – used to represent complex items or
work with
events involving two or more pieces of related data
- Require dedicated processing capacity
because they must deal with transactions as - Consist of zones or fields that possess
they occur specific meaning
- Require either purchase of dedicated
computer or investment in additional Advantages:
computer capacity 1. They facilitate representation of large amounts
Master file backup – procedure in transaction of diverse data
processing systems to maintain master file integrity in 2. They allow complex data structures to be
event that any of the ff. problem should occur: represented in hierarchical form that is logical
and more easily remembered by humans
1. Update program error corrupts master files 3. They permit detailed analysis and reporting
being updated both within an item class and across diff. classes
2. Undetected errors in transaction data result in of items
corrupted master file balances
3. A disaster such as fire or flood physically Disadvantage: tend to be overused resulting in increase
destroys current master files of storage cost, clerical errors, increase processing time
and effort
Deadlock – happens when one process places a lock on
one or more of the records it needs for processing but Alphabetic codes – used for many of the same purposes
has not locked all of them as numeric codes
Data coding – involves creating simple numeric or Advantages: capacity to represent large numbers of
alphabetic codes to represent complex economic items is increased dramatically through use of pure
phenomena that facilitate efficient data processing alphabetic characters embedded within numeric codes
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2. Access method – technique used to locate - Disadvantages: does not use storage space
records and to navigate through database or file efficiently; collision
Flat-file approach – single-view model that characterizes Collision – diff. record keys may generate the same
legacy system in which data files are structured, residual, which translates into the same address
formatted, arranged to suit the specific needs of owner
- Records cannot be stored at the same
or primary user of system
location
Sequential structure/sequential access method – all
Pointer structure – used to create linked-list file
records in the file lie in contiguous storage spaces in a
specified sequence arranged by their primary key - This approach stores in a field of one record
the address of related record
- Does not permit assessing records directly
TYPES OF POINTERS
Direct access structure – store data at a unique location,
known as address, on a disk. a. Physical address pointer – contains actual disk
storage location that the disk controller needs.
- Similar to way songs are stored on a cd
- Allows system to record directly without
Indexed structure – in addition to actual file, there obtaining further information
exists a separate index that is itself a file of record - Has the advantage of speed bec. It does not
addresses need to be manipulated further to
determines record’s location
Indexed random file – operations involving the
b. Relative address pointer – contains relative
processing of individual records
position of record in file
- Efficient us of storage - Must be further manipulated to convert it
- Dispersed throughout a disk without regard to actual physical address
for their physical proximity to other related c. Logical key pointer – contains primary key of
records related record
- This key value is converted into record’s
Virtual storage access method (VSAM) structure – used physical address by hashing algorithm
for very large files that require routine batch processing
and moderate degree of individual record processing
1. Indexes
2. Prime data storage area
3. Overflow area