Journal of Knowledge Management

The concepts of big data applied in personal knowledge management

Che-Hung Liu Jen Sheng Wang Ching-Wei Lin
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Che-Hung Liu Jen Sheng Wang Ching-Wei Lin , (2017)," The concepts of big data applied in personal knowledge
management ", Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 21 Iss 1 pp. -
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 The concepts of big data applied in personal knowledge management

1. Introduction and Background

Big data can be understood primarily as the huge amounts of data generated by

the Internet, mobile phones, tablets, etc. They are unable to be stored and retrieved by

a traditional database management system. From a management perspective, it also

can be characterized by volume (about 2.5 Exabyte of data were created every day in
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2012 and it seems to be much more nowadays), velocity (real time information creates

competitive advantages), and variety (data from different sources) (McAffee and

Brynjolfsson, 2012). Research on big data has been growing rapidly, but there are still

many knowledge gaps left unidentified and unfilled (LaValle et al., 2011; Watson and

Marjanovic, 2013). Research by the McKinsey Global Institute (MGI) identified data

collection, implementation of a data-driven business, and the diversity of data as

possible difficulties impeding application of big data in various sectors (Zhai, Ong,

and Tsang, 2014).

The environment of big data incrementally formed by the Internet applications

and Apps (such as social media), increases the value of a certain type of knowledge

over time through interactions among users, often resulting in generating new

knowledge. That will play an important role in the big data era (O’Leary, 2013).

Owing to the concepts of big data, the changes of information technologies have also

accelerated. Many traditional communication technologies are relatively expensive, so

many of these knowledge management tools could be initially implemented only for

large systems (Watson and Marjanovic, 2013). Zhai, Ong, and Tsang (2014) reported

several cases of applying big data in knowledge management tools in a number of

industries. For example, a study in the retail industry reveals how demand could be
 quickly estimated to satisfy customers better via big data analytics. Investigating the

healthcare sector, knowledge management tools are applied to improve the chances of

survival of premature children and the procedures to accelerate the development of

critical medical technologies. In addition, the government sector has demonstrated a

big data application of information analysis to increase police coverage to reduce

crime. In manufacturing, knowledge management applications can help organizations

to coordinate production and marketing effectively. Likewise, in finance, knowledge

management applications are used to prevent fraud and promote security (Bohlouli et
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al., 2013). Based on enhanced understanding, applications of big data in knowledge

management can be identified in different areas where contributions from big data

may be helpful (Erickson and Rothberg, 2014). Moreover, big data provides new

opportunities for extending the utilization knowledge management. For example, big

data can extract information that is more accurate, richer, and therefore more valuable.

Faced with such a large amount of information, i.e., big data, people’s knowledge

management becomes personally useful as well (Daas et al., 2013).

Big data can also be beneficial at the individual level for personal knowledge

management (PKM) (Zhao, 2013). PKM refers to the ways individuals build

knowledge through knowledge management tools including the collection, absorption

and use of knowledge, and the process of innovatively using knowledge. Personal

knowledge management is the application of knowledge management through

individual strategies, based on experience and skills, to create maximum value for

individuals (Pauleen, 2009; Pauleen and Gorman, 2011). When the big data

environment matured, PKM tools gradually became applicable to small organizations

and individuals. Services such as Google or weblogs, blogs, wikis, knowledge search

portals, and KM-Master (an innovative knowledge management tool for small
 organizations and individuals) are classified as PKM tools in the literature (Davenport,

2013). These PKM tools can be used via the Internet with Web 2.0 compatibility for

the purpose of information sharing. An important part of PKM is to facilitate informed

decisions by linking functionality and usage. However, the relationship between the

functions provided by these tools and their use by users is still not clear. Hence, this

study wants to describe the concepts of big data as applied in PKM.

The utilization of big data applications in PKM continues to grow. Personal

Internet usage involves all aspects of life, such as learning, entertainment and work.
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The trend of increasing usage can be also explained by more and more personal

information spreading over cyberspace. This illustrates a key feature of knowledge;

that it can expand rapidly minimally constrained by time and space. This information

and knowledge is often more valuable than the original data itself. Particular emphasis

has been placed on the two major approaches of big data analytics regarding

knowledge management: using scalable distributed algorithms for harvesting

knowledge from the Internet and text sources, and leveraging entity-centric

knowledge for deeper interpretation and better intelligence with big data (Suchanek

and Weikum, 2013). Does the value of big data application in PKM tools really make

it possible to use a large amount of data in a meaningful way? What underlying

relationships between the data are created explicitly by users? These are the questions

this paper wants to explore.

PKM tools are potentially set to be employed for personal use, and their ongoing

value-added process might be more in line with the concept of knowledge streaming.

However, the PKM utilization of big data today has not yet been commercialized, nor

has an effective methodology to use big data been formed. The role of big data in

PKM will precede knowledge capturing, thinking, organizing, creating,

 communicating, and continuing to repeat the flow on the web by individual users as

time passes. Unlike conventional knowledge management theories that have been put

forward, new ideas seem to have novel backgrounds and meanings. All previous

discussions point out the gaps in utilization of big data applied in PKM. Therefore,

this study seeks to further delve into this topic by developing relevant concepts of big

data applied in PKM.

2. Literature Review

Personal knowledge management is a relatively new knowledge management

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concept and methodology. Individuals can process all types of information, and

readily available information can be translated into more valuable knowledge that can

ultimately be connected to their work and life (Pauleen, 2009). Through management

of personal knowledge, one can develop good study habits, enhance information

literacy, improve professional knowledge, and improve capacity and competitiveness

to realize personal value and sustainable development and, finally, establish a solid

foundation for knowledge development (Pauleen and Gorman, 2011).

PKM means not only managing tangible content from the literature but also

extracting information from the raw data available on organization and

systematization. PKM focuses on tacit knowledge management, sharing both explicit

and implicit knowledge, and improving learning ability, adaptability and innovation.

Dorsey (2000) broadly defined PKM as a set of skills and methods that can both be

practiced at the sound conceptual and operational level to solve problems.

Frand and Hixon (1999) conceived PKM as a conceptual framework through

which individuals organize and centralize information they think is important to make

part of their knowledge base. PKM would also convert some scattered information

fragments into something that can be systematically applied to personal strategies, and
 thus expand our personal knowledge. Skyrme (1999) detailed a PKM strategy in a

concise description based on experience. He proposed the following steps to manage

personal knwledge:

1) Define demand for information.

2) Develop a strategy for knowledge acquisition.

3) Decide the priority of information.

4) Determine what information can be discarded and what information can be

included.
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5) Determine how and when information on hand is processed.

6) Establish norms for knowledge archive and preservation.

7) Create a personal file system that can manage and take care of work, life and

other intellectual activity.

8) Establish an information directory (bookmark) and index them for different

purposes.

9) Evaluate the value of stored information and catalog it regularly.

In summary, despite the various versions of the definition of PKM, their essence

is to help individuals improve work efficiency and integrate their information

resources to improve competitiveness. Through the implementation of PKM,

individuals can handle significant large amounts of information in a short period of

time, as well as quickly and efficiently obtain the required knowledge to accurately

utilize that knowledge and to improve work efficiency and their capability (Razmerita,

Kirchner, and Sudzina, 2009).

Secondly, we discuss the concepts of big data applied to PKM and introduce the

role that data plays in the chain of PKM. The value of data is determined by the

purpose for which the data is generated, i.e., it might be used to solve problems or
 create other value in the PKM process. Therefore, we should recognize the problems

we face and take them into consideration when applying big data in PKM (Razmerita

et al., 2009; Pauleen and Gorman, 2011). This study considers the following rules

when applying big data in PKM:

1. Identify, which data is valuable to you?

2. How do you obtain this data? Where can you obtain the data? What are the

methods you use to get the data? And, how long does it take you to get the data?

3. After you obtain the data, the next important step is data storage. Firstly,
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decide what type of format you want to use to store data, for example, structured

relational data or semi-structured documents. Secondly, analyze whether you

want to store this data in a database on servers or in personal and mobile devices.

If there is not enough storage space, you must also think about the length of the

storage period, e.g., a month or a year. Storage depends on your usage and

purpose for the data.

4. Examine how the data corresponds to the problem you planned to solve. If you

want to solve the problem, you must extract useful information from

uncategorized and unorganized data to form an effective method to apply data.

5. Select the method as to how to present the data. Presentation of data is

required to be categorized and organized. The method selected is also based on

the purpose, and whether visual diagrams or clearly analyzed results will solve

the purpose. A good presentation method could let the transformed data be better

understood as it ought to be interpreted.

We summarize the data flowchart in PKM as Figure 1.

 Figure 1: The data flowchart in personal knowledge management

PKM focuses on transforming information into knowledge. Information and

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knowledge are two different elements. Information is untreated rows that will be

caught actively or passively by certain individuals. We all receive a variety of

information, such as the news on television, mobile phone text messages, and email

messages. Knowledge is the result of information after refinement; it is the valuable

part of the information that is summarized and used to draw conclusions. PKM

involves three aspects. The first is collecting data to form personal knowledge. The

second is building up a self-knowledge map based on the goal of value orientation.

The third is continuing to convert and extract knowledge into skills, methodology and

models.

3. The Implications of Big Data for Personal Applications

Traditionally, PKM is handled by non-electronic tools, such as checklists,

calendars, desk diaries, and appointment books (Jones and Thomas, 1997). Those

tools only support creating, but not searching, reminding, reusing, or collaboration

(Liao, 2003). With the wide adoption of IT technologies, recent studies have sought to

situate PKM in the context of the Internet and Web 2.0, and have investigated the

potential role of information technologies in harnessing and managing personal

knowledge (Rao and Chen, 2013). In particular, about big data, there are some

important concepts of its applications in PKM, such as people having the ability to
 generate a certain type of data for a particular application for having certain effects.

Conventional knowledge management systems are mostly confined to the scope of

document management, which is limited to the “shorten vague” and “clear” stage. In

the future, big data will be able to develop a system that could mine knowledge based

on automatically learning and classifying artificial intelligence or other advance

technologies. The concept will upgrade the level of PKM for innovating and using

knowledge effectively to achieve personal goals to help people create higher value

knowledge management. Considering big data applied to PKM, this study aims to
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discuss the following aspects.

3.1. Time Management

Previously, the integration and transformation of various data formats were the

most difficult bottleneck. Closed document formats caused numerous delays and

wasted resources. In the era of big data, many PKM programs and applications can

easily convert data formats and process heterogeneous database communications to

achieve information sharing and transparency; these include Cometdocs to convert

PDF files to Word, Excel, PowerPoint and more through website or apps. It can also

convert various formats to PDF and store & share documents free of charge. Big data

can reduce process development time through the integration of multiple sets in

master module connection management so that each module can converge. Based on

work-related functions, big data will fully integrate associated jobs across different

systems, quickly process data conversion, simplify procedures, flexibly set a variety

of conditions, and convert reports into Word / Excel and other formats. Humanization

settings allow people to add the programs they use most often to their favorites, such

as private folders, shortcuts, job reminders, and calendars. A person could apply big

data to organize his/her time to review objective records in order to analyze

 procedures to arrange an optimal schedule, and then can change behavior to observe

progress and personal growth (Cheong and Tsui, 2010; Mohamed and Arisha, 2013).

3.2. Computer Usage Efficiency Management

People spend a long time in front of computers each day, and if they do not keep

records, it is difficult for them to recall their behaviors on the computer. Computer

usage efficiency management can indirectly affect the refinement of knowledge.

Knowledge refining within the original scope of knowledge management, i.e.,

knowledge management tools, could strengthen the efficiency of computer usage

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management. Through certain mechanisms, people could use computers to identify

target knowledge for accurate comment or analysis. For example, the recent widely

applied Contextual Information Retrieval in applications could automatically help

users to easily discern the relevant information that they are searching for. Under such

a development, this type of non-professional refined knowledge management tool

could also perform the function of knowledge refining well, especially computer

usage efficiency management. Moreover, when a person uses a computer, it cannot be

assessed whether he/she uses the computer efficiently. In the beginning, a person

might plan to complete a certain task, but after a few clicks, his/her behavior may

digress quite far from the initial task. Big data applications can analyze behaviors in

using computers (Shang et al., 2011; Rao and Chen, 2013; Razmerita et al., 2014).

There is a good case, Roambi, which has reinvented the mobile business app to

improve productivity and decision-making of mobile employees. Roambi re-designs

the way people interact with, share, and present data from a mobile perspective.

3.3. Mobile Devices Using Behavior Management

In daily life, each person uses a mobile phone in different ways. Even the same

person may frequently use a certain app during a particular period, for example a very
 popular game at one time, but may later begin using another desirable app. With the

advent of the mobile Internet, the smartphone can bring greater value; however,

finding answers to questions such as - Have we used smartphones in the right way?

How long do we spend on smartphones every day? Do smartphones really bring us

increased efficiency? Do smartphones allow our time be consumed unknowingly?

What is necessary to improve usage efficiency? In the context of the big data era,

PKM couples with the current network bandwidth in relevant forums, blogs, and

webpages under development by experts around the world who are interested in
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relevant topics of mobile usage of professionals. By supporting the Internet without

time and space limitations, big data could give rise to PKM. For example, by

collecting big data from smartphones, we can analyze procedures to use smartphones

efficiently and effectively incorporating concepts of behavior management

(Pawlowski et al., 2014; Pirkkalainen and Pawlowski, 2013).

3.4. Health Management

In recent years, the rise of health awareness has increasingly allowed people to

focus on healthcare and gain a better understanding of the importance of the concept

that is captured in a proverb - “prevention is better than cure”. We all know that every

disease develops due to genetics, dietary habits, living environment and other reasons.

Therefore, it raises an important question whether big data can help people change

their behavior to be healthy? What concepts will be generated when big data

combines with health? There are already many apps that can record our walking,

running, sports, exercise, and other activities. Accordingly, we could establish a

personal information database attributed to health management. On health information,

we could use big data to explore dimensions of health such as proper diet and right

exercise that require greater attention (Xu et al., 2013; Dale, 2014).
 For instance, the Ginger.io Company in the US has joined health and big data as

a business model. Through data collected by smartphones, its app can alert users

about their health problems. The app monitors the location of users, and determines

who should be spoken with to predict physical condition. In addition to predicting a

cold, its functions also could observe diabetes, depression and cardiovascular disease

that might develop in users. Moreover, it also provides background data so the user

can observe their past behaviors and analyze trends to predict when symptoms for

certain diseases might occur. Currently, behavior analysis of these data results from a
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large number of anonymous users. In a previous test, the app would determine the

exact daily physical symptoms about 60% to 90% of the normal living of people.

3.5. Browser Surfing Management

How many times do you use browsers in a day? How many websites do you

view every day? Alternatively, how long do you stay on a particular website or page?

Because we read printed materials less nowadays, our information sources are mostly

from the Internet. Big data applied to PKM could determine our information channels

and information sources. In brief, we could call the concept browser surfing

management because website viewing records are the most valuable data. According

to a survey, knowledge workers spend an average of 25% of their time searching for

work-related information on websites. Why is there such a high ratio of time

dedicated to search? One possible reason is that users do not use efficient and

intelligent tools to assist them. “Keyword Search” assumes that users clearly

understand what they will find. In this way, it is time-consuming for users to search

and browse. Big data may be able to solve most difficulties for knowledge workers.

There are many intelligent tools available in the market to assist users in inputting

precise keywords, and users can further classify the results of the search. These tools
 enable users to browse search results relating to its distribution statuses quickly. Take

Tamr for example, which is a data-connection and machine-learning platform

designed to make data as easy to find, explore, and use as Google. According to Tamr,

due to the cost and complexity of connecting and preparing the vast, untapped

reserves of data sources available for analysis, most people use less than 10 percent of

the relevant data available to them. Moreover, a system query interface could provide

some advanced features to assist users in finding information quickly (Schneckenberg,

2009; Schmitt, 2015; Mohamed and Pillutla, 2014).

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4. Research Methodology

To investigate the extent to which usage of big data is proposed for personal

applications can foster and support social innovation. We adopted a qualitative

method (Maylor and Blackmon, 2005; Miles et al., 2013) based on interview studies.

According to Yin (2013), interview studies are the appropriate research method for

investigating “a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context,

especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly

evident.” Maylor and Blackmon (2005) emphasize the probability is not the

appropriate sampling logic when conducting interview research. Instead, researchers

are encouraged to use purposive sampling to support generalizations from interview

findings to theory (and not generalizations to a population of similar cases). The

sampling logic in this study is to select and analyze certain situations. We used the

technique of concept extraction (Maylor and Blackmon, 2005) to identify the key

concepts that emerged from our data according to short interviews. Interviews

conducted were semi-structured, face-to-face, and took an average of 0.5 hours. They

enabled researchers to learn how informants perceived and interpreted situations and

events (Bryman, 2008).

 The interviews were transcribed and analyzed using content analysis to extract

the key themes (Myers, 2009). The content analysis allowed prevalent themes, issues,

and narratives to emerge and crystallize. In performing scientific research, the systems

of belief guide the actions of researchers according to which they generate and

interpret knowledge claims about reality (Myers, 2009). All of the data were subject to

analysis via template analysis processes. The purpose of the study is to understand

and explore how big data is being used in PKM, so this is an exploratory study as it

seeks to “discover relevant features, factors or issues that might apply in similar
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situations” (Myers, 2009). For example, rather than testing, explaining or comparing a

phenomenon, as in explanatory studies, this study will seek to explore why big data

was applied, how it has been used in PKM and will discover whether there are any

issues involved in the flow based on the responses given by participants. It included

interviews with 60 participants composed of engineers who worked in the Hsinchu

Science Park in Taiwan, which is the worldwide leading technology area of the

semiconductor industry. These engineers have strong abilities in using cutting edge

technologies and applications and are also positive knowledge seekers. On the other

hand, because their daily life is tight and complex, they need suitable tools and ideas

to process knowledge management. Therefore, we chose people who are typical

knowledge workers as our sample to explore the theme of this study during January

and February 2015. The characteristics of respondents are not the main issue that we

focus on, so they were not included in this study.

5. The Concepts of Big Data Applied in Personal Knowledge Management

In this section, we integrate theories and implications in sections 2 and 3 with

interviews to indicate the concepts that big data might apply in PKM, as well as

demonstrate the following categories practically.

 5.1. Value of Data

Because time is the most valuable item for a person, in this study, we use a

timetable to discuss big data first and include data from the previous year for

demonstration. We first analyze personal time allocation respectively in the categories

of learning, working, social activities, domesticity, sports and leisure, dining, and

travel, etc. We take learning time, for example, to interview respondents, to

investigate their learning status in the last 12 months; the distribution of learning time

is shown in Figure 2. The average person spent the most time on learning in October
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2014, followed by July in the same year. Learning activities primarily included

reading, writing, and other related activities. Respondents spent 971.3 hours

(approximately 40.5 days) a year, with an average 2 hours 39 minutes per day and an

average 80 hours and 54 minutes (approximately 3.3 days) per month.

Figure 2 Learning time per year

In Figure 3, we divide a day into eight segments: learning, working, social

activities, domesticity, sports and leisure, dining, travel and sleeping. In the previous

year, the statistics of a typical day's schedule are as follows: 10.8% of the time in a
 day is spent on learning, and 28.8% is spent on working, which is 6.9 hours per day

(Figure 3). The largest proportion of time per day is spent on sleeping, which accounts

for 29.2%. Analyzing this simple example of big data, one could refine a person’s

schedule efficiently to review his or her activities in the previous year and plan the

allocation of days for the next year.

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Figure 3 Time allocations in a day

The big data applied to in PKM can help individuals not only assess the quality

of information but also allow them to determine the extent of the information

associated with the problems they encounter and the possible value of information.

Evaluating the value of information mainly comes from the credibility, accuracy, and

related supporting aspects. Credibility could be judged by the author's general

authority, quality assurance, and the elements of the information. Accuracy can be

determined by the time limit, comprehensiveness, object-oriented information purpose,

rationale, and so on. Related supporting aspects refer to the index of directory

information of the texts, references, etc. A big data mechanism can automatically sort,

classify, annotate and add value to the content to build a private directory and PKM
 system to enhance information processing and knowledge absorption efficiency.

On the other hand, big data can realize the value of information through the

simple user interface, clear data classification, detailed information annotation,

concise search, easily accessed data storage, and automatic dumping of files. From a

personal perspective, crucial aspects to manage knowledge resources are as follows:

interpersonal and linkage resources (e.g., address book of contacts, along with

characteristics and specialties of each person), communication management (letters,

emails, faxes, messages etc.), personal time management tools (transaction reminders,
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checklists, and personal memos), internet browser management (website management

and relevance), and document file management.

Handling structured data is already a relatively mature technology and has long

been familiar to each big data tool provider. Hence, through a simple database tool we

can retrieve data and then create a visual presentation through some tools, such as Esri

ArcGIS, which is a Geographic Information System (GIS) that makes it easy to create

data-driven maps and visualizations. Such technologies are relatively simple.

However, when using semi-structured or unstructured data in big data analysis, we use

not only certain SQL statements but also adopt the semantic interpretation, semantic

analysis, as well as identify information content, including voice, video, and content

identification documents. Information from these semi-structured/unstructured

sources is naturally easy for humans to interpret, but given a large amount of data, it is

difficult for human brains to filter and organize. To overcome information-processing

capacity of human brains, we must rely on tools. Therefore, how effectively we can

transmit the semi-structured/unstructured data into machines that can read the

contents for analysis with the results for humans to understand involves a broad range

of aspects. There are few companies available to develop a product covering this
 technology, but the good news is that some mature products already exist in the

market. Technology will no longer be an obstacle hindering us from moving forward,

but we need to think about the value of the data we have.

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 5.2. Data Collection

In a personal big data system, we could further analyze how we spend our time

on computers or mobile devices, and what applications we use, how long we use an

application, and what tasks we use the application to complete. At present, browsers

are the most commonly used way to collect data; hence, we could use big data fetched

from the Internet to analyze the way a person uses different applications.
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Figure 4 Accumulated time and clicks using browsers

For example, in Figure 4, we calculate that respondents use browsers an average

of 2 hours and 9 minutes and click approximately 185 times on workdays, weekends

and days such as April 4-5 are excluded. In this assumption, we try to picture the role

that data collection plays contributions to our daily work. In Figure 4, we can review

our last month’s work arrangements; for example, people seem to collect more data at

the beginning of the week, which means that they are possibly preparing data for the

subsequent work they might use during the week.

Currently, websites are one of the most important pipelines to access information.

Using personal big data application concepts, we can recognize which pages we read
 every working day and where we access information. Big data applied to PKM could

precede personnel information exchange, through which individuals could obtain

different information by individual information sources to speed up data collection.

We also investigated 60 respondents to determine the common purpose for them to

use browsers, as shown in Figure 5. Figure 5 indicates that information sharing (43%)

and information collecting (36%) are the most common reasons for using a browser.

The results correspond with the idea of PKM.

In information retrieval, the most important thing is determining the information

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demand of individuals and sources of information; next is selecting the appropriate

method of information retrieval skills. For PKM, information retrieval skills both

meet technical requirements for asking questions and then listening to the answers

regarding the skills. Moreover, they also cover full knowledge of how to use search

engines, as well as information searching skills in electronic libraries and other related

databases. To fully understand information retrieval skills, individuals need to control

search comprehension, Boolean logic, and search skills.

The Internet is a valuable tool for people to learn. People could take advantage of

the power of the Internet for learning, which is an important characteristic of modern

people. Regardless of a website or newsletter, or irrespective of quality or quantity,

the Internet has more resources than any existing library or media outlet. Individuals

can establish an effective network resource catalog to become familiar with the

location of the resources. Using predefined locations on the Internet enhances work

efficiency greatly. If a person wants to use the Internet for learning, he/she must make

good use of search engine tools, be aware of browser functions, and regularly back up

information. Additionally, blogs, wikis and other Internet tools have also been more

commonly used by people as elements of a PKM system.

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Figure 5 Browser Use Purposes

5.3. Data Storage

A data storage method suitable for big data in PKM must take the following

requirements into consideration:

1. Data formats must be open, or data formats can be exported completely as

requested data files. Moreover, a data storage method should consider the needs

regarding integration with other tools, especially when the tool itself ceases to be

updated or users find a better tool to process data transfers.

2. Operation of data storage must be intuitive and does not require learning

additional new skills or new operating procedures. Otherwise, users will become

easily frustrated.

3. It should be easy to input and edit without complex steps to follow, and it

should not request a bunch of useless functions which are complicated and

bothersome for the users.

4. Information sorting data storage must be concise and easy to use, especially

features that provide a category labeling functions to facilitate information

 classification management.

5. Cross-references and links between information should follow simple rules;

otherwise, stored data will turn into information silos.

6. The capability of the full-text search for knowledge management is essential.

In addition to text search, a simple combination of search functions also is

provided, especially for content from different sources and different

terminologies.

7. Data storage should have cross-platform functionality. When a system is

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transferred, there should be an ability to continue to use accumulated knowledge,

especially when the hardware is upgraded or system software versions are

updated.

8. The cost of data storage should be lower or preferably free to encourage

individuals to keep it and use it.

We also interviewed 60 respondents regarding their selection of data storage in

the big data era for a rough indication as Figures 6 and 7 show.

Figure 6 Selection of data storage

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Figure 7 Distribution of cloud drives

In Figure 6, we can see that the cloud drive has a significant share of the data

storage selection. Furthermore, we realize diversity in the selection of data storage,

which shows that in terms of data storage mobile OS, Google Drive and Apple iCloud

have the main share of users. However, each tool has its own advantages. There may

not be a tool that can fully meet all requirements. However, depending on individual

needs, individuals may still use free data storage to achieve a considerable degree of

demand in mobile PKM.

Many applications in the market apply big data to customize the format and

software hierarchy freely. These applications include common data management

processes to manage and organize a variety of information, including all types of

documents, files, data, business cards, events, diaries, projects, and notes, i.e., the

essence of downloaded data collection. Although the information lacks order, after it

is carefully organized, these applications can manage data in an orderly manner.

Individuals can set up a temporary directory to store information that cannot be

processed in time until it is re-classified; this allows individuals to maintain a

systematic knowledge base. Additionally, file names should be simple and clear, so
 that individuals can recognize meanings when they see the filenames. This should be

complemented by the principle of digital encoding, time, source, etc. At the same time,

we must establish common rules for document security, deleting and updating

resources, and exchanging and sharing files. We must also establish a proper form for

preserving files, for gradually expanding and improving practice in the future and,

finally, for building proprietary knowledge structure systems. Taking these steps,

individuals could make it easy to store, classify, search and implement information

resources, as well as avoid management confusion caused by the passage of time and
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forgetfulness, which has resulted in many wasted resources.

Individuals could choose effective PKM tools to categorize all resources, and

then allocate names. After that, individuals can organize knowledge in batches in a

personal knowledge repository. After a personal knowledge base is built up, fast and

easy access is critical. The Internet blogs provide good instructions to draw this

blueprint. Such a personal publishing system is now increasingly being used as PKM.

While knowledge is constantly enriched and capacity is enhanced, individuals will

also be able to maintain and manage personal knowledge. In general, individuals

should complete the following tasks: adding new categories of learning resources and

knowledge; deleting, modifying and updating some resources; further improving the

principles of PKM; collaboratively learning to exchange and share knowledge, and

gradually improving individual knowledge structure when practicing knowledge

management.

5.4. Data Application

When the mobile Internet era arrives, more people will use mobile devices for

data application. According to big data, we could collect the data on our behavior in a

certain area. As Figure 8 shows, a person could recognize his or her behavior in using
 mobile devices, such as for how long and how many times he or she uses mobile

devices to generate data on a certain day. Knowing the pattern could help the person

to achieve effective mobile usage and understand why a particular day, say April 3rd,

is the best day, and April 10th is the worst day statistically.

Moreover, personal big data could help us to review our mobile device usage

behaviors, such as how long we spend on mobile devices, what type of applications

we prefer, and how many times we switch applications. Big data could help us to

summarize these data to increase efficiency in using mobile devices, as in Figures 8

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and 9.

Figure 8 Mobile device usage behavior

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Figure 9 Functions for using mobile devices

Taking Figure 8 and Figure 9 together, suppose that we spend a lot of time on

mobile devices but the most time on text messaging, taking photos, video, and other

activities. This means that we do not concentrate on data collection. In other words, if

we spend more time during a day or a month, are we becoming addicted to certain

applications? Supposed this behavior takes us five hours, we should think about

whether we could use these five hours efficiently on learning and exploring

information rather than on social media. Otherwise, we should think to spend time on

social media for useful purposes, either knowledge sharing or discussion.

Individuals should rise above predecessors to achieve knowledge management

and then acquire knowledge to form relevant experience. In discussing and solidifying

knowledge through a big data platform, individuals would accumulate experience to

build up related methodologies and models. A methodology will instruct us to

establish bridges to cross a river when we meet it, or learn swimming skills to pass the

river or climb, make tunnels to pass, or go around mountains when we meet them.

One can select the relevant methods based on their own situation. These accumulated

common methodologies and models, therefore, could give individuals a map when
 they do not have a conventional learning route to follow. Individuals can create more

routes under the guidance of methodologies and models. Based on their skills and the

nature of episodes they have faced, individuals can choose the most suitable for their

own learning path.

Analyzing information must involve how to analyze the data and draw useful

conclusions. A commonly used method is to establish and analyze an information

application model through numerous data analyses to understand the relationship

between information. Spreadsheets, statistical software, and data mining software can
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provide an approach for analyzing information, but in the establishment of various

analysis software operating models, people still play the most important roles. Any

knowledge management tools and systems, if they are unable to achieve the level of

data application, always stay in the phase of usage but cannot really be transitioned to

the phase of creation. Thus, individuals are unable to achieve the purpose of PKM.

5.5. Data Presentation

Does an individual get enough exercise to ensure good health? Big data analysis

can provide information to this question based on individual information inside

personal big data concerning health, applications (such as sports trackers, running and

cycling trackers, and squat and pushup counters). Big data applications could track

our daily exercise and present statistics in an appealing way with health suggestions or

exercise adjustments as Figure 10 illustrates. Figure 10 shows some laps where the

speed is lower than average, so we might think to improve the present status by

increasing the average speed to a higher level. Furthermore, well-organized data can

be provided to doctors for healthcare monitoring.

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Figure 10 Data presentation of sports applications

Organizing and presenting information requires filtering unwanted and less

related information resources, efficiently storing information, and establishing links

between information for easy retrieval and later usage. A principle for effective

organization of information is that no matter what the environment is, information

should be organized to facilitate effective use. This technique will use different tools

to organize all types of information. In a manual operation environment, we would

use file folders, drawers and other relatively primitive means of organizing

information. In a modern high-tech environment, we use electronic documents,

databases, webpages and applications, or use specialized knowledge management

software. Through well-organized information, PKM can transform tacit knowledge

into explicit knowledge. Personal knowledge is a part of the knowledge exchange and

sharing procedures. Most tasks of information presentation, either through PowerPoint,

websites or texts should focus on how to make other people understand, remember,

and allow audiences to interact with a presenter.

In PKM, through big data management, the accumulation of knowledge is surely

 important as well as using the power of knowledge via the applications. Knowledge

learning and accumulating is the starting point for how to use knowledge. Individuals

could create new knowledge in the cycle of using and exchanging knowledge. During

the application of knowledge, some of the traditional ontologies may be helpful for

PKM, such as inducting the data from the previous four steps and then deducting

credits to benefit our PKM. If someone wants to take advantages of existing

knowledge, he or she could verify knowledge based on personal induction to

determine the relationship between things and then apply it in practice to generalize
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and examine the results of the induction procedure. In this way, a person could

summarize the correction of knowledge from the steps of practice and also interpret

the original knowledge to favor new implementation.

6. Summary

We conclude the preceding discussion and suggest what individuals can do in the

era of big data based on PKM.

6.1. Conclusions

1. Learning to filter information

Recognizing information is the key to seizing opportunities. With the

development of the Internet, the content field will be the focus of the next generation

industry. On the other hand, because information is being developed more rapidly, it is

difficult to tell whether the content is false or real. Big data corresponds to a vast

amount of information, which also means a significant amount of spam. Information

overload makes it difficult for people to think. People should, therefore, learn how to

assess and filter information with greater consideration independently, so they are not

being deceived.

2. Enriching capabilities for integrating knowledge from different fields

 Like Wikipedia, big data is being created due to millions of people in different

fields are working together. Data collecting at a higher level and data mining and

application at a lower level are the future of big data that will require the capability to

integrate crosscutting competency. We should learn how to cooperate with others and

respect some basic differences in cognition. Big data applications could broaden the

scope of PKM that transforms “data” into “information”, and finally into

“knowledge”, to contribute the development path of PKM utilization.

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3. Enhancing attitudes toward information security

In the big data era, people should know how to protect themselves, which means

that people have to understand how their information is collected, processed and

utilized. We can learn the anti-fraud concept from our daily lives, know how to use

computers in a secure way, and even use the Internet tools efficiently. For example,

Disconnect, Ghostery and other tools can discern what information is collected at

commonly visited websites. Big data makes people closely linked; if a computer is

hacked, all participants may suffer. Only if all individuals in the network recognize

the importance of information security, then overall security can be enhanced.

4. Learning by doing for big data applied in PKM

Combining big data in PKM is still in the exploratory stage, because it involves

different individual background knowledge, the environment, values and other factors

make it more complicated. In general, application of knowledge can follow the

following rules. The first is the collection of knowledge. Knowledge related to issues

is not hard to find on the Internet. The second involves digestion and absorption

according to the value for individuals, which is to read the data one found or discuss

with experts in certain area, followed by establishment of a comparable model.

Professional knowledge is generated based on a comparison and evaluation of the

 model. The assessment results in the selection of support decisions in the model and

would complete knowledge of the application process. Brainstorming, professional

forums, sand table simulation, and even chats are also prepared materials for the

application of knowledge that can help individuals to process knowledge and format

the consciousness and rules for the applications of knowledge.

6.2. Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research

The findings of this study must be considered in light of its limitations. First, we

proposed that concepts are aiming to elucidate big data applied in PKM according to
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five implication categories. The statement is made at an early stage. Although the

study’s results may not achieve optimal significance, this study does provide several

new perspectives on an emergent application. Second, there are limitations in some of

the constructs that were utilized; these might be weak, potentially owing to the vague

blueprint of these new concepts.

Finally, this study predicted concepts among the constructs studied. The

constructs are stated at a time when people are still exploring big data applied to PKM.

The concepts and implications have not been completed enough. However, the

analysis also provides strong support for interpreting big data applied in PKM; these

situations have most likely been determined preliminarily. Therefore, the conclusive

statements about the topic should be researched further in the future studies.

Subsequently, researchers might study the individual category of Section 5, such as

“Does Data Storage in Big Data contribute to personal knowledge sharing?” In the

end, this study provides certain suggestions to benefit the future development of big

data applied to PKM.

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